Earthquake Engineering124

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PART 1 Modern Research (Japan) - 1891, the year of

the Nobi earthquake (7000 deaths; also known as the


EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING Mino-Owari earthquake)

Earthquake engineering may thus be considered the


branch of civil engineering that provides the principles
and procedures for the planning, analysis, and design of
TYPES OF EARTHQUAKES
structures and facilities that are capable of resisting, an earthquake is nothing else but a phenomenon that
involves the motion or shaking of the earth’s crust.
DAMAGING EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES
A. BY CAUSING A GROUND FAILURE Cause by:
1. SURFACE FAULTING - is a geological 1. tectonic forces (the forces involved in the formation
feature (ground fissure) associated with the of the earth’s features),
generation of earthquakes 2. (b) volcanic activity,
2. GROUND CRACKING - is possible when the 3. (c) conventional and nuclear explosions,
soil at the surface loses its support and sinks, 4. the sliding or fall of a large soil or rock mass (such as
or when it is transported to a different in the case of landslides
location. 5. a meteorite impac
3. GROUND SUBSIDENCE - is a phenomenon 6. the filling of reservoirs and wells
in which the ground surface of a site settles
or depresses as a result of the compaction EARTH STRUCTURE
4. LANDSLIDES - triggered by strong earth is roughly spherical, with an equatorial diameter of
earthquakes, these landslides represent the 12,740 km and a polar diameter of 12,700 km
failure of slopes
5. SOIL LIQUEFACTION - phenomenon by the interior of the earth is divided into four concentric
which fine saturated granular soils layers:
temporarily change from a solid to a liquid 1. INNER CORE - lies at the center of the earth
state and as a result, lose their ability to carry with a radius of ∼1216 km.
loads or remain stable. 2. OUTER CORE - further toward the surface is the
B. BY PRODUCING OTHER EFFECTS THAT outer core with a thickness of ∼2270 km
MAY INDIRECTLY AFFECT THE 3. MANTLE - mantle extends from the base of the
STRUCTURE crust to a depth of 2885 km and is composed of
1. TSUNAMIS - large sea waves generated by dense granitic and basaltic rocks
a sudden depression of the ocean floor. 4. CRUST - the crust thickness ranges between 25
2. SEICHES - are long-period oscillating waves and 60 km under the continents and between 4
generated by distant earthquakes in and 6 km under the oceans
enclosed bodies of water such as bays, lakes,
reservoirs, and even swimming pools PLATE TECTONICS THEORY
3. FIRES - by far, have been the most theory of plate tectonics postulates that the earth’s crust
devastating indirect effect of earthquakes. is fractured and thus divided into a small number of large
C. BY SHAKING THE GROUND ON WHICH and rigid pieces, referred to as plates
THE STRUCTURE RESTS
- may be considered the earthquake effect CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY
that is the most damaging to structures.
- proposed by the German scientist Alfred
Wegener in 1915
EARTHQUAKES FORCES - earth’s surface was not static, but dynamic, and
structural engineers and from a conceptual point of view, that the oceans and continents are in constant
earthquakes represent just another force for which motion.
structures need to be designed.
PLATE INTERACTION
DESIGN FOR EARTHQUAKE FORCES - PLATE DIVERGENCE - known as sea-floor
unpredictability of earthquake forces, the uncertainty of spreading, has been responsible for the
their occurrence, and the devastating effects they may formation of the mid-oceanic ridges and rises as
produce, the design of an earthquake-resistant structure well as the deep valleys in between
is an elaborate process - PLATE CONVERGENCE - the plates either collide
head-on or one dives beneath the other.
Robert Mallet - rish civil engineer, first - TRANSFORM FAULT - plate edges slide past each
earthquake engineer, 1857 Naples earthquake, e first other, the crust is neither created nor destroyed,
scientific investigation that included observations of the nor do changes occur on the surface of the earth
seismological, geological, and engineering aspects of an
earthquake.
EARTHQUAKE FAULTS EARTHQUAKE MONITORING
the boundaries between the earth’s tectonic plates Institute's National Earthquake Monitoring and
manifest themselves on the surface of the earth, they are Information aims to provide accurate and timely
seen as long uneven fractures or fissures on a rock information on significant earthquakes and tsunami
formation whose sides have moved relative to each events
other.
a) STRIKE-SLIP FAULT - two sides of a fault move PART 2
past each other, relative motion is horizontal
b) DIP-SLIP - two sides of a fault press against each INTENSITY SCALE -Intensity scales are among
other or pull away from each other, then the the first measurement systems devised to characterize
relative motion is primarily vertical. the strength of earthquakes -based on a qualitative
c) NORMAL FAULT - If in a deep fault the upper description of the damage caused by an earthquake to
rock block moves downward the natural and built environment
d) REVERSE (THRUST) FAULT - the upper rock block
1. MODIFIED MERCALLI INTENSITY (MM)
moves upward
SCALE= Not felt except by a very few under
especially favorable circumstances.
2. JAPANESE SEISMIC INTENSITY (JMA) SCALE-
FAULTING AND SEISMIC ZONES OF No sensation: registered by seismographs but no
THE PHILIPPINES perception by the human body
3. MEDVEDEV–SPONHEUER–KARNIK
arthquake is a weak to violent shaking of the ground INTENSITY (MKS) SCALE- Not noticeable. The
produced by the sudden movement of rock materials intensity of vibration is below the limit of
below the earth’s surface. sensibility. Tremor is detected and recorded by
The earthquakes originate in the tectonic plate seismographs only.
boundary. Damage to buildings is classified into the
following five grades:
TYPES OF EARTHQUAKE: Grade 1: Slight damage: Fine cracks in plaster;
fall of small pieces of plaster
TECTONIC EARTHQUAKES- are produced by sudden Grade 2: Moderate damage: Small cracks in
movement along faults and plate boundaries. walls; fall of fairly large pieces of plaster;
Grade 3: Heavy damage: Large and deep cracks
VOLCANIC EARTHQUAKES- Earthquakes induced by in walls; fall of chimneys
rising lava or magma beneath active volcanoes are called Grade 4: Destruction: Gaps in walls; parts of
volcanic earthquakes. buildings may collapse; separate parts of
building lose their cohesion;
EARTHQUAKE MONITORING SYSTEM: Grade 5: Total damage: Total collapse of
buildings
PHIVOLCS operates 101 seismic monitoring stations all
over the Philippines SEISMOGRAPHS AND SEISMOGRAMS-
Data Receiving Center (DRC) - Data is sent to the Aware that intensity scales were based on subjective
PHIVOLCS Data Receiving Center (DRC) to determine appraisals of damage submitted by a wide variety of
earthquake parameters such as magnitude, depth of observers, scientists studying earthquakes
focus
COMPONENTS AND DESIGN FEATURES
EARTHQUAKE HAZARDS Shown below is the schematic diagram of a seismograph;
(a) horizontal (b) verticals
1. GROUND RUPTURE: Deformation on the ground
that marks, the intersection of the fault with the
earth’s surface.
Effects: fissuring, displacement of the ground due
to movement of the fault
2. GROUND SHAKING: Disruptive up, down, and
sideways vibration of the ground during an
earthquake.
Effects: ground shaking are damage or collapse of
structure; SEISMOGRAMS- The records obtained from a
3. LIQUEFACTION: Phenomenon wherein sediments, seismograph are called seismograms. record of the
especially near bodies of water, behave like liquid variation with time of the displacement of the ground,
similar to quicksand. magnified by the magnification factor of the seismograph
Effects: sinking and/ or tilting of structure above it;
sand boil; fissuring MAGNITUDE SCALE
4. TSUNAMI: Series of waves caused commonly by an
earthquake under the sea. RICHTER OR LOCAL MAGNITUDE-roviding
Effects: flooding; coastal erosion; drowning of information for the location of earthquakes,
people and damage to properties seismograms also provide the information that is needed
to estimate the size or strength of an earthquake
SURFACE- AND BODY-WAVE MAGNITUDES- WORLDWIDE ATTENUATION
Because Richter’s original scale is limited to local RELATIONSHIPS- Attempts to provide ground‐
earthquakes at epicentral distances of no more than 600 motion models applicable worldwide were initiated in
km and recorded in only one kind of instrument the 1980s (Aptikaev and Kopnichev, 1980; Campbell,
1985) and continued during the 1990s (Campbell, 1993,
BODY WAVE MAGNITUDE-Body wave magnitude 1997; Sarma and Srbulov, 1996, 1998). IIn some cases,
(mb): measures the amplitude of P‐waves with a period the attenuation relationships were derived for specific
of about 1.0 second, which is less than 10 km fault rupture mechanisms
wavelengths.

MOMENT MAGNITUDE- Moment magnitude


TIME HISTORY -The time history is the sequence
(MW): accounts for the mechanism of shear that takes of values of any time-varying quantity (such as a ground
motion measurement) measured at a set of fixed times.
place at earthquake sources. It is not related to any
Also termed time series
wavelength

INTENSITY–MAGNITUDE RELATIONSHIPS-
Intensity–magnitude relationships are essential for the
use of historical earthquakes for which no instrumental PART4
records exist
BASIS FOR DESIGN
DYNAMICS OF VIBRATIONS:
ATTENUATION OCCUPANCY CATEGORIES- For purposes
or earthquake-resistant design, each structure shall be
EARTHQUAKE OCCURRENCE AND RETURN placed in one of the occupancy categories listed in NSCP
Table 103-1.
PERIOD-It is of importance to estimate the frequency
of occurrence of earthquakes that are likely to occur in
an area that may influence the construction

GROUND‐MOTION MODELS
(ATTENUATION RELATIONSHIPS-The
‘attenuation’ of earthquake ground motions is an
important consideration in estimating ground‐motion
parameters for assessment and design purposes

ATTENUATION RELATIONSHIP FOR


EUROPE-Comprehensive and systematic seismological
studies in Europe aimed at defining ground-motion
models for seismic hazard assessment and structural
engineering applications were conducted by Ambraseys
(1975)

ATTENUATION RELATIONSHIP FOR JAPAN-


Several studies have attempted to define analytical
models for the ground‐motion parameters in Japan (e.g.
Iwasaki et al., 1980; Kawashima et al., 1986; Fukushima
et al., 1995; Kamiyama, 1995).

ATTENUATION RELATIONSHIPS FOR NORTH


AMERICA SITE GEOLOGY AND SOIL CHARACTERISTICS-
CENTRAL AND EASTERN UNITED STATES- The Each site shall be assigned a soil profile type based on
Mid‐America Earthquake Center developed a properly substantiated geotechnical data using the site
ground‐motion model to predict HPGA in the categorization procedure se
central and eastern United States (CEUS) region
(Fernandez and Rix, 2006) SITE SEISMIC HAZARD CHARACTERISTICS-
Seismic hazard characteristics for the site shall be
WESTERN NORTH AMERICA-Boore et al. established based on the seismic zone and proximity of
(1997) and Boore (2005) formulated the the site to active seismic sources,
following equation to predict PGAs in western
North America 1. SEISMIC ZONE- The Philippine archipelago is
divided into two seismic zones only. Zone 2
covers the provinces of Palawan (except
Busuanga), Sulu, and Tawi-Tawi
2. SEISMIC SOURCE TYPES- Table 208-4 defines
the types of seismic sources. The location and
type of seismic sources to be used for design
shall be established based on approved
geological data
3. SEISMIC ZONE 4 NEAR-SOURCE FACTOR- In 1. SIMPLIFIED STATIC- The simplified static
Seismic Zone 4, each site shall be assigned near- lateral-force procedure set forth in Section
source factors by Tables 208-5 and 208-6 based 208.5. 1. 1 may be used for the following
on the Seismic Source Type , for high rise structures of Occupancy Category IV or V:
structures and essential facilities within 2.0 km 1. Buildings of any occupancy (including single-
of a major fault, a sitespecific seismic family dwellings) not more than three stories in
4. SEISMIC RESPONSE COEFFICIENTS- Each height excluding basements that use light-frame
structure shall be assigned a seismic coefficient, construction.
Ca by Table 208-7, and a seismic coefficient, Cv, 2. Other buildings not more than two stories in
by Table 208-8. height excluding basements.
2. STATIC- All structures, regular or irregular in
CONFIGURATION REQUIREMENTS- Each Occupancy Categories IV and V in Seismic Zone 2
structure shall be designated as being structurally regular - Regular structures under 75 m in height with
or irregular by Sections 208.4.5.1 and 208.4.5.2. lateral force resistance
1. REGULAR STRUCTURES- Regular structures - Irregular structures not more than five
have no significant physical discontinuities in stories or 20 m in height.
plan or vertical configuration or their lateral- 3. DYNAMIC- Structures 75 m or more in height,
force-resisting systems such except as permitted by Section 208.4.8.2, Item 1.
2. IRREGULAR STRUCTURES- Irregular structures - . Structures having a stiffness, weight, or
have significant physical discontinuities in geometric vertical irregularity
configuration or their lateral-force-resisting - Structures over five stories or 20 m in height
systems in Seismic Zone 4 not having the same
structural system
STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS- Structural systems shall
be classified as one of the types listed m Table 208-11 SYSTEM LIMITATIONS
and defined in this section.
1. DISCONTINUITY- Structures with a
1. BEARING WALL SYSTEM- A structural system
discontinuity in capacity, vertical irregularity
without a complete vertical load carrying space
Type 5, shall not be over two stories or 9 m in
frame. Bearing walls or bracing systems provide
height where the weak storey has a calculated
support for all or most gravity loads.
strength of less than 65 % of the storey above.
2. BUILDING FRAME SYSTEM- A structural
2. UNDEFINED STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS- he
system with an essentially complete space frame
coefficient R shall be substantiated by approved
providing support for gravity loads. Resistance to
cyclic test data and analyses. The following items
lateral load is provided by shear walls or braced
shall be addressed when establishing R:
frames.
1. DYNAMIC RESPONSE CHARACTERISTICS,
3. MOMENT-RESISTING FRAME SYSTEM- A 2. LATERAL FORCE RESISTANCE,
structural system with an essentially complete 3. OVER-STRENGTH AND STRAIN HARDENING
space frame providing support for gravity loads. OR SOFTENING,
4. DUAL SYSTEM- A structural system with the 4. STRENGTH AND STIFFNESS DEGRADATION,
following features: 5. ENERGY DISSIPATION CHARACTERISTICS,
1. 1. An essentially complete space frame that 6. SYSTEM DUCTILITY, AND
provides support for gravity loads. 7. REDUNDANCY.
2. Resistance to lateral load is provided by 3. IRREGULAR FEATURES- All structures having
shear walls or braced frames and moment-
irregular features described in Table 208-9 or
resisting frames (SMRF, TMRF, MMRWF, or
208-10 shall be designed to meet the additional
steel OMRF).
requirements of those sections referenced in the
3. The two systems shall be designed to resist tables.
the total design base shear
5. CANTILEVERED COLUMN SYSTEM- A DETERMINATION OF SEISMIC FACTORS
structural system relying on cantilevered column
elements for lateral resistance 1. DETERMINATION OF Ω0 - For specific elements
of the structure, as specifically identified in this
6. UNDEFINED STRUCTURAL SYSTEM- A structural
code, the minimum design strength shall be the
system is not listed in Table 208-11.
product of the seismic force over-strength factor
7. NON-BUILDING STRUCTURAL SYSTEM- A Ω
structural system conforming to Section 208.8. 2. DETERMINATION OF R- The value for R shall
be taken from Table 208-11.
HEIGHT LIMITS- Height limits for the various
3. COMBINATIONS OF STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
structural systems in Seismic Zone 4 are given in Table
208-11. - Where combinations of structural systems are
incorporated into the same structure, the
SELECTION OF LATERAL FORCE requirements of this section shall be satisfied.
PROCEDURE- Any structure may be, and certain 1. VERTICAL COMBINATIONS- The value of R
used in the design of any storey shall be less
structures defined below shall be, designed using the
than or equal to the value of R used in the
dynamic lateral-force procedures of Section 208.5.3.
given direction for the storey above.
2. COMBINATIONS ALONG DIFFERENT
AXES- In Seismic Zone 4 where a structure
has a bearing wall system in only one
direction, the value of R used for design in
the orthogonal direction shall not be greater
than that used for the bearing wall system
3. COMBINATIONS ALONG THE SAME AXIS-
Where a combination of different structural
systems is utilized to resist lateral forces in
the same direction, the value of R used for
design in that direction shall not be greater 2. STRUCTURE PERIOD- he value or T shall be
than the least value for any of the systems determined from one of the following methods:
utilized in that same direction. 1. METHOD A: For all buildings, the value T
may be approximated from the following
MINIMUM DESIGN LATERAL FORCES equation:
AND RELATED EFFECT
SIMPLIFIED STATIC FORCE PROCEDURE -
Structures conforming to the requirements of Section
2. METHOD B: The fundamental period T may
208.4.8.1 may be designed using this procedure. be calculated using the structural properties
and deformational characteristics or the
1. SIMPLIFIED DESIGN BASE SHEAR- The total resisting elements in a properly
design base shear in a given direction shall be substantiated analysis.
determined from the following equation:
where the value or Ca shall be based on Table
208-7 for the soil profile type.

2. VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION- The forces at each


level shall be calculated using the following
equation:

where the
value of Ca shall be determined as in Section
208.5.1.1.
3. HORIZONTAL DISTRIBUTION OF SHEAR - The
design storey shear, Vx, in any storey is the sum
of the forces Ft and Fx above that storey. Vx shall
be distributed to the various elements of the
vertical lateral forceresisting system
4. HORIZONTAL TORSIONAL MOMENTS -
Provisions shall be made for the increased shears
resulting from horizontal torsion where
diaphragms are not flexible

5. OVERTURNING- Every structure shall be


designed to resist the overturning effects caused
by earthquake forces specified in Section
208.5.2.3.

STATIC FORCE PROCEDURE


1. DESIGN BASE SHEAR- The total design base
shear in a given direction shall be determined
from the following equation:

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