1

Strength of Materials Lecture Notes

Index

1 Stress – Axial Loads 2

Normal Stress, Shearing Stress, Transformation of Stress, Concept
of Design

2 Strain – Axial Loads 11

Strain, Stress-Strain Diagram, Hooke’s Law, Deflection under Axial
Load, Material Properties

3 Bending of Beams 22
Stress due to pure Bending, Moment of Inertia, Stress Distribution,
Design of Beams

4 Shear in Beams 31
Shearing Stress in members due to Bending

5 Torsion 38
Moment of Torsion, Shearing Stresses and Deformations of Circular
Shafts

6 Analysis of plane Stress 46

Compound Stresses, Combined Stresses, Transformation of Stress,
Mohr’s Circle
56
7 Deflection of Beams
Deflection of members due to Bending

8 Stability of Compression Members 60

Euler Formula, Buckling Load, Buckling Analysis

Department of
Civil Engineering
 2
Strength of Materials 1 Stress
1/9

1 Stress
By setting up the equilibrium conditions, the inner forces of a member subjected to an
external load situation can be determined. So far neither the material nor the type of
cross section applied for the member are being taken into account. But both material
and type of cross section obviously have an impact on the behaviour of the member
subjected to load.

To design the member therefore a closer look on how the internal forces act along its
cross section needs to be taken.

1.1 Normal Stress – Axial Loading

Within this part of the chapter the internal forces are limited to only axial forces
(normal forces) acting along the centroidal axis of a member.

F
ΔF ΔA
σ
plane of cut
A
A A

F F F
a) b) c) d)
fig 1.11: axially loaded rod

A suspended rod is subjected to an axial load. The free body diagram in external
equilibrium is shown in fig. 1.11a.

The rod is cut perpendicular to its axis at any arbitrary distance from its ends and the
equations of equilibrium are applied on the part. Thus the internal force found acting
normal to the cut surface (area A) is of equal amount but opposite direction of the
applied external force (fig. 1.11b).

Consider the normal force to equally act on any particle ΔA of the cut surface A (fig.
1.11c).
F ΔF
=
A ΔA

Department of
Civil Engineering
 3
Strength of Materials 1 Stress
2/9

The intensity of a normal force acting on a surface at a certain point is described as

the normal stress, denoted by the Greek letter σ (fig.1.1d).

ΔF amount of internal force kN

σ = lim σ=
ΔA→ 0 ΔA unit area cm2

Considering a uniform distribution the normal stress is defined as:

F
σ= and F = ∫ σ ⋅ dA (1.1), (1.2)
A A

conclusion: the normal stress acting along a section of a member only depends on
the external load applied (e.g. a normal force F) and the geometry of its
cross section A (true for statically determinant systems).

example 1.1 - stress

Fig 1.12 shows a typical specimen used for uniaxial tensile testing for materials like
timber or plastic.

question: At which position will the specimen break if the applied force F is
increased up to failure?

F F
σ1 = ; σ2 = A2 < A1, hence σ2 > σ 1 linear correlation!
A1 Α2

answer: the specimen breaks at the maximum normal stress σ2 along the plane
with the minimum cross sectional area A2.

F F
A2 A1

fig 1.12: specimen for tensile test subjected to axial load

Department of
Civil Engineering
 4
Strength of Materials 1 Stress
3/9

1.2 Average Shearing Stress – Transverse Loading

So far the discussion focussed on normal stress, oriented perpendicular to the cutting
plane or in direction of the main axis of the member.

Stress can also act in the cutting plane thus perpendicular to the main axis of the
member. This occurs if the member is subjected to a situation of transverse loads (fig.
1.21).
F

fig 1.21: transverse load situation

A situation like this is very common in a bolt or rivet connection (fig 1.22). Here the
forces acting in the direction of the steel plates are transmitted by the bolt.

In fig 1.23 the bolt is cut along the upper two connecting surfaces of the steel plates.
To meet the equilibrium conditions, the force being transported along the cutting
plane through the bolt is equal to the force being applied on the upper steel plate (F).

2F F F
F
F

fig 1.22: bolt connection fig 1.23: plane of cut

Dividing the force by the cut area of the bolt, the stress in the plane of cut is
determined (fig. 1.24). Assuming the stress is uniformly distributed, the stress is
defined as the average shearing stress, denoted by the Greek letter τ:

F
τ=
A
fig 1.24: shearing stress
in the plane of cut -
cross section through bolt

Department of
Civil Engineering
 5
Strength of Materials 1 Stress
4/9

1.3 Stress Analysis and Concept of Design

Every material has its individual properties. It can be ductile, flexible or brittle. It
deforms under the influence of a temperature change. It may plastically deform at a
certain stress (load) and break at another. Its properties according to perpendicular
directions may be equal (isotropic) or different (orthotropic).

To ensure a safe design, these specific material properties have to be taken into
account. The essential information is collected by conducting different tests in a
material testing laboratory.

At the failure of the material its ultimate stress is reached. The point of plastic
deformation of the material is indicated as the yield point, corresponding to the yield
stress. Taking this into account, an allowable stress can be defined for each
individual material to be used within the design analysis. These stresses such as
further indications concerning the maximum allowable deformation (serviceability of a
structure) can be found in the respective national codes.

A secure design requires a certain safety clearance towards the failure of the
employed material. This is ensured by applying a safety factor (in national codes
usually denoted by the Greek letter γ). In the design analysis the existing stress due
to the existing load increased by the factor of safety (the design stress) has to be
proofed less or equal to the allowable stress.

Since the applied material might be orthotropic (different properties in different

directions, e.g. timber) different allowable stresses are defined for normal and
shearing stresses depending on their orientation (parallel or perpendicular, σ║ or σ ┴,
see example 1.4).

ultimate load
ratio of safety:
allowable load

design analysis: Fd = F ⋅ γ design load = existing load · factor of safety

Fd
σd = design normal stress, axial loaded
Α

σ d ≤ σ allowed design stress ≤ allowable stress

Fd
τd = design average shear stress
Α

τ d ≤ τ allowed design stress ≤ allowable stress

Department of
Civil Engineering
 6
Strength of Materials 1 Stress
5/9

example 1.2 - design of axially loaded members

The lattice truss displayed in fig 1.3 is subjected to a vertical load of 100 kN at its
lower chord.

a) determine the normal forces of members S1, S2 and S3

b) carry out the design analysis for diagonal member S2, considering a solid
square cross section 24 mm x 24 mm such as the given safety factor and the
allowable stress
c) design lower chord member S3 by choosing the appropriate diameter of a solid
circular cross section 3.0 m
S1
given:
S2 3.0 m
load safety factor γ = 1.5

material steel: S3
allowable stress σallow = 22 kN/cm2 A 100 kN B

6.0 m 6.0 m
a) external equilibrium: fig 1.31: lattice girder

6.0m
∑M = 0 A ⇒ FB =
12.0m
100 kN = 50kN

∑V = 0 ⇒ FA = FB = 50kN

cutting plane - internal equilibrium at left part:

2 S1 4
− 50kN ⋅ 6.0m
∑M 3 =0 ⇒ S1 =
3.0m
= −100kN
S2
3.0
50kN ⋅ 3.0m
∑M = 0 2 ⇒ S3 =
3.0m
= 50kN
1 S3
∑V = 0 ⇒ S 2 ⋅ sin45 o = 50kN FA
3

⇒ S 2 = 70.71kN
6.0
b) S 2,d = S 2 ⋅ γ = 70.71kN ⋅ 1.5 = 106.06kN
S 2,d 106.06kN
σd = = 2 2
= 18.41kN/cm 2 ≤ σ allow = 22 kN/cm 2 OK
Α (2.4) cm

c) S 3,d = S 3 ⋅ γ = 50kN ⋅ 1.5 = 75kN

S 3,d S 3,d 75kN
σd = ≤ σ allow = 22kN/cm 2 ⇒ A required ≥ = 2
= 3.41cm 2
Α σ allow 22kN/cm
π ⋅d2 4 ⋅ 3.41cm 2
A= ⇒ d required = = 2.08cm chosen: d = 22 mm
4 π

Department of
Civil Engineering
 7
Strength of Materials 1 Stress
6/9

example 1.3 - design of a pin bolt connection

A hinge steel connection consisting of three butt straps and a bolt (fig. 1.32) is
subjected to a tensile force Fd = 100 kN (design load).

Design the steel bolt by choosing the appropriate diameter considering an allowable
shearing stress of τallow = 33.6 kN/cm2 (steel 8.8).

F F

fig 1.32: bolt connection

average shear stress per shear plane in the bolt:

F/2
F
τ average,d = d
2⋅A F A

F/2
condition from design analysis:
F
τ average, d = d ≤ τ allow
2⋅A

Fd 100kN
⇒A≥ = = 1.49cm 2
2 ⋅ τ allow 2 ⋅ 33.6kN/cm 2

π ⋅d2
A= ⇒ d ≥ 1.38cm
4
⇒ chosen : d = 14mm

Department of
Civil Engineering
 8
Strength of Materials 1 Stress
7/9

example 1.4 - orthotropic properties, design of a timber connection

A diagonal member made of timber is connected to a support beam as shown in fig.

1.33. The orientation of the grain is indicated by the hooked lines. The diagonal
element is subjected to a negative normal force along its axis of symmetry (centroidal
axis).

Carry out the design stress analysis for the timber beam (bottom element). Consider
all relevant stresses and the load safety factor.
F

given:

applied load F = 500 N 10 mm

30˚
load safety factor γ = 1.5
30 mm
material timber:
allowable stresses σ║,allow = 6.0 N/mm2 30 mm 20 mm
σ┴,allow = 2.0 N/mm2
fig 1.33: timber connection
τallow = 0.9 N/mm2

resolution of force F:

F┴,d = (sin 30˚ F) 1.5 = (0.5 500 N) 1.5 = 375.0 N F

F┴

F║,d = (cos 30˚ F) 1.5 = (0.87 500 N) 1.5 = 652.5 N F║

areas of bearing planes for respective force components:

A1 = 600 mm2 plane for vertical force (F┴)

A2
A2 = 300 mm2 plane for horizontal force (F║) A3 A1

A3 = 900 mm2 shear plane (F║)

design analysis:

σ⊥,d = F┴,d / A1 = 375.0 N / 600 mm2 = 0.625 N/mm² < σ⊥ allow = 2.0 N/mm² OK

σ ||,d = F║,d / A2 = 652.5 N / 300 mm2 = 2.175 N/mm² < σ || allow = 6.0 N/mm² OK

τd = F║,d / A3 = 652.5 N / 900 mm2 = 0.725 N/mm² < τallow = 0.9 N/mm² OK

Department of
Civil Engineering
 9
Strength of Materials 1 Stress
8/9

1.4 Transformation of Stress – Oblique Plane under Axial Loading

Normal and shearing stresses, thus stress acting perpendicular and parallel to the
axis of symmetry of the member have been analysed in the previous parts of this
chapter.

The plane of cut being used to isolate a part of the member was perpendicularly
oriented in all the situations regarded so far. How about the situation of stress on an
oblique plane of cut?

Fig. 1.41 shows a member subjected to an axial load. A part of the member is
isolated by a plane of cut, inclined by the angle φ towards the axis of the member.
Setting up the free body diagram and the conditions of equilibrium the stress
components acting normal to or within the plane of cut are determined.

plane of cut

F A F
x
φ

a)

N σN
F
F
φ
V τ
b) c)

fig 1.41: axially loaded member,

oblique plane of cut

F
σx = initial situation, normal stress
A

N = cos φ · F resolution of force F normal force N

V = sin φ · F shear force V

A
Aϕ = area of oblique plane
cosϕ

Department of
Civil Engineering
 10
Strength of Materials 1 Stress
9/9

N F
σN = = cos 2ϕ
Aϕ A

σ N = σ x cos 2ϕ normal stress acting on oblique plane

V F
τ= = sinϕ ⋅ cosϕ = σ x sinϕ ⋅ cosϕ
Aϕ A

using angle function (2 sinφ cosφ = 2 sinφ):

σx
τ= sin2ϕ shear stress acting on oblique plane
2

conclusion:

max σ N = σ x ϕ = 0o

σx
max τ = ϕ = 45 o [π 4]
2

Department of
Civil Engineering
 11
Strength of Materials 2 Strain
1/11

2 Strain
Any object being subjected to load is deformed, changing its initial shape. This is true
for any load and any material. It is easily visualised on objects consisting of soft and
flexible materials like rubber or foam but also applies for hard materials like steel or
rock.

Within a certain load limit the object will return to its initial shape again after the load
is released. This is called the elastic behaviour of a material.

Exceeding the load above a certain limit, the object will not fully return to its initial
shape. Some residual deformation is left, being called the plastic behaviour of a
material.

A further increase of load leads to the break of the object at a certain point. This is
also indicated as the rupture or the failure of the material.

2.1 Strain – Axial Loading

A suspended rod of an elastic material and of length L is subjected to axial loading

situations. The load is not exceeding the elastic limit of the material. The
deformations shown in fig. 2.11 can be proven by uniaxial tests.

A A 2A

ΔL/2
ΔL
2·ΔL
F F
F
F 2F

a) b) c)
2F
fig. 2.11: axially loaded rod

The rod of cross section A is subjected to an axial load F, fig. 2.11 a). Due to the load,
the rod is extended by ΔL in its axial direction.

Increasing the load F by factor 2, the elongation of the rod amounts to 2·ΔL, fig.
2.11 b).

Fig. 2.11 c) shows a situation of a rod of twice the cross section of system a) and b),
being equal to two rods of cross section A. The rod again is subjected to the axial
load F. The elongation due to the load found on this system amounts to ΔL/2.

Department of
Civil Engineering
 12
Strength of Materials 2 Strain
2/11

The results are summarised in tab. 2.11.

situation a) b) c)
load F 2·F F
cross section A A 2·A
stress σa) * 2·σa) σa)/2 F
*
σ a) =
elongation ΔL 2·ΔL ΔL/2 A
tab. 2.11

Like the stress for a member of a certain cross section subjected to a certain load
also the elongation of the member can be expressed as a generalised term.

The strain is equal to the amount of elongation ΔL under the applied load divided by
the initial length L of the member. It is denoted by the Greek letter ε.

ΔL (2.11)
strain: ε= = deformation of member per unit length
L [unitless]

The results of the stress and strain analysis are plotted in a coordinate system of
abscissa strain and ordinate stress, the so called stress-strain diagram (fig. 2.12).
The graph connecting the origin and the points of results is a straight line. The
correlation between stress and strain is linear within the elastic limit of the material.

σ
b)

σa) a)

c)

0 εa) ε
= ΔL/L
fig. 2.12: stress-strain diagram,
Hooke’s Law

The slope (gradient) of the stress-strain-graph represents the correlation between

stress and strain. It is a specific property of a material, indicating its elastic behaviour.
It is called the Modulus of Elasticity or the Young’s Modulus of a material denoted
by E.

σ ⎡ kN ⎤ (2.12)
Elastic Modulus: E= ⎢ cm 2 ⎥
ε ⎣ ⎦

A high Modulus of Elasticity therefore represents a hard, rigid material like steel, a
low Modulus of Elasticity a soft, deformable material like rubber.

Department of
Civil Engineering
 13
Strength of Materials 2 Strain
3/11

Precondition to determine a constant Elastic Modulus is the proportional correlation

between stress and strain, the linear elastic range of a material. It is represented by a
straight curve on the stress-strain diagram (fig.2.12). This is known as Hooke’s Law
(Robert Hooke, English Scientist).

Transforming equation (2.12), it can also be expressed as:

σ F
σ = E⋅ε or ε= =
E AE

Hooke’s Law is not only applicable for members consisting of a constant cross
section. Fig. 2.13 is showing a general situation of a member consisting of a variable
cross section.

Generalized equations for Hooke’s Law (see finite element fig 2.13):

δx
ε= strain, factor of elongation of finite element
dx
x x x
σx F
ΔL = ∫ ε x ⋅ dx = ∫ ⋅ dx = ∫ x ⋅ dx
0 0
Ex 0
AxEx

FL total elongation of a member consisting

ΔL =
AE of a constant section

Fi ⋅ L i
ΔL = ∑ total elongation of a member consisting
Ai ⋅ Ei of multiple constant sections

F F
dx
x dx
a) b)
L dx+δx
ε(x)

c)
x
fig 2.13: specimen for tensile test subjected to axial load

Department of
Civil Engineering
 14
Strength of Materials 2 Strain
4/11

example 2.1 - strain

An aluminium bar is consisting of two different square cross sections is subjected to

an axial load situation fig.2.14.

question: Determine the total amount of displacement of the member.

given: AI,II = 20 cm2; AIII = 10 cm2

Ealuminium = 70 000 N/mm2 I II III

F1=60kN F2=20kN F3=100kN

answer:

100 cm
200 cm 200 cm
fig. 2.14

horizontal equilibrium: NIII = 100 kN for part III

NII = 80 kN for part II

NI = 20 kN for part I

Fi ⋅ L i
ΔL total = ∑
Ai ⋅ Ei

100kN ⋅ 200cm
ΔL III = = 0.286cm
10cm 2 ⋅ 7000kN / cm 2
80kN ⋅ 100cm
ΔL II = = 0.057cm
20cm 2 ⋅ 7000kN / cm 2
20kN ⋅ 100cm
ΔL I = = 0.014cm
20cm 2 ⋅ 7000kN / cm 2

ΔL total = 0.286 + 0.057 + 0.014 = 0.357cm

Department of
Civil Engineering
 15
Strength of Materials 2 Strain
5/11

2.2 Stress-Strain Diagram

Looking at a member of a certain cross section deforming to a certain extent under a

certain load reflects an individual situation. Using stress and strain (σ and ε), the
situation is generalised. The correlation between stress and strain depends on the
applied material and is represented by the Elastic Modulus, E.

The established method to determine the Elastic Modulus of a material is to conduct

tensile tests in a laboratory. The results of this test are plotted on the stress-strain
diagram.

Fig. 2.21 shows a typical stress-strain curve of mild steel, being a ductile material. A
ductile material shows considerably large deformation before it fails.

Up to the yield point the correlation between stress and strain is proportional, the
curve is represented by a straight line. It is the linear elastic range of the material.

At the yield point, the proportional limit is reached and plastic deformation occurs.
Without an increase of stress, a certain amount of deflection takes places (the curve
develops parallel to the abscissa).

The ultimate stress (highest stress) lies beyond the yield point, correlating to
relatively large deflections. Finally the material breaks at the point of rupture.
σ yield rupture
σ rupture
point 0.2%
ultimate offset
stress
yield
point

0 ε 0 ε
linear elastic plastic range
range

fig. 2.21: stress-strain diagram fig. 2.22: stress-strain diagram

for mild steel for a brittle material

Fig. 2.22 shows a typical stress-strain curve of a brittle material. Relatively small
deformation takes place up to its point of rupture. Also it does not possess a well
defined yield point indicating the proportional limit. Here the offset method is used to
determine an artificial yield point, thus the linear elastic range for the material.

Typical Elastic Moduli of materials being common in the field of construction:

Steel: 210 000 N/mm2

Aluminium: 70 000 N/mm2
Timber║: 10 000 N/mm2

Department of
Civil Engineering
 16
Strength of Materials 2 Strain
6/11

2.3 Thermal Strain

Any change of temperature has an impact on the shape of an object. It shrinks at a

thermal decline and expands at a thermal increase.

The amount of strain is a property being specific to a certain material. It is

represented by the coefficient of thermal expansion denoted by αT.

coefficient of thermal expansion: αT [1/˚C]

thermal strain: εT = αT · ΔT
thermal expansion: ΔL = αT · ΔT · L

steel: αT = 12 · 10-6 · 1/˚C

concrete: αT = 12 · 10-6 · 1/˚C
aluminium: αT = 23 · 10-6 · 1/˚C

example 2.2 – thermal strain

A rod with fixed ends and no external loads, fig 2.31, is subjected to a thermal
increase of ΔT.

question: Determine the compressive stress in the rod caused by that impact.

given: cross section A

material E, αT
L
fig. 2.31

answer: ΔL

ΔLT = αT · ΔT · L free expansion of rod

PL
ΔL P = − compression of rod caused by a negative support force
AE

ΔLT = ΔLP
PA (-) PB (-)

PL
αT · ΔT · L = -
AE

P = - αT · ΔT·AE

σ = - αT · ΔT·E

Department of
Civil Engineering
 17
Strength of Materials 2 Strain
7/11

example 2.3

A steel cable (Ø 8 mm, A = 45 mm2, E = 170 000 N/mm2) is to be tensioned by a

pretensile force of 10.0 kN to a length of 10.0 m at a temperature of 20 ˚C.

a) Determine the initial fabrication length of the cable.

b) Determine the remaining pretension in the cable if the temperature is

increased to 60 ˚C.

10.0 m
fig. 2.32
a) Li + ΔL = 10.0 m
PL i
ΔL =
AE
⎛ P ⎞ ⎛ 10000N ⎞
⇒ L i ⎜1 + ⎟ = 10.0m ⇒ L i ⎜1 + ⎟ = 10000mm
⎝ 45mm ⋅ 170000 N / mm
2 2
⎝ AE ⎠ ⎠

⇒ L i = 9986.95mm fabrication length

b) αT,steel = 12 · 10-6 · 1/˚C

ΔT = 60 – 20 = 40 ˚C
PT = - αT · ΔT·AE = 12 · 10-6 · 1/˚C · 40 ˚C · 45 mm2 · 170 000 N/mm2
PT = - 3672 N

P60° = 10.0 – 3.67 = 6.33 kN remaining pretension

Department of
Civil Engineering
 18
Strength of Materials 2 Strain
8/11

2.4 Generalised Hooke’s Law – Poisson’s Ratio

An object being subjected to an axial force not only deforms in axial direction. It also
deforms in its lateral direction, the directions acting perpendicular to the applied load
(fig. 2.41).

This phenomena is another property of a specific material. It is known as the

Poisson’s Ratio, denoted by the Greek letter ν.

lateral strain
ν = axial strain (ratio)

lateral expansion and compression of a solid body subjected to an

axial force

precondition: material is homogenous, isotropic and remains elastic

initial initial
shape shape deformed
shape

F F

fig. 2.41: element subjected to an axial force

Generalised Hooke’s Law of Strain:

General strain of an element in an multiaxial state of stress:

precondition: material is homogenous, isotropic and remains elastic,

strain is independent of small shearing deformations

σy
σz
σx σy σ y
εx = −ν −ν z
E E E σx σx
σ σy σ x
ε y = −ν x + −ν z z
E E E
σ σy σz σz
ε z = −ν x − ν + σy
E E E
fig. 2.42: orientation of stress on a 3D element

Department of
Civil Engineering
 19
Strength of Materials 2 Strain
9/11

example 2.4

A solid rectangular steel block is subjected to uniform pressure acting along its
surface. If edge AB is expanded by 1.2 · 10-2 mm determine
y
a) the deformation of all other edges
40 mm
b) the pressure p acting on the block
20 mm
C D
given: 2
steel: E = 210 000 N/mm ; ν = 0.29 z A
30 mm x
B
fig. 2.43: rectangular steel block

answer:

a) σx = σy = σz = – p uniform pressure

p p p p
εx = ε y = ε z = −+ ν + ν = − (1 − 2ν ) uniform strain
E E E E
Δx 1.2 ⋅ 10 mm
-2
εx = − =− = −3 ⋅ 10 − 4 = εy = εz strain in x-, y- and z-direction
AB 40mm

Δy = ε y ⋅ BC = −3 ⋅ 10 −4 ⋅ 20mm = −6 ⋅ 10 −3 mm total compression in y-direction

Δz = ε z ⋅ BD = −3 ⋅ 10 −4 ⋅ 30mm = −9 ⋅ 10 −3 mm total compression in z-direction

p
b) εx = − (1 − 2ν )
E
ε ⋅E (−3 ⋅ 10 −4 ) ⋅ 210000N/mm 2
⇒p=− x =−
1 − 2ν 1 − 2 ⋅ 0.29

p = −150N/mm 2 (= -150 MPa) pressure acting on the block

Department of
Civil Engineering
 20
Strength of Materials 2 Strain
10/11

2.5 Shearing Strain

2.5.1 General situation for Shearing Stress

To analyse the strain caused by shearing stress, a closer look is to be taken at the
general situation for shearing stress first.

precondition: material is homogenous, isotropic and remains elastic

Fig. 2.51 shows the shearing stresses and their directions acting on mutually
perpendicular planes. Equal assumptions can be made for the xz- and yz- directions.

τyx dy
dz
y
τxy
τxy
x
z τyx dx

fig. 2.51: shearing stress acting

on a finite element

Equations of equilibrium: ∑F = 0 : τ xy = τ xy

∑M 0 =0 : τ xy = τ yx
τ xy (dy ⋅ dz ) ⋅ dx = τ yx (dx ⋅ dz ) ⋅ dy
area · lever arm

conclusion: All shearing stresses on mutually perpendicular planes of an

infinitesimal element are numerically equal

this is also shown on Mohr’s Circle – see chapter 6

Department of
Civil Engineering
 21
Strength of Materials 2 Strain
11/11

2.5.1 Distortion of an element in pure shear

τ γ/2

τ τ
0 γ/2
τ
fig. 2.52: element in pure shear

Fig. 2.52 shows an element being distorted by pure shear stress acting along its
edges. As shearing stresses on mutually perpendicular planes are equal, the
indication of the shearing stresses is simplified to τ.

The total angle of distortion of the element is denoted by the Greek letter γ.

Like stress and strain, σ and ε, also shearing stress and shearing strain, τ and γ, are
in linear relationship (proportional correlation). This can be proven experimentally.
Hence the same rules can be applied and another material property, the Shearing
Modulus is found, denoted by G.

Hooke’s Law for shearing strain: τ=G·γ (2.51)

τ ⎡ kN ⎤ (2.52)
Shearing Modulus: G= ⎢ cm 2 ⎥
γ ⎣ ⎦

The material properties E, G and ν are not independent. At this stage the correlation
shall be given without derivation as:

E
G=
2(1 + ν ) (2.53)

Department of
Civil Engineering
 22
Strength of Materials 3 Pure Bending of Beams
1/9

3 Pure Bending of Beams

A beam consisting of a certain cross section and material will react in a certain way
(deflection) and have a certain resistance towards applied bending loads.

A beam can be subjected to bending in various ways. In many of these situations

also shear forces will be present. Shear forces coexist with shear stresses causing
additional deflection. To analyse the impact of bending loads on a beam element we
therefore focus on a situation being free of shear forces.

Lets take into account the statical correlation of the shear force function along a
beam being a derivation function of the bending moment. Hence it is concluded that
a part of a beam showing a linear constant moment diagram (horizontal line) is free
of shearing forces. This internal load situation is called pure bending (M = constant, V
= N = 0). Fig. 3.11 a) is illustrating such a situation.

3.1 Normal Stress

Fig. 3.11 a) shows a beam subjected to pure bending. To investigate the stresses
being caused along the plane of cut by the internal moment, a closer look is to be
taken at an isolated element, shown in fig. 3.11 b).

All possible stresses acting along the plane of cut are indicated in the figure since so
far there is no evidence of the plane being totally free of shearing stresses.

y
τxy·dA
-
+ σx·dA
Mz
τxz·dA
Mz Mz
x
τxy·dA
z
σx·dA
τxz·dA +
a)
b)
fig 3.11: beam subjected to pure bending

To find the isolated element of fig. 3.11 b) in equilibrium, the stresses acting along
the plane of cut on the right face have to equal the internal moment Mz on the left
face.

Any bending moment can be expressed by a couple of forces acting at a certain

distance from another. Looking at the orientation of the stress vectors it becomes
obvious that both τxy and τxz are irrelevant for the solution. Since both of them act in
the plane of cut neither of them acts in a lever arm towards the applied moment.
Therefore they are neglected in the following derivation.

Department of
Civil Engineering
 23
Strength of Materials 3 Pure Bending of Beams
2/9

Equations of equilibrium concerning σx:

∑F = 0
x : ∫ σ ⋅ dA = 0
x

∑M = 0 y : ∫ z ⋅ σ ⋅ dA = 0
x

∑M = 0 z : ∫ - y ⋅ σ ⋅ dA = M
x z (3.11)

3.2 Normal Strain

The following geometric derivations are based on the assumption that any cross
section of a beam remains plane after being subjected to bending. This is known as
the theory of elasticity for slender members undergoing small deflections established
by Jacob Bernoulli (1645-1705).

A beam member possessing a plane of symmetry is subjected to a situation of pure

bending, fig 3.21. The member will deflect uniformly since the internal moment along
the member is constant. By deflection the edges of the element (line AB) are
transformed into a circular curve. The upper edge AB of the element is decreased in
length whereas the lower edge A1B1 is increased. The middle plane, representing the
plane of symmetry, remains original in length and is therefore known as the neutral
plane (or neutral axis).

Fig 3.21 b) shows the situation on an isolated element. ρ represents the radius of
curvature of the neutral axis. dx is the original length of the free upper and lower
edges. Both decrease and increase in length of the upper and the lower edge are
denoted by δx. Since the member is considered to undertake small deflections only,
the curvature of the upper and lower edge is neglected. Furthermore the inclined left
and right edges of the deformed element are considered to remain original in length.

A initial shape B
M M
v ρ
A1 B1
deflected shape

a) b)
initial shape
fig 3.21: deflection of beam subjected to pure bending
neutral axis x
y y
c
deflected shape
δx c
By geometry: ε x, max = = (similar triangles) dx
dx ρ
dx+δx
y y
ε x = = ε x,max (3.12)
ρ c

Department of
Civil Engineering
 24
Strength of Materials 3 Pure Bending of Beams
3/9

3.3 Normal Stress

Using the proportional correlation of stress and strain:

-σmax
y
σx = σ x, max (3.13) Mz
c neutral axis x
y
c
+σmax

fig 3.22: stress distribution along section of beam

(3.13) in (3.11):

y σ max
∑F x =0: ∫ σ x ⋅ dA = ∫c σ max ⋅ dA =
c ∫
y ⋅ dA =0

∫ y dA : first moment of cross section (statical moment)

→ about the neutral axis =0
→ neutral axis = centroidal axis

σ max 2
∑M z = 0: ∫ y⋅σ x ⋅ dA = ∫
c
y ⋅ dA = M z

σ max
c ∫ y 2 ⋅ dA = M z (3.14)

I = ∫ y 2 ⋅ dA : second moment of cross section (moment of inertia)

M zc
Transformation of (3.14): σ max = (3.15)
Iz flexual stress (linear elastic)
M y elastic flecture formulas (3.16)
(3.13) in (3.15): σx = z
Iz

I
Introducing: S= elastic section modulus
c
Mz
(3.15) becomes: σ max = (3.17)
Sz

M⋅y M⋅y
since σ = E ⋅ε = → ε= (3.18)
I E⋅I
y
recalling (3.12): ε=
ρ
1 M curvature of neutral axis
in (3.18): = =κ EI = bending or flexual (3.19)
ρ E⋅I
stiffness
(continued in chapter 7, deflection of beams)
Department of
Civil Engineering
 25
Strength of Materials 3 Pure Bending of Beams
4/9

example 3.1

Discuss the maximum stresses σ and deflections y that will occur on beams
subjected to an equal bending moment consisting of the cross sections given in the
table below.

note: all cross sections have an equal consumption of material (almost equal areas)

cross 200 t=19.5

section t=13
[mm2] 100 200 t=13 200 t=10 400 360
I360
100
50 100 143

A [cm2] 100 100 97 96 97

I [cm4] 833 3333 ... ... ...
S [cm3] 167 333 ... ... ...
σ factor 100% 50% ... ... ...
y factor 100% 25% ... ... ...

tab. 3.31

Department of
Civil Engineering
 26
Strength of Materials 3 Pure Bending of Beams
5/9

example 3.2

A beam consisting of a rectangular cross section is subjected to pure bending.

Replace the linear stress distribution along the cross section by its respective force
couple. Set up the equation for the maximum stress.

y -σmax
R
M
h z z a
R

y +σmax
b

2
a = (2 ⋅ 2 3 ⋅ 1 2 ⋅ h ) = h
3
1⎛h ⎞ bh
R = ⎜ b σ max ⎟ = σ max
2⎝ 2 ⎠ 4
bh 2
∑M = 0 : R ⋅a =
6
σ max = M
M M
σ max = 2
= flexure formula, linear elastic
bh S
6
σ max ⋅ γ safety ≤ σ allow e.g. design of beam

→ excursion on inelastic bending, rect. cross section ( S pl = 1.5 ⋅ S el )

3.3 Unsymmetrical bending

3.3.1 Superposition of stresses

Principle of superposition (also see chapter 6):

Superposition of normal stresses design analysis

F ± Mz ⋅ y ± My ⋅ z
σx = ± − + σ max ≤ σ allow
A Iz Iy

For algebraic sign convention, see chapter 6.

Department of
Civil Engineering
 27
Strength of Materials 3 Pure Bending of Beams
6/9

example 3.3

A beam is being subjected to a load situation of two concentrated loads (see below).
Given loads are design loads. Determine the maximum and minimum internal forces.
Carry out the design analysis for
a) A rectangular timber cross section 100 x 200 mm, σ║,allow = 0.85 kN/cm2
b) A standard T100 steel section (oriented flange down), A = 20.0 cm2, Iz = 179
cm4, position of centroidal axis see sketch below

5 kN
10 kN

2.0m 1.0m

Internal force diagrams:

M [kNm] N [kN] V [kN]

10.0
5
-5.0
-2.5

a) rect. timber cross section 100 x 200 mm

σ║,allow = 8.5 kN/cm2

y
2
A = 200 cm
bh 3
Iz = = 6666.7 cm 4 z
12 200
bh 2 I z
Sz = = = 666.7 cm 3
6 c
100
N
σ x, N = = 0.05 kN cm 2
A
M 500 kNcm
σ x,M =± z =± 3
= ±0.75 kN cm 2
Sz 666.7 cm
Superposition:
+σ M +σN +0.8

M
N

- σM -0.7

σ max = 0.05 + 0.75 = 0.8 kN/cm 2 ≤ 0.85 kN/cm 2 = σ allow OK

Department of
Civil Engineering
 28
Strength of Materials 3 Pure Bending of Beams
7/9

b) steel cross section T100

100
σ║,allow = 21.8 kN/cm2 y

A = 20.9 cm2
I z = 179 cm 4 72.6
100
z z
27.4

N y
σ x, N = = 0.48 kN cm 2
A 50
Mzy - 500 kNcm
σ x,M, top = =− 3
7.26 cm = 20.27 kN cm 2 (see sign convention)
Iz 179 cm
Mzy - 500 kNcm
σ x,M, bottom = − =− 3
- 2.74 cm = -7.65 kN cm 2
Iz 179 cm

Superposition:

σ max = 0.48 + 20.27 = 20.75 kN/cm 2 ≤ 21.8 kN/cm 2 = σ allow OK

3.3.2 Position of neutral surface

Position of neutral axis demands: σx = 0

Mzy M yz
MP y → − + =0
My P Iz Iy
=sinθ MP θ M y ⋅ z ⋅ Iz Iz
z z → y= = tanθ ⋅ z ⋅
Mz MzIy Iy
=cosθ MP
φ y Iz
→ = tanθ
z Iy
y I
→ tanϕ = z tanθ (3.20)
fig 3.31: position of neutral axis Iy

Department of
Civil Engineering
 29
Strength of Materials 3 Pure Bending of Beams
8/9

3.4 Cross sections of different materials

In the construction industry many structural members consist of more than only one
material. Due to their properties some materials cope better with tensile stress
whereas others deal well with compression (or are more cost effective). The most
commonly composite material being implemented in the construction sector is steel
reinforced concrete.

To design a cross section consisting of more than one material it is necessary to

develop a procedure to determine the stresses in each of the applied materials due
to the given load situation. In this part of this chapter cross sections of two different
materials are being investigated. The procedure developed can be projected on
composite members consisting of even more than two materials.

A cross section consisting of two different materials is shown in fig. 3.41a). Both of
the applied materials have different elastic moduli (E1 and E2). At their surface of
contact both materials are tightly fixed to one another, thus along this surface both
materials develop an equal strain under the given load (ε1 = ε2), see fig. 3.41c).

Since the elastic moduli are different, a break along the stress distribution is found at
the surface of contact (σ = ε E), see fig. 3.41d).
y y σ 1

mat. 1
σ2
z z
z z
mat. 2

ε1 (E1) σ2
y y σ2 = n σ1
bI bII = bI n
n = E2/E1
fig 3.41a) – d): determination of stress for composite cross sections

To determine the stresses existing in both materials a virtual cross section of one
homogenous material is being constructed. For this the ratio n = E2/E1 is determined.
The transformed cross section consist of an equal area of material 1 (unchanged).
The area of material 2 is extruded parallel to the neutral axis by factor n, see fig.
3.41b).

On the next step the centroidal axis of the transformed cross section is computed
and the moment of inertia is determined. Now the stresses occurring along the cross
section of the homogenous material (material 1) are calculated (e.g. σ1 = ε1 E1 = M/S).
To determine the stresses existing along material 2, the respective results for
material one are multiplied by factor n (σ2 = ε2 E2 = σ1 n).

The same procedure can be used to determine the curvature of a composite cross
section. In equation (3.19) the moment of inertia of the transformed cross section is
applied.

Department of
Civil Engineering
 30
Strength of Materials 3 Pure Bending of Beams
9/9

example 3.4

A beam consists of a composite cross section of timber and steel. Determine the
maximum stresses that develop in each of the materials under the given internal
bending moment.

given:
timber 250
Mz = 30 kNm
ET║ = 10000 N/mm2; ES = 200000 N/mm2 steel 10

150

choice: transformation into equal section of timber 150

E
ratio n = s = 20
ET
183
transformed dimension: b II = n b I = 20 15 = 300 cm 58 250

72 77
new centroidal axis (from top): 10

y=
∑A ⋅y i i
: y=
(15 ⋅ 25)12.5 + (1 ⋅ 300)25.5
= 18.3 cm
3000

∑A i 15 ⋅ 25 + 1 ⋅ 300

moment of inertia:
15 ⋅ 25 3 300 ⋅ 13
I = ∑ (I i + A i ⋅ y i2 ) : I z = + (15 ⋅ 25)5.8 2 + + (1 ⋅ 300 )7.2 2
12 12
I z = 47723 cm 4

stress timber:
M c 30000 kNcm ⋅ 18.3 cm
σ t,max = = 4
= 1.15 kN/cm 2
I 47723 cm

stress steel:
30000 kNcm ⋅ 7.7 cm
σ s, max = n ⋅ σ I = 20 4
= 9.68 kN/cm 2
47723 cm

Department of
Civil Engineering
 31
Strength of Materials 4 Shear in Beams
1/7

4 Shear Stress in Beams

Situation: 3 vertically allocated beams, not fixed along the joint surfaces

Pure bending, no shear

M M
σ

internal load – force diagram:

M
+M

V
0

Bending with shear

P

internal load – force diagram:

M
Mmax=Pl²/4

V +P/2
-P/2

Department of
Civil Engineering
 32
Strength of Materials 4 Shear in Beams
2/7

Derivation of Shearing Stresses in a Beam

Shear Flow
(along the horizontal plane y in the direction of x)

segment of beam subjected to bending

Δx y
y ΔA
z ¯y
x

equilibrium at particle
p(x)

σA σB

= MA VA VB = MB

ΔH

My
∑Fx = 0 : ΔH + ∫ (σ
ΔA
A − σB) ⋅ dA = 0 σ=
I

MB−MC y ⋅dA
ΔH =
I ∫ Q= ∫ y ⋅dA = ΔA ⋅ y
Statical Moment
ΔM Q
ΔH = [kN]
I

ΔH ΔM Q dM = V
q = = [kN/cm]
dx Δx I dx

VQ
lim Δx→0 q = [kN/cm] Shear Flow per unit length
I

Department of
Civil Engineering
 33
Strength of Materials 4 Shear in Beams
3/7

example 4.1

A beam consists of 3 wooden planks being fixed by nails. Determine the shear force
per nail.

given: nail spacing e = 25 mm

Vd = 500 N
Iz = 1620 cm4 100
y
ΔA 20
Q = ΔA ⋅ y = (2 ⋅ 10 ) ⋅ 6 = 120cm ³
¯y
z
VQ 500 N ⋅ 120 cm ³ 100
q = = = 37.04 N / cm
I 1620 cm 4 20

F = 37.04 N / cm ⋅ 2.5cm = 92.6 N / Nail 20

Shearing Stress Formula

at particle

t τ

ΔH
Δx

VQ q
τ = = [kN/cm²] Shear Stress per area
It t

τyx

τxy

τyx = τxy equal shearing stresses on mutually

perpendicular planes

design: τmax,d ≤ τallowed

Department of
Civil Engineering
 34
Strength of Materials 4 Shear in Beams
4/7

Distribution of Shear Stress

example: Rectangular Cross Section

y
ΔA
z y1
h

V ⎡⎛ h ⎞ ⎤
h/2 h/2 2
VQ V V V y²
τ (y1) =
It
= ∫
Ib ΔA
y ⋅ dA =
Ib ∫y1 yb ⋅ dy = I 2 y1
= ⎢⎜ ⎟ − y1² ⎥
2I ⎢⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦

distribution parabolically τave

V
∫ τ ⋅ dA = V
A
→ τave =
A
τmax
min τ at y1 = h/2 → τmin = 0 h

3V
max τ at y1 = 0 → τmax = Vh ² =
8I 2A

for narrow rectangular cross sections

example: Shear stress distribution in an I-beam standard section

t y y

q = Q⋅ V q
τ=
I t

V
approximation: τave =
Aweb

Department of
Civil Engineering
 35
Strength of Materials 4 Shear in Beams
5/7

Shear Flow (along the vertical plane z in the direction of x)

regarding a particle with an arbitrary curved cutting surface

y
ΔA
z ¯y

VQ
∑Fx = 0 : q = [kN/cm] Shear Flow per unit length
I

conclusion: shear flow along the vertical plane z will be derived equivalently to the
shear flow along the horizontal plane x

Shearing Stress (along the vertical plane z in the direction of x)

at particle

VQ q
τ = = [kN/cm²] Shear Stress per area
It t

τzy = τxz equal shearing stresses on mutually

perpendicular planes

τxz
τzx

Department of
Civil Engineering
 36
Strength of Materials 4 Shear in Beams
6/7

example 4.2

Determine the shear stress along the z-plane of the welding seams in the edges of
the rectangular cross section.

given: h = 120 mm y
b = 60 mm
t = 5 mm
Vd = 10.0 kN
z
h
t
6 ⋅ 12³ 5 ⋅ 11³
Iz = − = 309.4cm 4
12 12

Q = ΔA ⋅ y = 0.5 ⋅ 5.0 ⋅ 5.75 = 14.38cm ³ b

y
ΔA
VQ 10.0kN ⋅ 14.38cm ³
q = = = 0.465 kN / cm
I 309 .4cm 4 ¯y
z
(q is the total shear flow acting on the particle with two cutting planes)

1 q 1 0.465 kN / cm
τ = = = 0.465 kN / cm ²
2 t 2 0.5cm

Shearing Stress in thin walled members

variation and orientation of the shear flow q on a member subjected to a vertical

shear force V:

V V V

q q q

Department of
Civil Engineering
 37
Strength of Materials 4 Shear in Beams
7/7

Shear Center

Thin walled members in unsymmetric loading

problem: applying the vertical force V perpendicular to the centroidal axis

causes a moment of torsion (twisting) around the x-axis of the member

solution: applying the vertical force V at a certain distance to web center axis of
the member, the shear center

equilibrium: ∑ Fz = H − H = 0
∑ Fy = V − V = 0
H⋅h
∑ Mx = H ⋅ h − V ⋅ e = 0 ⇒e=
V
external load (action) = internal load (reaction)
b
s H
y e
=
z V q V
h

b
H h
VQ
q= H = ∫ q ⋅ds V = ∫ q ⋅ds
I 0 0

example 4.3: channel member (see figure above)

determination of shear center:

VQ h V ⋅s ⋅ t ⋅h
q= Q = A⋅y = s⋅t⋅ ⇒q=
I 2 2⋅I
b b b
V ⋅s ⋅ t ⋅h V⋅t⋅h 1 V ⋅ t ⋅ h ⋅ b²
H = ∫ q ⋅ds = ∫ ⋅ds = s² =
0 0
2⋅I 2⋅I 2 0 4⋅I
t ⋅ h³ ⎛ b ⋅ t³ ⎛ h ⎞
2
⎞
I = ∑ (Ii + Ai ⋅ yi ² ) = + 2⎜ + b⋅ t ⋅⎜ ⎟ ⎟ t³ is very small, will be neglected
12 ⎜ 12
⎝ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎟⎠
t ⋅ h³ 1 t ⋅ h²
I= + b ⋅ t ⋅ h² = (h + 6b )
12 2 12
H ⋅ h V ⋅ t ⋅ h ² ⋅ b² V ⋅ t ⋅ h ² ⋅ b ² ⋅ 12 3b ²
⇒e= = = =
V 4⋅I⋅V 4 ⋅ V ⋅ t ⋅ h ² ⋅ (h + 6b ) h + 6b

Department of
Civil Engineering