Reciprocating Compressor

5.1 INTRODUCTION
Compressors are work absorbing devices which are used for increasing pressure of fluid at
the expense or work done on fluid.

The compressors used for compressing air are called air compressors. Compressors are
invariably used for all applications requiring high pressure air. Some of popular applications
of compressor are, for driving pneumatic tools and air operated equipments, spray painting,
compressed air engine, supercharging surface cleaning, refrigeration and air conditioning,
chemical industry etc. compressors are supplied with low pressure air (or any fluid) at inlet
which comes out as high pressure air (or any fluid) at outlet. Work required for increasing
pressure of air is available from the prime mover driving the compressor. Generally, electric
motor, internal combustion engine or steam engine, turbine etc. are used as prime movers.
Compressors are similar to fans and blowers but differ in terms of pressure ratios. Fan is said
to have pressure ratio up to 1.1 and blowers have pressure ratio between 1.1 to 4 while
compressors have pressure ratios more than 4.
5.2 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPRESSORS

Table-5.1 Types of Compressors

Compressors can be classified in the following different ways.
(a) Based on principle of operation: Based on the principle of operation compressors
can be classified as.
(i) Positive displacement compressor.
(ii) Non-positive displacement compressors.

In positive displacement compressors the compression is realized by displacement of solid

boundary and preventing fluid by solid boundary from flowing back in the direction of
pressure gradient. Due to solid wall displacement these are capable of providing quite large
pressure ratios. Positive displacement compressors can be further classified based on the type
of mechanism used for compression. These can be
(i) Reciprocating type positive displacement compressors
(ii) Rotary type positive displacement compressors.

Reciprocating compressors generally, employ piston-cylinder arrangement where

displacement of piston in cylinder causes rise in pressure. Reciprocating compressors are
capable of giving large pressure ratios but the mass handling capacity is limited or small.
Reciprocating compressors may also be single acting compressor or double acting
compressor. Single acting compressor has one delivery stroke per revolution while in double
acting there are two delivery strokes per revolution of crank shaft. Rotary compressors
employing positive displacement have a rotary part whose boundary causes positive
displacement of fluid and thereby compression. Rotary compressors of this type are available
in the names as given below;
(i) Roots blower
(ii) Vane type compressors
Rotary compressors of above type are capable of running at higher speed and can handle
large mass flow rate than reciprocating compressors of positive displacement type.

Non-positive displacement compressors, also called as steady flow compressors use dynamic
action of solid boundary for realizing pressure rise. Here fluid is not contained in definite
volume and subsequent volume reduction does not occur as in case of positive displacement
compressors. Non-positive displacement compressor may be of ‘axial flow type’ or
‘centrifugal type’ depending upon type of flow in compressor.
(b) Based on number of stages: Compressors may also be classfied on the basis of number
of stages. Generally, the number of stages depend upon the maximum delivery pressure.
Compressors can be single stage or multistage. Normally maximum compression ratio of 5 is
realized in single stage compressors. For compression ratio more than 5 the multistage
compressors are used.

Type values of maximum delivery pressures generally available from different type of
compressor are,
(i) Single stage Compressor, for delivery pressure upto 5 bar.
(ii) Two stage Compressor, for delivery pressure between 5 to 35 bar
(iii) Three stage Compressor, for delivery pressure between 35 to 85 bar.
(iv) Four stage compressor, for delivery pressure more than 85 bar

(c) Based on Capacity of compressors : Compressors can also be classified depending upon
the capacity of Compressor or air delivered per unit time. Typical values of capacity for
different compressors are given as;
(i) Low capacity compressors, having air delivery capacity of 0.15 m3/s or less
(ii) Medium capacity compressors, having air delivery capacity between 0.15 to 5 m3/s.
(iii) High capacity compressors, having air delivery capacity more than 5 m3/s

(d) Based on highest pressure developed: Depending upon the maximum pressure available
from compressor they can be classified as low pressure, medium pressure, high pressure and
super high pressure compressors. Typical values of maximum pressure developed for
different compressors are as under:
(i) Low pressure compressor, having maximum pressure upto 1 bar
(ii) Medium pressure compressor, having maximum pressure from 1 bar to 8 bar
(iii) High pressure compressor, having maximum pressure from 8 to 10 bar
(iv) Super high pressure compressor, having maximum pressure more than 10 bar.
5.3 Reciprocating Compressors
Reciprocating Compressor has piston cylinder arrangement as shown Fig.5.1

Fig.5.1 Reciprocating Compressor

Reciprocating Compressor has piston, cylinder, inlet valve, exit valve, connecting rod, crank,
piston pin, crank pin and crank shaft. Inlet valve and exit valves may be of spring loaded
type which get opened and closed due to pressure differential across them. Let us consider
piston to be at top dead centre (TDC) and move towards bottom dead centre (BDC). Due to
this piston movement from TDC to BDC suction pressure is created causing opening of inlet
valve. With this opening of inlet valve and suction pressure the atmospheric air enters the
cylinder.
Air gets into cylinder during this stroke and is subsequently compressed in next stroke with
both inlet valve and exit valve closed. Both inlet valve and exit valves are of plate type and
spring loaded so as to operate automatically as and when sufficient pressure difference is
available to cause deflection in spring of valve plates to open them. After piston reaching
BDC it reverses its motion and compresses the air inducted in previous stroke. Compression
is continued till the pressure of air inside becomes sufficient to cause deflection in exit valve.
At the moment when exit valve plate gets lifted the exhaust of compressed air takes place.
This piston again reaches TDC from where downward piston movement is again
accompanied by suction. This is how reciprocating compressor. Keeps on working as flow
device. In order to counter for the heating of piston-cylinder arrangement during
compression the provision of cooling the cylinder is there in the form of cooling jackets in the
body. Reciproting compressor described above has suction, compression and discharge as
three prominent processes getting compelted in two strokes of piston or one revolution of
crank shaft.

5.4 Thermodynamic Analysis

Compression of air in compressor may be carried out following number of thermodynamic

processes such as isothermal compression, polytropic compressor or adiabatic compressor.
Fig.16.3 shows the thermodynamic cycle involved in compressor. Theoretical cycle is shown
neglecting clearance volume but in actual cycle clearance volume can not be negligible.
Clearance volume is necessary in order to prevent collision of piston with cylinder head,
accommodating valve mechanism etc., Compression process is shown by process1-2, 1-21,
1-211 and 1-2111 following isothermal, polytropic and adiabatic processes.
 Fig.5.2 P-V diagram for Reciprocating Compressor without Clearance
On P-V diagram process 4-1 shows the suction process followed by compression during 1-2
and discharge through compressor is shown by process 2-3.

Air enters compressor at pressure p1 and is compressed upto p2. Compression work
requirement can be estimated from the area below the each compression process. Area on p-
V diagram shows that work requirement shall be minimum with isothermal process 1-2”.
Work requirement is maximum with process 1-2 ie., adiabatic process. As a designer one
shall be interested in a compressor having minimum compression work requirement.
Therefore, ideally compression should occur isothermally for minimum work input. In
practice it is not possible to have isothermal compression because constancy of temperature
during compression can not be realized. Generally, compressors run at substantially high
speed while isothermal compression requires compressor to run at very slow speed so that
heat evolved during compression is dissipated out and temperature remains constant.
Actually due to high speed running of compressor the compression process may be assumed
to be near adiabatic or polytropic process following law of compression as pVn=C with of ‘n’
varying between 1.25 to 1.35 for air. Compression process following three processes is also
shown on T-s diagram in Fig.16.4. it is thus obvious that actual compression process should
be compared with isothermal compression process. A mathematical parameter called
isothermal efficiency is defined for quantifying the degree of deviation of actual compression
process from ideal compression process. Isothermal efficiency is defined by the ratio is
isothermal work and actual indicated work in reciprocating compressor.
 Isothermal work
Isothermal efficiency =
Actual indicated Work

Practically, compression process is attempted to be closed to isothermal process by air/water

cooling, spraying cold water during compression process. In case of multistage compression
process the compression in different stages is accompanied by intercooling in between the
stages. P2 V2

Mathematically, for the compression work following polytropic process, PVn=C. Assuming
negligible clearance volume the cycle work done.
Wc = Area on p-V diagram
  p V − p1V1 
Wc =  p2V2 +  2 2  − p1V1
n − 1 
1
 

 n  
=  [ p 2V2 − p1V1 ]
 n − 1  
 n  p V 
= ( p1V1 ) 2 2 − 1
 n −1  p1V1 
  n −1 
  
 n    
− 1
 n 
( p1V1 ) 
p
= 2

 −  
n 1  1
p
 
  n −1 
  
 n    p2   n  
= (mRT1 )  −1

 n −1  p1 
 
 n 
= (mR )(T2 − T1 )
 n −1

In case of compressor having isothermal compression process, n = 1, ie., p1V1 = p2V2

Wiso = p 2V2 + p1V1 ln r − p1V1
V
Wiso = p1V1 ln r , where, r = 1
V2
In case of compressor having adiabatic compression process,

 γ 
Wadiabatic =  (mR )(T2 − T1 )
 γ −1
Or

Wadiabatic = (mC p )(T2 − T1 )

Wadiabatic = (m )(h2 − h1 )
 p1V1 ln r
η iso =
 n −1

 n   
( p1V1 )  − 1
 p n
 2

 n −1
 1 
p


The isothermal efficiency of a compressor should be close to 100% which means that actual
compression should occur following a process close to isothermal process. For this the
mechanism be derived to maintain constant temperature during compression process.
Different arrangements which can be used are:
(i) Faster heat dissipation from inside of compressor to outside by use of fins over
cylinder. Fins facilitate quick heat transfer from air being compressed to
atmosphere so that temperature rise during compression can be minimized.
(ii) Water jacket may be provided around compressor cylinder so that heat can be
picked by cooling water circulating through water jacket. Cooling water
circulation around compressor regulates rise in temperature to great extent.
(iii) The water may also be injected at the end of compression process in order to cool
the air being compressed. This water injection near the end of compression
process requires special arrangement in compressor and also the air gets mixed
with water and needs to be separated out before being used. Water injection also
contaminates the lubricant film inner surface of cylinder and may initiate
corrosion etc, The water injection is not popularly used.
(iv) In case of multistage compression in different compressors operating serially, the
air leaving one compressor may be cooled upto ambient state or somewhat high
temperature before being injected into subsequent compressor. This cooling of
fluid being compressed between two consecutive compressors is called
intercooling and is frequently used in case of multistage compressors.

Considering clearance volume: With clearance volume the cycle is represented on Fig.5.3
The work done for compression of air polytropically can be given by the are a enclosed in
cycle 1-2-3-4. Clearance volume in compressors varies from 1.5% to 35% depending upon
type of compressor.
 2
3

4 1

V
Fig.5.3 P-V diagram for Reciprocating Compressor with Clearance

Wc,with CV = Area 1234

  n −1 
    n −1

      n 
    
( p1V1 )  ( p 4V4 )  − 1

n p n p n
= 2
−1 −  3

 n −1   n −1
 1   p4 
p
  
Here P1 = P4, P2 = P3
  n −1 
    n −1

 n    p2   
  n   p2  n
( p1V1 )  ( p V )   − 1

n
= −1 − 
 n −1   n − 1  1 4  p 
 1   1 
p
 

  n −1 
  
 n    
− 1 (V1 − V4 )
 n 
( p1 ) 
p
= 2

 −  
 1 
n 1 p


In the cylinder of reciprocating compressor (V1-V4) shall be the actual volume of air
delivered per cycle. Vd = V1 – V4. This (V1 – V4) is actually the volume of air in hated in the
cycle and delivered subsequently.
   n −1 
  
 n    
− 1
 n 
( p1Vd ) 
p
Wc ,withCV = 2

 −  
 1 
n 1 p


If air is considered to behave as perfect gas then pressure, temperature, volume and mass can
be inter related using perfect gas equation. The mass at state 1 may be given as m1 mass at
state 2 shall be m1, but at state 3 after delivery mass reduces to m2 and at state 4 it shall be
m2.
So, at state 1, p1V1 = m1 RT1
at state 2, p 2V2 = m1 RT2
at state 3, p3V3 = m2 RT3 or p 2V3 = m2 RT3

at state 4, p 4V4 = m2 RT4 or p1V4 = m2 RT4

Ideally there shall be no change in temperature during suction and delivery
i.e., T4 = T1 and T2 = T3 from earlier equation

  n −1 
  
 n    p2   n  
Wc ,withCV =  ( p1 )  − 1 (V1 − V4 )

 n −1  p1 
 
Temperature and pressure can be related as,
( n −1) ( n −1) ( n −1)
 p2  n T2 p  n T4  p1  n T4
  = and  4  =   =
 p1  T1  p3  T3  p2  T3

Substiuting
 n  T 
Wc ,withCV =  (m1 RT1 − m2 RT4 ) 2 − 1
 n −1  T1 
Substituting for constancy of temperature during suction and delivery.

 n  T − T 
Wc ,withCV =  (m1 RT1 − m2 RT1 ) 2 1 
 n −1  T1 
Or
 n 
Wc ,withCV =  (m1 − m2 )R(T2 − T1 )
 n −1
Thus (m1-m2) denotes the mass of air sucked or delivered. For unit mass of air delivered the
work done per kg of air can be given as,
  n 
Wc ,withCV =   R(T2 − T1 ) per kg of air
 n −1

Thus from above expressions it is obvius that the clearance volume reduces the effective
swept volume i.e., the masso f air handled but the work done per kg of air delivered remains
unaffected.

From the cycle work estimated as above the theoretical power required for running
compressor shall be,

For single acting compressor running with N rpm, power input required, assuming clearance
volume.
   n −1 
   
  
 2  n   
− 1 p1 (V1 − V4 ) (N )
n p
Powerrequired =     
n − 1   p1 
   

For double acting compressor, Power

   n −1 
   
 n   p 2   n   
Powerrequired =     − 1 p1 (V1 − V4 ) (2 N )
n − 1   p1  
   

Volumetric efficiency: Volumetric efficiency of compressor is the measure of the deviation

from volume handling capacity of compressor. Mathematically, the volumetric efficiency is
given by the ratio of actual volume of air sucked and swept volume of cylinder. Ideally the
volume of air sucked should be equal to the swept volume of cylinder, but it is not so in
actual case. Practically the volumetric efficiency lies between 60 to 90%.

Volumetric efficiency can be overall volumetric efficiency and absolute volumetric efficiency
as given below.

Volume of free air sucked in cylinder

Overall volumetric efficiency =
Swept volume of LP cylinder

(Volumetric efficiency)freeaircondition =
Volume of free air sucked in cylinder
(Swept volume of LP cylinder) freeaircondition
Here free air condition refers to the standard conditions. Free air condition may be taken as 1
atm or 1.01325 bar and 15oC or 288K. consideration for free air is necessary as otherwise the
different compressors can not be compared using volumetric efficiency because specific
volume or density of air varies with altitude. It may be seen that a compressor at datum level
(sea level) shall deliver large mass than the same compressor at high altitude.

This concept is used for giving the capacity of compressor in terms of ‘free air delivery’
(FAD). “Free air delivery is the volume of air delivered being reduced to free air conditions”.
In case of air the free air delivery can be obtained using perfect gas equation as,
p aVa p1 (V1 − V4 ) p 2 (V2 − V3 )
= =
Ta T1 T2

Where subscript a or pa, Va, Ta denote properties at free air conditions

p1Ta p1 (V1 − V4 )
Va = = FAD per cycle
pa T1
This volume Va gives ‘free air delivered’ per cycle by the compressor.

Absolute volumetric efficiency can be defined, using NTP conditions in place of free air
conditions.
FAD Va p T (V − V )
η vol = = = 1 a 1 4
Sweptvolume (V1 − V2 ) p aT1 (V1 − V3 )

 p T  (Vs + Vc ) − V4 
η vol =  1 a  
 p aT1  Vs 

Here Vs is the swept volume = V1 – V3

Vc is the clearance volume = V3
 p T   V   V 
η vol =  1 a 1 +  c  −  4 
 p aT1   Vs   Vs 
V V V V V 
Here 4 = 4 ⋅ c =  4 ⋅ c 
Vs Vc Vs  V3 Vs 
Vc
Let the ratio of clearance volume to swept volume be given by C. =
Vs

 p T   V 
η vol =  1 a 1 + C − C  4 
 p aT1   V3 
  p1Ta   p 2  n 
1

η vol =  1 + C − C   
 p aT1   p1  
Volumetric efficiency depends on ambient pressure and temperature, suction pressure and
temperature, ratio of clearance to swept volume, and pressure limits. Volumetric efficiency
increases with decrease in pressure ratio in compressor.

ηvol

Pressure ratio
Fig.5.4 Volumetric efficiency v/s Pressure ratio
Multistage Compression

Intercoolers

in
out

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3

Fig.5.5 Multistage Compressor with inter coolers

 4
3

5 2
P

1
6

V
Fig.5.6 P-V diagram for Multistage Compressor

Multistage compression refers to the compression process completed in more than one stage
i.e., a part of compression occurs in one cylinder and subsequently compressed air is sent to
subsequent cylinders for further compression. In case it is desired to increase the
compression ratio of compressor then multi-stage compression becomes inevitable. If we
look at the expression for volumetric efficiency then it shows that the volumetric efficiency
decreases with increase in pressure ratio. This aspect can also be explained using p-V
representation shown in Fig.5.6.

Therefore, the volumetric efficiency reduces with increasing pressure ratio in compressor
with single stage compression. Also for getting the same amount of free air delivery the size
of cylinder is to be increased with increasing pressure ratio. The increase in pressure ratio
also requires sturdy structure from mechanical strength point of view fro withstanding large
pressure difference.

The solution to number of difficulties discussed above lies in using the multistage
compression where compression occurs in parts in different cylinders one after the other.
Fig.16.6b, shows the multistage compression occurring in two stages. Here first stage of
compression occurs in cycle 12671 and after first stage compression partly compressed enters
second stage of compression and occurs in cycle 2345. In case of multistage compression the
compression in first stage occurs at low temperature and subsequent compression in
following stages occurs at higher temperature. The compression work requirement depends
largely upon the average temperature during compression. Higher average temperature

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during compression has larger work requirement compared to low temperature so it is always
desired to keep the low average temperature during compression.

Apart from the cooling during compression the temperature of air at inlet to compressor can
be reduced so as to reduce compression work. In multistage compression the partly
compressed air leaving first stage is cooled upto ambient air temperature in intercooler and
then sent to subsequent cylinder (stage) for compression. Thus, intercoolers when put
between the stages reduce the compression work and compression is called intercooled
compression. Intercooling is called perfect when temperature at inlet to subsequent stages of
compression is reduced to ambient temperature. Fig.16.6c, shows multi-stage (two stage)
intercooled compression. Intercooling between two stages causes temperature drop from 2 to
2’ i.e discharge from first stage (at 2) is cooled upto the ambient temperature stage (at2’)
which lies on isothermal compression process 1-2’-3”. In the absence of intercooling the
discharge from first stage shall enter at 2. Final discharge from second stage occurs at 3’ in
case of intercooled compression compared to discharge at 3 in case of non-intercooled
compression. Thus, intercooling offers reduced work requirement by the amount shown by
area 22’3’3 on p-V diagram. If the intercooling is not perfect then the inlet state to
second/subsequent stage shall not lie on the isothermal compression process line and this
stage shall lie between actual discharge state from first stage and isothermal compression
line.

Fig.16.7 shows the schematic of multi stage compressor (double stage) with inter cooler
between stage T-s representation is shown in Fig.16.8. The total work requirement for
running this shall be algebraic summation of work required for low pressure (LP) and high
pressure (HP) stages. The size of HP cylinder is smaller than LP cylinder as HP cylinder
handles high pressure air having smaller specific volume.

Mathematical analysis of multistage compressor is done with following assumptions:

(i) Compression in all the stages is done following same index of compression and
there is no pressure drop in suction and delivery pressures in each stage. Suction
and delivery pressure remains constant in the stages.
(ii) There is perfect intercooling between compression stages.
 (iii) Mass handled in different stages is same i.e, mass of air in LP and HP stages are
same.
(iv) Air behaves as perfect gas during compression.

From combined p-V diagram the compressor work requirement can be given as,

( n −1)
 
 n  
 2 n
P  
Work requirement in LP cylinder, WLP =  P1V1   − 1
 n −1  P1  
 

( n −1)
 
 n   P2  n 
Work requirement in HP cylinder, WHP =  P2V2   − 1
 n −1  P1  
 

For perfect intercooling, p1V1 = p2V2’ and

( n −1)
 
 n   P2  n 
WHP =  
 P2V2 '    − 1
 n −1  P1  
 
Therefore, total work requirement, Wc = WLP + WHP, for perfect inter cooling

 ( n −1)
   n −1

  
 2   
 2' n 
− 1 + P2V2 '   − 1
n P n P
WC =    P1V1  
 n −1  P1    P2  
    

 ( n −1)
   n −1

 n   P2    P2 '  n 
− 1 + P1V1   − 1
n
=   P1V1  
 n −1  P1    P2  
    

 n −1 n −1

 n     
 P1V1   +   − 2
 P n P n
WC =  2 2'

 − 
 1   P1 
n 1 P

Power = Wc X N - Watts

If we look at compressor work then it shows that with the initial and final pressures p1 and P2’
remaining same the intermediate pressure p2 may have value floating between p1 and P2’ and
change the work requirement Wc. Thus, the compressor work can be optimized with respect
to intermediate pressure P
2. Mathematically, it can be differentiated with respect to P2.
   n −1 n −1

dWC d  n  
 2P  n  P  n

=    
 n − 1  P1V1  P  +  P  − 2
2'

dP2 dP2
  1   2 
 

  n −1 n −1

dWC  n  d  P2  n  P2 '  n 
=   P1V1   +   − 2
dP2  n −1 dP2  P1   P2  
  

dWC  n   n − 1  1−n −1
 n −1 1− n 1− 2 n 
=  P1V   P1 n ⋅ P2 n −   ⋅ P2 ' n ⋅ P2 n 
dP2  n − 1   n   n  
Equating to zero yields
1− n −1 1− n 1− 2 n
P1 n ⋅ P2 n = ⋅P2 ' n ⋅ P2 n
−2 + 2 n 1− n n −1
P2 n = ⋅P2 ' n ⋅ P1 n

 n −1   n −1 
= (P1 ⋅ P2 ' )
2  
P2  n  n 

= (P1 ⋅ P2 ' ), P2 = P1 ⋅ P2 '

2
P2
Pressure ratio in Ist stage = Pressure ratio in IInd stage
Thus, it is established that the compressor work requirement shall be minimum when the
pressure ratio in each stage is equal.
In case of multiple stages, say i number of stages, for the delivery and suction pressures of
Pi +1 and P1 the optimum stage pressure ratio shall be,
1
P  i
Optimum stage pressure ratio =  i +1  for pressure at stages being P1, P2, P3,……Pi-1, Pi,
 P1 
Pi+1
Minimum work required in two stage compressor can be given by

( n −1)
 
 n   P2  n 
WC ,min =  P1V1 ⋅ 2  − 1
 n −1  P1  
 

For i number of stages, minimum work,

( n −1)
 
 n   Pi +1  n⋅i 
WC ,min = i ⋅  P1V1   − 1
 n −1  Pi  
 
It also shows that for optimum pressure ratio the work required in different stages remains
same for the assumptions made for present analysis. Due to pressure ration being equal in all
stages the temperature ratios and maximum temperature in each stage remains same for
perfect intercooling.

Cylinder dimensions: In case of multistage compressor the dimension of cylinders can be

estimated basing upon the fact that the mass flow rate of air across the stages remains same.
For perfect intercooling the temperature of air at suction of each stage shall be same.

If the actual volume sucked during suction stroke is V1, V2, V3. . . . for different stages they
by perfect gas law, P1 V1 = RT1, P2 V2 = RT2, Pc, V3 = RT3
For perfect intercooling

P1 V1 = RT1, p2 V2 = RT1, p3, V3 = RT1

P1 V1 = P2 V2 = RT2, P3, V3 = . . . . .

If the volumetric efficiency of respective stages in ηV1 ,ηV2 ,ηV3 ,....

V1
Then theoretical volume of cylinder1, V1,th = ;V1 = ηV1 ⋅ V1,th
ηV 1

V1
Cylinder 2, V2,th = ;V2 = ηV2 ⋅ V2,th
ηV 1

V3
Cylinder 3, V3,th = ;V3 = ηV 3 ⋅ V3,th
ηV 3

Substituting,
P1 ⋅ηV1 ⋅ V1,th = P2 ⋅ηV2 ⋅ V2,th = P3 ⋅ηV3 ⋅ V3,th = ...
Theoretical volumes of cylinder can be given using geometrical dimensions of cylinder as
diameters D1, D2, D3 . . . and stroke lengths L1, L2, L3 . . . .
π
V1,th = ⋅ D1 ⋅ L1
2
Or
4
π
V2,th = ⋅ D2 ⋅ L2
2

4
π
V3,th = ⋅ D3 ⋅ L3
2

4
π π
P1 ⋅ηVi ⋅ ⋅ D1 ⋅ L1 = P2 ⋅ηV 2 ⋅ ⋅ D2 ⋅ L2
2 2
Or
4 4
 π
= P3 ⋅ηV 3 ⋅ ⋅ D3 ⋅ L3 = ...
2

4
π π
P1 ⋅ηV 1 ⋅ ⋅ D1 ⋅ L1 = P2 ⋅ηV 2 ⋅ ⋅ D2 ⋅ L2
2 2

4 4
= P3 ⋅ηV 3 ⋅ D3 ⋅ L3 = ...
2

If the volumetric efficiency is same for all cylinders, i.e ηV 1 = ηV 2 = ηV 3 = ... and stroke for
all cylinder is same i.e. L1 = L2 = L3 = ...

D1 P1 = D2 P2 = D3 P3 = ...
2 2 2
Then,

These generic relations may be used for getting the ratio of diameters of cylinders of
multistage compression.

Energy balance: Energy balance may be applied on the different components constituting
multistage compression.

For LP stage the steady flow energy equation can be written as below:
m ⋅ h1 + WLP = m ⋅ h2 + QLP

QLP = WLP − m(h2 − h1 )

QLP = WLP − m ⋅ C p (T2 − T1 )

For intercooling (Fig. 5.5) between LP and HP stage steady flow energy equation shall be;
m ⋅ h2 = m ⋅ h2 ' + QInt
QInt = m(h2 − h2 ' )
QInt = m ⋅ C p (T2 − T2 ' )
For HP stage (Fig.5.5) the steady flow energy equation yields.
m ⋅ h2 ' + WHP = m ⋅ h3' + QHP
QHP = WHP + m(h2 ' − h3' )
QHP = WHP + m ⋅ C p (T2 ' − T3' ) = WHP − m ⋅ C p (T3' − T2 ' )
In case of perfect intercooling and optimum pressure ratio, T2 ' = T1 and T2 = T3'
Hence for these conditions,
QLP = WLP − m ⋅ C p (T2 − T1 )
QInt = m ⋅ C p (T2 − T1 )
QHP = WHP − m ⋅ C p (T2 − T1 )
Total heat rejected during compression shall be the sum of heat rejected during compression
and heat extracted in intercooler for perfect intercooling.

γ −n
Heat rejected during compression for polytropic process =   × Work
 γ −1 
 UNIT-5
Air Compressors

Review of equations
Work done in a single stage compressor

 P  n 
n −1

n n
= P1V1  2  − 1 = mR(T2 − T1 )
n −1  P1   n −1
 
Work done in a two stage compressor for perfect inter cooling

 P  2 n 
n −1

2n
= P1V1  3  − 1
n −1  P1  
 
Work done in a two stage compressor

PT   P n 
1

ηυ = 1 a 1 + c − c 2  
PaT1   P1  


Volumetric Efficiency
 P  n   P  n 
n −1 n −1

n n
= P1V1  2  − 1 + P2V2  2  − 1
n −1  P1   n −1  P2  
   

Problem 1
A single stage acting air compressor 30 cm bore and 40 cm stroke is running at a speed of
100 RPM. It takes in air at 1 bar and 20ºC and drive it when the compresses it to a
pressure of 5 bar. Find the power required to drive it when compression is (i) isothermal
(ii) PV1.2 = C and (iii) adiabatic. Also find the isothermal efficiencies for the cases (ii)
and (iii) Neglect clearance.
N1 = 100 RPM , d = 30cm
L = 40cm P1 = 1 bar
T1 = 20°C P = 5 bar
2
Π Π
Vs = d 2 L = 0.32 χ 0.4
4 4
= 0.028 m / cycle
3

100
V1 = Vs = 0.028 χ= 0.047 m 3 / s
60
2
PV 1x10 x0.047
m= 1 1 = = 0.055 kg/s
RT1 0.287 x 293
(i ) Isothermal PV = C
P2 P
Power = P1V1 Ln = mRT1 Ln 2
P1 P1
5
= 0.055 x0.287 x 293Ln = 7.56kW
1
(i ) PV1.2 = C
n −1 1.2−1
 P2  n
T2 = T1   = 293  = 383.14 K
5 1.2
 P1  1

n n
Power = ( P2V2 − P1V1 ) = x mR(T2 − T1 )
n −1 n −1
1.2
= x 0.055 x 0.287(383.14 − 293) = 8.53 kW
1.2 − 1

Isothermal Power
Isothermaleffiency =
Actualpower
7.56
= = 0.8854
8.53
η Isothermal = 88.54 %
(iii ) Adiabatic PV1.4 = C
γ −1 1.4−1
P  γ
T2 = T1  2  = 293  = 464 K
5 1.4
 P1  1
 Isothermal Power
Isothermaleffiency =
Actualpower
7.56
= = 0.8854
8.53
η Isothermal = 88.54 %
(iii ) Adiabatic PV1.4 = C
γ −1 1.4−1
P  γ
T2 = T1  2  = 293  = 464 K
5 1.4
 P1  1

γ
Power = x mR(T2 − T1 )
γ −1
1.4
= x 0.055 x 0.287(464 − 293) = 9.45 kW
1.4 − 1
7.56
η Isothermal = = 0.80
9.45
= 80 %

Problem 2
A single acting stage acting air compressor with clearance running at 360 rpm has a bore
of 10 cm. The compression and expansion are polytrophic with n = 1.25 for each. The
clearance volume is 80cm3 . If the suction and delivery pressures are 98.1 kPa and
706.32 kPa absolute, find the free air at 101 kPa and 15ºCdelivered per minute. What is
the work done per cycle? The temperature at the beginning of compression may be taken
as 30ºC.Find also the power required to drive the compressor.

Ta = 15°C , d = 10cm
L = 8.5cm P1 = 98.1kPa
T1 = 30°C P = 706.32kPa
2
P = 101kPa
a
Π 2 Π
Vs = d L = 0.12 χ 0.85
4 4
= 6.675 x 10-4 m 3
Vc = 80cm = 0.8 x 10-4 m 3
 Vc 0.8 x 10-4
Clearance ratio C = = = 0.12
Vs 6.675 x 10-4
Volumetric efficiency

P1Ta   P2  n 
1

ηυ = 1 + c − c  
PaT1   P1  

98.1 x 288  706.32 1.25 
1


= 1 + 0.12 − 0.12   = 0.496
101 x 303   98.1  
 
PaTa 101 x 0.1193
m= =
RTa 0.287 x 288
= 0.1457 kg/min
Va
ηυ =
Vs
∴ Volume of free air Va = 0.496 x 6.675 x 10-4
= 0.0003314 m 3 / cycle
= 0.0003314 x 360 = 0.1193 m 3 / min

0.1457
m= = 0.00242kg / sec
60
n −1 1.25−1
P  n 706.32  1.25
T2 = T1  2  = 303  = 449.67 K
 P1   98.1 
n 
Power =   x mR (T2 − T1 )
 n − 1
1.25 
=   x 0.00242 x 0.287(449.67 − 303)
 1.25 − 1 
= 0.5 kJ/s or kW

0.5
Workdone / cycle = = 0.0084kJ / cycle
360 60
 Problem 3
A single stage double acting air compressor is required to deal with 17 m3/min of air
measured at 1 bar and 15°C. the pressure and temperature at the end of suction is 0.98 bar
and 30°C. The delivery pressure is 6.3bar. The rpm of the compressor is 500.assuming a
clearance volume of 5% of the stroke volume, laws of the compression and expansion as
PV1.32 =C, calculate the necessary stroke of volume, temperature of the air delivered and
power of the compressor.

Ta = 15°C , Va = 17 m3 / min
P = 1bar P1 = .98bar
a
T1 = 30°C P = 6.3bar
2
N = 500rpm

5
C= = 0.05
100
P1Ta   P2  n 
1

ηυ = 1 + C − C   
PaT1   P1  


98.1 x 288   6.3 1.32  = 0.8452

1

ηυ = 1 + 0.05 − 0.05  
1 x 303   0.98  
 
V
ηυ = a
Vs
17
Vs = StrokeVolume = = 20.11 m3 / min
0.8452
20.11
Vs = = 0.0402m3 / min
500
n −1 1.32−1
P  n 6.3  1.32
T2 = T1  2  = 303 
 P1   0.98 
Temperature of air delivered = 475.71 K
PaTa 1 x 100 x 17
m= = = 20.56kg/min
RTa 0.287 x 288
20.56
= = 0.3427 kg/sec
60
 Power = 
n 
 x mR (T2 − T1 )
 n − 1
1.32 
=   x 0.3427 x 0.287(495.71 − 303)
 1.32 − 1 
= 70 kJ/s or kW
Problem 4
A single stage double acting air compressor delivers 15 m3 of air per min of air measured
at 1.013 bar and 27°C. delivers at 7bar.The condition at the end of the suction stroke are
pressure 0.98 bar and temperature 4°C. The a clearance volume is 4% of the swept
volume, and stroke to bore ration is 1.3:1 and compressor runs at 300rpm. calculate the
Volumetric efficiency of the compressor. Assume the index of compression and
expansion to be 1.3.

Ta = 27°C , Va = 15m3 / min

P = 1.013bar P1 = .98bar
a
T1 = 40°C P = 7bar
2
N = 300rpm, Clearanceratio = 0.04
L / d = 1.3
PT   P n 
1

ηυ = 1 a 1 + C − C  2  
PaT1   P1  


98.1 x 300   7 1.3  = 0.796

1

ηυ = 1 + 0.04 − 0.04  
1.013 x 313   0.98  
 
= 79.6%
V
ηυ = a
Vs
15
Vs = Swept Volume = = 18.84 m3 / min
0.796
But for double acting compressor
∏ 2
Vs = d x L 2NL = 1.3d
4
∏
18.84 = d 2 x 1.3d x 2 x 300
4
18.8 x 44
d=3 = 0.313m = 31.3cm
∏ x 1.3 x 2 x 300
L = 1.3 x31.3 = 40.72cm
 PaTa 1.013 x 100 x 15
m= = = 17.6kg/min
RTa 0.287 x 300
17.6
= = 0.294 kg/s
60
n −1 1.3−1
P  n 7  1.3
T2 = T1  2  = 313  = 492.7 K
 P1   0.98 

Power = 
n 
 x mR (T2 − T1 )
 n − 1
1.3 
Power =   x 0.294 x 0.287(492.71 − 313)
 1.3 − 1 
= 65.7 kJ/s or kW
P2 P
Isothermal Power = P1V1 Ln = mRT1 Ln 2
P1 P1
7
= 0.294 x0.287 x313Ln = 51.92kW
0.98
51.92
Isothermal efficiency = x100 = 79%
65.7

Problem 5
A two-stage compressor compresses 1kg/min of air from 1bar to 42.18 bar. Initial
temperature is 15ºC. At the intermediate pressure the intercooling is perfect. The
compression takes place according to PV1.35 =C. Neglecting the effect of clearance,
determine the minimum power required to run the compressor. Also find the mass of
cooling water required in the intercooler , if the temperature rise of water is limited to
5°C.

1
M = 1kg / min = = 0.0166kg / s
60
P1 = 1bar T1 = 15°C P3 = 42.18bar
For perfect intercooling
P2 = P1P3 = 1x42.18 = 6.48bar
n −1 1.35−1
 P2  n 6.49  1.35
T2 = T1   = 288  = 467.7 K
 P1   1 
  n 
Maximum Power =   x mR (T2 − T1 )
 n −1 
 2x1.35 
=  x 0.0166 x 0.287(467.7 − 288)
 1.35 − 1 
= 6.6 kJ/s or kW
Heat rejected in the intercooler Q = mCp (T2 − T1 )
= 0.0166 x1.005(467.7 − 288)
= 2.99kJ/Sec
But Q is also = mω xC pω x temperature rise
299 = mω x 4.187 x 5
mω = 0.1432kg / sec

Problem 6
A two stage reciprocating compressor delivers 150 m3/hr of free air measured at 1.03 bar
and15ºC. The final pressure 18bar. The pressure and temperature of the air in LP cylinder
before compression is 1 bar and 30°C. the diameter of the LP cylinder is twice that of HP
cylinder and air enters the HP cylinder at 40ºC. If compression follows the law
PV1.22=C, determine
(i) Intermediate pressure and power required if the intercooler is imperfect.
(ii) Ration of cylinder diameter and minimum power required for perfect intercooling.

Ta = 15°C , Va = 150m3 / min

Pa = 1.03bar P1 = 1bar
T1 = 30°C P3 = 18bar
T2 = 40°C
Neglet the effect of clearance

(i ) Imperfect intercooling
d LP = 2d HP
P1V11.22 = P2V21.22
1.22 1.22
P2  V1   Π / 4 xd LP
2
xL 
=  =  
P1  V2   Π / 4 xd 2
HP xL 

2 x1.22
P2  d LP 
= 
P1  d HP 
P2 = 1x(2) 2.44
Intercooling pressure P2 = 5.426bar
 P1V1 PaVa
=
T1 Ta
PaVaT1 1.03x10 2 x0.02916 x303
V1 = =
Ta P1 1x10 2 x 288
= 0.045m 3 / sec
 n −1 
 P2  n
P1V1   − 1

n
WLP =
n −1
 1 
P

 1.22 −1 
  
− 1
1.22 5 . 426 1.22
WLP = 1x10 x0.045 
2

1.22 − 1  1  
 
= 8.89 kW
Air enters HP cylinder at T2 = 40°C
P2V2 P1V1
=
T2 T1
P1V1T2 1x10 2 x0.045 x313
V2 = =
T1P2 5.426 x10 2 x303
= 0.008567m 3 / sec

 n −1 
 P3  n
P2V2   − 1

n
WHP =
n −1
 2 
P

 1.22 −1 
  
− 1
1.22 18 1.22
WHP = 5.426 x10 x0.008567 
2

1.22 − 1  5.426  
 
= 6.12 kW
Total Power = 8.89 + 6.12
= 15.01 kW

Problem 7
A multi stage compressor compressing air is to be designed to elevate the pressure from
1 bar to 120bar such that the stage pressure ratio should not exceed 4. Determine
(i) The number of stages
(ii) Exact stage pressure ratio
(iii) Intermediate pressure

Solution:
 P1 = 1bar PN +1 = 120bar

P2 P2 P3 P4 PN +1
Stage pressure ratio = = = = = =4
P1 P1 P2 P3 PN
Assuming the intercooling to be perfect we have
1
PN +1  PN +1  N
= 
PN  P1 
1
 120  N
4= 
 1 

Ln120
N= = 3.453
Ln 4
∴ Number of stages = 4
1
= (120 )4 = 3.31
PN +1
Exact stage pressure ratio =
PN
P5 120
= 3.31, P4 = = 36.25 bar
P4 3.310
P4 36.25
= 3.31, P3 = = 10.95 bar
P3 3.31
P3 10.95
= 3.31, P2 = = 3.308 bar
P2 3.31
∴ Intermediat pressure are 36.25 bar, 10.95 bar
and 3.308 bar

Problem 8
A two-stage compressor delivers air at pressure of 19 bar. The free air conditions are
1.03 bar and 25ºC. The pressure of the air before compression is 0.98bar. The
intermediate pressure is 4.5bar. The temperature of the air entering each cylinder is 35°C.
The law of compression and expansion being PV1.25 =C. The clearance volume is 5% of
the swept volume. Determine the volumetric efficiency and the work done per kg of air.

Ta = 25°C , P2 = 4.5bar
Pa = 1bar P1 = 0.98bar
T1 = 35°C P3 = 19bar
Clearance ratio C = 0.05
  1
P1Ta   P2  n 
ηυ = 1 + C − C   
PaT1   P1  
 

 1 
98.1 x 298   4 . 5  25 
1 .
ηυ = 1 + 0.05 − 0.05  = 0.835
1 x 308   0.98  
 
= 83.5%

Even through the temperature of air entering

each cylinder is same, work is not saem in
both cylinder since P2 ≠ P1P3
n −1 1.25−1
P  n  4.5  1.25
T2 = T1  2  = 308  = 416.1K
 P1   0.98 

R(T2 − T1 ) = x0.287(416.1 − 308)

n 1.25
WLP =
n −1 1.25 − 1
= 155.12 kJ/kg
Temperature of air entering HP cylinder T5 = 35°C

n −1 1.25−1
P  n  19  1.25
T6 = T5  6  = 308  = 410.82 K
 P5   4.5 

R(T6 − T5 ) = 0.287(410.82 − 308)

n 1.25
WHP =
n −1 1.25 − 1
= 147.55kJ/kg
Total work = 155.12 + 147.55
= 302.75kJ/kg of air

Problem 9
A two-stage double acting air compressor takes in air at 1 bar and 25°C. It runs at 200
rpm. The diameter of LP cylinder is 35cm. The stroke of both LP and HP cylinders are
40cm. The clearance volume of both the cylinders is 4%. The index of compression is
1.3. The LP cylinder discharges air at a pressure of 4 bar. The air passes through the
intercooler so that it enters the HP cylinder at 27°C and 3.6 bar, finally it is discharged
from the compressor at 14.4 bar.
 Calculate

(i) Diameter of HP cylinder

(ii) The heat rejected in the intercooler
(iii) The power required to drive the HP cylinder

Volumatric effiency referred to the suction condition 1

1
 P n
ηυ = 1 + C − C  2 
 P1 

Volume of air referred to condition 1

V1 = 0.9238 x0.2822 = 0.26071m3 / S
P1V1 1x10 2 x0.26071
Mass of air m = =
RT1 0.287 x 298
= 0.30483 kg/s

n −1 1.3−1
P  n 4 1.3
T2 = T1  2  = 298  = 410.34 K
 P1  1

Heat rejected in the intercooler

= mC p (T2 − T1 ) = 0.30483 x1.005(410.34 − 298)
= 34.14kJ/s
Volume of air draw to HP cylinder
mRT5 0.30483x0.287x298
V5 = = 2
= 0.0724m3 / s
P5 3.6x10

Pressure ratio in LP cylinder = 4

Pressure ratio in HP cylinder =14.4/3.6=4
Since the pressure ratio and clearance percentage in both HP and LP cylinders are the
same, the volumetric efficiency of the cylinders referred to the condition at the start of
compression is same.

V5 0.0724
∴Swept volume of HP cylinder = =
ηυ 0.9238
= 0.07837 m 3 / s

Π 2 2 x 200
D HP xLHP x = 0.7837
4 60
Π 2 2 x 200
D HP x0.4 x = 0.1934m
4 60
= 19.34 cm
Since pressure ratio is same T6 = T2

Power required for HP cylinder

 n 
=  x mR (T6 − T5 )
 n −1 
 n 
=  x mR (T2 − T1 )
 n −1 
 1.3 
=  x 0.30483x0.287(410.34 − 298)
 1.3 − 1 
= 42.58 kW

Problem 10
A two stage air compressor compresses air from 170C and 1 bar to 63 bar. The air is
cooled in the intercooler to 300C and intermediate pressure is steady at 7.7 bar. The
low pressure cylinder is 10 cm diameter and the stroke for both cylinders is 11.25 cm.
Assuming a compression law of PV1.35 = constant, and that the volume of air at
atmospheric conditions drawn in per stroke is equal to the low pressure cylinder
 swept volume, find the power of the compressor while running at 250 rpm. Find also
the diameter of HP cylinder.

Solution:
dLP = 10cm L = 11.25cm
P1 = 1 bar P2 = 7.7 bar T1 = 170C
P3= 63 bar
Volume of LP cylinder
V1 = π/4 X 0.12 X 0.1125 = 0.00088 m3

m = P1V1/R T1 = (1 X 100 X 0.00088)/(0.287 X 290) = 0.00106 kg

T2 = 300C
Volume of air entering the HP cylinder

V2 = mR T2/ P2 = (0.00106 X 0.283 X 303)/ (7.7 X 102) = 0.0001198 m3

V2 = π/4 X d22 X L
0.0001198 = π/4 X d22 X 0.1125
d2 = diameter of HP cylinder
= 0.0368 m
Diameter of HP cylinder = 3.68 cm

Work required/cycle = (n/n-1)[ P1V1{( P2 / P1)n-1/n – 1}+ P2V2( P3 / P2)n-1/n – 1 ]

W = (1.35/1.35-1) [ 1 X 102 X 0.00088 {(7.7/1)1.35-1/1.35 - 1} + 7.7 X 102 X 0.0001198

{(63/7.7)1.35-1/1.35 - 1}]

= 0.49456 kJ/cycle

Power = 0.49456 X Number of cycles/sec

= 0.49456 X 250/60
Power = 2.06 kW

Problem 11

A three stage air compressor draws 8 m3/min of air at 1 bar and 180C and delivers the
same at 55 bar and 200C. The index of compression is 1.32. The air while passing
through the intercoolers and aftercoolers suffers a pressure loss of 4% and is cooled to the
intial temperature. Determine the shaft power required to drive the compressor if
mechanical efficiency is 85%.

Solution:
V1 = 8 m3/min = 8/60 = 0.133 m3/sec
P1 = 1 bar T1 = 180C P4 = 55 bar
The pressure drop of 4% in the intercooler is accounted for by the factor C = 0.96

For 3 stage compressor,

Power = 3(n/n-1) X P1V1 [{P4/C3P1}n-1/3n - 1]

= 3 (1.32/1.32-1) X 1 X 102 X 0.133 [{55/0.963 X 1}1.32-1/1.32 - 1]

= 283.kW

Actual shaft power required = Power/ηmech = 283.32/0.85 = 333.32kW

 STEAM NOZZLES
8.1 Introduction
In the impulse steam turbine, the overall transformation of heat into mechanical work
is accomplished in two distinct steps. The available energy of steam is first changed into
kinetic energy, and this kinetic energy is then transformed into mechanical work. The first
of these steps, viz., the transformation of available energy into kinetic energy is dealt
with in this chapter.
A nozzle is a passage of varying cross-sectional area in which the potential energy
of the steam is converted into kinetic energy. The increase of velocity of the steam jet
at the exit of the nozzle is obtained due to decrease in enthalpy (total heat content) of
the steam. The nozzle is so shaped that it will perform this conversion of energy with
minimum loss.
8.2 General Forms of Nozzle Passages
A nozzle is an element whose primary function is to convert enthalpy (total heat)
energy into kinetic energy. When the steam flows through a suitably shaped nozzle from
zone of high pressure to one at low pressure, its velocity and specific volume both will
increase.
The equation of the continuity of mass may be written thus :
...(8.1)

where m m mass flow in kg/sec.,

V = velocity of steam in m/sec.,
A = area of cross-section in m , and
v = specific volume of steam in m3/kg.

In order to allow the expansion to take place properly, the area at any section of
the nozzle must be such that it will accomodate the steam whatever volume and velocity
may prevail at that point.

As the mass flow (m) is same at all sections of the nozzle, area of cross-section
(A) varies as —. The manner in which both V and v vary depends upon the properties
of the substance flowing. Hence, the contour of the passage of nozzle depends upon
the nature of the substance flowing.
For example, consider a liquid- a substance whose specific volume v remains almost
constant with change of pressure. The value of will go on increasing with change of
pressure. Thus, from eqn. (8.1), the area of cross-section should decrease with the
decrease of pressure. Fig. 8-1 (a) illustrates the proper contour of longitudinal section of
 of Heat Engines Vol. II
a nozzle suitable for liquid. This also can represent convergent nozzle for a fluid whose
peculiarity is that while both velocity and specific volume increase, the rate of specific
volume increase is less than that of the velocity, thus resulting in increasing value of

v'

Fig. 8-1. General forms of Nozzles.

Fig. 8-1 (b) represents the correct contour for some hypothetical substance for which
both velocity and specific volume increase at the same rate, so that their ratio — is a
v
constant at all points. The area of cross-section should therefore, be constant at all points, •
and the nozzle becomes a plain tube.

Fig. 8-1 (c) represents a divergent nozzle for a fluid whose peculiarity is that —
decreases with the drop of pressure, i.e., specific volume increases at a faster rate than
velocity with the drop of pressure. The area of cross-section should increase as the
pressure decreases.
Table 8-1
Properties of steam at various pressures when expanding dry saturated steam from
14 bar to 0.15 bar through a nozzle, assuming frictionless adiabatic flow.
Pressure Dryness Enthalpy Velocity Specific Discharge Area Diameter
P fraction drop V Volume per unit A D
bar X Hi - HZ m/sec. v» area m2 metre
kJ m3/kg kg/m2

14 1-000 - - - - - -

12 0-988 38-6 278 0-1633 1,723 0-00058 00272

10 0.974 84-1 410 0-1944 2,165 0-00046 0-0242

7 0-950 164-7 574 0-2729 •2,214 0-00045 xO-0239

3-5 0-908 309 786 0-5243 1,651 0-00061 00279

1-5 0-872 441-2 939 1-1593 929 0 0011 0-0374

070 0-840 555-6 1,054 2-365 531 0-00188 0-049

0-15 0-790 736-7 1,214 10-022 153 00065 0091

* Maximum discharge per unit area x Smallest diameter

Fig. 8-1 (d) shows the general shape of convergent-divergent nozzle suitable for gases
and vapours. It can be shown that in practice, while velocity and specific volume both
increase from the start, velocity first increases faster than the specific volume, but after
 Steam Nozzles 201
a certain critical point, specific volume increases more rapidly than velocity. Hence the
V •
yalue of — first increases to maximum and then decreases, necessitating a nozzle of
convergent-divergent form. The above statement may be verified by referring to table 8-1,
which shows the properties of steam at various pressures when expanding dry saturated
steam from 14 bar to 0-15 bar through a nozzle, assuming frictionless adiabatic flow.
8.3 Steam Nozzles
The mass flow per second for wet steam, at a given pressure during expansion is
given by
AV AV . . ...(8.2)
m = — = — kg/sec. ' 7
v xvs
where A = Area of cross-section in m2,
V = Velocity of steam in m/sec,
vs = Specific volume of dry saturated steam, m3/kg,
x = Dryness fraction of steam, and
v = x v$ = Specific volume of wet steam, m3/kg.
Asthe mass of steam per second (m) passing through any section of the nozzle
must be constant, the area of cross-section (A) of nozzle will varyaccording to the
V V V
variation of — i.e., product of A and — is constant. If the factor — increases with
xvs xvs xvs
the drop in pressure, the cross-sectional area should decrease and hence a convergent
shaped nozzle. The decrease of the factor — with pressure drop will require increasing
cross-sectional area to maintain mass flow constant and hence the divergent shaped
nozzle.

Sonic
Subsonic I
H region h — Supersonic region

I.Entrance 2 . Throat 3. E xit 1. Entrance

2 Exit

X Q ) Converging-diverging nozzie (b) Converging nozzle

Fig. 8-2. Longitudinal sectional view of steam nozzles.

In practice at first the nozzie cross-section tapers to a smaller section in order to

202 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II

allow for increasing value of — ; after this smallest diameter is reached, it will diverge

to a larger cross-section. The smallest section of the nozzle is known as the throat.
A nozzle which first converges to throat and then diverges, as in fig. 8-2(a), is termed
/p?\
as converging-diverging nozzle. It is used for higher pressure ratio — .
l pV
Some form of nozzles finish at the throat and no diverging portion is fitted; this type
shown in fig. 8-2(b), is known as converging nozzle. In this the greatest area is at the
entrance and minimum area is at the exit which is also the throat of the nozzle. This
Pz
nozzle is used when the pressure ratio, — is less than 0.58 (critical).
Pi
8.4 Flow Through Steam Nozzles
From the point of view of thermodynamics, the steam flow through nozzles may be
spoken as adiabatic expansion. During the flow of steam through the nozzle, heat is
neither supplied nor rejected. Moreover, as the steam expands from high pressure to low
pressure, the heat energy is converted into kinetic energy, i.e., work is done in expanding
to increase the kinetic energy. Thus the expansion of steam through a nozzle is an
adiabatic, and the flow of steam through nozzle is regarded as an adiabatic flow.
It should be noted that the expansion of steam through a nozzle is not a free
expansion, and the steam is not throttled, because it has a large velocity at the end of
the expansion. Work is done by the expanding steam in producing this kinetic energy.
In practice, some kinetic energy is lost in overcoming the friction between the steam
and the side of the nozzle and also internal friction, which will tend to regenerate heat.
The heat thus formed tends to dry the steam. About 10% to 15% of the enthalpy drop
from inlet to exit is lost in friction. The effect of this friction, in resisting the flow and in
drying the steam, must be taken into account in the design of steam nozzles, as it makes
an appreciable difference in the results.
Another complication in the design of steam through a nozzle is due to a phenomenon
known as supersaturation; this is due to a time lagin the condensation of the steam
during the expansion. The expansion takes place very rapidly and if the steam is initially
dry or superheated, it should become wet as the pressure falls, because the expansion
is adiabatic. During expansion the steam does not have time to condense, but remains
in an unnatural dry or superheated state, then at a certain instant, it suddenly condenses
to its natural state. See illustrative problem no. 14.
Thus, the flow of steam through a nozzle may be regarded as either an ideal adiabatic
(isentropic) flow, or adiabatic flow modified by friction and supersaturation.
I.f friction is negligible, three steps are essential in the process of expansion from
pressure P; to p2 :
(i) Driving of steam upto the nozzle inlet from the boiler. The ‘flow-work’doneonthe
steam is p 1vl and results in similar volume of steam being forced through the exit to
make room for fresh charge (steam).
(ii) Expansion of steam through the nozzle while pressure changes from p, to p?, the
work done being' ^ y (p\ v^ - pzv2)
where n is the index of the isentropic expansion,
v-i = vulumeoccupied _by 1 kg of steam at entrance to nozzle, and
v2 = volume occupied by 1 kg of steam as it leaves the nozzle.
 Steam Nozzles 203
Alternatively, this work done is equal to the change of internal energy, m - \l 2 as
during isentropic expansion work is done at the cost of internal energy.
(iii) Displacement of the steam from the low pressure zone by an equal volume
diseharged from the nozzle. This work amounts to P2 V2 which is equal to the final flow
work spent in forcing the steam out to make room for fresh charge (steam).
Thus, the new work done in increasing kinetic energy of the steam,
1
W ■ p iv i + (P1V1 - PZV2) - P2.V2.
n - 1

W - - J - (Pi VI - Pzvz) - (8.3)

This is same as the work done during Rankine cycle.

Alternatively, W = p\v\ + (m - n2) - pzvz
= (p iv i + m ) - 0*2 + P2VS) * H\ Hz. ...(8.4)
where, H i and H2 are the values of initial and final enthalpies allowing for the states
of superheatingor wetness as the case may be. This isexactly equivalent to the enthalpy
drop equivalent to the work done during the Rankine cycle. The value ofH i - H2 may
be found very rapidly from the Mollier chart (H - 4> chart) or more slowly but with greater
accuracy from the steam tables.
In the design of steam nozzles the calculations to be made are :
(i) the actual velocity attained by the steam at the exit,
(ii) the minimum cross-sectional area (throat area) required for a given mass flow per
second,
(iii) the exit area, if the nozzle is converging-diverging, and
(iv) the general shape of the nozzle - axial length.
8.4.1 Velocity of steam leaving nozzle : The gain of kinetic energy is equal to the
enthalpy drop of the steam. The initial velocity of the steam entering the nozzle (or
velocity of approach) may be neglected as being relatively very small compared with exit
velocity.
For isentropic (frictionless adiabatic ) flow and considering one kilogram of steam

2 x 1,000 = ^ = H

where H is enthalpy drop in kJ/kg and V = velocity of steam leaving the nozzle in
m/sec.
V = V2 X 1.000H = 44-72 VH m /sec. ... (8.5)
Let the available enthalpy drop after deducting frictional loss be kH,
i.e. | | — k ) H fe the friction loss,
Then, V ~ 44-72 VJ<H m/sec. ...(8.6)
If the frictional loss in the nozzle is 15 per cent of the enthalpy drop, then k - 0.85.
8.4.2 Mass of steam discharged : The mass flow of steam in kg per second through
a cross-sectional area A and at a pressure p2 can be written as
AV2
m = —— where v2 = specific volume of steam at pressure p2.
204 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II

But vs = vi ( Q - Y = v\ ( P f \ ' n
,P2 Pi ...(8.7)
where, vi = specific volume of steam at pressure p i.
Using the value of velocity V from eqns. (8.3.) and (8.5),

n A_ n P2.V2.
m 2,000 (p iv i - pzvz) V 2,000 pi vi 1 -
vz n - 1 vz n - 1 p^v^
Putting the value of V2 from eqn. (8.7), we get,

A n - 1'
m r V 2 , « » 7r f T p , 1 .(« '
P z \- -
V1 — p>
n
Pi
2 n + 1
m ooo— x vi n - \E£ ... (8. 8)
n - 1 Pi p i,

8.4.3 Critical pressure ratio : Using eqn. (8.8), the rate of mass flow per unit area
is given by
n + 1 2
m f£g n -
A
-V I
000—n S
- -1r * ~vi
The mass flow per unit area has the maximum value at the throat which has minimum
area, the value of pressure ratio fP2\ at the throat can be evaluated from the above
,Pi
m
expression corresponding to the maximum value of - j.

All the items of this equation are constant with the exception of the ratio
/? + r
— is maximum when [ ( £ ) ; - (£] n is the maximum.
A
AH
(P2S
Differentiating the above expression with respect to and equating to zero for a
\* /
maximum discharge per unit area
n + 1
P 2 \- (& = 0
n -
Pl Pi,
a i m
Pi
2 P2 2 . 1 n + 1 P2
n
n Pi n Pi
2 - n 2- n
P2 n + 1 n + 1 fart
"once, or
Pi n Pi Pi
n
n + 1 p2 n - 1
P2. or —- =
’.'cm 'which • (8 9 )
Pi Pi
 Steam Nozzles 205

^ is known as critical pressure ratio and depends upon the value of index n.

The following approximate values of index n and corresponding values of critical

Dressure ratios may be noted :
Value of index n for Nozzle critical pressure ratio

Initial condition of steam isentropic expansion n

P2 f 2 n- 1
Pi ( n + 1

Superheated or supersaturated 1-300 0-546

Dry saturated 1-135 0-578

Wet 1-113 0-582 -

Dr. Zeuner has suggested a well known equation for value of n in the adiabatic
expansion of steam viz. n = 1-035 + 0-1x i, where xi is the initial dryness fraction of
steam.
The eqn. (8.9) gives the ratio between the throat pressure [p2) and the inlet pressure
(pr) for a maximum discharge per unit area through the nozzle. The mass flow being
constant for all sections of nozzle, maximum discharge per unit area occurs at the section

(a) (b)
Fig. 8-3.
having minimum area, i.e., at the throat. The area of thtoat of all steam nozzle should
be designed on this ratio. This pressure ratio at the throat is known as critical pressure
ratio. The pressure at which the area is minimum and discharge per unit area is maximum
is termed as the critical pressure.
The implication of the existence of a critical pressure in nozzle flow may be expressed
in another way. Suppose we have two vessels A and B. A containing steam at a high
and steady pressure pu Suppose that the pressure in B may be varied at will. A and
B are connected by a diaphragm containing a convergent nozzle, as shown in fig. 8-3(a).
Assume at first that p2 is equal to pu then there is no flow of str-am through the
nozzle. Now let p2 be gradually reduced. The discharge m through the nozzle will increase
as shown by the curve of fig. 8-3(b). As the pressure p2 approaches the critical value,
the discharge rate gradually approaches its maximum value, and when p2 is reduced
below the critical value, the discharge rate does not increase but remains at the same
value as that at the critical pressure. The extraordinary result that p2 can be reduced