1/65

Composite Material and Process

2/65
Outline

 Materials
 Fabrication Processes
 Trimming and
Machining Operations
 Applications
3/65
Types of Composites

 PMC
– Polymer Matrix Composite
• FMC (Fiber Matrix Composite)
 MMC
– Metal Matrix Composite
 CMC
– Ceramic Matrix Composite
4/65
Terminology/Classification
• Composites: woven
-- Multiphase material w/significant fibers
proportions of each phase.
• Matrix:
-- The continuous phase
-- Purpose is to: 0.5 mm
- transfer stress to other phases cross
- protect phases from environment section
-- Classification: MMC, CMC, PMC view

metal ceramic polymer

• Dispersed phase: 0.5 mm
-- Purpose: enhance matrix properties. Reprinted with permission from
D. Hull and T.W. Clyne, An
MMC: increase sy, TS, creep resist. Introduction to Composite Materials,
2nd ed., Cambridge University Press,
CMC: increase Kc New York, 1996, Fig. 3.6, p. 47.
PMC: increase E, sy, TS, creep resist.
-- Classification: Particle, fiber, structural
 5/65
Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs)

 A polymer primary phase in which a secondary phase is imbedded

as fibers, particles, or flakes
 Commercially, PMCs are more important than MMCs or CMCs
 Examples: most plastic molding compounds, rubber reinforced with
carbon black, and fiber-reinforced polymers (FRPs)
 FRPs are most closely identified with the term composite
 6/65
Fiber-Reinforced Polymers (FRPs)

 A PMC consisting of a polymer matrix imbedded with

high-strength fibers
 Polymer matrix materials:
– Usually a thermosetting (TS) plastic such as unsaturated polyester or epoxy
– Can also be thermoplastic (TP), such as nylons (polyamides), polycarbonate,
polystyrene, and polyvinylchloride
– Fiber reinforcement is widely used in rubber products such as tires and
conveyor belts
7/65
Composite Survey

Composites

Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural

Large- Dispersion- Continuous Discontinuous Laminates Sandwich

particle strengthened (aligned) (short) panels

Aligned Randomly
oriented Adapted from Fig.
16.2, Callister 7e.
8/65
Composite Benefits
• CMCs: Increased toughness • PMCs: Increased E/r
Force ceramics
particle-reinf 103
E(GPa) PMCs
10 2
10 metal/
fiber-reinf metal alloys
1
un-reinf
.1 G=3E/8 polymers
.01 K=E
Bend displacement .1 .3 1 3 10 30
10 -4 Density, r [mg/m3]
ess (s-1) 6061 Al
• MMCs: 10 -6 Adapted from T.G. Nieh, "Creep rupture of a
Increased silicon-carbide reinforced aluminum
composite", Metall. Trans. A Vol. 15(1), pp.
creep 10-8 6061 Al 139-146, 1984. Used with permission.

resistance w/SiC
whiskers
s(MPa)
10 -10
20 30 50 100 200
 9/65
Introduction

Composite content in selected commercial aircraft as a function of time

(measured by date first introduced into the market). A = Airbus, B = Boeing.
 10/65
Introduction
Application of advanced composite materials in Boeing 757-200 commercial
aircraft. Source: Courtesy of Boeing Commercial Airplane Company.
 11/65
Introduction
Application of advanced composite materials in Airbus A330 commercial
aircraft. Source: Courtesy of Airbus Company.
 12/65
Why Composites are Important
 Composites can be very strong and
stiff, yet very light in weight, so
ratios of strength-to-weight and
stiffness-to-weight are several
times greater than steel or
aluminum
 Fatigue properties are generally
better than for common
engineering metals
 Toughness is often greater too
 Composites can be designed that
do not corrode like steel
 Possible to achieve combinations
of properties not attainable with
metals, ceramics, or polymers
alone Fatigue Properties of Aerospace Materials
 13/65
Disadvantages and Limitations of Composite
Materials
 Properties of many important composites are anisotropic - the
properties differ depending on the direction in which they are
measured – this may be an advantage or a disadvantage
 Many of the polymer-based composites are subject to attack by
chemicals or solvents, just as the polymers themselves are
susceptible to attack
 Composite materials are generally expensive
 Manufacturing methods for shaping composite materials are often
slow and costly
 14/65
Components in a Composite Material

 Nearly all composite materials consist of two phases:

1. Primary phase - forms the matrix within which the secondary phase is
imbedded
2. Secondary phase - imbedded phase sometimes referred to as a reinforcing
agent, because it usually serves to strengthen the composite
• The reinforcing phase may be in the form of fibers, particles, or various other
geometries
15/65
Fibers and Matrix materials
 16/65
Functions of the Matrix Material
(Primary Phase)
 Provides the bulk form of the part or product made of the composite
material
 Holds the imbedded phase in place, usually enclosing and often
concealing it
 When a load is applied, the matrix shares the load with the
secondary phase, in some cases deforming so that the stress is
essentially born by the reinforcing agent
 17/65
The Reinforcing Phase (Secondary Phase)
 Function is to reinforce the primary phase
 Imbedded phase is most commonly one of the following shapes:
– Fibers
– Particles
– Flakes

Possible physical shapes of imbedded phases in composite materials:

(a) fiber, (b) particle, and (c) flake

 In addition, the secondary phase can take the form of an infiltrated

phase in a skeletal or porous matrix
– Example: a powder metallurgy part infiltrated with polymer
18/65
Composite Survey: Fiber

Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural

• Fibers themselves are very strong

– Provide significant strength improvement to material
– Ex: fiber-glass
• Continuous glass filaments in a polymer matrix
• Strength due to fibers
• Polymer simply holds them in place and environmentally
protects them

Fiber Loading Effect

under Stress
19/65
Composite Survey: Fiber

Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural

• Critical fiber length (lC) for effective stiffening & strengthening:
fiber strength in tension fiber diameter
sf d
fiber length  15 shear strength of
c fiber-matrix interface
• Ex: For fiberglass, a fiber length > 15 mm is needed since this length
provides a “Continuous fiber” based on usual glass fiber properties
• Why? Longer fibers carry stress more efficiently!
Shorter, thicker fiber: Longer, thinner fiber: s d
sf d fiber length  15 f
fiber length  15
c c
s(x) s(x)
Adapted from Fig.
16.7, Callister 7e.

Poorer fiber efficiency Better fiber efficiency

20/65
Fiber Load Behavior under Stress:

s*f d
lc 
2 c
21/65
Composite Survey: Fiber

Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural

• Fiber Materials
– Whiskers - Thin single crystals - large length to diameter ratio
• graphite, SiN, SiC
• high crystal perfection – extremely strong, strongest known
• very expensive
– Fibers
• polycrystalline or amorphous
• generally polymers or ceramics
• Ex: Al2O3 , Aramid, E-glass, Boron, UHMWPE

– Wires
• Metal – steel, Mo, W
 22/65
Fibers in PMCs

 Various forms: discontinuous (chopped), continuous, or woven as a

fabric
 Principal fiber materials in FRPs are glass, carbon, and Kevlar 49
 Less common fibers include boron, SiC, and Al2O3, and steel
 Glass (in particular E-glass) is the most common fiber material in
today's FRPs; its use to reinforce plastics dates from around 1920
 23/65
Fibers
 Filaments of reinforcing material, usually circular in cross-section
– Diameters range from less than 0.0025 mm to about 0.13 mm, depending on
material
– Filaments provide greatest opportunity for strength enhancement of
composites
• The filament form of most materials is significantly stronger than the bulk form
• As diameter is reduced, the material becomes oriented in the fiber axis direction
and probability of defects in the structure decreases significantly
24/65
Fibers
 25/65
Continuous vs. Discontinuous Fibers

 Continuous fibers - very long; in theory, they offer a continuous

path by which a load can be carried by the composite part
 Discontinuous fibers (chopped sections of continuous fibers) - short
lengths (L/D = roughly 100)
– Important type of discontinuous fiber are whiskers - hair-like single crystals
with diameters down to about 0.001 mm (0.00004 in.) with very high strength
26/65
Fiber Alignment

Adapted from Fig.

16.8, Callister 7e.

aligned aligned random

continuous discontinuous
 27/65
Fiber Orientation – Three Cases

 One-dimensional reinforcement, in which maximum strength and

stiffness are obtained in the direction of the fiber
 Planar reinforcement, in some cases in the form of a
two-dimensional woven fabric
 Random or three-dimensional in which the composite material
tends to possess isotropic properties

(a) one-dimensional, continuous fibers; (b) planar, continuous fibers in

the form of a woven fabric; and (c) random, discontinuous fibers
 28/65
Materials for Fibers

 Fiber materials in fiber-reinforced composites:

– Glass – most widely used filament
– Carbon – high elastic modulus
– Boron – very high elastic modulus
– Polymers - Kevlar
– Ceramics – SiC and Al2O3
– Metals - steel
 The most important commercial use of fibers is in polymer
composites
 29/65
Particles and Flakes

 A second common shape of imbedded phase is particulate, ranging

in size from microscopic to macroscopic
 Flakes are basically two-dimensional particles - small flat platelets
 The distribution of particles in the composite matrix is random, and
therefore strength and other properties of the composite material are
usually isotropic
 Strengthening mechanism depends on particle size
 30/65
The Interface
 There is always an interface between constituent phases in a
composite material
 For the composite to operate effectively, the phases must bond
where they join at the interface

Interfaces between phases in a composite material: (a) direct bonding between primary
and secondary phases (b) addition of a third ingredient to bond the primary phases and
form an interphase (adhesive) (c) formation of an interphase by solution of the primary
and secondary phases at their boundary
 31/65
Properties of Composite Materials

 In selecting a composite material, an optimum combination of

properties is usually sought, rather than one particular property
– Example: fuselage and wings of an aircraft must be lightweight and be
strong, stiff, and tough
• Several fiber-reinforced polymers possess this combination of properties
 Properties are determined by three factors:
1. The materials used as component phases in the composite
2. The geometric shapes of the constituents and resulting structure of the
composite system
3. The manner in which the phases interact with one another
 32/65
Properties of Composite Materials

(a) Model of a fiber-reinforced composite material showing

direction in which elastic modulus is being estimated by the
rule of mixtures (b) Stress-strain relationships for the composite
material and its constituents. The fiber is stiff but brittle, while
the matrix (commonly a polymer) is soft but ductile.
33/65
Behavior under load for Fibers &
Matrix
34/65
Properties of Composite Materials

Variation in elastic modulus and tensile strength as a

function of direction of measurement relative to longitudinal
axis of carbon fiber-reinforced epoxy composite
35/65
Composite Strength: Longitudinal Loading

Continuous fibers - Estimate fiber-reinforced composite

strength for long continuous fibers in a matrix
 Longitudinal deformation
sc = smVm + sfVf but ec = em = ef
volume fraction isostrain

 Ece = Em Vm + EfVf longitudinal (extensional)

modulus Remembering: E = s/e
Ff EfVf f = fiber
and note, this model
 corresponds to the
Fm E mVm m = matrix “upper bound” for
particulate composites
36/65
Composite Strength: Transverse Loading

 In transverse loading the fibers carry less of the

load and are in a state of ‘isostress’

sc = sm = sf = s ec= emVm + efVf

1 Vm Vf
   transverse modulus
Ect E m Ef

Remembering: E = s/e
and note, this model
corresponds to the “lower
bound” for particulate
composites
37/65
An Example:

UTS, SI Modulus, SI
57.9 MPa 3.8 GPa
2.4 GPa 399.9 GPa

(241.5 GPa)

(9.34 GPa)

Note: (for ease of conversion)

6870 N/m2 per psi!
38/65
Composite Strength

Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural

• Estimate of Ec and TS for discontinuous fibers:
sf d
-- valid when fiber length  15
c
-- Elastic modulus in fiber direction:
Ec = EmVm + KEfVf
efficiency factor:
-- aligned 1D: K = 1 (aligned ) Values from Table 16.3, Callister 7e.
(Source for Table 16.3 is H. Krenchel,
-- aligned 1D: K = 0 (aligned ) Fibre Reinforcement, Copenhagen:
-- random 2D: K = 3/8 (2D isotropy) Akademisk Forlag, 1964.)

-- random 3D: K = 1/5 (3D isotropy)

-- TS in fiber direction:
(TS)c = (TS)mVm + (TS)fVf (aligned 1D)
39/65
Looking at strength:
l  lC

s cd  s f V f 1  lC 2l   s m' 1  V f 

 
where s f is fiber fracture strength


& s m is matrix stress when composite fails

'

l  lC
l C
s 
cd '  V f  s m' 1  V f 
d
where: d is fiber diameter &
 C is smaller of Matrix Fiber shear strength
or matrix shear yield strength
 40/65
Fibers Illustrate Importance of Geometric Shape

 Most materials have tensile strengths several times greater as fibers

than in bulk
 By imbedding the fibers in a polymer matrix, a composite material
is obtained that avoids the problems of fibers but utilizes their
strengths
– The matrix provides the bulk shape to protect the fiber surfaces and resist
buckling
– When a load is applied, the low-strength matrix deforms and distributes the
stress to the high-strength fibers
41/65
Composite Survey: Structural

Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural

• Stacked and bonded fiber-reinforced sheets

-- stacking sequence: e.g., 0º/90º or 0/45/90º
-- benefit: balanced, in-plane stiffness
• Sandwich panels
-- low density, honeycomb core Adapted from Fig.
-- benefit: light weight, large bending stiffness 16.16, Callister 7e.

face sheet
adhesive layer
honeycomb

Adapted from Fig. 16.18,

Callister 7e. (Fig. 16.18 is
from Engineered Materials
Handbook, Vol. 1, Composites, ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 1987.)
 42/65
Composite Structures

 Laminar composite structure – conventional

 Sandwich structure
 Honeycomb sandwich structure

Laminar composite structures: (a) conventional laminar structure

(b) sandwich structure using foam core bonded on both faces to thin
sheets of a different material (c) sandwich structure using honeycomb
core
 43/65
Common FRP Structure

 Most widely used form of FRP is a laminar structure, made by

stacking and bonding thin layers of fiber and polymer until desired
thickness is obtained
 By varying fiber orientation among layers, a specified level of
anisotropy in properties can be achieved in the laminate
 Applications: parts of thin cross-section, such as aircraft wing and
fuselage sections, automobile and truck body panels, and boat hulls
 44/65
FRP Properties

 High strength-to-weight and modulus-to-weight ratios

 Low specific gravity - a typical FRP weighs only about 1/5 as much
as steel; yet, strength and modulus are comparable in fiber direction
 Good fatigue strength
 Good corrosion resistance, although polymers are soluble in various
chemicals
 Low thermal expansion - for many FRPs, leading to good
dimensional stability
 Significant anisotropy in properties
 45/65
Polymer Manufacturing Processes
 The method of manufacturing composites is very important to the
design and outcome of the product
 With traditional materials one starts out with a blank piece of
material ie: rod, ingot, sheet, etc and works it to produce the desired
part.
 However, this is not the case with polymer-matrix composites.
 With these composites the material and the component are being
produced at the same time, therefore we aim for the product to be a
net or near net shape with little to no post processing
 46/65
Polymer Manufacturing Processes
 Automated ply cutting, manual ply collation, or lay-up, and autoclave curing is
the most widely used process for high performance composites in the aerospace
industry.
 While manual ply collation is
expensive, this process is
capable of making complex
and high quality parts.
 Since cost has become a
major driver, a number of
other processes such as
automated tape laying,
filament winding, and fiber
placement are used for
certain classes of parts.
 In addition, other low cost
processes, such as liquid
molding and pultrusion, are
either in limited production
or are emerging as production
ready processes.
 47/65
Open Mold Processes
Only one mold (male or female) is needed and may be made of any
material such as wood, reinforced plastic or , for longer runs, sheet metal
or electroformed nickel. The final part is usually very smooth.
Shaping. Steps that may be taken for high quality
1. Mold release agent (silicone, polyvinyl alcohol, fluorocarbon, or
sometimes, plastic film) is first applied.
2. Unreinforced surface layer (gel coat) may be deposited for best surface
quality.
 48/65
Hand Lay-Up
 Oldest and most commonly used manufacturing method
 Usually used to produce polyester or epoxy resin parts
 The method is quite simple, the resin and reinforcement is placed against the surface of an
open (one sided) mold and allowed to cure
 Often a gel coat is applied to the mold prior to produce a better surface quality and protect
the composite from the elements
 The resin and fiber (or pieces cut from prepreg) are placed manually, air is expelled with
squeegees and if necessary, multiple layers are built up.

Large Ultrasonic Ply Cutter Principle of Laser Ply Projection

Source: The Boeing Company Source: Virtek
 49/65
Hand Lay-Up/Spray-Up
 The pros of this process include: low initial start up cost, easy to change
mold/design, on-site production possible (ie portable process)
 The cons include: labor intensive, the quality of parts depends on operator’s skill
and therefore inconsistent, only one good side to the part
 50/65
Automated Tape-Laying
 Automated tape laying (ATL) is a process that is very amenable to large flat
parts, such as wing skins.
 The machine lays the tape according to the previously generated NC program,
cuts the material at the correct length and angle, lays out tail, lifts off the tool,
retracts to the course start position, and begins laying the next course.
• Cost is about half of hand lay-up
• Extensively used for products such as airframe components.

Typical Gantry Style Tape Laying Machine Composite Tape Layer Delivery Head
Source: The Boeing Company
 51/65
Filament Winding
 Filament winding is a high rate process in which a
continuous fiber band is placed on a rotating mandrel.
 Lay-down rates as high as 100–400 lb/h are not
uncommon.
 It is also a highly repeatable process that can fabricate
large and thick-walled structure.
 Filament winding is a mature process, having been in
continuous use since the mid-1940s.
 It can be used to fabricate almost any body of
revolution, such as cylinders, shafts, spheres, and
cones.
 Typical applications for filament winding are
cylinders, pressure vessels, rocket motor cases, and
engine cowlings.
 End fittings are often wound into the structure
producing strong and efficient joints.
52/65
Filament Winding Characteristics

 Because of the tension, reentrant shapes cannot be produced.

 CNC winding machines with several degrees of freedom (sometimes
7) are frequently employed.
 The filament (or tape, tow, or band) is either precoated with the
polymer or is drawn through a polymer bath so that it picks up
polymer on its way to the winder.
 Void volume can be higher (3%)
 The cost is about half that of tape laying
 Productivity is high (50 kg/h).
 Applications include: fabrication of composite pipes, tanks, and
pressure vessels. Carbon fiber reinforced rocket motor cases used for
Space Shuttle and other rockets are made this way.
 53/65
Filament Winding
 In the late 1970s, Hercules Aerospace Co. (now
Alliant Techsystems) developed the fiber
placement process.
 It is a hybrid between filament winding and tape
laying.
 Fiber-placed parts are usually autoclave cured on
carbon/epoxy, steel, or low-expansion invar tools
to provide dimensionally accurate parts.
 Typical applications for fiber placement are
engine cowls, inlet ducts, fuselage sections,
pressure tanks, nozzle cones, tapered casings, fan
blades, and C-channel spars.

V-22 Aft Fuselage

Source: The Boeing Company
 54/65
Vacuum Bagging
 After ply collation, the laminate is
sealed in a vacuum bag for curing.
 A typical bagging schematic is shown.
 To prevent resin from escaping from the
edges of the laminate, dams are placed
around the periphery of the lay-up.
 55/65
Autoclave Curing
 Autoclave curing is the most widely
used method of producing high quality
laminates in the aerospace industry.
 An autoclave works on the principle of
differential gas pressure. The vacuum
bag is evacuated to remove the air, and
the autoclave supplies gas pressure to
the part.
 Autoclaves can
accommodate a single large
composite part, such as a
large wing skin, or
numerous smaller parts
loaded onto racks and
cured as a batch.
 Typical Autoclave Cure
Cycle is shown.
 56/65
Pultrusion
 Continuous fibers are impregnate with a prepolymer, exactly positioned with
guides, preheated, and pulled through a heated, tapering die where curing takes
place.

 Production rates around 1 m/min.

 Floor beams for commercial aircraft are a
potential application.
 Two dimensional shapes including solid
rods, profiles, or hollow tubes, similar to
those produced by extrusion, are made,
hence its name ‘pultrusion’.
 57/65
Resin Transfer Molding (RTM)
 Resin transfer molding (RTM), the most
widely used of the liquid molding
processes, is a matched mold process that
is well suited to fabricating three-
dimensional structures requiring tight
dimensional tolerances on several
surfaces and excellent surface finishes.
 The major limitation of the RTM process
is the relatively high initial investment in
the matched-die tooling.

 The basic resin transfer molding process consists of the following steps:
– Fabricate a dry composite preform.
– Place the preform in a closed mold.
– Inject the preform with a low viscosity liquid resin under pressure.
– Cure the part at elevated temperature in the closed mold under pressure.
– Demold and clean up the cured part.
 58/65
Prepreg Production Processes
 Prepreg is the composite industry’s term
for continuous fiber reinforcement pre-
impregnated with a polymer resin that is
only partially cured.
 Prepreg is delivered in tape form to the
manufacturer who then molds and fully
cures the product without having to add
any resin.
 This is the composite form most widely
used for structural applications.
 Prepreg production process consists of the following steps:
– Manufacturing begins by collimating a series of spool-wound continuous fiber tows.
– Tows are then sandwiched and pressed between sheets of release and carrier paper using
heated rollers (calendering).
– The release paper sheet has been coated with a thin film of heated resin solution to
provide for its thorough impregnation of the fibers.
 59/65
Prepreg Production Processes
 The final prepreg product is a thin tape consisting of continuous and aligned
fibers embedded in a partially cured resin
 Prepared for packaging by winding onto a cardboard core.
 Typical tape thicknesses range between 0.08 and 0.25 mm
 Tape widths range between 25 and 1525 mm.
 Resin content lies between about 35 and 45 vol%
 The prepreg is stored at 0 °C (32 °F) or lower because thermoset matrix
undergoes curing reactions at room temperature. Also the time in use at room
temperature must be minimized. Life time is about 6 months if properly handled.
 Both thermoplastic and thermosetting resins are utilized: carbon, glass, and
aramid fibers are the common reinforcements.
 Actual fabrication begins with the lay-up. Normally a number of plies are laid up
to provide the desired thickness. The lay-up can be by hand or automated.
 60/65
Trimming and Machining Operations
 Composites are more prone to damage during trimming and machining than
conventional metals.
 Composites contain strong and very abrasive fibers held together by a relatively
weak and brittle matrix.
 During machining, they are prone to delaminations, cracking, fiber pullout, fiber
fuzzing (aramid fibers), matrix chipping, and heat damage.
 It is important to minimize forces and heat generation during machining.
 When machining composites, generally high speeds, low feed rates, and small
depths of cuts are used to minimize damage.
 Most composite parts require peripheral edge trimming after cure.
 Edge trimming is usually done either manually with high speed cut-off saws or
automatically with NC abrasive water jet machines.
 Abrasive water jet trimming has emerged as probably the most accepted method
for trimming cured composites; however, these are large and expensive NC
machine tools
 61/65
FRP Applications
 Aerospace – much of the structural weight of todays airplanes and
helicopters consist of advanced FRPs
 Automotive – somebody panels for cars and truck cabs
– Continued use of low-carbon sheet steel in cars is evidence of its low cost
and ease of processing
 Sports and recreation
– Fiberglass reinforced plastic has been used for boat hulls since the 1940s
– Fishing rods, tennis rackets, golf club shafts, helmets, skis, bows and arrows.
62/65
FRP Applications

Composite materials in the Boeing 757

(courtesy of Boeing Commercial Airplane Group)