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PREFACE
In nearly all societies, men and women, boys and girls, have a different status and
play different roles. Men and women behave differently, have different attitudes and
interests, and have different leisure activities. Contrary to traditionally held beliefs that
these differences between male and female behavior are biologically or genetically
determined, recent research has revealed that they are to a large extent socially
constructed, or based on the concept of gender.
Gender refers to the role s and responsibilities of men and women that are created
in our families, our societies and our cultures. The concept of gender also includes the
expectations held about the characteristics, aptitudes and likely behaviors of both
women and men (femininity and masculinity).
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
 TABLE CONTENTS

Preface
Acknowledgment
Lesson 1: INTRODUCTION TO GENDER AND SEXUALITY
Basic Concepts: Sex and Gender, Masculinity and Femininity, Patriarchy
Gender Roles
Sex-Role Stereotypes
Developing Gender Identity
Discrimination Based on Sex and Gender
Issues Related to Women or Girl Child
Lesson 2: FEMINISM: CONCEPT AND THEORIES

History of Feminism

Types of Feminism

Feminist Theory in Sociology

How to be a Feminist

Lesson 3: ROLE OF WOMEN IN SOCIETY

Basic Concept of Women in Society

RTI (Right to Education)

Schooling Girls

Women States in Developing Country, School Cultures and Issues

Lesson 4: GENDER, CULTURE AND INSTITUTION

Gender Role

Difference between Gender and Sex

Gender and School

Issues related to Gender in School

 Gender Equality

Lesson 5: GENDER SEXUALITY, SEXUAL HARASSMENT AND ABUSE

Understanding Sexuality (Sexual Orientation and Sexual Identity)

Legal (Sexual and Reproductive) Rights of Women

Violence against Women

Reproductive Rights and Sexual Rights

 Lesson 1
INTRODUCTION TO GENDER AND SEXUALITY

Scopes

 Basic Concepts: Sex and Gender, Masculinity and Femininity,

Learning Outcomes
Patriarchy
 Gender Roles
 Sex-Role Stereotypes
 Developing Gender Identity
 Discrimination Based on Sex and Gender
 Issues Related to Women or Girl Child

Content

Basic Concepts: Sex and Gender, Masculinity and Femininity,

Patriarchy
Gender
-is a social construct that impacts attitudes, roles, responsibilities and
behavior patterns of boys and girls, men and women in all societies.
-It refers to the roles and responsibilities of men and women that are
created in our families, our societies and our cultures.
Concept
-Are terms used by social scientist as analytical categories to study society
and social behavior.

Concept of Gender
 -is a systematic way of understanding men and women socially and the
patterning of relationships between them.

Sex and Gender

-Biologically different “male” and “female”
- socially different “man” and “woman”
-are not interchangeable

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Sex
-refers to physiological differences found among male, female, and
various intersex bodies.
Sex includes: 1. Primary sex characteristics (those related to the
reproductive system)
2. Secondary sex characteristics (those that are not
directly related to the reproductive system, such as breasts and facial hair).

Gender
- Refers to social or cultural distinctions associated with being male,
female, or intersex.
Gender Identity
- is a person’s sense of self as a member of a particular gender.
 Example: they were born with male sex characteristics, were assigned
as a boy, and identify today as a boy or man)- Cisgender

Cisgender- is a term for people whose gender identify matches the sex
that they were assigned at birth.

Example: those who identify with a role that is different from their
biological sex. (they were born with male sex characteristics, were
assigned as a boy, but identify today as a girl, woman, or some other
gender altogether)- Transgender

Transgender- encompasses a wide range of possible identities,

including agender, genderfluid, genderqueer, two-spirit (for many
indigenous people), androgynous, and many others.

Culturally Variations of Gender

Sex- (persons of the female sex, in general regardless of culture, will
eventually menstruate and develop breasts that can lactate).
Gender- may vary greatly between different societies.

Human Sexuality- refers to people’s sexual interest in and attraction to others, as well
as their capacity to have erotic experiences and responses.
- May be experienced and expressed in a variety of ways, including
thoughts, fantasies, desires, beliefs, attitudes, values, behaviors.,
practices, roles, and relationships.

Biological and Physical sexuality – largely concern the human

reproductive functions, including the human sexual-response cycle and the basic
biological drive that exists all aspect.
Emotional- include bonds between individuals that are expressed
through profound feelings or physical manifestations of love, trust and care.
Social- deal with the effects of human society on one’s sexuality
Spirituality- concerns an individual’s spiritual connection with others
through sexuality.
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Masculinity and Femininity

- Male associated with masculinity, female with femininity
Ex. Pink- Feminine
Blue- Masculine
‘Strong” and “Tough”- masculine
“Weak’ and “Soft” – Feminine
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Patriarchy and Matriarchy

Patriarchy- “male domination”, male supremacy

- “male prejudice” against women
-“male power”
- The absolute rule of the father or the eldest male member

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Matriarchy
- Is a social system in which females hold the primary power positions
in roles of political leadership, social authority, social privilege and
control of property at the specific exclusion of men- at least to a large
degree.
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Control of Men in the Patriarchal System

 Women’s Productive or Labor Power
 Women’s Reproduction
 Control over Women’s Sexuality
 Women’s Mobility
 Property and Other Economic Resources

Gender Roles

-Is a set of societal norms dictating the types of behaviors which are
generally considered acceptable, appropriate, or desirable for people based on their
actual or perceived sex or sexuality.
-Was first coined by John Money 1955, describe the manners in which
these individuals expressed their status as a male or female in a situation where no clear
biological assignment existed.
- are a specific set of social and behavioral actions which are considered to
be appropriate for the given gender.
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Types of Gender Roles
1. Reproductive Role
2. Productive Role
3. Community Managing Role
4. Community Politics Role
5. Multiple Roles

Gender Roles and Relationship Matrix

-is an analytical tool that uses participatory methodology to facilitate the

definition and analysis of gender issues by the communities that are affected by them.

1. Helps determine the differing impacts of development interventions on women &

men.
2. Provides a community-based technique for identification and analysis
3. Provides a process of analysis that identifies and challenges gender roles within the
community in a constructive manner.

Consist of two parts:

1. Level of Analysis
 Women- all ages in the community
  Men- all ages in the community
 Household-
 Community-
2. Category of Analysis
 Labor
 Time
 Resource
 Cultural

Sex-Role Stereotypes

-Is a function or role which a male or female assumes because of the basic
physiological or anatomical differences between sexes.

Female Sex Role Male Sex Role

Child-bearing Ovum fertilization

Lactation Produces spermatozoa which determine

child’s sex.
Gestation

Stereotype – is a “person or thing seeming to conform to a heavily accepted type.”

Feminine Masculine

Females are thought to be: Males are thought to be:

 Emotional  Unemotional
 Not aggressive  Very aggressive
 Not good at decisions  Very good at making decisions
 Dependent  Independent
 Gentle  Rough
 Tactful  Blunt

Effects of Sex-Role Stereotypes on Individuals

-can have both positive and negative effects on females and males in society.
 1. Conformity
 Impression Management
 Self-fulfilling Prophecy
2. Self-Image
3. Self-esteem
4. Self- confidence
5. Locus of control
Discrimination
- is treatment or consideration of, or making a distinction in favor of or against, a
person based on the group, class, or category to which the person is perceived to belong
rather than on individual attributes.
The Transmittal of Sex-Role Stereotypes
1. Socialization agents
a. Parents
b. Teachers
c. Peers
2. Socialization forces
a. School
b. The media
c. Language
d. Play
e. Art and Music
f. Religion, etc.

Developing Gender Identity

Gender Identity -Is a person’s subjective experience of their own gender; how it
develops is a topic of much debate.
-Is the extent to which one identifies with a particular gender; it is a person’s
individual sense and subjective experience of being a man, a woman, or another gender.
 Discrimination Based on Sex and Gender

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Terms:

Genderqueer, genderfluid, gender variant, androgynous, agender and gender non-

transforming – are used by individuals who do not identify within the gender binary as
either man or a woman.

Gender Identity Development

Studies suggest that children develop gender identity in three distinct stages:
1. As toddlers and preschoolers, children learn about defined characteristics and
socialized aspects of gender.
2. Around age 5-7, gender identity becomes rigid in a process known as
consolidation.
3. After this “peak of rigidity,” fluidity returns and socially defined gender roles
relax somewhat.

Gender Schema Theory

- Introduced by Sandra Bem in 1981
- Four categories into which an individual may fall;
 1. Sex-typed
2. Cross-sex-typed
3. Androgynous
4. Undifferentiated

Queer Theory
Sexism- or gender discrimination (prejudice or discrimination)
Occupational sexism (e.g., wage discrimination)
Misogyny- is hatred or dislike(prejudice) of women or girls.
Transphobia and Transgender Discrimination-
Cissexism-

Issues Related to Women or Girl Child

1. Female Foeticide and Infanticide- is a practice of selective elimination of

the female foetus after prenatal sex determination or sex pre-selection, thus
avoiding the birth of a girl child. Female Infanticide is the most common
practice of killing girl child in mother’s womb in the society.
2. Girl as a “Burden”- stereotype notion of a girl as a “burden” on the
household.
3. Education and the Gender Skew-
4. Marginalization of Women in Agriculture
5. Misuse of Technology
6. Weak Implementation of Laws

Sex Ratio

 Factors Affecting Overall Sex Ratio

 Sex Ratio at Birth
 Sex Ratio of Deceased Persons
 Sex Ratio at Net Migrants
 Migration- is the movement by people from one place to another
with the intentions of settling, permanently or temporarily in a new
location.

Child Marriage- is a formal marriage or informal union entered into

by an individual before reaching the age of 18. The legally prescribed
marriageable age in some jurisdictions permit earlier marriage with
parental consent or in special circumstances, such as teenage
pregnancy.
The causes of child marriage are explained below:
1. Illiteracy
2. Low status of woman
3. Opposition to Inter-caste Marriage
4. Joint family System
5. Religious Factors

Sexual Abuse/Violence

Sexual abuse is any type of sexual activity that you do not agree to, including:

 Inappropriate touching
 Vaginal, anal, or oral penetration
 Sexual intercourse that you say no to
 Rape
 Attempted rape
 Child molestation

Sexual assault can be verbal, visual, or anything that forces a person to join in
unwanted sexual contact or attention.

The following are the some of the identification signs for sexual abuse women.
 Self-injury (cutting, burning)
 Inadequate personal hygiene
 Drug and alcohol abuse
 Sexual promiscuity
 Running away from home
 Depression, anxiety
 Suicide attempts
 Fear of intimacy or closeness
 Compulsive eating or dieting
ACTIVITY #1: MYTH OR TRUTH
_____1. If a Father does the household chores, he is considered as “Under the Saya”.
_____2. Men are better leaders and administrators than women.
_____3. It is the woman’s fault if she is being harassed sexually when she is wearing
skimpy clothing.
_____4. It is not proper for a girl to say “I love You” first to a boy.
_____5. The mother should be the only one responsible for child-rearing and parenting.
ACTIVITY #2
After the participants were educated on sex and gender, an exercise was given to
test their level of understanding on sex and gender. The participants were asked to
identify if the following statements were on sex or gender.

Is it Sex or Gender? Response

Women give birth to babies men do not Sex

Little girls are gentle, little boys are tough Gender

Women can breast feed babies’ men cannot Sex

Most political leaders are men Gender

Men’s voices break at puberty women don’t Sex

Money is more important for men than women Gender

Women are better cooks than men Gender

Women are more caring than men Gender

A man should be sexually experienced at marriage Gender

Men have stronger sexual needs than women Gender

Men are better household heads than women Gender

Gender Stereotype- a form of prejudgment, bias or limitation given to roles and expectations of males
and females.

Lesson 2
FEMINISM: CONCEPT AND THEORIES

Scopes

 Gender Socialization

 Learning Outcomes

Feminism

It is a broad-based philosophical perspective which accommodates various

approaches. It is value system which gives us an alternative way of looking things.
Feminisms views the world on a constrict mannerist recognizes diversity in the world it
promotes Equality.
HISTORY OF FEMINISM
1. The first wave (1830’s-early 1900’s): Women’s fight for Equal Contract and
Property Rights
2. The second wave (1960’s-1980’s): Broadening the debate
3. Dissension and Debate
Anarcho-feminists- also called anarchist feminism and anarcho-feminism,
combines anarchism with feminism. It generally views patriarchy and traditional
gender rules as a manifestation of involuntary coercive hierarchy, that should be
replaced by decentralized free association.
4. The Race Factor
5. The Globalization Feminism
6. The Third Wave (1990’s-present): The “micropolitics” of Gender Equality
7. Difference between the second and third Wave Feminism

Role of Gender

-It is a set of behavioral norms associated particularly with males or females in a

given social group or system, often including the division of labor between men and
women and the attendant complex of child-rearing and socialization processes leading
youth toward maturing to perpetuate the same pattern.

Meaning and Concept of Feminism

Feminist theory now aims to interrogate inequalities and inequities along the
intersectional lines of ability, class, gender, race, sex, and sexuality, and feminists seek
to effect change in areas where these intersectionality’s create power inequity.
Definition
“Feminism” is an awareness of women’s oppression and exploitation in society at
the place of work and with the family and the conscious action to change this situation.
“Feminism is an awareness of patrician control, Exploitation and oppression of
material and ideological levels of women’s labor fertility and sexuality in the family, at
the place of work, and in society in general and conscious action by women and men to
transfer the present situation.

Basic Feminist Ideas

1. Working to increase equality

2. Expanding human choice
3. Eliminating gender stratification
4. Ending sexual violence and promoting sexual freedom

Why is Feminism Important?

 Feminism allows equal opportunities for both sexes. Gender roles (a set of
conforming rules that say how a person should behave based on their gender) can be
harmful to both men and women.
Feminism is about allowing both boys and girls the freedom to do what they want
and making sure that people are not held back by gender roles and expectations whether
it be at home, at school, in the workplace or in parliament.

Femininity and Feminism

Femininity (also called girlishness, womanliness or womanhood) is a set of attributes,

behaviors, and roles generally associated with girls and women.
Being a feminist doesn’t mean you have to change who you are. You can still
enjoy your femininity while being a feminist. Feminism has nothing to do with how you
dress or how much make-up you wear. It has everything to do with striving for the same
rights men have. Feminism also has nothing to do with your gender/sex. You can be a
man and be a feminist too. Feminism shouldn’t degrade or ignore men. It’s not
feminism if one gender is not noticed. As long as you believe that both men and women
should be given equal opportunities, then you believe in feminism.

How to Understand Feminism

Researching Feminism
1. Start off with basic feminist literature
2. Read from a variety of writers
3. Delve into the feminist community online
4. Learn some terminology
a. Patriarchy
b. Rape Culture
c. Nice Guy (TM)
d. Cisgender
5. Look into intersectional issues
6. Be prepared to learn

Understanding what Feminism Is Not

1. Discard the stereotypes you’ve heard.
2. Don’t confuse feminism in general with basic white feminism.
3. Realize that feminism is not about the disempowerment of men.
4. Do not tear down other women in the name of feminism.
5. Learn that feminism is not monolith.
a. White Feminism
b. Sex Work Inclusive Feminism
c. Trans-Exclusionary Radical Feminism
d. Sex Positive/Sex Critical
6. Recognize that feminism is not about hating men.

What Fem Is?

1. Realize that feminism is more than “girl power” or “hey, it’d be cool to be equal to
men.”
2. Observe how feminism encompasses injustice of all forms and mutations.
3. Recognize that feminism hold that all people deserve to be treated with basic human
decency.
4. Recognize the importance of consent in feminist beliefs.
5. Understand feminism’s stance on the female body.
6. Recognize that feminism is intersectional.

Types of Feminism

 Liberal Feminism- is an individualistic form of feminist theory, which focuses

on women’s ability to maintain their equality through their own actions and
choices.

 Social Feminism- is slightly less extreme but still calls for major social change.
Socialist feminism is a movement that calls for an end to capitalism through a
socialist reformation of our economy. Socialist feminism has often been
compared to cultural feminism, but they are quite different although there are
some similarities. The goal of socialist feminism is to work with men to achieve
a level playing field for both genders.

 Radical Feminism- is a philosophy emphasizing the patriarchal roots of

inequality between men and women, or, more specifically, social dominance of
women by men. Radical feminism views patriarchy as dividing rights, privileges
 and power primarily by sex, and as a result oppressing women and privileging
men. Radical feminism opposes patriarchy, not men. To equate radical feminism
to man-hating is to assume that patriarchy and men are inseparable,
philosophically and politically.

 Cultural Feminism- Is a movement that points out how modern society is hurt by
encouraging masculine behavior, but society would benefit by encouraging
feminine behavior instead. What women shar, in this perspective, provides a
basis for “sisterhood,” or unity, solidarity and shared identity. Thus, cultural also
encourages building a shared women’s culture.

Feminist Theory in Sociology

Key areas of focus include the following:

1. Gender Differences
2. Gender Inequality
3. Gender Oppression
4. Structural Oppression

How to be a Feminist

Incorporating Feminism in Daily Life

1. Love yourself, no matter your gender.
2. Share equal responsibilities in your relationship
3. Raise your children to believe in gender equality.
4. Maintain positive equality in the workplace.
5. Empower women.

Promoting Global Gender Equality

1. Recognize systemic inequalities.

2. Fight against gender discrimination.
3. Vote for pro-women political leaders.
4. Support the rights of women and men.

Learning About Feminism

1. Understand feminism.
2. Explore common misconceptions about feminism.
3. Study the history of the feminist movement.

Lesson 3
ROLE OF WOMEN IN SOCIETY

Scopes

Learning Outcomes
 Role of Women in Society

The role of women in society has been greatly overseen in the last few decades. In
the early days’ women were seen as wives who were intended to cook, clean; and take
care of the kids. They were not allowed to vote while men took care of having jobs and
paying any bills that had to be paid. Women have always been mistreated and seen as
inferior; when compared to men’s physical strength and ways of thinking. But with the
development of industry, the role of women in modern society has significantly changed
after the First World War.

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Basic Concept of Women in Society

Morality- refers to whatever is actually right or wrong, which may be independent

of the values or more held by any particular peoples or cultures.

v
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1. Role of Women in the Society
They are activating/participating in social, economic, and political activities.

2. Role of Women as a wife

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3. Role of Women in politics

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 4. Role of w\Women in socio-economic activities

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RTI (RIGHT TO EDUCATION)

 The right to education has been recognized as a human right in a number

of international conventions, including the international covenant on
economic, social and cultural rights which recognizes a right to free,
compulsory primary education for all, an obligation to develop secondary
education accessible to all, in particular by the progressive introduction of
free secondary education, as well as an obligation to develop equitable
access to higher education, ideally by the progressive introduction of free
higher education.
 The right to education also includes a responsibility to provide basic
education for individuals who have not completed primary education.
 The right to education means that all people are entitled to a free primary,
or basic, education regardless of gender, socioeconomic status, or other
factors.
Tertiary Education- is the educational level following the completion of a school
providing a secondary education.
 Women Education
, vocational
Women education refers to every form of education that aims at improving the
knowledge, and skills of women and girls. It includes general education at schools and colleges,
vocational and technical education, professional education, health education, etc. Women
education encompasses both literary and non-literary education.
The importance of women education is briefly summarized below:
1. Economic development and prosperity.
2. Economic empowerment.
3. Improved life.
4. Improved health.
5. Dignity and honor.
6. Justice.
7. Choice to choose a profession of her choice.
8. Alleviate poverty.

The following links will further explain the necessity of girls’/women’s education.
1. Education is a right.
2. Cultural Changes
3. Better health and awareness
4. Poverty reduction
 What is the human right to education?
-Every woman, man, youth and child have the human right to education, training and
information, and to other fundamental human rights dependent upon realization of the human
right to education.

The Human Rights at Issue

-Human rights relating to education are set out in basic human rights treaties and include:
 The human right to free and compulsory elementary education and to readily available
forms of secondary and higher education.
 The human right to freedom from discrimination based on sex or any other status in all
areas and levels of education, including access to scholarships and fellowships, and to
equal access to career development, continuing education and vocational training.
 The human right to information about health, nutrition, reproduction and family planning.

Equal Opportunity in Women Education

1. The training of employees in education in the gender issues;
2. Agenda connected with the gender issue in the internal functioning of the
organization;
3. Personnel provision of the organization of this issue;
4. The presentation and promotion of the policies of equal opportunities on the internet,
in seminars, through campaigns, etc.
5. The inclusion of the equality of women and men into the grant scheme
6. The integration of the area of research and development
7. The coordination of the activities concerning gender issues in education, science and
research
8. The preparation of informational materials explaining the origin and manifestations of
gender inequalities to assist schools when including gender issues into the School
Education programmes
9. The mediation of gender awareness in persons working in education, science and
research;
10. The inclusion of the ideal of gender equality in all the research tasks implemented at
the MEYS as horizontal priorities;
 11. The proposal of measures for the management of the ministry, or regions and
municipalities as founding entities of schools, concerning how to promote gender
equality in their policies;
12. The usage of gender-appropriate language.

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Schooling of Girls

Education is a basic human right that should be exercised fully in all nations. A girl’s
education is an essential starting point in establishing equality everywhere. Despite the
Constitution guaranteeing equality before the law and non-discrimination on the basis of sex,
remains a patriarchal society. Male inheritance and property ownership. Early marriage, dowry,
honor crimes, lack girl’s education, witch hunting, violence against women, and trafficking are
all serious issues in the country.
Human Rights- are moral principles or norms that describe certain standards of human
behavior, and are regularly protected as legal rights in municipal and international law.

Feminization of Teaching Profession

The term ‘feminization’ has tended to apply to countries where women are a significant
majority in the teaching workforce.
They have included reviewing the reasons why the teaching profession became gender
imbalanced in favor of women in certain countries in the first place, and what impacts might be
on learning processes and the educational outcomes for students.
Profession- is a vocation founded upon specialized educational training, the purpose of which is
to supply disinterested objective counsel and service to others, for a direct and definite
compensation, wholly apart from expectation of other business gain.

Women States in Developing Country, Schools Cultures and Issues

The development of a country is very dependent on the roles and freedom that women
receive. The gender role does vary geographically between More Developed Country (MDCs)
and less developed countries (LDCs). When less developed countries women take on lower
roles, and lower stand in the social class.
One way the role of women is changing through the world is the women are gaining
empowerment. Because of this, they are starting to hold high respectable jobs.
Over all in the world, the trend is found when countries allow the women rights, there
country develops. Another way how the role of women is changing is women are now starting to
become more educated.
Demography- is the statistical study of populations, especially human beings.

Importance of Women in our Society

Women who were the most dormant segment of population have now become active participants
in all walks of life.
  Women can help the society in various ways. They can engage in social activities and
work for the betterment of the society.
 Young educated girls can get engaged in a profession of her choice. We need more
doctors, engineers, software developers, and social workers. The world cannot grow at
good pace unless women come forward and take initiative for the development works.
 They can contribute enormously in the field of health care. Women education will also
improve the level of sanitation and hygiene.
 As a mother, her role in the development of the emotional psychological aspect of the
new born child has been also very significant. She was not only the creator and
maintainer of her child but an educator and disciplinarian as well.
 The woman is now an important instrument of social change. The extent of woman’s
participation in the corporate life thus the measure of social change.

There is a need for complete abolition of social practices such as dowry, sati, female
infanticide, permanent widowhood, child marriage and many more.

Role of Women in Community Development

- The role of women in community development can be crucial to the health of a society.
According to some sociologists, women make many of the decisions that determine a
household’s participation in the community, including healthcare, educational, and cultural
decisions.
As members of community development organizations such as outreach programs,
parent-teacher associations, cultural societies, and city planning boards, women can use the
knowledge they garner from household decisions to make a substantive contribution to the future
of their city or town.
Gender analysis is a tool for analyzing data from looking at what is happening to women and
what is happening to men: a gender perspective. Understanding how an issue has to be examined
from the perspective of the relations between women and men. It is also identifying constraints
or limitations with regard to how women and men are relating with regard to an issue or in an
activity based on our notions of what they should or should not be doing.
Examines the differences in women’s and men’s lives, including those which lead to
social and economic inequity for women, and applies this understanding to policy development
and service delivery. Is concerned with the underlying causes of these inequalities. Thus, Gender
analysis is not just about focusing only on women or complaining that women suffer more than
men.
Rather, it aims to achieve positive/transformative change for women and getting men on
the need for such change due to existing and continuing disparities between them and women.
Gender analysis can be undertaken through looking at;
 Programs
 Project objectives, intervention strategy and in implementation
 The obstacles or progress being made
Gender equity takes into consideration the differences in women’s and men’s lives and
recognizes that different approaches may be needed to produce outcomes that are equitable
(opportunities, benefits, losses, use of space and voice).
Gender equality is based on the premise that women and men should be treated based on human
rights principles even as there are different life experiences between them.
Gender Equality refers to equal opportunities and outcomes for women and men. This involves
the removal of discrimination and structural inequalities in access to resources, opportunities and
resources, and the promotion of equal rights. Equality does not mean that women should be the
same as men. Promoting equality recognizes that men and women have different roles and needs
and takes these into account in development and planning and programming.
Tool for the Gender Analysis
 Do women have equal access to resources, power etc. in the policy, programme or
project?
 Do women have an equal chance to participate in the policy, programme or
project?
  Does the activity ensure same opportunities and equal burdens for women and
men? (Benefits and losses).
 Are women targeted specifically to address their productive and reproductive
roles?
 Is there encouragement for women to take up new roles/relationships in decision-
making?
 Do programs aim at a balanced division of burdens and benefits between women
and men, in implementation, management, use and development impacts?
 Is data/information disaggregated by sex as means of promoting gender balance?
Based on the above tool, the participants analyzed some set of documents and presented their
findings to the group amidst comments and questions bringing the training to a close.

Gender Concepts
Below is a list of Gender Concepts that were discussed during the session;
 Gender Construction
 Sexual Division of Labor
 Gender Division of labor
 Multiple Gender Roles: Productive, Reproduction and Community Work
 Access to Resources
 Control over Resources
 Gender Relations
 Gender Sensitivity
 Gender Balance
 Sex Disaggregated Data
 Gender Mainstreaming
 Affirmative Action
 Empowerment
 Gender Equity
 Gender Equality

1. Gender Construction
System for inculcating gender ideologies and role expectations into individuals.
Gendering involves acquisition of a social identity and learning appropriate sets of
behaviours and capacities associated with one’s sex.

2. Sexual/Gender Division of Labour

 Gender roles are socially determined ideas and practices which define the roles,
activities and relationships deemed appropriate for women and men. They are usually
not fixed, changes over time and responds to changes in the economy, political and
social environment. It impacts men and women’s relationship to natural resources. For
example, at the community level it is much more expected of a man to be a doctor and a
woman as the nurse.
3. Gender Roles
The different responsibilities or tasks that women and men undertake in a given
culture or location. Gender Roles are assigned to men and women by society, classified
by sex, learned and shape our identity, changeable but also resist change, determine how
we are perceived, expected to think and act as women and men. Gender roles are one of
several factors determining access to status, power and resources.
4. Multiple Gender Roles
Women and men have multiple gender roles that can be divided into three (3) types:
 Productive

Work done by both women and men that generates income (in cash and/or in kind). Has
an exchange value for the production of goods and services for subsistence or market
purposes.
 Reproductive

 Community management

5. Access and Control of Resources and Benefit

Access to resources means that women are able to use and benefit from specific
resources. Control over resources means that women can also make decisions about the
use of those resources. Women & men also have different access & control to the
benefits of using resources.
6. Gender Sensitivity
Gender sensitivity means that a differentiation is made between the needs and
priorities of men and women; the views and ideas of both men and women are taken
seriously; action is taken to address inequalities or imbalance between men and women.
7. Gender Relations
The ways in which society defines rights, responsibilities and identities of women
and men in relation to one another which leads to the persistence of inequalities. Gender
relations cannot be avoided because women and men are interacting all the time in
public and private spaces in the society.
8. Gender Balance
 Having the same (or a sufficient) number of women and men at all levels within
an organization to ensure equal representation and participation in all areas of the
activity and interest.
9. Sex Disaggregated Data
For a gender analysis, all data should be separated by sex in order to allow
differences between men and women in needs, action and results to be identified.
10. Gender Mainstreaming
The consideration of gender equality in all policy, programmes, administrative
and financial activities, and in organisational procedures. The systematic integration of
the different needs, interests, and priorities of women and men in all the organization’s
policies, projects and activities.
A strategy for making women’s as well as men’s concerns and experiences an
integral dimension of the design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of policies
and programmes so that women and men benefit equally and inequality is not
perpetuated.
Why mainstream gender?
 Men and women are involved in activities differently and there is a need
to ensure that these differences do not lead to inequality
 Many past programs have failed due to lack of involvement of women
who play a role specific sector
 Interventions have a different effect on women and men.
 In a democratic society, each individual member has the right to the best
quality of life possible. Since politics plays an important role in
determining the quality of life, then we need to ensure that there is
equality of access to participation.

11. Affirmative Action

Affirmative action means positive steps taken to increase the representation and
participation of women and disadvantaged groups in areas of employment, education,
and culture among others from which they have been historically excluded.
12. Empowerment
Empowerment means both women and men have control over their own decisions,
securing skills and knowledge, increasing self-confidence and having control over
productive resources, having leadership roles in organizations and working in non-
traditional fields.
13. Gender Equity
 Gender equity means fairness of treatment for women and men, according to their
respective needs. This may include equal treatment or treatment that is different but
which is considered equivalent in terms of rights, benefits, obligations and
opportunities.
14. Gender Equality
Gender equality, equality between men and women, entails the concept that all
human beings, both men and women, are free to develop their personal abilities and
make choices without the limitations set by stereotypes, rigid gender roles, prejudices
and relationships.
In an ideal world, there will be gender equity if both women and men have equal
rights, responsibilities and opportunities. Equality means that the different behaviour,
aspirations and needs of women and men are considered, valued and favoured equally.
Equality does not mean that women and men will be the same but that women’s and
men’s rights, responsibilities and opportunities will not depend on whether they are
born male or female. A focus on creating an inclusive culture and using other measures
such as targets or quotas, can be effective in achieving gender equality
Activity #1
At the end of the presentation, the participants worked in their respective groups on
questions reflecting on the gender concepts, gender awareness and sensitivity in policy
development and policy development processes in an organization.

Lesson 4
WOMEN IN POLITICS AND DECISION MAKING

Scopes
 There are a lot of legal documents that seeks to increase women’s representation
and participation in politics and decision-making spaces.
Nationally, women’s participation in political and decision-making processes is
guaranteed in article 12 (2) of the 1992 constitution. Women’s representation in
Parliament growing from 8% in 1992 to 10.8% in 2004 to 8.6% in 2008 and 10% in
2012 and 10.8% in 2016. Parliamentary representation of women growing from 8% in
1992 to 10.8% in 2004 and falling to 8.9% in 2008, 10 % in 2012 and 10.8 in 2016.
Although the number is increasing, there is a critical mass of women needed. A similar
situation exists at the district level. In 2006, the elected membership of women was
10.1% and in 2010 there was an administrative quota for 30% women representation but
its ineffective. In the public service, there is an increasing trend of the appointment of
women as a Chief Justice, Electoral Commissioner and Head of Prisons Service
amongst several others, however, they are still very low.

Techniques for Promoting Women’s Rights and Gender

 Expand and promote the gender parity principle to all the AU organs, and not
merely the Commission;
 Ensure the participation and representation of women in peace processes,
including the prevention and resolution of conflicts and post-conflict
 Expand and promote the gender parity principle to all the AU organs, and not
merely the Commission;
 Ensure the participation and representation of women in peace processes,
including the prevention and resolution of conflicts and post-conflict.
 Ensure the active promotion and protection of the human rights of women and
girls;
 Protect the property and inheritance rights of women;
 Expand the education of women and girls, particularly in rural areas
 Gender Policies
 Affirmative Action
 Quotas
 Reserved seats
 Changes in electoral systems
 Gender budgeting
 Capacity building and training
 Women Manifestos
 Political Party Manifestos

Implications for Women in Politics

 Are we making our contributions in the political parties as women? If yes, what
are these contributions? If no, then we must demand that the parties address our
concerns and promote social justice. What are some of the things we can ask for?
 A Women’s Fund to support women aspirants in parliamentary and
presidential elections.
 Allocate 10 per cent of public funds to political parties directly to women
aspirants.
 Parties should significantly reduce filing fees for women contestants in
parliamentary and presidential primaries.
 Political parties desist from sexist and abusive remarks directed at women
aspirants and also against those seeking public office.
 Apply the law on defamation of character to party leaders and members.
 Political parties should advocate for legal backing for affirmative action.
 Political parties should back the Public Funding of Political Parties Bill.
 Political parties provide capacity building for women aspirants and
women after they were successfully elected into parliament. This ensures
their effective participation in parliamentary deliberations.
 Political parties retain sitting female MPs during successive parliamentary
elections and replace sitting female MPs who decided not to contest with
other female contestants.
 Newly created constituencies are reserved for women contestants only for
a period of two consecutive terms.
 Parties to field women in at least 50 per cent representation of safe
parliamentary seats.
 A safe seat being that the party has won in at least three consecutive
general elections by a margin of over 50 per cent.
 Demand that political parties work towards a target of 50 per cent
representation of women.
 To be present at the levels of the base structures and committees that
choose candidates for primary elections.
All these demands seek for a reformatory agenda to do away with patriarchal
authority, promote women’s rights, have a society based on gender equality and
inclusive democratic system, equality, peace and development.

Challenges for Promoting Gender

 Resistance to deviations from the societal standards and norms

Based either on fear for negative reactions from the social environment and the
dominant culture (ideology, religion) or on one’s own self-image.
 Resistance based on power relations
 Fear that another group will take over and affect the status, power, influence and other
privileges enjoyed by the grouping resisting change known as vested interests.
 Practical resistance

The way a society is structured that does not easily respond to change. For example, a
society with a rigid class hierarchy. Organizations, particularly public sector ones tend
to reflect these societal structures.

 Psychological resistance

Fear for loss of security, feelings of guilt, doubts about one’s own capacities, low self-
esteem, lack of identification with women’s interests (gender is seen as feminism in
disguise, and feminism is regarded as too aggressive and too radical).
 Lesson 5
GENDER DIFFERENCE

Scopes

 Gender Difference
 Gender Differences in Social Behavior
 Social Influence: Evaluation Feedback
 Social Influence: Evaluation Feedback

Learning Outcomes


 GENDER DIFFERENCE

 Infants are classified as male or female at birth. From this moment on, their
sexual identity plays an important role in the way they are treated by society.
 Difference between sex and gender:
 Sex refers to sexual behavior
 Gender refers to the sense of maleness or femaleness related to our membership
in a given society.

Gender Differences in Social Behavior

Traits like sensitivity and nurturance are attributed to females and aggressiveness
and dominance are attributed to males (Eagly, 1987; Friedman & Zebrowitz, 1992).

Gender Differences in Social Behavior

1. Emotional Expression: Sending and Receiving Non-verbal Cues

Non-verbal Cues – facial expression, eye contact, body posture or movements, tone of
speech, dressing style, etc.

 Females are generally better at both sending and receiving non-verbal cues than males
(Dik Browne, 1984; DePaulo, 1992; Rosenthal & DePaulo, 1979).

 In social situations females know what to expect from others and hence they do not get
surprised by other’s behavior

2. Emotional Expression: The Crying Game (Hindustan Times Sunday Magazine, March
6, 2011)

Gwyneth Paltrow went in for full-on sobbing, giving effusive thanks to an endless
list of people, hot tears running down.
Julia Roberts, Sandra Bullock, etc….

Reasons:

 Social conditioning – women are brought up to believe that it is all right to cry to
express emotion, be it joy, sorrow or pain.
 Men, on the other hand, are brought up to regard crying as a mark of weakness,
something that they must never be seen doing.
 Social Influence: Evaluation Feedback

 Males tend to view situations in which they receive feedback on their performance as
competitive ones. As a result, they view such feedback with skepticism.
 In contrast, females view such situations as leading opportunities and therefore pay
greater attention to the feedback they receive (Roberts, 1993).

1. LEADERSHIP: PERFORMANCE AND EVALUATIONS

 Males and females differ but in smaller magnitude
 Research studies suggest that female leaders often receive lower ratings than male
leaders, even when their performance is the same. This finding is especially strong in
situations where the raters are males.
 Female leaders face disadvantage in social settings.

2. AGGRESSION: WHAT KIND AND HOW MUCH

 Gender stereotypes and crime statistics support the view that males are more aggressive
than females.
 Females use indirect mode of aggression than males. This difference increases with age
and girl’s growing cognitive skills. The reason can be they are generally smaller in size
and physical strength (Bjorkqvist, Lagerspetz, & Kaukiainen, 1992).

3. FRIENDSHIP: ARE FEMALE FRIENDSHIPS MORE INTENSE AND

BENEFICIAL
 Females and males make intense friendships and females find more satisfaction in
friendships than males.

4. MATE SELECTION, RELATIONSHIPS, AND SEXUALITY

4.1 MATE SELECTION:
 Ads by females: young, physically attractive; is seeking a partner who has wealth and
high status and who is interested in serious relationship.
 Ads by males: has high status (in education, profession and wealth); is seeking a
partner who is young and attractive.
 Males and females adopt contrasting strategies because they invest different amounts of
resources in their offspring.

4.2 RELATIONSHIPS:
 Both the genders show high correlation towards long-term relationships (e.g., marriage).
 With regard to one-night stand, males show low correlation. It means males seem to
accept wide range of partners in this context (Kenrick, 1993).
 1.3 SEXUALITY:
 Females and males differ to some extent with regard to their sexual attitudes and sexual
behavior.
 Males are more accepting of casual sexual encounters and express more permissive
attitudes towards extramarital sex.
 Males report a higher incidence of masturbation, a greater incidence of intercourse, and
more partners (Oliver and Hyde, 1993).

BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF GENDER DIFFERENCES

1. Hormones:
 During prenatal development – key role•
 Biological sex determined by sex chromosomes – XX or XY.
 Embryos until about 8 to 12 weeks.
 Gonads (sex glands) produce androgens• John Money and colleagues (1972) exposed
small number of females to high levels of androgens during their pregnancy.
 Girls born to these females were with masculinized genitals, the degree varied.
 These girls showed interest in outdoor activities, preferred male playmates and male
toys.

2. Sources of Gender Differences

 Sex is biological variable – BIOLOGICAL FACTORS
 After birth ppl are treated differently based on their sex – SOCIETAL FACTORS

 Both these factors should be considered.

BIOLOGICAL FACTORS:
 Do differences between males and female brains underlie sex and gender differences? –
some of the neuropsychologists asked.
 Exposure to the male hormones affected the development of girls’ brains, making them
favour toys that involve certain kinds of skills.
 For eg., girls who were exposed before birth to unusually high levels of androgen, male
hormones, because their mothers accidentally took a drug containing the hormone
during pregnant, preferred different toys stereotypically preferred by boys (such as cars)
and less likely to play with toys stereotypically associated with girls (such as dolls).
 Similarly, some evidence suggests that women perform better on tasks involving verbal
skill and muscular coordination when their production of female sex hormone, estrogen,
is relatively high, compared with when it is low.
 In contrast, they perform better on talks involving spatial relationships when their
estrogen level is relatively low (Kimura & Hampson, 1988; Kimura, 1999).
 Some psychologists take evolutionary approach to explain it.
 David Buss and colleagues (1992) point to differences in nature of jealousy between
men and women.
 They found that men were more jealous in cases of actual sexual infidelity, as opposed
to emotional infidelity in which there was emotional attachment to another man but no
actual sexual infidelity.
 They found that men were more jealous in cases of actual sexual infidelity, as opposed
to emotional infidelity in which there was emotional attachment to another man but no
actual sexual infidelity.
 In contrast, women were more jealous in cases of emotional infidelity rather than
sexual infidelity.
 The root cause of this controversial explanation lies in evolutionary implications of
sexual infidelity for men and women.
 For men – sexual infidelity means their children are not their own, not inherited their
genes. This makes them more upset compared to emotional infidelity.
 For women – they know their children are their own, nurtured in their womb. Their
main concern is involving male in child rearing. So males emotional attachment is more
crucial for them.
SOCIAL FACTORS:
 From birth – boys with blue blankets and girls with pink ones.
 Different kinds of toys are given
 Parents treat children differently according to their sex.
 Fathers play roughly with boys than with girls. Mothers talk more to girls than with
boys. (Jacklin & Reynolds, 1993)
 Social learning theory – boys and girls are taught, and rewarded for performing,
behaviours that are perceived by society as being appropriate for men or for women,
respectively (Philpot, 2000).
 Even the society shows this gender differences: in novels (girls as nurturing and boys in
physical and action-oriented roles) and TV.
 Lesson 6
GENDER ISSUES

Scopes

 Homosexual Flag
 Transgendered Flag
 Gender Issues Besetting the World Today
 The Policy Research Report on Gender and Development
 Ethnic Group or Ethnicity
 Ethnicity and Race
 Gender Issues in the Philippines
 Gender Identity

Learning Outcomes
 Homosexuality- can refer to both attraction or sexual behavior between organisms
of the same sex, or to a sexual orientation. It refers to enduring sexual and romantic
attraction towards those of the same sex, but not necessarily to sexual behavior.
Homosexuality is contrasted with heterosexuality (attraction, behavior, or
orientation between opposite sexes), bisexuality (both sexes), and asexuality (neither
sex).
Etymologically, the word homosexual is a Greek and Latin hybrid with homo
(often confused with the later Latin meaning of & quot; man ", as in homo
sapiens) deriving from the Greek word for same , thus connoting sexual acts and
affections between members of the same sex, including lesbianism.
Generally, and most famously in ancient Greece, erotic attraction and sexual
pleasure between males has been an ingrained, accepted part of the cultural norm.
However, particular sexual activities (such as receptive anal sex in some cultures, or
oral sex in others) were disapproved of, even as other aspects were admired.
In cultures under the sway of Abrahamic religions, the law and the church
established sodomy as a transgression against divine law, a & quot; crime against nature
& quot; practiced by choice, and subject to severe penalties, including capital
punishment—often inflicted by means of fire so as to purify the unholy action.
In the last two decades of the nineteenth century, a different view began to
predominate in medical and psychiatric circles, judging such behavior as indicative of a
type of person with a defined and relatively stable sexual orientation.
Karl-Maria Kertbeny coined the term homosexual in 1869 in a pamphlet arguing
against a Prussian anti-sodomy law. Richard von Krafft-Ebing's 1886 book
Psychopathia Sexualis elaborated on the concept.
In 1897, British physician Havelock Ellis published similar views in his
influential book Sexual Inverasion.
In the course of the twentieth century, homosexuality became a subject of
considerable study and debate in Western societies, especially after the modern gay
rights movement began in 1969.
The legal and social status of people who perform homosexual acts or identify as
gay or lesbian varies enormously across the world and in places remains hotly contested
in political and religious debate.
 Transgendered Flag

CHRIS CROCKER
-is an openly gay Tennessee-based YouTube and My Space personality and self-
described edutainer who produces and acts in transgressive videos.
ALEXIS ARQUETTE
-landed her first significant acting role, playing a transgender character in Last
Exit to Brooklyn. She also went through her own transition from male to female, an
experience that was documented in the film, Alexis Arquette: She's My Brother, which
debuted at the 2007 Tribeca Film Festival.

Gender Issues Besetting the World Today

The World Bank is committed to making gender equality central to its fight
against poverty. After many years of research and on-the ground experience, the
importance of gender equality for reducing poverty can no longer be questioned.
The Bank also believes that helping women and men become equal partners in
development, and giving them equal voice and better access to resources, are important
development objectives in their own right. Poor people across the world suffer from
multiple liabilities: lack of food and adequate shelter, victimization by landlords, and a
sense of hopelessness in the face of overwhelming odds, to name a few.
Gender inequalities add additional costs, not only to women, but to children, men,
and the society as a whole. We know that domestic violence disables women, leads to a
loss of income, increases what society spends on health care—and unwittingly teaches
children to find violent rather than peaceful solutions to problems.
When girls are prevented from attending school and are denied the gifts of
literacy and numeracy, as women they will have fewer opportunities for employment,
will be less likely to participate in important decisions, and will be less able to prevent
unwanted pregnancies and ensure the survival of the children they bear. Gender issues
and stereotypes also affect men: In many societies with high male unemployment,
alcoholism and male mortality have increased rapidly, something that harms men,
women, and children.
Since the 1995 Beijing Fourth World Conference on Women, the World Bank has
sought to give ownership to the poor and marginalized in the fight against poverty.
Coalitions for change have been built with partners in civil society, governments, the
private sector, and the development community.
The World Bank is responding to the voices of women—and men—in the fight to
end poverty and improve human well-being. We regard these efforts as the continuation
of our program to incorporate gender considerations into all aspects of our work. In the
next five years, we hope to build on our achievements to date and, in concert with our
partners, help all men and women build lives of dignity, free from want.

The Policy Research Report on Gender and Development

The Policy Research Report on gender and development, which is based on

existing and newly commissioned research, focuses on the links between gender
inequality, public policy, and development. The report makes three important points:
Disparities between men and women in basic rights, access to resources, and power
exist in all countries of the world, although the extent and nature of these disparities
vary across countries.
Empirical studies show that societies that discriminate on the basis of gender tend
to experience more poverty, slower economic growth, and a lower quality of life than
societies in which gender inequality is less pronounced.
Societies that simultaneously provide the same basic rights for women and men,
create institutions supportive of gender equality, and promote economic growth are
more effective in reducing gender disparities than societies that focus on growth alone.
One lesson from past experience has been that educating girls is one of the most
effective ways to promote development.
But research described in the report shows that school attendance rates for girls
relative to those for boys are highest in countries where both incomes and gender
equality in rights are relatively high.
The report also discusses the policies that are most effective in promoting gender
equality. It emphasizes the importance of taking a comprehensive approach to the
problem of gender inequality by strengthening institutions, promoting economic growth
and development, and establishing active programs where needed. The report
recommends a three-part strategy of public action: Establishing supportive legal,
economic, and social institutions, including a focus on equal rights.
When a society ensures that its citizens have basic legal, social, and economic
rights, it provides them with the opportunity, security, and power they need to direct
their own lives.
UNIFEM (United Nations Development Fund for Women) works to foster
women's empowerment and gender equality throughout the world. UNIFEM has
identified four strategic areas that are of critical concern for the achievement of gender
equality and women's empowerment and which guide our work: Reducing feminized
poverty. Ending violence against women.
Reversing the spread of HIV/AIDS among women and girls. Achieving gender
equality in democratic governance in times of peace as well as war. UNIFEM places the
advancement of women's human rights at the center of all its efforts. All UNIFEM
programmed contribute to achieving the Millennium Development Goals.
Ethnic Group or Ethnicity

-is a population of human beings whose members identity with each other, usually
on the basis of a presumed common genealogy or ancestry. Also defined as a distinct
group and by common cultural, linguistic, religious, behavioral or biological traits.
According to some, it is a fundamental factor in human life: it is a phenomenon inherent
in human experience.
According to a sociologist, Max Weber he defined ethnic groups as human groups
that entertain a subjective belief in their common descent because of similarities of
physical type or of customs or both, or because of memories of colonization and
migration.
Anthropologist Joan Vincent observed that ethnic boundaries often have a
mercurial character. Ronald Cohen conclude that ethnicity is a “series of nesting
dichotomizations of inclusiveness and exclusiveness.”

Ethnicity and Race

Ethnicity and race are related concepts in that both are usually defined in shared
genealogy. Ethnicity also connotes shared cultural, linguistic, behavioral or religious
traits. Race, by contrast, refers to “some concentrations, as relative to frequency and
distribution, of hereditary particles (genes) and physical characters, which appear,
fluctuate, and often disappear in the course of time by reason of geographic and or
cultural isolation.

Gender Issues in the Philippines

There are several women's issues in education, training and employment in the
Philippines. During the study tour in October, 2006; the level of effectiveness and
necessity of TESDA Women's Center was examined. Gender issues and TESDA
Women's Center's functions and objectives are to be introduced.
In the Philippines, there is a limited access of women to non-traditional technical-
vocational courses, such as automotive technology, industrial electrician, building
wiring electrician and others. Besides, there is a low absorption rate of women in the
labor market; while the labor force participation rate for males is 82 percent, it is 50.36
percent for females.
The total share of employment is 62.2 percent for males and 37.8 percent for
females. Inadequate social protection for women and lack of promotion of women's
welfare is also an issue in the Philippines. The Governments of the Philippines and
 Japan began in 1993 regarding the construction of a women's vocational training center
in the Philippines.
The TESDA Women's Center aims at developing highly skilled, globally
competitive women workers and forges a conductive environment that expands
women's choices. The available pre- employment training programs are mentioned
below:
1.General Automotive Mechanic Course
2. Jewelry Making
3. Ceramics
4. Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
5. Consumer Electronics
6. Food Processing
7. Gifts, Toys and House wares
8. Hotel

Gender Identity

Gender identity (or core gender identity ) is a person's own sense of identification
as male or female. It was originally a medical term used to explain sex reassignment
procedures to the public. The term is also found in psychology, often as core gender
identity. Sociology, gender studies and feminism are still inclined to refer to gender
identity, gender role and erotic preference under the catch-all term gender.
Gender identity is affected by & quot; genetic, prenatal hormonal, postnatal
social, and post pubertal hormonal determinants.“ Biological factors include the influence
of testosterone and gene regulation in brain cells. Social factors are primarily based on
the family, as gender identity is thought to be formed by the third year of life.
The fourth module, Fundamentals of Ghana’s Democratic Systems is scheduled on 2nd and
3rd June, 2018.
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