Learning objectives

1. Knowledge of the basic aeroacoustics terminology and equations

2. Understanding of the mathematical framework behind the solution of the far field noise
3. Be able to describe and analyze the different aeroacoustic analogies between flow and acoustics
Introduction to aeroacoustic analogies
Before embarking in the fundamentals of aeroacoustic analogies we go back to the concept of
Green’s function.

We define a listener region 𝑥𝑝 and a source region 𝑥𝑠

P
𝑥𝑃 − 𝑥𝑆
𝑥3 𝑥𝑃
S
O 𝑥𝑆
𝑥2
𝑥1
Introduction to aeroacoustic analogies
We make use of the Green’s function to find the integral solution of the radiated sound in many
aeroacoustic analogies. The Green’s function for the equation:
P
1 𝜕2 2 𝑝 = F(𝑥 , 𝑡)
𝑥𝑃 − 𝑥𝑆
− 𝛻 𝑃 𝑥3 𝑥𝑃
𝑐 2 𝜕𝑡 2 S
O 𝑥𝑆
𝑥2
is the solution G 𝑥𝑃 , 𝑥𝑠 , 𝑡 − 𝜏 that: 𝑥1

1 𝜕2
2 2
− 𝛻 2 G = δ 𝑥𝑃 − 𝑥𝑠 δ 𝑡 − 𝜏
𝑐 𝜕𝑡

The solution to the equation is known to be (Abramowitz and Stegun 1965): Wave with speed c:

1 𝑥𝑃 − 𝑥𝑠 • Impulsive
G 𝑥𝑃 , 𝑥𝑠 , 𝑡 − 𝜏 = δ 𝑡−𝜏−
4𝜋 𝑥𝑃 − 𝑥𝑠 𝑐 • Spherical
• Symmetric
Introduction to aeroacoustic analogies
The solution of the inhomogeneous equation in an unbounded fluid can be found by noticing
the definition of the source at the listener location:
P
+∞
𝑥𝑃 − 𝑥𝑆
F 𝑥𝑃 , 𝑡 = F 𝑥𝑆 , 𝜏 δ 𝑥𝑃 − 𝑥𝑠 δ 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑 3 𝑥𝑠 𝑑𝜏 𝑥3 𝑥𝑃
−∞ S
O 𝑥𝑆
𝑥2
from which we can replace the definitions: 𝑥1

1 𝜕2 To obtain:
2 2
− 𝛻 2 𝑝 = F(𝑥𝑃 , 𝑡) +∞
𝑐 𝜕𝑡
p 𝑥𝑃 , 𝑡 = F 𝑥𝑆 , 𝜏 G 𝑥𝑃 , 𝑥𝑠 , 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑 3 𝑥𝑠 𝑑𝜏
1 𝜕2 −∞
− 𝛻 2 G = δ 𝑥𝑃 − 𝑥𝑠 δ 𝑡 − 𝜏
2
𝑐 𝜕𝑡 2 which re-arranged:
𝑥𝑃 − 𝑥𝑠
+∞ F 𝑥𝑆 , 𝑡 −
1 𝑐
Retarded potential equation 𝑝 𝑥𝑃 , 𝑡 = 𝑑 3 𝑥𝑠
4𝜋 −∞ 𝑥𝑃 − 𝑥𝑠
Introduction to aeroacoustic analogies
P
𝑥𝑃 − 𝑥𝑆
𝑥3 𝑥𝑃
S
O 𝑥𝑆
𝑥2
𝑥1

𝑥𝑃 − 𝑥𝑠 Contribution at the source are

+∞ F 𝑥𝑆 , 𝑡 −
1 𝑐 summed at a retarded time
𝑝 𝑥𝑃 , 𝑡 = 𝑑 3 𝑥𝑠
4𝜋 −∞ 𝑥𝑃 − 𝑥𝑠 accounting for the distance of the
receiver.
Contribution from the source are
summed and cumulated at the time The position is still the one of the
t at the receiver. source.
Introduction to aeroacoustic analogies
Let’s imagine that the source is localized and that the coordinate system is in the region with
the listener far away

𝑥𝑃 − 𝑥𝑆 𝑥3
P S 𝑥𝑆
𝑥𝑃
F 𝑥𝑃 , 𝑡 ≠ 0 in source region O 𝑥2
Hp: 𝑥𝑃 → ∞ 𝑥1
𝑥𝑆 /𝑥𝑃 ≪ 1

A far field approximation can be derived considering:

1
2 2
2 2
1 2𝑥𝑃 ∙ 𝑥𝑆 𝑥𝑆 According to
𝑥𝑃 − 𝑥𝑆 = 𝑥𝑃 − 2𝑥𝑃 ∙ 𝑥𝑆 + 𝑥𝑆 2 = 𝑥𝑃 1 − + Taylor’s
𝑥𝑃 2 𝑥𝑃
2 expansion
𝑥𝑃 ∙ 𝑥𝑆 𝑥𝑆
≈ 𝑥𝑃 1− +𝑂
𝑥𝑃 2 𝑥𝑃
Introduction to aeroacoustic analogies
Let’s imagine that the source is localized and that the coordinate system is in the region with
the listener far away

𝑥𝑃 − 𝑥𝑆 𝑥3
P S 𝑥
𝑆
𝑥𝑃
F 𝑥𝑃 , 𝑡 ≠ 0 in source region O 𝑥2
Hp: 𝑥𝑃 → ∞ 𝑥1
𝑥𝑆 /𝑥𝑃 ≪ 1

One interesting result is then:

𝑥𝑃 ∙ 𝑥𝑆
𝑥𝑃 − 𝑥𝑆 ≈ 𝑥𝑃 1 − , if 𝑥𝑆 /𝑥𝑃 ≪ 1
𝑥𝑃 2 With the same reasoning,
Taylor’s expansion allows
1 1 𝑥𝑃 ∙ 𝑥𝑆 1 to write:
≈ + ≈ , if 𝑥𝑆 /𝑥𝑃 ≪ 1
𝑥𝑃 − 𝑥𝑆 𝑥𝑃 𝑥𝑃 3 𝑥𝑃
Introduction to aeroacoustic analogies
Let’s imagine that the source is localized and that the coordinate system is in the region with
the listener far away

𝑥𝑃 − 𝑥𝑆 𝑥3
P S𝑥
𝑆
𝑥𝑃
O 𝑥2
𝑥1
F 𝑥𝑃 , 𝑡 ≠ 0 in source region
Hp: 𝑥𝑃 → ∞
𝑥𝑆 /𝑥𝑃 ≪ 1

By substituting the approximations in the equation we obtain:

+∞
1 𝑥𝑃 𝑥𝑃 ∙ 𝑥𝑆 3
𝑝 𝑥𝑃 , 𝑡 = 𝐹 𝑥𝑆 , 𝑡 − + 𝑑 𝑥𝑠
4𝜋 𝑥𝑃 −∞ 𝑐 𝑐 ∙ 𝑥𝑃
 Introduction to aeroacoustic analogies
Let’s imagine that the source is localized and that the coordinate system is in the region with
the listener far away

𝑥𝑃 − 𝑥𝑆 𝑥3
P S 𝑥
𝑆
𝑥𝑃
The equation is important: O
+∞
𝑥2
1 𝑥𝑃 𝑥𝑃 ∙ 𝑥𝑆 3 𝑥1
𝑝 𝑥𝑃 , 𝑡 = 𝐹 𝑥𝑆 , 𝑡 − + 𝑑 𝑥𝑠
4𝜋 𝑥𝑃 −∞ 𝑐 𝑐 ∙ 𝑥𝑃

For compact For NON

sources this compact
term ~0 sources this
term ≠ 0
Effect of boundaries
With solid boundaries, extra distributions of monopoles/dipoles need to be added to the
solution, to ensure the impenetrability of the surface.
One possible strategy to avoid additional integrals is the use of a tailored Green’s function:

1 𝜕2 2
𝜕G
− 𝛻 G = δ 𝑥𝑃 − 𝑥𝑠 δ 𝑡 − 𝜏 , =0
𝑐 2 𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑥𝑃𝑛
Finding an analytical solution for a specific geometry is rather difficult; however, few special
cases exist:
P
𝑥𝑃 − 𝑥𝑆

Source image 𝑥3 𝑥𝑃
S
method 𝑥2
O 𝑥𝑆
𝑥1
 Effect of boundaries
Source image P

method 𝑥𝑃 − 𝑥𝑆
𝑥3 𝑥𝑃
S
𝑥2
O 𝑥𝑆
𝑥1

A source image is located at the mirrored source

location and it contributes to the distribution at
the listener one.
In case of the infinite plane wall:

1 𝑥𝑃 − 𝑥𝑠 1 𝑥𝑃′ − 𝑥𝑠
G 𝑥𝑃 , 𝑥𝑠 , 𝑡 − 𝜏 = δ 𝑡−𝜏− + δ 𝑡−𝜏−
4𝜋 𝑥𝑃 − 𝑥𝑠 𝑐 4𝜋 𝑥𝑃′ − 𝑥𝑠 𝑐
where:
𝑥𝑃′ = 𝑥1 , −𝑥2 , 𝑥3 Location of the image listener
Effect of boundaries
In the special case of compact sources (size < wavelength of emitted sound) an approximate
solution called the Compact Green’s function can be found.

We start with the reciprocal theorem (Rayleigh 1894)

Hp.: Given a compact body with respect to a source in free space
The potential at the listener location P produced by the point source at S is equal to the potential
at the listener location S produced by the point source at P. S
𝑥3

G 𝑥𝑃 , 𝑥𝑠 , 𝑡 − 𝜏 = G 𝑥𝑠 , 𝑥𝑃 , 𝑡 − 𝜏 O 𝑥1
S 𝑥2
The theorem can be used under the assumption of: 𝑛

1) reference system O on the solid body

2) source point in proximity of the body: 𝑥𝑆 ~𝑙
3) a listener point in the far field: 𝑥𝑆 /𝑥𝑃 ≪ 1
4) an acoustically compact body: 𝑙/𝜆 ≪ 1
Effect of boundaries
We look for the solution of (with reciprocal theorem):
1 𝜕2 𝜕G
2 2 − 𝛻 2 G 𝑥𝑆 , 𝑥𝑃 , 𝑡 − 𝜏 = δ 𝑥𝑆 − 𝑥𝑃 δ 𝑡 − 𝜏 , =0
𝑐 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥𝑆𝑛

where the source is now at the location 𝑥𝑃 in the far field and G 𝑥𝑆 , 𝑥𝑃 , 𝑡 − 𝜏 is defined as a
function of 𝑥𝑆 close to the surface of the body.
S
𝑥3
We split the function in two components:
O 𝑥1

G 𝑥𝑃 , 𝑥𝑠 , 𝑡 − 𝜏 = G0 𝑥𝑠 , 𝑥𝑃 , 𝑡 − 𝜏 + G1 𝑥𝑠 , 𝑥𝑃 , 𝑡 − 𝜏 S 𝑥2
𝑛

free-space solution potential due to

with no body impingement on the body
and we apply the far-field approximations:
 Effect of boundaries
We look for the solution of (with reciprocal theorem):

2
1 𝑥𝑃 𝑥𝑃 ∙ 𝑥𝑆 𝑥𝑆
G0 𝑥𝑠 , 𝑥𝑃 , 𝑡 − 𝜏 = δ 𝑡−𝜏− + 𝑂
4𝜋 𝑥𝑃 𝑐 𝑐 𝑥𝑃 𝑥𝑃
2
1 𝑥𝑃 𝑥𝑃 ∙ 𝑥𝑆 𝑥𝑃 𝑥𝑆
≈ 𝛿 𝑡−𝜏− + 𝛿′ 𝑡 − 𝜏 − +𝑂 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 + 𝑈 ∙ 𝑥𝑆
4𝜋 𝑥𝑃 𝑐 𝑐 𝑥𝑃 𝑐 𝑥𝑃

conventional derivative of the

term Dirac
For the second part of the solution we can neglect the distortion due to the flow and consider the correction as:
∗
1 𝑥𝑃 𝜑∗ 𝑥𝑃
G1 𝑥𝑠 , 𝑥𝑃 , 𝑡 − 𝜏 = −𝑈𝜑 𝑥𝑠 = − 𝛿′ 𝑡 − 𝜏 −
4𝜋 𝑥𝑃 𝑐 𝑥𝑃 𝑐

Combining the two contributions: G 𝑥𝑠 , 𝑥𝑃 , 𝑡 − 𝜏 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 + 𝑈 ∙ 𝑥𝑆 − 𝜑∗ 𝜏(𝑥𝑆 )

Effect of boundaries
The contribution: 𝑥𝑆 − 𝜑∗ 𝜏(𝑥𝑆 )

is generally referred to as Kirchhoff vector for the body and its components are known to be
the velocity potentials of incompressible flows past the body having a unit speed far away from
the surface.

The analysis allows to modify the Green function at the boundary avoiding adding extra
integrals for the solution of the pressure fluctuations.
Acoustic analogies
Different analogies exist to relate the flow properties to the acoustic ones.

Lighthill 1952
Curle 1955
Continuity Solid
equation boundaries
Rotational and
Momentum free flows
equation

Ffowcs and Sound from

Hawkings 1969 objects
Moving objects
and generic
surfaces
Acoustic analogies
Lighthill 1952
The mechanisms of vorticity production are ignored and the problem reduces to the study of the
conversion of kinetic energy due to rotational motion into acoustic waves.

The fluid is supposed at rest in the far field, 𝑝∞ , 𝜌∞ , 𝑐∞

In a non-uniform flow region conservation of mass and momentum:

𝜕(𝜌 − 𝜌∞ ) 𝜕𝑢𝑗
+ 𝜌 − 𝜌∞ =0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥𝑗
𝜕𝑢𝑖 𝜕𝑢𝑖 𝜕(𝑝 − 𝑝∞ ) 𝜕𝜎𝑖𝑗
𝜌 − 𝜌∞ + 𝑢𝑗 =− +
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝜕𝑥𝑗
By multiplication time ui and sum we obtain the Reynolds form of the equation:

𝜕𝜌𝑢𝑖 𝜕
=− 𝑝 − 𝑝∞ 𝛿𝑖𝑗 + 𝜌𝑢𝑖 𝑢𝑗 − 𝜎𝑖𝑗
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥𝑗
 Acoustic analogies
𝜕𝜌𝑢𝑖 𝜕
=− 𝑝 − 𝑝∞ 𝛿𝑖𝑗 + 𝜌𝑢𝑖 𝑢𝑗 − 𝜎𝑖𝑗
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥𝑗

For an ideal acoustic medium we can neglect viscosity and turbulence to obtain:

𝜕𝜌𝑢𝑖 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
=− 𝑝 − 𝑝∞ 𝛿𝑖𝑗 = − 𝑝 − 𝑝∞ − (𝜌 − 𝜌∞ )𝑐∞ 2
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑗

From continuity again:

𝜕(𝜌 − 𝜌∞ ) 𝜕𝑢𝑗 1 𝜕2
+ (𝜌 − 𝜌∞ ) =0 2 2
− 𝛻 2 (𝜌 − 𝜌∞ )𝑐∞ 2 = 0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝑐∞ 𝜕𝑡
We know subtract the first equation to generalize the governing equation, and by eliminating
from continuity 𝜌𝑢𝑖 we get:
2𝑇 Lighthill equation with Lightill stress sensor
1 𝜕2 2 2 =
𝜕 𝑖𝑗
2 2
− 𝛻 (𝜌 − 𝜌 ∞ )𝑐 ∞ 𝑇𝑖𝑗 = 𝜌𝑢𝑖 𝑢𝑗 + (𝑝 − 𝑝∞ ) − (𝜌 − 𝜌∞ )𝑐∞ 2 𝛿𝑖𝑗 − 𝜎𝑖𝑗
𝑐∞ 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝜕𝑥𝑗
 Acoustic analogies
1 𝜕2 𝜕 2 𝑇𝑖𝑗 Lighthill equation with Lightill stress sensor
2 2
− 𝛻2 (𝜌 − 𝜌∞ )𝑐∞ 2
= 𝑇𝑖𝑗 = 𝜌𝑢𝑖 𝑢𝑗 + (𝑝 − 𝑝∞ ) − (𝜌 − 𝜌∞ )𝑐∞ 2 𝛿𝑖𝑗 − 𝜎𝑖𝑗
𝑐∞ 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝜕𝑥𝑗
Lighthill shows that the sound generated by turbulence is equivalent to the solution for the radiation into
an ideal stationary acoustic medium produced by quadrupoles in the tensor T.

The solution is found by using the free space Green’s function introduced before:

𝑥𝑃 − 𝑥𝑠
+∞ 𝑇𝑖𝑗 𝑥𝑆 , 𝑡 −
2
1 𝜕2 𝑐∞
𝑐∞ 𝜌 − 𝜌∞ = 𝑝 − 𝑝∞ = 𝑑 3 𝑥𝑠
4𝜋 𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝜕𝑥𝑗 −∞ 𝑥𝑃 − 𝑥𝑠
Acoustic analogies
Ffowcs William-Hawkings and Curle
Control surfaces are introduced for practical cases with moving or fixed boundaries. We define a
control surface S defined by a function f :

𝑓 𝑥, 𝑡 > 0

𝑆
𝑛 We want to solve Lighthill’s
𝑓 𝑥, 𝑡 < 0 equation on the surface
defined by f
𝑓 𝑥, 𝑡 = 0

𝐻 = 1, 𝑓 > 0
A Heaviside function: 𝐻 𝑓 : is defined so that for every function A outside S
𝐻 = 0, 𝑓 < 0

+∞
𝜕𝐻 3
𝐴 (𝑥 ) 𝑑 𝑥= 𝐴 𝑥 𝑛𝑗 𝑑𝑆 = 𝐴 𝑥 𝑑𝑆𝑗
−∞ 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝑆 𝑆
Acoustic analogies 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑡 > 0
We use now the Reynolds form: 𝑆
𝑛
𝑓 𝑥, 𝑡 < 0
𝜕𝜌𝑢𝑖 𝜕
=− (𝑝 − 𝑝∞ )𝛿𝑖𝑗 + 𝜌𝑢𝑖 𝑢𝑗 − 𝜎𝑖𝑗
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥𝑗
and the Lighthill’s tensor. With 𝑢𝑗 as velocity of S: 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑡 = 0
𝜕 𝜌𝑢𝑖 𝐻 𝜕
+ 𝜌𝑢𝑖 𝐻(𝜌 − 𝜌∞ )𝑐∞ 2
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥𝑖
𝜕 𝜕𝐻
=− 𝐻𝑇𝑖𝑗 + 𝜌𝑢𝑖 𝑢𝑗 − 𝑢𝑗 + (𝑝 − 𝑝∞ )𝛿𝑖𝑗 − 𝜎𝑖𝑗
𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑗

𝜕𝐻 𝜕𝐻
We also multiply the continuity equation, and we set −𝑢𝑗 𝜕𝑥 = 𝜕𝑡
to obtain:
𝑗
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝐻
𝐻(𝜌 − 𝜌∞ ) + 𝐻𝜌𝑢𝑖 = 𝜌 𝑢𝑖 − 𝑢𝑖 + 𝜌∞ 𝑢𝑖
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝜕𝑥𝑖

From which by removing 𝐻𝜌𝑢𝑖 as done in Lighthill’s equation we obtain:

 Acoustic analogies 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑡 > 0
From which by removing 𝐻𝜌𝑢𝑖 as done in Lighthill’s
equation we obtain: 𝑆
𝑛
𝑓 𝑥, 𝑡 < 0
FFOWCS WILLIAM HAWKINGS ANALOGY
1 𝜕2 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑡 = 0
2 2
− 𝛻 2 𝐻𝑐∞ 2 𝜌 − 𝜌∞
𝑐∞ 𝜕𝑡
𝜕 2 ℎ𝑇𝑖𝑗 𝜕 𝜕𝐻 𝜕 𝜕𝐻
= − 𝜌𝑢𝑖 𝑢𝑗 − 𝑢𝑗 + 𝑝 − 𝑝∞ 𝛿𝑖𝑗 − 𝜎𝑖𝑗 + 𝜌 𝑢𝑗 − 𝑢𝑗 + 𝜌∞ 𝑢𝑗
𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥𝑗
Due to the Heaviside function the equation is valid everywhere!!!
The solution can be found using again a free space Green’s function:

𝐻𝑐∞ 2 𝜌 − 𝜌∞ )
𝜕2 𝑇𝑖𝑗 𝑑3 𝑥𝑠 𝜕 𝑑𝑆𝑗 𝑥𝑠
𝜏
= − 𝜌𝑢𝑖 𝑢𝑗 − 𝑢𝑗 + 𝑝 − 𝑝∞ 𝛿𝑖𝑗 − 𝜎𝑖𝑗
𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝑉(𝜏) 4𝜋 𝑥𝑃 − 𝑥𝑠 𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝑆(𝜏) 𝜏 4𝜋 𝑥𝑃 − 𝑥𝑠

𝜕 𝑑𝑆𝑗 𝑥𝑠
+ 𝜌 𝑢𝑗 − 𝑢𝑗 + 𝜌∞ 𝑢𝑗
𝜕𝑡 𝑆(𝜏) 𝜏 4𝜋 𝑥𝑃 − 𝑥𝑠
Acoustic analogies
If S is stationary we obtain CURLE’S EQUATION (𝑢 = 0):

𝐻𝑐∞ 2 𝜌 − 𝜌∞ )
𝜕2 𝑇𝑖𝑗 𝜏 𝑑 3 𝑥𝑠 𝜕 𝑑𝑆𝑗 𝑥𝑠
= − 𝜌𝑢𝑖 𝑢𝑗 + 𝑝 − 𝑝∞ 𝛿𝑖𝑗 − 𝜎𝑖𝑗
𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝑉(𝜏) 4𝜋
𝑥𝑃 − 𝑥𝑠 𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝑆(𝜏) 𝜏 4𝜋 𝑥𝑃 − 𝑥𝑠

𝜕 𝑑𝑆𝑗 𝑥𝑠
+ 𝜌𝑢
𝜕𝑡 𝑆(𝜏) 𝑗 𝜏 4𝜋 𝑥𝑃 − 𝑥𝑠

Dipole on the surface+ Quadrupoles on the volume

Change in time of the surface

Curle also demonstrated that the ratio between the intensity of the quadrupole source term and the
dipole one is proportional to the M 2. Therefore Curle showed that for low Mach number the surface
integral has the main contribution.
Acoustic analogies
Other analogies exist on the basis of Powell and Howe based upon fluidynamic quantities:
Conservation of momentum in Crocco’s form can be written by noticing that:

𝛻 × 𝛻 × 𝐴 = 𝛻 𝛻 ∙ 𝐴 − 𝛻2𝐴

𝜕𝑢 𝑑𝑝 𝜇 4
+ 𝑢∙𝛻 𝑢+𝛻 = − 𝛻×𝜔− 𝛻 𝛻∙𝑢
𝜕𝑡 𝜌 𝜆 3 Omega is the vorticity vector:
𝜔 = 𝛻×𝑢
𝜕𝑢 𝜇 4 With the identity:
+ 𝜔 × 𝑢 + 𝛻𝐻𝑇 = − 𝛻 × 𝜔 − 𝛻 𝛻 ∙ 𝑢
𝜕𝑡 𝜆 3 1 2
𝑑𝑝 1 2 𝑢∙𝛻 𝑢 = 𝜔×𝑢+𝛻 𝑢
2
𝐻𝑇 = + 𝑢
𝜌 2 Lamb vector Crocco’s form of the
Navier-Stokes equations
Total enthalphy
We start modifying Crocco’s relation to get the vortex sound equation, we multiply by the density
and we take the divergence
Acoustic analogies
Other analogies exist on the basis of Powell and Howe based upon fluidynamic quantities:

𝜕𝑢
𝛻∙ 𝜌 + 𝛻 ∙ 𝜌𝛻𝐻𝑇 = −𝛻 ∙ 𝜌 𝜔 × 𝑢
𝜕𝑡
To obtain the acoustic pressure we can differentiate in time the total enthalpy and using Crocco’s
equation:
1 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝐻𝑇 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝐻𝑇 𝜇 𝐷𝐻𝑇 𝜇
= −𝑢∙ = − 𝑢 ∙ − 𝜔 × 𝑢 − 𝛻𝐻𝑇 − 𝛻 × 𝜔 = + 𝑢∙ 𝛻×𝜔
𝜌 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜆 𝐷𝑡 𝜆

From the first equation above we can get instead the vortex sound equation by rearranging the continuity
(and the first term):

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕 𝜕𝑢 𝜕 1 𝜕𝜌 𝜕 1
𝛻∙ 𝜌 = 𝛻𝜌 ∙ +𝜌∙ 𝛻 ∙ 𝑢 = 𝛻𝜌 ∙ −𝜌∙ −𝜌∙ 𝑢 𝛻𝜌
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜌 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜌
𝐷 1 𝜕𝜌 𝐷 1 𝜕𝑝 𝐷 1 𝐷𝐻𝑇
= −𝜌 ∙ = −𝜌 ∙ = −𝜌 ∙
𝐷𝑡 𝜌 𝜕𝑡 𝐷𝑡 𝜌𝑐 2 𝜕𝑡 𝐷𝑡 𝑐 2 𝐷𝑡
Acoustic analogies
We can finally obtain from substituting the vortex sound equation:

𝐷 1 𝐷 1 1
− 𝛻 ∙ 𝜌𝛻 𝐵 = 𝛻∙ 𝜌𝜔×𝑢
𝐷𝑡 𝑐 2 𝐷𝑡 𝜌 𝜌

Solutions of this equations have been found in the free space with Green’s function:
𝑥𝑃 − 𝑥𝑠
+∞ 𝜔 × 𝑢 𝑥𝑆 , 𝑡 −
𝜌∞ 𝑐
𝜌∞ 𝐻𝑇 𝑥𝑃 , 𝑡 = 𝑝 𝑥𝑃 , 𝑡 = 𝑑 3 𝑥𝑠
4𝜋 −∞ 𝑥𝑃 − 𝑥𝑠

And later by Howe for a control surface S with a taylored Green’s function having a non
permeability condition:

𝜕𝐺
𝜌∞ 𝐻𝑇 𝑥𝑃 , 𝑡 = 𝑝 𝑥𝑃 , 𝑡 = −𝜌∞ 𝜔 × 𝑢 𝑥𝑆 , 𝜏 ∙ 𝑥𝑃 , 𝑥𝑆 , 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑 3 𝑥𝑠 𝑑𝜏
𝑉 𝜕𝑥𝑠