4.

1 Transmission problems
ISVR6136 Fundamentals of Acoustics
Contents
1. Oblique transmission
2. Finite-layer transmission
3. Reactive silencer
4.1.1 Oblique transmission
Oblique-incidence fluid transmission
෨ −j𝐤 𝑅 ⋅𝐱
𝐵e

𝜃𝐼

ሚ −j𝐤 𝑇 ⋅𝐱
𝐶e

ሚ −j𝐤 𝐼⋅𝐱
𝐴e

• 2D problem – no 𝑧-dependence
• Wavenumbers satisfy 𝐤𝐼 = 𝐤𝑅 = 𝑘1 = 𝜔Τ𝑐1 and 𝐤 𝑇 = 𝑘2 = 𝜔Τ𝑐2
• Given 𝐴ሚ and 𝐤𝐼 what are 𝐵,
෨ 𝐤𝑅 , 𝐶,
ሚ 𝐤𝑇?
4
Wavevector components
• Incident wavevector ,

• Reflected wavevector ,

• Transmitted wavevector
• The components in the 𝑥 and 𝑦 directions are related by
𝐤 𝐼 = 𝐤 𝑅 = 𝑘1 and 𝐤 𝑇 = 𝑘2 so
Pressure matching
• Matching pressure at the interface with 𝑃෨1 0, 𝑦 = 𝑃෨2 0, 𝑦 gives

ሚ −j𝑘𝐼𝑦𝑦 + 𝐵e
𝐴e ෨ −j𝑘𝑅𝑦𝑦 = 𝐶e ሚ −j𝑘𝑇𝑦𝑦
• For the pressures to match we require 𝑘𝑇𝑦 = 𝑘𝑅𝑦 = 𝑘𝐼𝑦
• This gives
𝐴ሚ + 𝐵෨ e−j𝑘𝐼𝑦𝑦 = 𝐶e ሚ −j𝑘𝐼𝑦𝑦
or
𝐴ሚ + 𝐵෨ = 𝐶ሚ

• Dividing by 𝐴ሚ gives 1 + 𝑅෨𝑝 = 𝑇෨𝑝

Reflected wavevector

• We have

• For the reflected wave we have 𝑘𝑅𝑦 = 𝑘𝐼𝑦 = 𝑘1 sin 𝜃𝐼 , and

• The negative sign gives waves moving away from the interface
so 𝑘𝑅𝑥 = −𝑘1 cos 𝜃𝐼 = −𝑘𝐼𝑥
Normal velocity matching
෩ 𝑈෩
• Velocity is a vector 𝐔 =
𝑉෨
ሚ −j𝐤 𝐼 ⋅𝐱 𝑘𝐼𝑥
𝐴e ෨ −j𝐤 𝑅 ⋅𝐱 −𝑘𝐼𝑥
𝐵e
෩1 𝑥, 𝑦 =
𝐔 +
𝜌1 𝑐1 𝑘1 𝐼𝑦𝑘 𝜌1 𝑐1 𝑘1 𝑘𝐼𝑦

ሚ −j𝐤 𝑇 ⋅𝐱 𝑘 𝑇𝑥
𝐶e
𝐔෩2 𝑥, 𝑦 =
𝜌2 𝑐2 𝑘2 𝑘 𝑇𝑦
෩1 0, 𝑦 = 𝑈
• Matching 𝑈 ෩2 0, 𝑦 gives

𝑘𝐼𝑥 𝑘 𝑇𝑥
ሚ ෨
𝐴−𝐵 = 𝐶ሚ
𝜌1 𝑐1 𝑘1 𝜌2 𝑐2 𝑘2
Solution
• Eliminating 𝐶ሚ gives

• We know that 𝑘𝐼𝑥 = 𝑘1 cos 𝜃𝐼 so

𝑘1 𝜌1𝑐1
𝜌1𝑐1 =
𝑘𝐼𝑥 cos 𝜃𝐼
• What is 𝑘𝑇𝑥 ?
Transmitted wavevector
• In the 𝑦-direction we have 𝑘𝑇𝑦 = 𝑘𝐼𝑦 = 𝑘1 sin 𝜃𝐼
• In the 𝑥-direction we have
𝑘𝑇𝑥 = ± 𝑘22 − 𝑘𝑇𝑦
2
= ± 𝑘22 − 𝑘𝐼𝑦
2

• If 𝑐2 < 𝑐1 (e.g. liquid → gas) then 𝑘2 > 𝑘1 and 𝑘𝑇𝑥 is real for all 𝜃𝐼
• If 𝑐2 > 𝑐1 (e.g. gas → liquid) then 𝑘𝑇𝑥 will only be real when 𝜃𝐼 is
less than the critical angle 𝜃𝑐 = sin−1 𝑘2Τ𝑘1 = sin−1 𝑐1Τ𝑐2
Angles
• When 𝑘𝑇𝑥 is real we can take 𝑘𝑇𝑥 to be positive and define
𝜃𝑇 = tan−1 𝑘𝑇𝑦 Τ𝑘𝑇𝑥

• Then and is the angle between

the direction of propagation of 𝐶eሚ −j𝐤𝑇 ⋅𝐱 and the normal to the
interface
• Rearranginging 𝑘1 sin 𝜃𝐼 = 𝑘2 sin 𝜃𝑇 give’s Snell’s law
 Angles
• If 𝑐2 < 𝑐1 (e.g. liquid → gas) then 𝜃𝑇 < 𝜃𝐼 i.e. the normal to the
wavefronts is refracted towards the normal to the interface
• If 𝑐2 > 𝑐1 (e.g. gas → liquid) then 𝜃𝑇 > 𝜃𝐼 i.e. the normal to the
wavefronts is refracted away from the normal to the interface
• If 𝜃𝐼 is the critical angle 𝜃𝑐 = sin−1 𝑐1Τ𝑐2 then 𝜃𝑇 = 𝜋Τ2 and 𝑘𝑇𝑦 =
0
𝑐1 > 𝑐2 𝑐1 < 𝑐2 𝑐1 < 𝑐2

𝜃𝑇 𝜃𝑅
𝜃𝑅 𝜃𝑅
𝜃𝑇 𝜃𝑇

𝜃𝐼 Transmitted wave 𝜃𝐼 Transmitted wave 𝜃𝐼 = 𝜃𝑐 When 𝜃𝐼 = 𝜃𝑐,

is refracted is refracted away 𝜃𝑇 = 𝜋 Τ2
towards the normal from the normal
Imaginary wavenumber component
• When 𝑐2 > 𝑐1 and 𝜃𝐼 > 𝜃𝑐 let 𝑘𝑇𝑥 = ± 𝑘22 − 𝑘12 sin2 𝜃𝐼 = −j𝛽
ሚ −j𝐤𝑇⋅𝐱 correspond to?
• What wave does 𝐶e

ሚ −j𝐤 𝑇⋅𝐱 = 𝐶e
𝐶e ሚ −j 𝑘𝑇𝑥𝑥+𝑘𝑇𝑦𝑦

ሚ −j
= 𝐶e −j𝛽𝑥+𝑘1𝑦 sin 𝜃𝐼

ሚ −j𝑘1𝑦 sin 𝜃𝐼 −𝛽𝑥

= 𝐶e

ሚ −j𝑘1𝑦 sin 𝜃𝐼 e−𝛽𝑥

= 𝐶e
• The transmitted wave progresses in the 𝑦-direction and evanesces
in the 𝑥- direction
Evanescent wave
Trace velocity
• Question 1: at what speed 𝑐𝑦 do waves propagate along the
interface (sometimes called the trace velocity)?
• Answer: we have 𝑘𝐼𝑦 = 𝑘1 sin 𝜃𝐼, and 𝑘𝐼𝑦 = 𝜔Τ𝑐𝑦 , so

𝜔 𝑐1
𝑐𝑦 = =
𝑘1 sin 𝜃𝐼 sin 𝜃𝐼

• Question 2: what is 𝑐𝑦 when 𝜃𝐼 = 𝜃𝑐 ?

• Answer: sin 𝜃𝑐 = 𝑐1Τ𝑐2 so at the critical angle 𝑐𝑦 = 𝑐2
• Conclusion: in order for waves to propagate in fluid 2 the waves
travelling along the interface must be supersonic in that fluid
Reflection factor, propagating
• Our reflection factor is

• If 𝜃𝐼 < 𝜃𝑐 then 𝑘𝑇𝑥 = 𝑘2 sin 𝜃𝑇 so that

Reflection factor, evanescing
• If 𝜃𝐼 > 𝜃𝑐 then 𝑘𝑇𝑥 = −j 𝑘12 sin2 𝜃𝐼 − 𝑘22
2
• It can be shown that 𝑅𝐼 = 𝑅෨𝑝 = 1 whenever 𝜃𝐼 > 𝜃𝑐
• This is called total internal reflection
• The evanescent field in fluid 2 does not transport any energy
away from the interface in the steady state
• In a transient problem, e.g. time-harmonic motion starts from
rest at some time, some energy would be consumed in setting
up the evanescent field
4.1.2 Finite-layer
transmission

18
Normal incidence transmission through a
layer

ሚ j
𝐴e 𝜔𝑡−𝑘1𝑥 ሚ j
𝐶e 𝜔𝑡−𝑘2𝑥

෨ j
𝐸e 𝜔𝑡−𝑘3 𝑥

෨ j
𝐵e 𝜔𝑡+𝑘1 𝑥 ෩ ej
𝐷 𝜔𝑡+𝑘2 𝑥

𝑥=0 𝑥=𝐿

• Since the middle medium only experiences pure compressive

strain it could be a solid instead of a fluid 19
Spatial factors of fields
• 𝑃෨1 𝑥 = 𝐴e
ሚ −j𝑘1 𝑥 + 𝐵e
෨ j𝑘1 𝑥
•𝑈 ෩1 𝑥 = 𝐴e
ሚ −j𝑘1 𝑥 − 𝐵e
෨ j𝑘1 𝑥 Τ 𝑧1 , 𝑧1 = 𝜌1 𝑐1 etc

• 𝑃෨2 𝑥 = 𝐶e
ሚ −j𝑘2 𝑥 + 𝐷e
෩ j𝑘2 𝑥
•𝑈 ෩2 𝑥 = 𝐶e
ሚ −j𝑘2 𝑥 − 𝐷e
෩ j𝑘2 𝑥 Τ𝑧2

• 𝑃෨3 𝑥 = 𝐸e
෨ −j𝑘3 𝑥
•𝑈 ෩3 𝑥 = 𝐸e
෨ −j𝑘3 𝑥 Τ𝑧3
Matching conditions
• If pressure and velocity are continuous at the interfaces then
their ratio, the specific acoustic impedance, must also be
continuous
Amplitude reflection, intensity
transmission
• After some algebra we get

• Since there are no losses

2
the intensity transmission factor must be
𝑇𝐼 = 1 − 𝑅𝐼 = 1 − 𝑅෨𝑝 , so

4
𝑇𝐼 = 2
𝑧3 𝑧1 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
2 + 𝑧 + 𝑧 cos 2 𝑘2 𝐿 + 𝑧 2𝑧 + 1 23 sin2 𝑘2𝐿
1 3 1 3 𝑧2
Special cases and asymptotics
4
𝑇𝐼 = 2
𝑧3 𝑧1 2 𝑧2 𝑧1𝑧3
2+ + cos 𝑘2 𝐿 + + 2 sin2 𝑘2 𝐿
𝑧1 𝑧3 𝑧1𝑧3 𝑧2
• This exactly solves the ‘forward problem’
• For a number of important cases we can obtain approximate
expressions that are simpler
• The value of these simpler expressions is not the time we save
calculating the forward problem
• With the simplified expressions the inverse problem is manageable
• This gives us the insight we need for design purposes
Transmission between identical medium
• If the outer two media are the same we have 𝑧3 = 𝑧1 and the
intensity transmission reduces to (using cos2 𝑘2 𝐿 = 1 − sin2 𝑘2𝐿):

1
𝑇𝐼 = 2
1 𝑧2 𝑧1
1+ − sin2 𝑘2 𝐿
4 𝑧1 𝑧2

• This will have maxima when 𝑘2 𝐿 = 𝑛𝜋, i.e. a whole number of half-
wavelengths fit in the middle layer which happens when
𝑓 = 𝑛𝑐2 Τ2𝐿, 𝑛 = 1,2, …
Material selection chart with added
solids
• ‘Equivalent bulk modulus’
for solids is 𝜌0 𝑐 2 based on
bulk sound speed
• [For solids 𝜌0 𝑐 2 = 𝐾 + 43𝐺
where 𝐺 is the ‘shear
modulus’]
• Black contours of equal
sound speed
• Blue contours of equal
specific impedance
• Both are spaced by factors
of 10
Solids included
• Aluminium • Glass (Pyrex)
• Brass • Lucite
• Copper • Concrete
• Iron (cast) • Ice
• Lead • Cork
• Nickel • Oak
• Silver • Pine
• Steel • Rubber (hard)
• Rubber (soft)
Plane wave transmission through walls in
air
• The chart shows us that 𝑧2 ≫ 𝑧1 for most solids in air, so we
can neglect the second term in the parentheses leaving
1 1
𝑇𝐼 ≈ 𝑇𝐼 =
1 𝑧2 2 2
1+ sin 𝑘2 𝐿
4 𝑧1
• This is a model for sound transmission through walls
• Concrete has 𝜌2 ≈ 2400 kg m−3 and 𝑐2 ≈ 3100 m s −1 so 𝑧2 Τ𝑧1 =
𝑂 105 in air
• [For concrete in water, on the other hand, 𝑧2 Τ𝑧1 ≈ 5]
Plane wave transmission through walls in
air
• If we can further simplify to get

• If the frequency is low enough, or the panel thin enough, that

𝑘2𝐿 ≪ 1 then sin 𝑘2𝐿 ≈ 𝑘2𝐿 and

• This predicts that transmitted pressure amplitude is inversely

proportional to frequency and to 𝐿𝜌2, the panel’s mass per unit
area
Discussion
• In many circumstances incoming plane waves will be obliquely
incident on a wall, not just normally incident
• This means that the forces acting on the wall due to the pressure
fluctuations will no longer be uniform
• A non-uniform unsteady force distribution can induce bending
waves in the wall which we’re not yet ready to model – see Fahy &
Gardonio Sound and Structural Vibration for details
• A diffuse field in a reverberant chamber contains waves travelling
in all directions
• To estimate the sound power transmission through a wall, put it
between two reverberation chambers
• To measure the directivity of sound transmission through a wall,
put it between a reverberant and an anechoic chamber
Transmission between different fluids
• Suppose, say, we have a panel separating air and water (e.g. the hull of a
ship)
• Our exact expression still applies
4
𝑇𝐼 = 2
𝑧3 𝑧1 2 𝑧2 𝑧1𝑧3
2+ + cos 𝑘2 𝐿 + + 2 sin2 𝑘2 𝐿
𝑧1 𝑧3 𝑧1𝑧3 𝑧2

• If 𝑘2𝐿 is small enough that we can neglect z2 sin 𝑘2 𝐿 then cos 𝑘2𝐿 ≈ 1 and

4 4𝑧1 𝑧3
𝑇𝐼 ≈ 𝑇𝐼 = 2
𝑧1 + 𝑧3
Any panel separating two different fluids
• At any frequency close to 𝑓 = 𝑛𝑐2 Τ2𝐿 we will have the same
behaviour as the thin panel at low frequencies
• At frequencies close to 𝑓 = 𝑛 − 12 𝑐2Τ2𝐿 we have cos 𝑘2𝐿 ≪ 1 and
sin 𝑘2𝐿 ≈ 1 which gives us
5 4𝑧1 𝑧3
𝑇𝐼 ≈ 𝑇𝐼 =
𝑧1𝑧3 2
𝑧2 +
𝑧2

• If 𝑧2 = 𝑧1𝑧3 then 𝑇𝐼 = 1 at these frequencies

• If you need complete transmission at a given frequency, choose a
material whose impedance is the geometric mean of those of the
fluids it separates, and make a panel from it that is a quarter-
wavelength thick
4.1.3 Reactive silencer

34
Sudden expansion

𝑆1 𝑆2

• When we looked at fluid transmission we saw that a change of

specific acoustical impedance generated a reflection
• I.e., the relationship between pressure and motion changed at the
interface
• It will also change at a change in area from 𝑆1 to 𝑆2
• Finding the detailed field in the vicinity of the expansion is a
diffraction problem – they’re hard!
• We can nonetheless predict the reflected and transmitted plane
waves once they’ve left the junction (below the non-plane-wave
cut-on frequency)
Sudden expansion

𝑆1 𝑆2

• Reminder: 𝑄෨ 𝑥 = 𝑆𝑈 ෩ 𝑥 the acoustic flow (units m3 s−1 )

associated with the plane wave field
• Acoustic flow is sometimes called volume velocity
• The acoustic impedance (no ‘specific’) 𝑍 is the ratio of
acoustic pressure to acoustic flow

• Units are Pa s m−3 or acoustic ohms

Reflection/transmission at a change of
area
𝑆1 𝑆2

• Conservation of mass tells us that acoustic flow will be

continuous through the expansion/contraction
• Conservation of momentum tells us that pressure will be
continuous through the expansion/contraction
• Conservation of energy tells us that the incident sound power
should equal the sum of the reflected and transmitted powers
since there are no loss mechanisms (ignoring viscosity effects)
Reflection/transmission at a change of
area
𝑆1 𝑆2

• This problem is exactly analogous to the fluid transmission

problem but velocity replaced by volume velocity (acoustic flow)
• Therefore we can use the same results if we replace specific
acoustic impedance with acoustic impedance
• Where we had 𝑧2 Τ𝑧1 = 𝜌2 𝑐2 Τ𝜌1 𝑐1 we now have 𝑍2 Τ 𝑍1 = 𝑆1 Τ𝑆2
• We can immediately write and for
the sound power
Reactive silencers (mufflers)
𝐿

𝑆1 𝑆2 𝑆1

• For the layer-transmission with media 1 & 3 the same we had

1
𝑇𝐼 =
1 𝑧2 𝑧1 2 2
1+ − sin 𝑘2 𝐿
4 𝑧1 𝑧2
• How can we modify this to predict the behaviour of a
reactive silencer that we could use on a car exhaust?
Silencer vs panel
1
𝑇𝐼 = 2
1 𝑧2 𝑧1
1+ + sin2 𝑘2 𝐿
4 𝑧1 𝑧2

• As before, 𝑧2 Τ𝑧1 = 𝜌2 𝑐2 Τ𝜌1 𝑐1 turns into 𝑍2 Τ 𝑍1 = 𝑆1 Τ𝑆2

• Wavenumber doesn’t change if sound speed doesn’t
• We’d prefer to work with power than intensity
• If we wanted to calculate sound power in the body of the
silencer we’d have to account for the change of area
Silencer formula
1
𝑇𝑊 = 2
1 𝑆2 𝑆1
1+ − sin2 𝑘𝐿
4 𝑆1 𝑆2

• Transmission loss 𝑇𝐿 = −10 log10 𝑇𝑊 (plot graphs of this!)

• The derivation of this formula for 𝑇𝑊 assumes the inlet and outlet
pipes are infinitely long or anechoic
• Standards for silencer performance are stated in terms of the
insertion loss (IL) in a defined measurement system with finite
pipes
• Real silencers usually contain sound-absorbent material, making
them resistive as well as reactive
• The presence of flow affects the sound transmission