The Role of Wild and

Semi-wild Edible Plants in

Household Food Sovereignty
in Hamer and Konso
Communities, South Ethiopia
Getachew Addis, Zemede Asfaw and Zerihun Woldu

Research

Abstract
A survey was conducted to investigate incidence of food would contribute to the fight against food insecurity and
shortage and coping mechanisms, knowledge, con- malnutrition. This is the right route towards food-secure
sumption attitudes and practices, and conservation and communities targeting food sovereignty where communi-
management of wild and semi-wild edible plant species ties could maintain their traditional foods while producing
(WEPS) by Hamer and Konso communities of Ethiopia. or collecting them at their own convenience. Research in
Irrespective of their social and economic strata, all study different parts of Africa has shown that wild plant and ani-
participants reported consumption of WEPS in which in- mal species are quite extensively used both in times of
creasing frequency, quantity and number of species con- food glut and during acute food shortage (Ogle & Grivet-
sumed during food scarcity. More WEPS were consumed ti 1985a, Zinyama et al. 1990). Mostly, women and chil-
during famine that had lower sensory acceptability, poor dren routinely go out into the field and forests to collect
cooking quality, and inflicted some kind of health prob- a variety of leaves, roots and tubers, seeds, and fruits.
lems. Leptadenia lancifolia (Schumach. & Thonn.) Decne. When food is plentiful, many societies usually use these
was the most preferred WEPS sought after during food plants as side dishes, as relishes accompanying the main
deficiency by both communities. Ninety-three WEPS are meals, or as snacks in between meals (Lepofsky et al.
managed by both communities mainly in the vicinity of hu- 1985, Ogle & Grivetti 1985d, Zinyama et al. 1990). Many
man settlements and farmlands. The Konso community studies show that a number of the wild edible plants sup-
demonstrated long established cultural practices of con- ply a considerable amount of required nutrients (Addis et
serving, managing and using WEPS. Planning for promo- al. 2013, Maundu et al. 1999).
tion, sustainable use and conservation of WEPS should
take note of knowledge and practices of local communi- A limited number of studies have reported on use of wild
ties on account of the key roles they would play in food plants in the Ethiopian diet (Addis et al. 2005, Asfaw &
security-sovereignty initiatives.

Introduction
Correspondence
Narrowing down of food sources by promoting high-yield-
Getachew Addis, Ethiopian Health and Nutrition Research Insti-
ing varieties through agricultural practices is a potential
tute, P.O. Box 1242, Addis Ababa, ETHIOPIA.
threat to sustainable crop production in view of the imped- get_ast@yahoo.com
ing climate change. Existing evidence indicates increase
in pathogenicity and/or emergence of new virulent patho- Zemede Asfaw and Zerihun Woldu, Department of Biology, Ad-
gens due to warming up of the climate (Anderson et al. dis Ababa University, P.O. Box 3434, Addis Ababa, ETHIOPIA.
2004, Brasier 1996). Studies by Brasier (1996) showed
that Phytophthora cinnamomi causes more severe root
rot on oak at higher temperatures. Diversifying food sourc-
es through the use of ecologically adapted crops, includ-
Ethnobotany Research & Applications 11:251-271 (2013)
ing selected recruits from among the wild edible species,
Published: November 28, 2013
www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol11/i1547-3465-11-251.pdf
252 Ethnobotany Research & Applications

Tadesse 2001, Balemie & Kebebew 2006, Feyssa et al. study and to augment the knowledge base, practices, and
2012, Getahun 1974, Guinand & Lemessa 2001, Lulekal attitudes of the communities towards use of WEPS; the
et al. 2011, Mengistu & Hager 2008, Ocho et al. 2012, local coping mechanisms against intermittent food scar-
Soromessa & Demissew 2002, Woldu et al. 2006, Won- city and famine in these areas; and sustainable use and
dimu et al. 2006). Utilization of wild plants for food varies conservation of plants in general and WEPS in particu-
with age and gender, time of the day, seaso,n and avail- lar. Ethiopia’s aspirations to create healthy and productive
able food stock. The number of species and plant parts environments, and communities enjoying food security as
used for food by all age and gender groups increases at well as food sovereignty could be realized through effec-
times of famine or food shortage resulting from domes- tive application of indigenous knowledge and practices.
tic conflicts. Monks, nuns, and hermits of monasteries in The present investigation was mainly designed to study
isolated rural Orthodox Churches in Ethiopia supplement the management practices, and the scale and conditions
their diet with plant resources obtained from the wild (Ge- of wild/semi-wild plant consumption in two communities
tahun 1974). (Hamer and Konso) of southern Ethiopia.

The knowledge, tradition, and opportunity of using wild Study Area and Methods
plants as supplements to dietary intakes have been de-
scribed for some communities. The collection, documen- Study areas and people
tation, and dissemination of indigenous knowledge on
WEPS have been limited to a few ethnic groups in Ethio- A reconnaissance survey was conducted between Feb-
pia. Inventories of wild edible plants are mostly available ruary and March 2005 to select study sites. According-
in the major languages such as Amharic, Oromo, and Ti- ly, Hamer and Konso woredas (districts) were selected
gre (Addis et al. 2005, Feyssa et al. 2012, Wondimu et based on existing vegetation types, natural resource man-
al. 2006). There are few or no documents on indigenous agement, indigenous knowledge, and practices associat-
knowledge and practice with wild and semi-wild edible ed with conservation and use of wild plants. The majority
plant species (WEPS) in the remote parts of southern Ethi- of the inhabitants in these woredas are of the Hamer and
opia where their use is even more prominent both at times Konso ethnic communities.
of glut and food deficiency. Therefore, there is a need to
Hamer woreda is located between 4o31’ to 5o28’
36.5oE N andA=Angude
36o9’ to 36o53’ E at an altitudinal range of
0 10 20 381B=Asele
to 2084 meters above sea level (masl) (Figure
kilometers 1). C=Dimeka
The annualTown
rainfall ranges between 480 mm in
N the D=Dimeka Zuriya to 827 mm at Dimeka (cap-
extreme lowland
ital E=Kola
town ofKeji
the woreda) which may be higher in
5.25oN more F=Lala
elevated parts. The population of Hamer is
estimated at 46,129, of whom 98.6% reside in ru-
C F ral areas (Population Census Commission 2008).
D G The majority from the Hamer community sustain
their life mainly through cattle raising supplement-
ed by a little cereal crop production and collection
E of wild edible plants. Livestock and their products
are sources of cash for immediate use, food, and
A prestige in the community. The Hamer are patrilin-

ETHIOPIA
ETHIOPIA
Addis Ababa

Konso
Figure 1. Hamer, Ethiopia, woreda with study kebeles (lowest ad-
ministrative unit): A. Angude, B. Asele, C. Dimeka Town, D. Dimeka Hamer
Zuriya, E. Kola Keji, F. Lala; and a forest G. Buska Mountain massif.

www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol11/i1547-3465-11-251.pdf
 Addis et al. - The Role of Wild and Semi-wild Edible Plants to Household 253
Food Sovereignty in Hamer and Konso Ethnic Groups, South Ethiopia
eal, but the heavier burden of family responsibility falls on rate homesteads. The newer lowland villages are not sur-
women. Hamer social events such as Ivan-Gadi (dancing rounded by the intricate walls. The Konso are hardened
throughout the night), Ekuli-Bula (bull jumping rituals for by the challenges of the vagaries of life such as shortage
adolescent males), to qualify for marriage, and using col- of land, recurrent drought, and ethnic conflicts. They have
ored clay paste mixed with butter for cosmetic purposes effectively managed and changed these challenges into
are their important cultural displays. During marriage ar- opportunities for development of traditional technologies
rangements, the bride is allowed to consume only animal which transformed the inhospitable Konso terrain into a
products (meat, milk, and blood) for months without any remarkable landscape of stone terraces, agroforestry, soil
contact with the groom until the approval of the elders. fertility management, and water harvesting and storage
The Hamer communities have maintained their culture for systems. They have invested more for delayed, but sus-
generations, but now-a-days there is more and more ex- tained, environmental returns than on immediate benefits.
posure to the outside world given the improved access This was the major reason for the recognition of the “Kon-
and increasing flow of tourists. so Cultural Landscape of Ethiopia” as a UNESCO World
Heritage Site. The agroforestry and mixed cropping sys-
Konso woreda is located between 5o15’ to 5o30’ N and tem that includes growing cabbage trees, haleko [Morin-
37o15’ to 37o30’ E and lies between 650 to 2650 masl (Fig- ga stenopetala (Baker f.) Cufod.], to ensure food security
ure 2). The woreda has an annual rainfall ranging from at all times is peculiar to Konso and a few other communi-
771 to 921 mm with a pronounced bimodal pattern. Ac- ties in southern Ethiopia.
cording to the 2007 national census of Ethiopia, the popu-
lation of the Konso community was 219,004, the majority
of whom (211,498) dwell in the rural parts and depend on Methods
subsistence agriculture (Population Census Commission
2008). Most of the Konso villages are strategically situat- Hamer and Konso communities were purposely selected
ed on higher ground for lookout and defense. The villages for the study due to their rich indigenous knowledge on
usually include a part called mora (central place), which wild edible plants, botanical diversity in the area, and ex-
is used for social gatherings, cultural proceedings, and in- emplary practice in natural resource management (Foerch
formal education. Older highland villages around Karate 2003 and personal observation). In addition to the respec-
(capital town of Konso woreda) are surrounded by intri- tive capital towns, five rural kebeles from each woreda
cate concentric walls with only one main entrance. There were selected for the study using agro-ecological char-
are walled narrow lanes connecting the individual houses. acteristics for stratification. There was no baseline study
Fences made of stone walls overtopped with wood sepa- made in the two woredas in the area of interest. There-
fore, 50% expected propor-
tion of wild plant consumption
37.25oE
(to obtain the maximum sam-
ple size), 95% confidence in-
0 5 10 terval, and 5% margin of error
A were assumed to determine
N kilometers
the sample size required for
5.5oN the study. Sample size cal-
culatorA=Addis Gebre survey
for population
B=Doketu
of STATCALIC program, EPi-
C=Gesergiyo
Info Version 3.3.2, January
2005, D=Jarso
was used to compute
E=Karate
the sample size Town
with the fol-
B lowing F=Masoya
single proportion for-
mula:
Z2 (P (1 - P))
E n=
d2
D
F Where n = sample size, Z =
1.96 for 95% confidence lev-
el, d = 5% margin of error and
P = 50% WEPS consumption
rate.
C
Using the above assumption
rate, the sample size was es-
Figure 2. Konso, Ethiopia woreda showing study kebeles (lowest administrative timated to be 384. Consider-
unit). A. Addis Gebre, B. Doketu, C. Gesergiyo, D. Jarso, E. Karate Town, F. Masoya. ing design effect of 1.5 to ac-

www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol11/i1547-3465-11-251.pdf
254 Ethnobotany Research & Applications

count for the multistage nature of sampling and 10% non- checklist of WEPS which was extracted from the focus
response rate, the final sample size required for the study group discussions (FGD) was used to study household
was 635. Considering the rural (90%) to urban (10%) dis- consumption in the kebeles. The participants were inter-
tribution of the population, 63 (9.4%) of the households viewed about whether one or more of the family mem-
were selected from the capital towns and 607 (90.6%) bers consumed the WEPS within the past 48 hours. Once
from the 10 rural kebeles. The sample size gives 80% the consumption level was established, the relative impor-
power to detect differences in subgroup analysis. In the tance of each plant as food in each season and across all
multistage sampling, the primary sampling units were ke- the three seasons was estimated using a fidelity level (FL)
beles and secondary sampling units were households. index (Friedman et al. 1986) as FL = (Ip/Iu) × 100, where
The households were first selected by stratifying into vil- Ip is the number of informants who independently men-
lages. A village was then selected from each kebele or the tioned consuming the species and Iu is total number of in-
capital town using lottery method. Households from both formants who mentioned the plant as edible. Diversity of
ethnic groups in the selected villages were visited until the the WEPS consumed at different seasons of the year was
required number of interviews was completed. Individu- also compared using Shannon-Wiener diversity index as
als aged 15 years and above were invited for the inter- used by Begossi (1996) having the formula of Diversity =
view with the assumption that individuals above this will ∑pi ln pi (ln = log to the base e), where pi is proportion of
have acquired indigenous knowledge and are capable of the number of citations for edibility per species.
conveying their knowledge on WEPS and related issues.
In the rare case where a house was closed or resident(s) Paired comparison (Martin 1995) was used to establish
were not willing to participate, the next neighbor was vis- the preference of wild plants eaten by people during food
ited. Similarly, if the village was short of the number of scarcity. FGD consisting of five to seven participants were
households required, the nearest adjacent village was in- conducted in each of the kebeles and capital towns with
cluded. a short list of five to ten WEPS used during food scarcity
and famine for the pairwise comparison. Ten participants
A pre-tested structured data collection tool was adminis- from each rural kebele and five from each of the capital
tered containing open, and close-ended questions on so- towns were involved for the preference ranking. All pos-
cio-demographic characteristics, how long the individual sible pairs as well as order within each pair were random-
has lived in the area and economic status, occurrence of ized and made available for choice to the participants. The
food scarcity, and indigenous strategies for coping with participants were interviewed individually and asked to
food shortage and famine. Wild plant consumption, status choose one from all possible pairs of plants presented to
and management of plants with particular emphasis on them. The final score was obtained by adding the scores
edibles, and their opinion about future prospects of wild and ranking them. Results for each edible plant in each
edible plants were included in the questions. The prin- kebele and capital town were totalled to get ranked data
cipal investigator was assisted by a university graduate at kebele and capital town level. A grand total for each ed-
who was given a short training on this specific data collec- ible plant from five rural kebeles and the capital town in
tion technique. Interviews were conducted using the re- each woreda was taken as the overall WEPS preference
spective native languages in the woredas. A trained high used during food scarcity/famine by the community.
school graduate native speaker of the respective wore-
das assisted in the translation of the responses. Voucher Data entry and analysis
plant specimens of the WEPS and their vernacular names
were collected with the help of knowledgeable local par- Data were entered, cleaned and organized using Micro-
ticipants and the translator. The specimens were identified soft ® Excel 2003. The data were exported to Statisti-
using standard procedures and deposited at the National cal Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 12.0 for
Herbarium (ETH) of Addis Ababa University. Windows for further analysis depending on the nature of
the data. Socio-demographic distribution, descriptive sta-
Consumption pattern of WEPS was recorded in three tistics, t-test and analysis of variance (ANOVA) with mul-
consecutive seasons, viz. during relatively maximum crop tiple comparison test using a least significant difference
stock (September and October), dry (January and Febru- (LSD) procedure were used to analyze the data. Signifi-
ary) and rainy months (April and May). One hundred and cant difference was declared if P < 0.05.
one participants (10 or 11 from each kebele) were rese-
lected among the participants considered earlier based Ethical considerations
on a quota sampling method to obtain proportional rep-
resentation from the rural kebeles. Only a few failed to Permission was obtained from the respective woreda and
participate in the three visits. The information collected kebele administrative offices to conduct the study. Con-
with those who appeared in all the three visits was consid- sent was also obtained from each local participant after
ered for the analysis. A combination of 24-hour focused di- explaining the objectives, procedures, outcomes, and
etary recall (Neuhouser et al. 2000) and 48-hour recall of benefits of the study. Privacy during data collection and
food intake (Smith & Gee 1979) methods were used. The confidentiality of the information were maintained.

www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol11/i1547-3465-11-251.pdf
 Addis et al. - The Role of Wild and Semi-wild Edible Plants to Household 255
Food Sovereignty in Hamer and Konso Ethnic Groups, South Ethiopia
Results elders to children and its enrichment thereafter is directly
conveyed through observation, imitation, free flow of infor-
Socio-demographic characteristics of households and mation among community members, history telling, and
study participants are summarized in Table 1. A total of myths. Songs and riddles in Hamer and sayings in Konso
706 households were visited of which 357 were from are the main indirect ways of knowledge transfer. Descrip-
Hamer and 349 were from Konso woredas. Among the tions of the wild edible plants including origin, nomencla-
homes visited, 22 (6.2%) of Hamer and 14 (4%) of Konso ture, morphology, habit and habitat, plants in use during
were either closed, abandoned, or family members were traditional ceremonies, use diversity, and preferences are
not willing to participate. Hence, a total of 670 house- also transferred through folklore. For example, butmbro
holds (335 from each woreda) participated in the study. (Hoslundia opposita Vahl) is a desired food for children
From each study kebele, 58 to 66 households were in- in Hamer. The children sing “butmburo lale nana gel-
terviewed. About half (48.2%) of the participants were fe-
gena garo tone”, which is emically defined as, “we eat
males. The age of the study participants ranged from 16 to
butmburo to the extent that even a drop of saliva is pre-
83 years, and the majority had not received formal educa-
vented from escaping”. The Konso also say “aka halota
tion (88.1%) and follow traditional religion (56.9%).
mine daka kara titeta” implying, stick to something you
Transfer of traditional knowledge associated with adore, as halota (Ficus glumosa Delile) does on rocky
wild edible plants areas (associating plant ecology with human behavior).
Appreciating diversity of use and preference for ottayta
It was found that the knowledge associated with edibil- (Cordia africana Lam.), they also sing “orabo kanon ot-
ity and related information on WEPS is generally in the tayta a waka dashen esheta” (ottayta, a blessing from
public domain both in Hamer and Konso with both direct God even more important than children).
and indirect ways of transfer. The knowledge flow from

Table 1. Socio-demographic characteristics of study participants (n = 670) in Hamer and Konso, Ethiopia woredas.
Variables Hamar Konso Total
Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent
Residence
Rural 298 89 309 92.2 607 90.6
Semi-urban 37 11 26 7.8 63 9.4
Gender
Male 154 46 169 50.4 323 48.2
Female 181 54 166 49.6 347 51.8
Age (years)
15 – 24 40 11.9 27 8.1 67 10
25 – 34 108 32.2 106 31.6 214 31.9
35 – 44 83 24.8 97 28.9 180 26.9
45 – 54 48 14.3 53 15.8 101 15.1
> 55 56 16.7 52 15.5 108 16.1
Religion
Orthodox Christians 4 1.2 25 7.5 29 4.3
Protestant Christians 26 7.8 234 69.9 260 38.8
Followers of traditional belief 305 91 76 22.7 381 56.9
Educational status
Don’t read and write 314 93.7 276 82.4 590 88.1
Read and write 1 0.3 12 3.6 13 1.9
Elementary (1 – 6) 7 2.1 28 8.4 35 5.2
Secondary (7+) 13 3.9 19 5.7 32 4.8
Household family size (Mean) 5.48 6.87

www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol11/i1547-3465-11-251.pdf
256 Ethnobotany Research & Applications

Consumption patterns of WEPS in Hamer and Konso place in Konso. The primary dry season, Bona (Hamer)
communities and Liyaadda Bona (Konso) extends from January to Feb-
ruary in which crop harvesting from the secondary tilling
The household survey showed that all participants in (Konso) and land preparation for cultivation in both areas
Hamer and Konso consume WEPS without difference in are the major activities. Food consumption patterns and
social and economic status. Ninety-five percent of Hamer food stock availability during the study year of both com-
(n = 333) and 97% of Konso (n = 329) participants ac- munities were highest during Gidiberg/Liyaadda Hakayta,
knowledged the actual contribution of the WEPS in the with lean periods during Bona/Liyaadda Bona and lowest
household diets and strongly recommended their contin- during Leae/Liyaadda Katanna.
ued use and further promotion.
The number of WEPS and degree of consumption varied
The annual climatic calendars (mainly rain) for Hamer and from one season to another. In Hamer, the total number of
Konso were similar. During the main rainy season (Leae edible parts of the WEPS consumed during the previous
in Hamer, Liyaadda Katanna in Konso), which stretches 48 hours was 11, 41, and 72 during the short rainy sea-
from April to June, sowing, weeding, and pest control are son (n = 50), dry season (n = 57), and primary rainy sea-
major agricultural activities accomplished in both commu- son (n = 42), respectively (Table 2). In Konso, the number
nities. The secondary dry season, Suni (Hamer) and Li- of edible plant parts used during the short rainy season
yaadda Masana (Konso) stretches from July to Septem- (n=51), dry season (n = 55), and main rainy season (n =
ber. In this season, pest control and crop harvesting is 47) were 14, 30, and 53, respectively (Table 2). Diversity
practiced. During the short rainy season, Gidiberg (Ham- of the edible plant parts consumed during the three sea-
er) or Liyaadda Hakayta (Konso) which extends from Oc- sons in Hamer were estimated using Shannon-Wiener di-
tober to December, secondary tilling of sorghum takes versity index and found to be 2.22 during the short rainy

Table 2. Fidelity level for consumption of WEPS based on 48-hour recall on the basis of pre-prepared checklist of emic
season categories in Hamer and Konso, Ethiopia.
Scientific name Voucher Edible Hamar Fidelity Level (%) Konso Fidelity Level (%)
Number part

Liyaadda

Liyaadda

Liyaadda
Gidiberg

Katanna
Hakayta
Mean

Mean
Bona

Bona
Leae

Acacia hockii De Wild. GA-K12-2005 Gum 0 4 0 1

Acacia senegal (L.) Willd. GA-K131-2005, Gum 0 47 43 30
GA-H127-2007
Acacia seyal Delile GA-H46-2007 Gum 0 14 10 8
Adenia ellenbeckii Harms GA-K97-2005 Leaf 0 0 5 2 0 4 17 7
Adenia venenata Forssk. None Leaf 0 0 2 1
Aloe sp. None Nectar 0 0 7 2
Amaranthus graecizans L. GA-K35-2005, Leaf 0 0 17 6 2 0 11 4
GA-H13-2007
Amaranthus hybridus L. GA-K38-2005 Leaf 2 2 34 13
Seed 0 7 0 2
Angolluma laticorona GA-K59-2005 Stem 0 16 17 11
(M.G. Gilbert) Plowes
Asystasia gangetica (L.) GA-K124-2005, Leaf 0 0 7 2 0 0 2 1
T. Anderson GA-H70-2007
Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Delile GA-K52-2005 Fruit 0 0 2 1 0 20 2 7
Leaf 0 26 7 11 0.0 6 4 3
Balanites rotundifolia (Tiegh.) GA-K110-2005 Seed 0 9 24 11
Blatt. Fruit 0 22 2 8
Berchemia discolor (Klotzsch) GA-K71-2005 Fruit 0 0 21 7 0 0 9 3
Hemsl. Leaf 0 7 2 3

www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol11/i1547-3465-11-251.pdf
 Addis et al. - The Role of Wild and Semi-wild Edible Plants to Household 257
Food Sovereignty in Hamer and Konso Ethnic Groups, South Ethiopia
Scientific name Voucher Edible Hamar Fidelity Level (%) Konso Fidelity Level (%)
Number part

Liyaadda

Liyaadda

Liyaadda
Gidiberg

Katanna
Hakayta
Mean

Mean
Bona

Bona
Leae
Boscia salicifolia Oliv. GA-H28-2007 Fruit 0 18 5 7
Buckollia volubilis (Schltr.) GA-K151-2005, Tuber 0 2 5 2
Venter & R.L. Verh. GA-H140-2007
Bullockia pseudosetiflora GA-H39-2007 Fruit 0 0 2 1
(Bridson) Razafim., Lantz
& B. Bremer
Cadaba farinosa Forrsk. None Leaf 0 5 0 2
Carissa spinarum L. GA-K20-2005 Fruit 0 9 19 9 0 0 4 1
Celosia anthelminthica Asch. GA-H131-2007 Leaf 0 0 7 2
Celosia argentea L. GA-K27-2005 Leaf 8 0 15 8
Celosia trigyna L. GA-K84-2005, Leaf 0 0 2 1
GA-H169-2007
Chasmanthera dependens GA-K270-2008, Fruit 0 2 0 1
Hochst. GA-H128-2007
Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt GA-K200-2005, Fruit 0 0 5 2
GA-H25-2007 Leaf 0 0 5 2
Commelina benghalensis L. GA-H63-2007 Leaf 0 0 45 2
Commelina foliacea Chiov. GA-H202-2007 Leaf 2 0 24 9
Commelina imberbis Ehrenb. None Leaf 0 0 7 2
ex Hassk.
Commiphora confusa Vollesen GA-H87-2007 Root 0 0 14 5
Commiphora kataf (Forssk.) GA-K68-2005 Leaf 0 2 4 2
Engl.
Commiphora terebinthina GA-K228-2005 Root 0 0 2 1
Vollesen
Corallocarpus schimperi GA-H198-2007 Leaf 0 0 2 0
(Naud.) Hook.f.
Corchorus olitorius L. GA-K171-2005 Leaf 10 0 13 8
Corchorus tridens L. GA-K182-2005, Leaf 0 0 10 3 0 0 34 11
Corchorus trilocularis L. GA-H185-2008
GA-H143-2007
Cordia africana Lam. None Fruit 0 22 4 9
Cordia monoica Roxb. GA-K177-2005, Fruit 0 4 7 4 0 13 4 6
GA-H78-2007
Cordia sinensis Lam. GA-K162-2005, Fruit 0 5 5 3 0 9 11 7
GA-H67-2007
Crotalaria polysperma Kotschy GA-H145-2007 Leaf 0 0 7 2
Cucumis dipsaceus Ehrenb. GA-K34-2005, Leaf 0 0 10 3 0 0 2 1
ex Spach GA-H58-2007
Cucumis kirkbridei Ghebret. & GA-H135-2007 Leaf 0 0 2 1
Thulin
Cyperus bulbosus Vahl GA-K23-2005 Bulb 0 0 2 1
Delonix regia (Hook) Raf. GA-H121-2007 Seed 0 7 10 6

www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol11/i1547-3465-11-251.pdf
258 Ethnobotany Research & Applications

Scientific name Voucher Edible Hamar Fidelity Level (%) Konso Fidelity Level (%)
Number part

Liyaadda

Liyaadda

Liyaadda
Gidiberg

Katanna
Hakayta
Mean

Mean
Bona

Bona
Leae
Digera muricata (L.) Mart. GA-K130-2005, Leaf 0 0 4 1
GA-H146-2007
Diospyros abyssinica (Hiern) GA-H44-2007 Fruit 0 9 0 3
F. White
Dobera glabra (Forssk.) Juss. GA-K118-2005 Fruit 0 4 0 1
ex Poir. Seed 2 2 17 7
Dorstenia barnimiana GA-K197-2005 Tuber 0 0 2 1
Schweinf.
Ehretia cymosa Thonn. GA-K212-2005 Fruit 0 0 4 1
Erythrococca abyssinica Pax GA-H158-2007 Fruit 0 0 5 2
Ficus glumosa Delile GA-K232-2005, Fruit 0 2 0 1 0 2 0 1
GA-H35-2007
Ficus platyphylla Delile GA-K196-2005, Fruit 2 4 0 2
GA-K250-2007
Ficus sur Forssk. GA-K248-2007 Fruit 2 0 0 1
Ficus sycomorus L. GA-K257-2007 Fruit 0 14 12 9 2 13 6 7
Ficus thonningii Blume GA-H32-2007 Fruit 4 7 6 6
Ficus vasta Forssk. GA-K3-2005 Fruit 0 2 2 1 0 6 0 2
Flueggea leucopyrus Willd. GA-K4-2005 Fruit 0 0 9 3
Garcinia livingstonei GA-H20-2007 Fruit 0 2 0 1
T. Anderson
Grewia arborea (Forssk.) Lam. GA-H82-2007 Fruit 0 0 2 1
Grewia erythraea Schweinf. GA-K202-2005 Fruit 0 0 31 10 0 0 19 6
Grewia lilacina K. Schum. GA-H139-2007 Fruit 0 0 2 1
Grewia mollis Juss. GA-K204-2005, Fruit 0 0 2 1
GA-H129-2007
Grewia tenax (Forssk.) Fiori GA-K168-2005, Fruit 0 2 5 2 0 0 13 4
GA-H124-2007
Grewia velutina (Forssk.) Lam. GA-K219-2005, Fruit 0 2 17 6 0 4 6 3
GA-H65-2007
Grewia villosa Willd. GA-K121-2005 Fruit 0 0 14 5 0 0 6 2
Hoslundia opposita Vahl GA-H16-2007 Fruit 0 0 17 6
Hydnora abyssinica A. Br. GA-H95-2007, Fruit 0 0 19 6
GA-H96-2007
Ipomoea biflora (L.) Pers. GA-K147-2005 Leaf 0 0 2 1
Ipomoea marmorata Britt. GA-H163-2007 Tuber 0 5 2 3
& Rendle
Justicia calyculata Deflers GA-K172-2005, Leaf 0 0 2 1
GA-H69-2007
Justicia flava (Vahl) Vahl None Leaf 4 0 15 6
Justicia ladanoides Lam. GA-K153-2005 Leaf 0 0 11 4

www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol11/i1547-3465-11-251.pdf
 Addis et al. - The Role of Wild and Semi-wild Edible Plants to Household 259
Food Sovereignty in Hamer and Konso Ethnic Groups, South Ethiopia
Scientific name Voucher Edible Hamar Fidelity Level (%) Konso Fidelity Level (%)
Number part

Liyaadda

Liyaadda

Liyaadda
Gidiberg

Katanna
Hakayta
Mean

Mean
Bona

Bona
Leae
Kedrostis foetidissima (Jacq.) GA-H132-2007 Leaf 0 0 21 7
Cogn.
Kedrostis leloja (Forssk. ex J.F. GA-H199-2008 Leaf 0 0 2 1
Gmel.) C. Jeffrey
Kedrostis pseudogijef (Gilg) C. GA-K18-2005, Leaf 0 5 14 7 2 7 17 9
Jeffrey GA-H147-2007
Lannea rivae (Chiov.) Sacleux GA-K195-2005 Root 0 0 2 1
Lannea triphylla Engl. GA-K175-2005, Root 0 0 21 7
GA-H193-2008
Lantana trifolia L. GA-K11-2005, Fruit 0 0 2 1
GA-H165-2007
Launaea intybacea (Jacq.) GA-K79-2005, Leaf 2 0 17 6 0 0 6 2
Beauverd GA-H110-2007
Leptadenia lancifolia GA-K21-2005 Leaf 10 53 38 34 14 31 28 24
(Schumach. & Thonn.) Decne.
Maerua angolensis DC. GA-H162-2007 Leaf 2 33 24 20
Maerua subcordata (Gilg) GA-H21-2007 Fruit 0 0 7 2
De Wolf
Mimusops kummel Bruce GA-K269-2005 Fruit 2 0 0 1
ex A.DC.
Moringa stenopetala (Baker f.) None Leaf 2 25 7 11
Cufod.
Nymphaea nouchali Burm. f. GA-H126-2007 Seed 0 2 0 1
Ocimum forskolei Benth. GA-K163-2005 Leaf 0 0 4 1
Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill. None Fruit 0 2 6 3
Oxygonum sinuatum (Hochst. GA-K174-2005 Leaf 0 0 2 1
& Steud ex Meisn.) Dammer
Parkinsonia aculeata L. GA-K164-2005 Seed 0 0 2 1
Pentarrhinum insipidum GA-K199-2005, Leaf 2 0 7 3 0 2 6 3
E. Mey. GA-H164-2007
Portulaca oleracea L. None Aerial 0 0 4 1
part
Portulaca quadrifida L. GA-K75-2005 Aerial 4 0 0 1 6 9 17 11
part
Premna resinosa (Hochest.) GA-K143-2005, Fruit 0 0 5 2
Schauer GA-H93-2007
Pupalia micrantha Hauman GA-H71-2007 Leaf 0 0 2 1
Rhus natalensis Bernh. GA-H56-2007 Fruit 0 2 0 1
ex C. Krauss
Rhus ruspolii Engl. GA-K208-2005 Fruit 0 2 0 1
Rhus vulgaris Meikle GA-K194-2005, Fruit 0 2 0 1
GA-H107-2007
Rhynchosia minima (L.) DC. GA-H75-2007 Leaf 0 0 10 3

www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol11/i1547-3465-11-251.pdf
260 Ethnobotany Research & Applications

Scientific name Voucher Edible Hamar Fidelity Level (%) Konso Fidelity Level (%)
Number part

Liyaadda

Liyaadda

Liyaadda
Gidiberg

Katanna
Hakayta
Mean

Mean
Bona

Bona
Leae
Salvadora persica L. GA-K161-2005 Fruit 0 4 0 1
Schlechterella abyssinica GA-H205-2007 Tuber 0 12 17 10
(Chiov.) Venter & R.L. Verh.
Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich.) GA-K11-2005, Fruit 0 5 12 6 0 0 4 1
Hochst. GA-H18-2007
Solanum americanum Mill. GA-K157-2005, Leaf 6 0 19 8 2 2 6 3
GA-H12-2007
Sterculia africana (Lour.) Fiori GA-K108-2005, Seed 0 16 5 7 0 9 0 3
GA-H187-2008
Tamarindus indica L. GA-K117-2005 Fruit 0 35 19 18 0 4 2 2
Vangueria madagascariensis None Fruit 0 2 0 1
J.F. Gmel. var. abyssinica
(A. Rich.) Puff
Vangueria madagascariensis GA-K255-2007, Fruit 0 14 2 6 0 6 0 2
J.F. Gmel. var. GA-H29-2007
madagascarensis
Vigna sp. GA-K205-2005 Leaf 0 0 2 1
Ximenia americana L. GA-H43-2007 Fruit 0 5 5 3
Ximenia caffra Sond. GA-K80-2005, Fruit 0 44 67 37 0 11 17 9
GA-H14-2007
Zanthoxylum chalybeum Engl. GA-H54-2007, Fruit 0 32 17 16
GA-H186-2008
Ziziphus mucronata Willd. GA-K111-2005 Fruit 4 25 10 13 0 0 4 1
Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Willd. None Fruit 4 14 21 13

season, 3.33 in the dry season, and 4.04 in the main rainy males and females on the number of vegetables con-
season. Similarly, diversity of consumed edible plant parts sumed in either community.
in Konso during the short rainy season was 2.48, it was
3.2 in the dry season, and in the main rainy season it was The fidelity level values calculated for the WEPS con-
3.71. In both communities, diversity of WEPS which were sumed by the Hamer community in each of the seasons
actually consumed was highest during the main rainy sea- are presented in Table 2. The overall mean FL value of the
son and followed by the dry season. The total number of three seasons showed that Ximenia caffra Sond. (fruit),
edible plant parts consumed during the three seasons was Leptadenia lancifolia (Schumach. & Thonn.) Decne. (com-
84 in Hamer and 64 in Konso and yields a diversity index posite of tender leaf, juvenile shoot, and flower), Acacia
senegal (L.) Willd. (gum), Maerua angolensis DC. (tender
of 4.22 and 4.12, respectively.
leaf), and Tamarindus indica L. (fruit pulp) had the high-
est FL values in their order of magnitude. Among the leafy
Further investigation conducted on green leafy vegetables
vegetables, L. lancifolia has the highest FL value in all
showed that they were important components of the diet
three seasons. In Konso, edible plants with the highest
for households during the three seasons in both commu- five FL values were vegetables (Table 2). Leptadenia lan-
nities. In Hamer, a significant difference was found in the cifolia, Amaranthus hybridus L., Corchorus trilocularis L.,
number of vegetables consumed during the different sea- Portulaca oleracea L., and Portulaca quadrifida L. had the
sons, and in consumption among the seasons in the order higher FL values in order of magnitude. During highest
of main rainy season > dry season > short rainy season. food stock and lean period, L. lancifolia was the most con-
In Konso, the number of vegetables consumed during the sumed wild plant, whereas A. hybridus and C. trilocularis
main rainy season was significantly higher than the short were the most consumed plants during the lowest food
rainy season and dry season. There was no significant stock.
difference among the different age groups and between

www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol11/i1547-3465-11-251.pdf
 Addis et al. - The Role of Wild and Semi-wild Edible Plants to Household 261
Food Sovereignty in Hamer and Konso Ethnic Groups, South Ethiopia
Contribution of WEPS in coping with household food ed severe food shortage in the past, 96.2% mentioned
insecurity WEPS, 93.2% government food assistance, 67.9% sell-
ing assets, 40.3% obtaining assistance from community
All household participants in Hamer and Konso (n = 670) members, and 28.7% from other sources of income in-
have experienced recurrent food shortages, of which 96% cluding working as laborers as main coping strategies.
and 88%, respectively, have reported incidence of famine
at least once in their lifetime. In Hamer, participants be- The number of WEPS that were consumed at times of
tween 15 and 24 years of age reported significantly lower food shortage and famine increased both in magnitude
incidence of famine compared with older age groups. The and number of species as compared with periods of rel-
variation between the genders was not significant. Par- atively better food reserves. As the food shortage gets
ticipants aged between 25 and 34 years reported lower more severe, plant parts that are less preferred in taste,
incidence of famine as compared with the lower age (15 exhibit poor cooking quality, and/or could have undesir-
to 24) and higher age groups in Konso. Moreover, fe- able side effects were consumed. For instance seed of
males reported significantly higher incidence of famine Dobera glabra (Forssk.) Juss. ex Poir. (with poor cook-
than males. Konso was similar to Hamer with a general ing quality and taste), leaf of Launaea intybacea (Jacq.)
increasing trend in the number of reports on famine inci- Beauverd, and root of Lannea triphylla Engl. (poor taste)
dence as the age of participants increased. were foods used at times of famine by both communities.
Generally, preference of WEPS consumption during pe-
Different coping mechanisms which were used to allevi- riods of food shortages depended upon multiple of fac-
ate food shortage and famine were mentioned by both tors such as accessibility, good return on harvesting effort,
communities. Most participants who reported incidence stomach fill, taste, safety, inducing loss of appetite, and in-
of famine in the past used two or more coping mecha- digestibility for relatively longer duration which temporarily
nisms to alleviate the challenge. In Hamer (n = 335), ma- suppresses the feeling of hunger.
jority of the participants (97.5%) mentioned government
food assistance, consumption of WEPS (94.7%), and sell- A summary of pairwise comparisons of consumption pref-
ing assets (91.3%) as the major coping strategies. Loans erence during periods of food scarcity among short list-
and assistance from others who have better food stocks ed WEPS by FGD participants in the kebeles and cap-
(12.7%) and hunting wild animals (9.3%) were also men- ital towns of Hamer (Table 3) and Konso (Table 4) are
tioned. Among the 293 participants in Konso who report- presented. The overall results of the pairwise comparison
Table 3. Pooled summary of pairwise ranking based on importance in edibility of WEPS during food scarcity and fam-
ine in the study kebeles in Hamer, Ethiopia. Edible plant parts with the highest score are the most preferred in the re-
spective kebele. ‘-’ = plant not selected for comparison in the respective kebele.
Scientific name Study kebeles Total Rank
Asele Lala Dimeka- Angude Kola Dimeka score
Zuriya Keji Town
Leptadenia lancifolia (Schumach. 44 72 53 69 79 37 354 1
& Thonn.) Decne. (Leaf, shoot
apex, & flower)
Balanites rotundifolia (Tiegh.) 74 43 36 25 31 29 238 2
Blatt. (Seed)
Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Delile - 57 43 37 66 20 223 3
(Leaf)
Boscia salicifolia Oliv. (Leaf) - 77 59 - - 19 155 4
Maerua angolensis DC. (Leaf) - 70 49 - - 28 147 5
Dobera glabra (Forssk.) Juss. 49 - - 33 48 8 138 6
ex Poir. (Seed)
Sterculia africana (Lour.) - 33 - 23 38 - 94 7
Fiori (Seed)
Berchemia discolor (Klotzsch) - - - 47 27 - 74 8
Hemsl. (Leaf)
Ximenia caffra Sond. (Fruit) - - - 49 25 - 74 8
Moringa stenopetala (Baker f.) 65 - - - - - 65 10
Cufod. (Leaf)

www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol11/i1547-3465-11-251.pdf
262 Ethnobotany Research & Applications

Scientific name Study kebeles Total Rank

Asele Lala Dimeka- Angude Kola Dimeka score
Zuriya Keji Town
Grewia villosa Willd. (Fruit) 14 - 21 - - 18 53 11
Tamarindus indica L. (Fruit pulp) - - 11 18 9 13 51 12
Nymphaea nouchali Burm. f. 51 - - - - - 51 12
(Seed)
Salvadora persica L. (Fruit) 20 28 - - - - 48 14
Rhus vulgaris Meikle (Fruit) - 40 - - - - 40 15
Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Willd. - - - - 37 - 37 16
(Fruit)
Grewia arborea (Forssk.) Lam. 29 - - - - - 29 17
(Fruit)
Meyna tetraphylla (Schweinf. ex - - - 23 - - 23 18
Hiern) Robyns (Fruit)
Vangueria madagascariensis - 18 - - - - 18 19
J.F. Gmel. var. madagascarensis
(Fruit)
Lannea triphylla Engl. (Root) - - 8 - - 8 16 20
Cordia sinensis Lam. (Fruit) 14 - - - - - 14 21
Rhus natalensis Bernh. - 11 - - - - 11 22
ex C. Krauss (Fruit)

Table 4. Pooled summary of pairwise ranking based on importance in edibility of WEPS during food scarcity and fam-
ine in study kebeles in Konso, Ethiopia. Edible plant parts with the highest score are the most preferred in the respec-
tive kebele. ‘-’ = plant not selected for comparison in the respective kebele.
Edible plants Study kebeles Total Rank
Addis Doketu Geser- Jarso Masoya Karate score
Gebre giyo Town
Leptadenia lancifolia (Schumach. 40 71 55 43 40 27 276 1
& Thonn.) Decne. (Leaf, shoot
apex and inflorescence)
Portulaca quadrifida L. (Aerial 78 55 55 31 22 31 272 2
part)
Amaranthus hybridus L. (Seed) 44 - 65 23 65 33 230 3
Sterculia africana (Lour.) Fiori - 28 25 23 48 20 144 4
(Seed)
Ficus vasta Forssk. (Fruit) 38 31 55 - - 17 141 5
Dobera glabra (Forssk.) Juss. ex - 48 - 30 43 10 131 6
Poir. (Seed)
Angolluma laticorona (M.G. Gil- - 44 48 - 21 17 130 7
bert) Plowes (Aerial part)
Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Delile 24 53 16 17 - 19 129 8
(Leaf)
Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill. 35 29 35 - - 14 113 9
(Fruit)
Ficus sycomorus L. (Fruit) 31 - - - 35 - 66 10
Amorphophallus gomboczianus - - - 43 - - 43 11
Pic.Serm. (Root)

www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol11/i1547-3465-11-251.pdf
 Addis et al. - The Role of Wild and Semi-wild Edible Plants to Household 263
Food Sovereignty in Hamer and Konso Ethnic Groups, South Ethiopia
Edible plants Study kebeles Total Rank
Addis Doketu Geser- Jarso Masoya Karate score
Gebre giyo Town
Carissa spinarum L. (Fruit) 39 - - - - - 39 12
Kedrostis pseudogijef (Gilg) C. 31 1 - - 6 - 38 13
Jeffrey (Leaf)
Hyphaene thebaica (L.) Mart. - - 6 - - 1 7 14
(Fruit)

showed that L. lancifolia was the most preferred species leaders all made Konso a reservoir of botanical diversity
in both communities. and useful plants. The responsibility shouldered by a tra-
ditional leader through empowerment by the community
Management and conservation of WEPS as a guardianship has so far kept Buska Mountain massif
forest in Hamer in a relatively intact state.
According to the FGD and household study participants,
management and conservation of WEPS in Hamer and The Hamer and Konso have more interest in WEPS for
Konso have focused on human settlement areas, live management and conservation of plants with multiple
fences, home gardens, farmlands (Figure 3), farm mar- uses than plants with minor and unspecialized utility. From
gins, wastelands, and forest habitats. Individuals, commu- our discussions with the FGD participants, we were made
nity leaders, and the community at large are vanguards of to understand that the Hamer community are close to,
the endeavor. The established agroforestry system devel- and dependent on the environment, and their perception
oped through many years of experience, live fences, and of conservation and management of the botanical diver-
tolerated and cultivated plants around the mora, the sa- sity is generally holistic. They believe every plant species
cred forests owned by the community and the traditional is created for the well being of humans and its availabil-

A B

C D
Figure 3. Some wild edible plant species managed in agricultural fields of Konso, Ethiopia, demonstrating the wild-culti-
vated continuum of edible plants. A. Leptadenia lancifolia (Schumach. & Thonn.) Decne., B. Adenia ellenbeckii Harms,
C. Sterculia africana (Lour.) Fiori, D. Physalis peruviana L.

www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol11/i1547-3465-11-251.pdf
264 Ethnobotany Research & Applications

ity is vital for life. However, from our observations during guineense, Grewia velutina (Forssk.) Lam., and Hyphaene
walks, weeding of cultivated fields is common for the ben- thebaica (L.) Mart. were the most important species hav-
efit of crops. On the other hand, the Konso have a well ing multiple and specialized uses and are recommend-
established farming system which is developed through ed for management in Konso (Table 5). The participants
years of experience. They have developed specialized also recommended the need for eradication of 33 WEPS,
knowledge that is attached to the use of selected plants mostly herbaceous weeds. Females cited an average of
in their daily activities and considered only a few plant 3.7 and males 5.8 WEPS for eradication, the latter group
species as weeds or a nuisance. Some WEPS are highly recommending significantly higher number of species for
recommended for future protection and management and eradication. Among the WEPS, L. intybacea, Vigna sp.,
some other species are not liked for various reasons, and Oxygonum sinuatum (Hochst. & Steud ex Meisn.) Dam-
hence, eradication of some noxious species was highly mer, Amaranthus graecizans L., Celosia trigyna L., Jus-
recommended by the participants (Table 5). Male and fe- ticia ladanoides Lam., Celosia argentea L. and Cyperus
male participants recommended management of selected bulbosus Vahl were the top eight species condemned for
WEPS with a mean plant citation of 7.2 and 5.0, respec- eradication. Survival of these and other species in natural
tively (the difference is not statistically significant). Trees habitats was not opposed but their noxious weedy nature
including Ficus sycomorus L., Cordia africana Lam., Ficus in agricultural fields has developed hatred and thus they
vasta Forssk., Syzygium guineense (Willd.) DC. subsp. are condemned.

Table 5. Wild and semi-wild edible plants suggested to be managed in some form for different purposes in Konso,
Ethiopia.
Scientific name Participants Participants’ suggestion
interviewed Naturally Wiped Tolerated &
survive (%) out (%) managed (%)
Acacia hockii De Wild. 21 95 0 5
Amaranthus hybridus L. 50 90 4 6
Angolluma laticorona (M.G.Gilbert) Plowes 42 95 0 5
Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Delile 41 71 0 29
Balanites rotundifolia (Tiegh.) Blatt. 49 84 0 16
Berchemia discolor (Klotzsch) Hemsl. 32 66 0 34
Blyttia fruticulosa (Decne.) D.V. Field 12 67 0 33
Boscia salicifolia Oliv. 10 90 0 10
Bridelia scleroneura Müll.Arg. 6 83 0 17
Bullockia pseudosetiflora (Bridson) Razafim., Lantz 33 88 0 12
& B. Bremer
Carissa spinarum L. 40 63 0 38
Commiphora kataf (Forssk.) Engl. 6 83 0 17
Commiphora terebinthina Vollesen 2 50 0 50
Corchorus olitorius L. 9 89 0 11
Cordia africana Lam. 45 40 0 60
Cordia monoica Roxb. 46 96 0 4
Cordia sinensis Lam. 42 93 0 7
Dobera glabra (Forssk.) Juss. ex Poir. 49 63 0 37
Ehretia cymosa Thonn. 24 83 0 17
Euclea divinorum Hiern 29 97 0 3
Ficus glumosa Delile 10 70 0 30
Ficus ingens (Miq.) Miq. 7 86 0 14
Ficus platyphylla Delile 10 80 0 20
Ficus sur Forssk. 11 91 0 9

www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol11/i1547-3465-11-251.pdf
 Addis et al. - The Role of Wild and Semi-wild Edible Plants to Household 265
Food Sovereignty in Hamer and Konso Ethnic Groups, South Ethiopia
Scientific name Participants Participants’ suggestion
interviewed Naturally Wiped Tolerated &
survive (%) out (%) managed (%)
Ficus sycomorus L. subsp. gnaphalocarpa (Miq.) 9 22 0 78
C.C. Berg
Ficus sycomorus L. subsp. sycomorus 51 39 0 61
Ficus thonningii Blume 30 90 0 10
Ficus vasta Forssk. 40 50 0 50
Flueggea leucopyrus Willd. 41 90 2 7
Grewia damine Gaertn. 9 89 0 11
Grewia erythraea Schweinf. 38 95 0 5
Grewia velutina (Forssk.) Lam. 51 59 0 41
Hyphaene thebaica (L.) Mart. 20 60 0 40
Justicia ladanoides Lam. 21 43 52 5
Kedrostis pseudogijef (Gilg) C. Jeffrey 44 93 0 7
Lantana trifolia L. 30 93 0 7
Leptadenia lancifolia (Schumach. & Thonn.) Decne. 51 92 0 8
Mimusops kummel Bruce ex A.DC. 14 64 0 36
Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill. 42 79 10 12
Pentarrhinum insipidum E. Mey. 18 56 39 6
Physalis peruviana L. 22 96 0 5
Psydrax schimperiana (A.Rich.) Bridson 11 82 0 18
Rhus natalensis Bernh. ex C. Krauss 41 88 0 12
Rhus ruspolii Engl. 18 78 0 22
Salvadora persica L. 17 94 0 6
Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich.) Hochst. 41 76 2 22
Sterculia africana (Lour.) Fiori 50 76 0 24
Syzygium guineense (Willd.) DC. 7 57 0 43
Tamarindus indica L. 39 85 0 15
Vangueria madagascariensis J.F. Gmel. 15 87 0 13
var. abyssinica (A. Rich.) Puff
Vangueria madagascariensis J.F. Gmel. 33 88 0 12
var. madagascariensis
Ximenia caffra Sond. 51 88 4 8
Ziziphus mucronata Willd. 48 85 0 15

All participants in Hamer (n = 335) and 297 (89.5%) in Reports on conservation of WEPS using the same par-
Konso (n = 332) recognized that there is some kind of ticipants showed similar results in both communities. Ac-
effort on conservation of botanical diversity in their area. tual management practices for edible species by the par-
A majority of the participants in Hamer (296 or 88.4%) ticipants themselves were also investigated. Among the
know of conservation efforts made by individuals from the total, 94.3% Hamer and 88.7% Konso participants per-
community, and 39 (11.6%) of the participants were also form some kind of management practice on one or more
aware of conservation efforts by the government. Among WEPS (Table 6). A total of 93 species were mentioned as
the 297 participants in Konso who knew about conserva- managed by two or more participants in Hamer (73 spe-
tion efforts in their area, 59.6% recognized conservation cies) and Konso (48 species). Most of the WEPS in both
efforts by individuals and 40.4% by both individuals and communities have multiple uses.
government, the latter focusing on community education.

www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol11/i1547-3465-11-251.pdf
266 Ethnobotany Research & Applications

Table 6. Wild and semi-wild edible plants mentioned (frequency) as being managed in some form by two or more
household study participants in Hamer (n=316) and Konso (n=297), Ethiopia.
Scientific name Frequency Scientific name Frequency
Hamer Konso Total Hamer Konso Total
Acacia senegal (L.) Willd. 11 0 11 Cordia monoica Roxb. 0 21 21
Acacia seyal Delile 2 0 2 Cordia sinensis Lam. 132 81 213
Adenia ellenbeckii Harms 20 9 29 Crotalaria incana L. 2 0 2
Amaranthus graecizans L. 52 24 76 Cucumis dipsaceus 3 0 3
Amaranthus hybridus L. 0 22 22 Ehrenb. ex Spach

Amorphophallus 0 13 13 Delonix regia (Hook) Raf. 4 0 4

gomboczianus Pic.Serm. Digera muricata (L.) Mart. 0 2 2
Angolluma laticorona 0 5 5 Diospyros abyssinica 11 0 11
(M.G. Gilbert) Plowes (Hiern) F. White
Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) 42 30 72 Dobera glabra (Forssk.) 46 35 81
Delile Juss. ex Poir.
Balanites rotundifolia 39 29 68 Ehretia cymosa Thonn. 0 14 14
(Tiegh.) Blatt. Erythrococca abyssinica 2 0 2
Berchemia discolor 42 55 97 Pax
(Klotzsch) Hemsl. Euclea divinorum Hiern 2 0 2
Blyttia fruticulosa (Decne.) 0 3 3 Euclea racemosa L. 2 0 2
D.V. Field
Ficus glumosa Delile 5 4 9
Boscia coriacea Graells 13 0 13
Ficus platyphylla Delile 0 14 14
Boscia salicifolia Oliv. 16 0 16
Ficus sycomorus L. 43 128 171
Bullockia pseudosetiflora 3 13 16
(Bridson) Razafim., Lantz Ficus thonningii Blume 2 22 24
& B.Bremer Ficus vasta Forssk. 7 51 58
Buckollia volubilis (Schltr.) 2 0 2 Flueggea leucopyrus Willd. 0 10 10
Venter & R.L. Verh. Garcinia livingstonei 2 0 2
Cadaba farinosa Forrsk. 3 0 3 T. Anderson
Carissa spinarum L. 8 9 17 Grewia erythraea 57 9 66
Celosia anthelminthica 3 0 3 Schweinf.
Asch. Grewia flavescens Juss. 2 0 2
Celosia argentea L. 0 3 3 Grewia velutina (Forssk.) 84 38 122
Celosia trigyna L. 2 0 2 Lam.
Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt 6 0 6 Grewia villosa Willd. 119 13 132
Commelina benghalensis 22 0 22 Hoslundia opposita Vahl 19 0 19
L. Hydnora abyssinica A. Br. 22 0 22
Commelina foliacea Chiov. 12 0 12 Ipomoea marmorata Britt. 2 0 2
Commelina imberbis 29 0 29 & Rendle
Ehrenb. ex Hassk. Justicia calyculata Deflers 7 0 7
Commiphora africana 22 0 22 Justicia flava (Vahl) Vahl 0 22 22
(A. Rich.) Endl. Justicia ladanoides Lam. 0 5 5
Commiphora habessinica 0 2 2 Kedrostis foetidissima 6 0 6
(O. Berg) Engl. (Jacq.) Cogn.
Corchorus olitorius L. 0 46 46 Kedrostis pseudogijef 15 6 21
Corchorus trilocularis L. 2 20 22 (Gilg) C. Jeffrey
Cordia africana Lam. 2 93 95 Lannea humilis (Oliv.) Engl. 7 0 7

www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol11/i1547-3465-11-251.pdf
 Addis et al. - The Role of Wild and Semi-wild Edible Plants to Household 267
Food Sovereignty in Hamer and Konso Ethnic Groups, South Ethiopia
Scientific name Frequency Scientific name Frequency
Hamer Konso Total Hamer Konso Total
Lannea rivae (Chiov.) 0 3 3 Portulaca quadrifida L. 61 46 107
Sacleux Psydrax schimperiana 0 17 17
Lannea triphylla Engl. 13 0 13 (A. Rich.) Bridson
Lantana trifolia L. 0 2 2 Rhus natalensis Bernh. 20 8 28
Launaea intybacea (Jacq.) 50 0 50 ex C. Krauss
Beauverd Rhynchosia minima (L.) 11 0 11
Leptadenia lancifolia 55 72 127 DC.
(Schumach. & Thonn.) Salvadora persica L. 5 0 5
Decne. Schlechterella abyssinica 8 0 8
Maerua angolensis DC. 48 0 48 (Chiov.) Venter & R.L. Verh.
Maerua subcordata (Gilg) 16 0 16 Sclerocarya birrea 3 0 3
De Wolf (A. Rich.) Hochst.
Meyna tetraphylla 20 0 20 Solanum americanum Mill. 46 0 46
(Schweinf. ex Hiern) Sterculia africana (Lour.) 4 36 40
Robyns Fiori
Ocimum forskolei Benth. 0 3 3 Tamarindus indica L. 36 5 41
Olea europaea L. 3 0 3 Uvaria leptocladon Oliv. 4 0 4
Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) 0 6 6 Vangueria madagascarien- 24 28 52
Mill. sis J.F. Gmel.
Oxygonum sinuatum 2 0 2 Vepris glomerata 4 0 4
(Hochst. & Steud (F. Hoffm.) Engl.
ex Meisn.) Dammer
Ximenia caffra Sond. 71 32 103
Pappea capensis Eckl. & 4 0 4
Zeyh. Zanthoxylum chalybeum 4 0 4
Engl.
Pentarrhinum insipidum 3 2 5
E. Mey. Ziziphus mucronata Willd. 48 8 56
Physalis peruviana L. 0 2 2 Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) 82 0 82
Willd.

Discussion participants from Hamer, the community believes that ata

is a shelter for evil spirits and its growth around residential
Social norms, beliefs, and taboos have their own mer- homes is not considered healthy for the inhabitants. As a
its and demerits in biodiversity conservation. The Konso result, there is a tendency to eradicate ata seedlings that
perceive that leiya (F. vasta) brings ground water to the grow in the vicinity of residential areas. This action may
surface. Due to this perception, people in dry land ar- give room for the growth of the plants that the people want
to have around their homes.
eas have developed positive attitudes towards the plant
which in turn contributes to its conservation. Anyone who
Without any exception, all of the study participants from
is found cutting leiya is socially outcast and sometimes
Hamer and Konso consume plant parts of wild and semi-
punished in terms of physical and monetary forms by the
wild origin. Although the household sample size for each
Konso. In Hamer, the same plant (wombo) is also con- community (n = 335) will have less precision to general-
sidered as one’s own son. The trees are mostly owned ize for each sub group (ethnic groups), the study reflected
by individuals, and anyone who attempts to cut even a that WEPS are important parts of the diet in Hamer and
little of the live part must expect a harsh response from Konso communities (Table 2). Consumption of WEPS is
the owner. Elders bless their adored ones under wombo also a common practice in other African countries (Maun-
trees while the person to be blessed is holding a live root du et al. 1999, Ogle & Grivetti 1985a,b,c,d, Zinyama et al.
of the plant. There is also a taboo attached to cutting any 1990) and elsewhere in Ethiopia (Addis et al. 2005, As-
live part of wombo. Cutting any live part of wombo is be- faw & Tadesse 2001, Feyssa et al. 2012, Getahun 1974,
lieved to result in amputation of body parts. Unfortunately, Ocho et al. 2012, Soromessa & Demissew 2002, Woldu et
a close relative of wombo named ata (Ficus thonningii al. 2006). The Swazi community of Swaziland is reported
Blume) doesn’t have the same prestige. According to the to have greater annual consumption of wild plants over

www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol11/i1547-3465-11-251.pdf
268 Ethnobotany Research & Applications

domesticated ones (Ogle & Grivetti 1985b,c). The use of consumption during the main rainy season. To explain the
green leafy vegetables as part of the main dish or supple- life strategies of these communities, the concept of the
ment should be considered to prevent flaring up of age extended “supermarket” could be motivated. This means
related degenerative diseases. In addition to bridging the that Hamer and Konso communities rely on plants from
gap of food scarcity, adding variety to the meal, and nu- domesticated and wild landscapes so that plants that are
tritional benefit, WEPS are good sources of antioxidants domesticated, encouraged, and tolerated in and around
which prevent excess flow of pro-oxidants that are known gardens and farmlands and wild edibles, assembled in as
to disturb normal human physiology and cause various their main traditional strategies used to bridge such gaps
ailments (Addis 2009). If proper advocacy work is con- and cope with food shortages and famine.
ducted on the benefits with the support of food technol-
ogy, it could be possible to promote selected WEPS in the Community perception and practices associated with
food habits of the rural and urban communities of Hamer WEPS
and Konso, their adjacent areas, and the wider Ethiopia.
Preference ranking for use of WEPS during food scarcity
Consumption patterns and levels of WEPS showed that edible plant parts which are not perishable
and/or collected from perennial rather than annual plants
The pattern and level of consumption of wild edibles at are mostly preferred, particularly during the dry season.
a given time are influenced by different factors. Ecologi- Among the WEPS, assorted vegetable from leaves, ten-
cal factors such as altitude, rainfall, and moisture among der stems, and flowers of L. lancifolia was most preferred
others determined availability and distribution of WEPS. (also preferred for its taste) by both communities during
Similar to study findings in Swaziland (Ogle & Grivetti food deficiency. Analogous with previous reports from
1985b,c,d), richness of WEPS at a given time and place Zambia (Scudder 1971) and elsewhere in different parts
influenced the level of their consumption in the study com- of Ethiopia (Addis et al. 2005, Kloos & Lidtjørn 1993), ed-
munities. The level of wild edible plant intake concomi- ible wild plant parts of lesser sensory acceptability, ques-
tantly increases as the food stock dwindles, and this is tionable safety for health and life, and with poor cooking
analogous to what happens in Sub-Saharan Africa (Fleu- quality were reported as being part of the meal during
ret 1986, Ogle & Grivetti 1985c,d) including Ethiopia (Ad- food scarcity in Hamer and Konso.
dis et al. 2005, Asfaw & Tadesse 2001, Getahun 1974,
Rahmato 1988). In Swaziland, green leafy vegetables of Although there was a common understanding and belief
wild origin are frequently used during early periods of the that WEPS are important to bridge gaps of food deficiency
rainy season when only a few domesticated edibles are and as food supplement, some individuals in both com-
available (Ogle & Grivetti 1985c,d). By so doing, the wild munities consider the use of WEPS as a sign of underde-
green leafy vegetables provide variety to the diet and sup- velopment and poverty. This is a serious threat to conser-
ply essential nutrients which otherwise may be in short vation and consumption of wild edible plants. The prevail-
supply during the season. The same is true for Hamer ing environmental degradation coupled with the residual
and Konso communities where they consume a wide va- negative impressions on use of WEPS can be detrimental
riety of WEPS during the main rainy months of April and to the indigenous communities and beyond. The commu-
May. During these months, the crop stock is at its low- nities might forgo their identity if their indigenous knowl-
est level of the year while on the other hand, wild and edge is lost under the present precarious environmental
semi-wild green leafy vegetables are abundant and avail- conditions and the ensuing threats. The current conflicting
able for consumption as alternatives. Although richness relationship between increasing human population and
of the WEPS (green leafy vegetables in particular) dur- dwindling natural resources both in Hamer and Konso is
ing the short rainy season (September and October) is becoming a challenge to food security in the communities.
relatively better than the dry season, their consumption Therefore, precautionary measures should be taken as
at household level was relatively lower. This could be at- today’s widely used domesticated crops might succumb
tributed to the highest level of food stock at household to the change in environmental factors such as climate
level during the calendar year. This is in agreement with change and/or emergence of more virulent pathogens. To
previous study results in Ethiopia (Addis et al. 2005, As- prevent this scenario, continuity of the extended farm and
faw & Tadesse 2001, Getahun 1974) and Swaziland (Ogle natural supermarket concept of using the domesticated-
& Grivetti 1985c,d). In May and June, the most frequent- wild continuum of edible plants needs to be promoted.
ly used leafy vegetable in Konso (M. stenopetala) is also This will encompass not only food security but also food
highly infested with pests thereby affecting consumption sovereignty and nutritional security.
of the leaflets and aggravating food deficit (Addis 2009).
Luckily, wild green leafy vegetables are available at maxi- Food sovereignty values of WEPS
mum cover in the same months and are used as alterna-
tives. The lowest level of food stock and the highest di- Wild and semi-wild edible plants (including those gener-
versity of WEPS (mainly herbs) in Hamer and Konso are ally considered as weeds) found in Hamer and Konso,
the most likely conditions that lead to highest level of their which are ecologically adapted to the changing climate,

www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol11/i1547-3465-11-251.pdf
 Addis et al. - The Role of Wild and Semi-wild Edible Plants to Household 269
Food Sovereignty in Hamer and Konso Ethnic Groups, South Ethiopia
might ultimately emerge as preferred food crops in the fu- tribute in lowering food insecurity and are suggested to
ture. A similar conclusion was implied by Harlan Harlan be promoted both within and beyond the studied commu-
(1975) and Poehlman (1987). The importance of WEPS nities. We could consider propagating them in managed
to the local people needs to be seen in the light of ensu- agro-ecosystems.
ing interest towards creating livelihood security that simul-
taneously warrants food and nutrition sovereignty of the It was also found that social norms, beliefs, and taboos
society. have merits and demerits in biodiversity conservation.
Similar with the present study findings, indigenous com-
Addressing the threats and prospects for scaling up munities elsewhere in Asia view two closely related plant
the use and conservation of WEPS species (having similar purposes) as culturally different,
which had subsequent impact on conservation endeavour
Among the diverse wild flora used for food, many (herbs on the respective species (McClatchey et al. 2005). This
in particular) can easily be promoted. Fast germination, indicates that multipurpose values of a plant may not nec-
growth under trace moisture, and completing their life cy- essarily guarantee its conservation. The conservation and
cle within a relatively short duration as well as their weedy management of a species is influenced by the cultural val-
habit of growing in disturbed habitats, including residential ues and perceptions of the communities concerned.
areas and agricultural fields, are opportunities that would
facilitate quick adaptation. Therefore, it would be appro- Generally, the Hamer community has holistic approaches
priate to create awareness in the communities on climate of tolerating and protecting plants from destruction irre-
change and ensuing threats anf the benefits of tolerating, spective of undesired qualities of some plants. Females
cultivating, and using wild edibles sustainably to fulfil nu- in Konso are more tolerant than males of plants of no di-
tritional requirements, maintain human health, maintain rect benefit and even of noxious weeds. The gender-as-
genetic diversity of potential new crops, and keep healthy sociated tolerance could be due to the close association
environment. Local governments and community-based of females with food procurement and using plants for
organizations can therefore contribute to public aware- medicinal purposes. Women in Konso play a higher role
ness about the benefits of the indigenous practices in in the conservation of biodiversity and transfer of knowl-
general and promotion of WEPS in particular. edge in their family and community. Such environmental
friendly views need to be considered in conservation and
Under the present circumstances, harvesting impact promotion strategies in Konso and other communities. Ex-
(Cunningham 2001) of the edible wild plant parts is of change of cultural practices in biodiversity conservation
less concern to sustainability of the plant species. Fur- and transfer with the neighboring Hamer can complement
thermore, the extended use of plants of different habitats each other’s established knowledge and promote holistic
in Hamer and Konso in their annual food calendar has an conservation of the biodiversity and ecosystems.
important role in conservation of WEPS. People restrain
themselves from eradicating WEPS from their gardens,
agricultural fields, and other habitats considering that they Conclusions
will need them any time in the future. The main threat to
wild edible plants is deforestation for more agricultural Wild and semi-wild edible plants are an integral part of
land. In Hamer in particular, lifestyle is changing rapidly the diet in the Hamer and Konso communities. Howev-
from pastoral to agro-pastoral systems with varied envi- er, inclusion of WEPS in the diet of both communities de-
ronmental and social consequences and threats. Attitudes pends on acceptability of plants for consumption, sea-
of stewardship of plants are likely to be reduced in favor of sonality, and level of food stock at household level. Scale
land ownership and agricultural expansion in Hamer and and variety of WEPS consumed increases as the level of
in some parts of Konso. food stock dwindles. At times of famine, plants of lower
preference, poor cooking quality, and higher risk of health
The study showed that certain wild plants are preferred hazards are included in the diet. Actual and potential uti-
for edibility than others and received special attention by lization of WEPS become possible when the plants are
Hamer and/or Konso communities. Moringa stenopetala, sustainably used and conserved. Hamers have a holis-
L. lancifolia, B. aegyptiaca, Adenia ellenbeckii Harms, P. tic view of conserving biodiversity while the Konso pre-
quadrifida, M. angolensis, Boscia salicifolia Oliv., and B. fer to manage selected plants, mostly emphasizing those
rotundifolia are managed by the communities mainly for with multiple uses. Male members of the Konso commu-
dietary consumption. Certain tree and shrub species are nity generally despise weeds (mostly herbs) as they con-
preferred to others and receive more protection and man- sider them nuisances in agricultural fields and therefore
agement (mainly by the Konso community) not only be- opt for their eradication while women are more tolerant to
cause they are edible but also because of the different at- plants including those which do not have direct immedi-
tributes related to their cultural significance, multiplicity of ate benefits. However, lessons can be drawn from the en-
use at household level, and marketability for different pur- tire landscape management practices in Konso in which
poses. These species apparently have potential to con- many wild species are simultaneously managed. Such

www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol11/i1547-3465-11-251.pdf
270 Ethnobotany Research & Applications

practices can also be promoted to other areas in Ethiopia Begossi, A. 1996. Use of ecological methods in ethnobot-
and elsewhere through careful examinations of the cultur- any: Diversity indices. Economic Botany 50(3):280-289.
al attitudes and appreciations of the community towards
WEPS in view of the impeding climate change and its en- Brasier, C.M. 1996. Phytophthora cinnamomi and oak de-
suing threats as well as the food security and food sover- cline in southern Europe. Environmental constraints in-
eignty drives apparent with individual and national devel- cluding climate change. Annals of Forest Science 53:347-
opment agendas. 358.

Acknowledgements Cunningham, A.B. 2001. Applied Ethnobotany: People,

wild plant use and conservation. Earthscan Publications
We thank Ethiopian Health and Nutrition Research Insti- Ltd., London.
tute for providing financial and logistic support required
to conduct the study. We would also like to thank Depart- Feyssa, D.H., J.T. Njoka, Z. Asfaw & M.M. Nyangito.
ment of Biology, Addis Ababa University (AAU) for facil- 2012. Comparative analysis of indigenous knowledge on
itating the study. We also thank National Herbarium of use and management of wild edible plants: The case of
Central East Shewa of Ethiopia. Ethnobotany Research
AAU for allowing us to use facilities for plant identification.
and Applications 10:287-304.
Administrative officials of Konso and Hamer woredas and
selected study kebeles are acknowledged for facilitating
Fleuret, A. 1986. Indigenous responses to drought in sub-
the study. We are very grateful to Konso and Hamer com-
Saharan Africa. Disasters 10:224-229.
munities in general and the study participants in partic-
ular for permission to study and sharing their invaluable
Foerch, W. 2003. Case Study: The agricultural system of
knowledge and providing needed assistance. We would
the Konso in south-western Ethiopia. www.uni-siegen.de/
also like to thank Dr. Alemayehu Worku for assisting us in
fb10/fwu/ww/publikationen/volume0103/1-wiebke-konso-
study site selection and sample size determination.
pubs.pdf. Accessed February 3, 2005.

Literature Cited Friedman, J., Z. Yaniv, A. Dafni & D. Palewitch. 1986. A

preliminary classification on the healing potential of me-
Addis, G. 2009. Edible Wild and Semi-wild Plants of Ham- dicinal plants, based on rational analysis of and ethno-
er and Konso (South Ethiopia) with Emphasis on their Eth- pharmacological field survey among Bedouins in the Ne-
nobotany and Nutritional Composition of Selected Spe- gev Desert, Israel. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 16:275-
cies. Ph.D. thesis, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa. 287.

Addis, G., K. Urga & D. Dikasso. 2005. Ethnobotanical Getahun, A. 1974. The role of wild plants in the native diet
study of edible wild plants in some selected districts of in Ethiopia. Agro-ecosystems 1:45-56.
Ethiopia. Human Ecology 33(1):83-118.
Guinand, Y. & D. Lemessa. 2001. A Practical Field Guide
Addis, G., Z. Asfaw, V. Singh, Z. Woldu, J.J. Baidu-Forson to Wild-food Plants in Ethiopia: General description, ed-
& S. Bhattacharya. 2013. Dietary values of wild and semi- ible parts, preparation methods and palatability. UNDP-
wild edible plants in southern Ethiopia. African Journal of Emergency Unit for Ethiopia, Addis Ababa.
Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development 13(2):7485-
7503. Harlan, J.R. 1975. Crops and Man. American Society of
Agronomy, Madison, Wisconsin.
Anderson, P.K., A.B. Cunningham, N.G. Patel, F.J. Mo-
rales, P.R. Epstein & P. Daszak. 2004. Emerging infec- Kloos, H. & B. Lidtjørn. 1993. Famine and malnutrition.
tious diseases of plants: Pathogen pollution, climate Pp. 103-120 in The Ecology of Health and Disease in Ethi-
change and agrotechnology drivers. Trends in Ecology opia. Edited by K. Helmut & Z.A. Zein. Westview Press,
and Evolution 19(10):535-544. Boulder, Colorado.

Asfaw, Z. & M. Tadesse. 2001. Prospects for sustainable Lepofsky, D., N.J. Turner & H.V. Kuhnlein. 1985. Deter-
use and development of wild food plants in Ethiopia. Eco- mining the availability of traditional wild plant foods: An
nomic Botany 55(1):47-62. example of Nuxalk foods, Bella Coolla, British Columbia.
Ecology of Food and Nutrition 16:223-241.
Balemie, K. & F. Kebebew. 2006. Ethnobotanical study of
wild edible plants in Derashe and Kucha Districts, South Lulekal, E., Z. Asfaw, E. Kelbessa & P.V. Damme. 2011.
Ethiopia. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine Wild edible plants in Ethiopia: A review on their potential to
2:53. combat food insecurity. Afrika Focus 24(2):71-121.

www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol11/i1547-3465-11-251.pdf
 Addis et al. - The Role of Wild and Semi-wild Edible Plants to Household 271
Food Sovereignty in Hamer and Konso Ethnic Groups, South Ethiopia
Martin, G.J. 1995. Ethnobotany: A methods manual. Part III - Cultural and ecological analysis. Ecology of Food
Chapman and Hall, London. and Nutrition 17:31-40.

Maundu, P.M., G.W. Ngugi & C.H.S. Kabuye. 1999. Tra- Ogle, B.M. & L.E. Grivetti. 1985d. Legacy of the cha-
ditional Food Plants of Kenya. National Museums of Ke- meleon: edible wild plants in the Kingdom of Swaziland,
nya, Nairobi. Southern Africa. A cultural, ecological, nutritional study.
Part IV- Nutritional analysis and conclusions. Ecology of
McClatchey, W., M.Q.B. Sirikolo, J.L. Kaleveke & C. Pi- Food and Nutrition 17:41-64.
tanapi. 2006. Differential conservation of two species of
Canarium (Burseraceae) among the Babatana and Ririo Poehlman, J.M. 1987. Breeding Field Crops. Van Nos-
of Lauru (Choiseul), Solomon Islands. Economic Botany trand Reinhold, New York, New York.
60(3):212-226.
Population Census Commission. 2008. The 2007 Popula-
Mengistu, F & H. Hager. 2008. Wild edible fruit species tion and Housing Census of Ethiopia. Results for South-
cultural domain, informant species competence and pref- ern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples’ Region. Part I:
erence in three districts of Amhara region, Ethiopia. Eth- Statistical report on population size and characteristics.
nobotany Research and Applications 6:487-502. Branna Printing Enterprise, Addis Ababa.

Neuhouser, M.L., R.E. Patterson, A.R. Kristal, A.L. El- Rahmato, D. 1988. Peasant survival strategies in Ethio-
dridge & N.C. Vizenor. 2000. A brief dietary assessment
pia. Disasters 12:326-344.
instrument for assessing target foods, nutrients and eat-
ing patterns. Public Health Nutrition 4(1):73-78.
Scudder, T. 1971. Gathering among African Woodland
Savannah Cultivators - A case study: Yhe Gwembe Ton-
Ocho, D.L., P.C. Struik, L.L. Price & E. Kelbessa. 2012.
ga. Zambian papers No. 5. Manchester University Press,
Assessing the levels of food shortage using the traffic
Manchester, United Kingdom.
light metaphor by analyzing the gathering and consump-
tion of wild food plants, crop parts and crop residues in
Smith, D.A. & M.I. Gee. 1979. A dietary survey to de-
Konso, Ethiopia. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedi-
cine 8:30. termine the relationship between diet and cholelithiasis.
American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 32:1519-1526.
Ogle, B.M. & L.E. Grivetti. 1985a. Legacy of the chame-
leon: Edible wild plants in the Kingdom of Swaziland, Soromessa, T. & S. Demissew. 2002. Some uses of plants
Southern Africa. A cultural, ecological, nutritional study. by Benna Tsemay .and Zeyise people, South Ethiopia.
Part I - Introduction, objectives, methods, Swazi cul- Ethiopian Journal of Natural Resources 4(1):107-122.
ture, landscape and diet. Ecology of Food and Nutrition
16:193-208. Woldu, Z., Z. Asfaw & S. Demissew. 2006. Ethnobotany of
Indigenous People of the Southern Rift Valley and South-
Ogle, B.M. & L.E. Grivetti. 1985b. Legacy of the chame- western Ethiopia: Konso and Hamer. Research report to
leon: Edible wild plants in the Kingdom of Swaziland, the Christensen Fund, Addis Ababa.
Southern Africa. A cultural, ecological, nutritional study.
Part II - Demographic, species, availability and dietary Wondimu, T., Z. Asfaw & E. Kelbessa. 2006. Ethnobotanical
use, analysis by ecological zone. Ecology of Food and study of food plants around ‘Dheeraa’ town, Arsi, Ethiopia.
Nutrition 17:1-30. SINET: Ethiopian Journal of Science 29(1):71-80.

Ogle, B.M. & L.E. Grivetti. 1985c. Legacy of the chame- Zinyama, L.M., T. Matiza & D.J. Campbell. 1990. The use
leon: Edible wild plants in the Kingdom of Swaziland, of wild foods during periods of food shortage in rural Zim-
Southern Africa. A cultural, ecological, nutritional study. babwe. Ecology of Food and Nutrition 24:251-265.

www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol11/i1547-3465-11-251.pdf
272 Ethnobotany Research & Applications

www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol11/i1547-3465-11-251.pdf