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A Volume 1

The World Book

Encyclopedia

World Book, Inc.

a Scott Fetzei i ompan)

Chicago
The World Book Encyclopedia
© World Book, Inc. All rights reserved. This volume may not be
reproduced in whole or in part in any form without prior written
permission from the publisher.

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International Copyright 1948, 1947 The Quarrie Corporation.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

The World Book encyclopedia,

p. cm.
Vol. 1 through 22.
Includes biographical references and index.
ISBN 0-7166-0103-6.
Encyclopedias and
I. dictionaries. I. World Book, Inc.

AE5 .W55 2002b

031-dc21
Library of Congress Control Number 2002068987

Printed in the United States of America

03 5 4 3 2 1
World Book Advisory Board

Mary Alice Anderson, B.S., MA

Lead Media Specialist, Winona Area Public Schools, Winona, Minnesota,
United States

Chris Dede, B.S., Ed.D.

Timothy E. Wirth Professor of Learning Technologies and Chair, Learning
and Teaching, Graduate School of Education, Harvard University,
Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States

Lynn Fontana, BA, M.Ed., Ph.D.

Executive Vice President of Education, Nobel Learning Communities, Inc.,

Media, Pennsylvania, United States

K. N. Panikkar, MA, Ph.D.

Vice Chancellor, Sree Sankaracharya University, Kalady, Kerala, India

Sir William Taylor, CB.E., B.Sc.Econ., Ph.D., LLD., D.Sc, Ed.D., D.CL, D.Litt,
D.SocSc. (Ed.), D.Univ., F.CP

Honorary Fellow and Former Director, University of London Institute of Education,

London, England; Visiting Professor, University of Southampton,
Southampton, England

Scott L Waugh, BA, Ph.D.

Dean of Social Sciences and Professor of History, University of California,
Los Angeles, United States
Advisers and Consultants

David J. Bercuson, B A, MA, Ph.D. Adrian Mitchell, B A, MA, Ph.D.

Professor of History, Associate Professor, Department of English,
University of Calgary, University of Sydney,
Calgary, Alberta, Canada Sydney, New South Wales, Australia

Marianna Anderson Busch, BA, Ph.D. Jay M. Pasachoff, A.B., AM., Ph.D.
Professor and Chair, Department of Field Memorial Professor of Astronomy
Chemistry, Baylor University, and Director, Hopkins Observatory
Waco, Texas, United States of Williams College,
Williamstown, Massachusetts, United States
Anne Innis Dagg, B A, MA, Ph.D.
Academic Adviser, Independent Studies, Robert B. Prigo, B.S., M.S., Ph.D.
University of Waterloo, Director of Teacher Education and Professor of
Waterloo, Ontario, Canada Physics, Middlebury College,
Middlebury, Vermont, United States
Jesus Garcia, MA, Ed.D.
Professor of Curriculum and Instruction, Michael Seidel, BA, MA, M.Phil., Ph.D.
University of Kentucky, Professor, Department of English and
Lexington, Kentucky, United States Comparative Literature, Columbia University,
New York City, New York, United States
Marc B. Garnick, M.D.
Professor of Medicine, Harvard Medical Whitney Smith, A.B., AM., Ph.D.
School, Harvard University, Director,The Flag Research Center,
Boston, Massachusetts, United States Winchester, Massachusetts, United States

Michael F. Graves, B A, MA, Ph.D. Ivan Soil, AB., Ph.D.

Professor and Head of Literacy Education, Professor of Philosophy,
University of Minnesota, Twin Cities Campus, University of Wisconsin-Madison,
Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States Madison, Wisconsin, United States

Alan E. Mann, BA., MA, Ph.D. Marilyn Stokstad, B A, MA, Ph.D.

Professor of Anthropology, Judith Harris Murphy Distinguished Professor
University of Pennsylvania, of Art History, University of Kansas,
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States Lawrence, Kansas, United States
Staff III

Executive Vice President

and Publisher
Michael Ross

Editorial Art Production

Editor in Chief Executive Director Manufacturing/Pre-Press

Dale W. Jacobs Roberta Dimmer Carma Fazio, Director
Justin Bigos
Managing Editors Art Director Audrey Casey
Sara Dreyfuss Wilma Stevens Debra Gill
Warren Silver Janice Rossing
Howard Timms Senior Designers
Don Di Sante Proofreading
Assistant Managing Editors Isaiah W. Sheppard, Jr. Anne Dillon
Timothy Falk
Lloyd Lindo Photography Manager Text Processing
Michael B. Schuldt Sandra M. Dyrlund Curley Hunter
Gwendolyn Johnson
Subject Editors Photographs Editor
Sarah Bright Sylvia Ohlrich
Brad Finger
Nicholas Kilzer Production Assistant
Barbara Lanctot John Whitney
Mike Lewis
)ay Myers Cover Design
Mike Noren Norman Baugher
Jay Powers
Thomas Wrobel J.

Daniel O. Zeff

Associate Production Editors

Megan Caras
Dawn Krajcik Research

Production Editors Executive Director of Research

Daniel Marotta and Product Development
J.

Cortez McKinney Paul Kobasa

Alana Papernik
Editorial Research Manager
Loranne K. Shields
Media Editor
Anne Mrozek
Senior Researchers
Lynn Durbin
Head, Indexing Services
Cheryl Graham
David Pofelski
Karen McCormack

Staff Indexer
Researchers
Staff
Tina Trettin
Madolynn Cronk
Statistical Services
Thomas Ryan Sullivan
Head,
Kenneth J.
Shenkman
Head, Library Services
Jon M. Fjortoft
Head, Cartographic Services
H. George Stoll
Permissions
Janet T. Peterson
Manager, Cartographic
Database
Wayne K. Pichler

Staff Cartographer
Kari Burnett

Staff ServicesCoordinator
Rose M. Barberio

Support Staff
Teresa Dunne
Carmen Jusino
IV
Preface

The World Book Encyclopedia, a publication of World Book, Inc., was first
published in 1917 as an 8-volume set The encyclopedia has been expanded
many times through the years and now has 22 volumes. Throughout its pub-
lishing history. World Book has sought new and better ways to serve its read-
ers. For a brief summary of World Book s development, see the article
Encyclopedia History).

Aims and objectives

The World Book presents information from the vast reser-
editorial staff of
voir ofknowledge in the most accessible and usable form. The editors design
World Book articles especially to meet the reference and study needs of stu-
dents in elementary school, junior high school, and high school. World Book
also serves as a general family reference tool. Librarians, teachers, and the
general public likewise turn to World Book to satisfy their everyday reference
needs.

Authority
At the heart of World Book s editorial process is its Advisory Board, along
with its other editorial advisers and consultants. These outstanding scholars
and specialists include experts in such major academic fields as school ad-
ministration, area studies, biological sciences, humanities, library science and
services physical sciences, and social sciences, as well as specialists in read-
ability and curriculum development These advisers and consultants are in-
volved in the planning, production, and ongoing evaluation of World Book
World Book engages more than 3,800 scholars and experts as contributors,
authenticators, reviewers, and consultants. The name of the contributor or re-
viewer appears at the end of World Book articles. World Book advisers, con-
sultants, and contributors are listed in the front of the A volume. The publish-
ers of World Book maintain a large permanent staff of editors, artists,
researchers, indexers, librarians, and various support personnel.

Selection of contents
An ongoing program of research and evaluation provides the editors with
the data needed to help make decisions on the encyclopedias contents. Two
aspects of the program are particularly noteworthy:
The Classroom Research Project provides continuous testing of World
Book in about 200 classrooms throughout the United States and Canada Stu-
dents use the latest edition of World Book and fill out cards to show what
they looked up. More than 25,000 cards are analyzed annually, providing the
editors with current information on the actual patterns of classroom use by
students.
In addition to the Classroom Research Project, curriculum studies supply
the editors with information about the topics studied in typical school systems
forall grades from kindergarten through high school. An ongoing analysis of

curriculum guides, national and state standards, and textbooks provides infor-
mation on current, as well as new and emerging, school topics.
Other research helps shape distinctive features of World Book For exam-
ple, aunique research project unco\ered data on how children read and in-
terpret maps. The research findings resulted in principles of design that guide
the development of World Book maps. Many special research studies have
been carried out under the supervision of members of the World Book Advi-
sory Board.

Presentation of information
World Book is organized so that readers may quickly find the information
they are seeking. This is achieved through a single alphabetical arrangement
of articles and entry cross-references, a carefully designed page and article
format, and a comprehensive, single-volume index
 ,

Preface V

World Book uses a modified unit-letter arrangement of volumes. All entries

that begin with the letter "A" are found in Volume A and so on throughout
most of the set In two instances, a single volume is not large enough to ac-
commodate all the articles that start with the same letter, and the entries are
divided between two volumes.
Most reference questions are answered by referring to Volumes through 1

21 where the reader finds either an article or a cross-reference to such an ar-

ticle. If there is no article or cross-reference, the reader can turn to Volume

22, the Research Guide/Index. Thus, World Book provides the reader with
both an extensive system of alphabetically arranged articles and cross-
references, and a comprehensive, in-depth index.
All topics are arranged alphabetically, using the word-by-word system. For
example, Arab League precedes Arabesque, and New Mexico appears be-
fore Newark. Thousands of cross-references form part of this alphabetical
arrangement They guide the reader to a subject or to some information that
may be a part of another article, or that may appear as an alternate title. See
and See also cross-references are included within many articles. A list of Re-
lated articles at the end of many World Book articles guides the reader to ad-
ditional information in the encyclopedia.
World Book's page format is designed for maximum usefulness. Page num-
bers and guide words at the top of a page provide rapid access to subjects.
Within articles, topics and subtopics stand out in boldface center headings
and boldface side headings.
World Book's fivefold plan for major articles brings together five basic ele-
ments: (Da complete story, (2) visual aids, (3) related articles, (4) an outline, and
(5) questions.
1. The complete story gives readers a solid foundation of information about
a subject
2. A wide variety of visual aids clarifies meaning and reinforces learning.
Photographs, drawings, paintings, maps, diagrams, charts, and graphs make
information come alive.
3. A list of related World Book articles encourages readers to broaden their

study of a subject
4. An outline gives readers an overall view of the article and shows the in-

terrelationship of its units.

5. Questions help readers review important information in the article. They

are designed to reinforce understanding of the major areas of a topic.

Readability
World Book editors present information in a clear, direct style that meets
the most exacting standards of readability. The curriculum analysis and class-
ioom research program help the editors design articles to be understandable
at the age levels where they are most commonly used. Vocabulary is
geared
to the proper age group. For example, the Mouse article was written espe-
cially for children, and Cell was aimed at advanced readers. Many
younger
long designed
articles are to present simpler concepts and reading levels at
the beginning. These articles build toward more sophisticated concepts and
reading levels toward the end. The Leaf article is an excellent example of this
simple-to-more-complex approach.
In developing an article, the editor checks its
vocabulary against a list of
about 44,000 words created especially for World Book by its readability con-
sultants.
that can be understood at the grade level of
World Book editors use words
the but they
article, use technical terms where needed. Such words are de-
fined immediately in the article, thus ensuring
understanding and helping vo-
example, the section on The
cabulary development In the Moon article, for
moon uses the words elliptical, perigee, apogee, synodic
movements of the
month and sidereal month. These words are printed in italics, and
their
VI Preface

meanings are given in parentheses or defined within the context of the sen-
tence in which they appear. Similar techniques are used throughout the set to

define difficult words and clarify meanings.

Most major articles have undergone thorough readability analyses by
World Book s readability consultants and editors. Some of these articles have
also been tested for comprehension by students at appropriate grade levels.

Illustrations and maps

Illustrations arecombined with text in World Bookto achieve the most ef-
fectivecommunication of information. An illustration is placed close to the
portion of subject matter that it is designed to clarify, supplement, or comple-
ment World Book has more than 27,500 illustrations, over 24,000 in color.

Many World Book illustrations were created exclusively for the encyclopedia
by specially commissioned illustrators and photographers. For example, the
color photographs in were obtained by a specially as-
the Mineral article
signed photographer working with museum experts. Specialists in depicting
nature subjects have illustrated such articles as Animal, Bird, Flower, Insect,
Spider, and Tree.
World Book s treatment of the fine arts is exemplified by the Painting arti-
cle. This 64-page article features reproductions of about 100 paintings from

the world's leading museums and private collections. In addition, numerous

biographies of noted artists are illustrated with color reproductions of their
work.
In illustrating historical articles, World Book uses period art where appro-
priate. For example, the article United States, History of the, includes more
than 20 pieces of by such well-known artists as George Caleb Bingham,
art
Currier and Ives, and Benjamin West Illustrated time lines in such articles as
Classical music and Medicine help place people and events in historical
perspective.
Among the illustrative features of World Book is a Trans-Vision® unit that
uses transparent color overlays to clarify an important subject This visual
technique is used in the Human body article to show both the details and the

Fine art reproduction Technical diagram

t* truth thiough lh* >wfbm« tp-nnmg «*• -fw*ti **<> • u.-li

«| rt.r»g»i *. turbmc ood M.MX >+*-• *>«d P«

Commissioned photography

HM^H^H
 Preface VII

relationships of the human body's major systems.

World Bookhas more than 2,200 maps, all of them in color. The publisher
conducts research that analyzes type size and placement, color, symboliza-
tion, captioning, scale, and other elements involved in map design. Design
principles based on such research are incorporated in World Book maps. Ex-
amples of maps that use these principles are the thematic maps in articles on
the states, provinces, major countries, and continents. These maps convey ba-
sic information on such topics as climate, economy, population distribution,
and historical development

Research aids
Many research aids have been built into World Book These aids facilitate
the search for information within World Book and assist the reader
in finding
information beyond the encyclopedia. These research aids appear both in the
alphabetical volumes and in Volume 22, the Research Guide/Index.
Listings of Related articles at the end of many World Book articles lead the
reader to additional, related information on the subject For example, after
reading the section The Era of Expansion <1831-1870)'m the American litera-
ture article, a reader might want to learn more about Emily Dickinson, Walt
Whitman, and other poets of the period. The Related articles section at the
end of the American literature article includes an alphabetical listing of arti-
cles on the writers of this period.
The Additional resources heading that follows more than 1 ,500 articles in
World Book leads the user to further reading on the subject These lists of
books have been carefully selected— often with the assistance of the experts
who wrote or reviewed the articles— to represent the most current, balanced
scholarship. In some instances, the books have been grouped on two levels,
with Level books being easier to use than Level
I books.
II

An instructional section called A Student Guide to Better Writing, Speaking,

and Research Skills in Volume 22 gives students practical, easy-to-understand
guidance in carrying out everyday school assignments. It includes writing tips
and advice on preparing different types of written reports; advice on prepar-

lllustrated time line Graphs

Highlights in the history of classical music
Sumenons ployed musit
LThe
On horpiike .nsfumenls

Q aboul 3000 »c g Aboul 500 B

T The Greeks begon to develop

systems of music theory

T.

The cithara »d-. an important stringed Guide d An

iiutrumeni olain ienl Greece rhe Creeks developed a

believed th.it music ptayed on the dlhara

*> in""'
had a calming effect on listeners

a Oft rwxtr hwi uib-i I I ; * ; I (

Transparent overlays
Thematic map
VIM Preface

ing and delivering an oral report; and detailed information on using the library
and tapping other reference sources.

Revision program
An encyclopedia must be up to date if it is to serve the best interests of its

users. A revised edition of World Book is published each year. Each edition re-

flects up-to-date information and the latest changes in educational viewpoints.

Every subject area is under continuing surveillance. The annual revision pro-

gram never confined to a single area or to certain volumes. Thousands of

is

pages are revised or updated each year.

To keep World Book owners abreast of world events, The World Book Year
Book, an annual supplement, is published each January. The version available
to libraries and schools is called World Books Year in Review. Dated for the
year of issue, the supplement reviews the events of the previous year. It in-
cludes special articles on a broad spectrum of topics, and it reports major
news developments, alphabetically listed, to update World Book It also pub-
lishes a selection of new or revised major articles from the current edition of
World Book A three-year cumulative index provides ready access to informa-
tion in the current and previous two editions of The Year Book (Year in
Review).

Physical format
The high goals of World Book s editorial processes also characterize its
manufacturing processes. World Book is printed on modern web offset press-
es, custom-built for the encyclopedia. World Book's presses allow the use of
color throughout the set. The paper used in World Book is especially manu-
factured to achieve the best results from color printing.
The text type used in World Book— World Book Modern— was created ex-
clusively for World Book by Hermann Zapf, an internationally renowned type
designer. His specifications for the text type have been incorporated into a
page format that facilitates readability and the search for information.
World Book's attractive and practical binding materials were selected for
their durability, dirt resistance, and high scuff resistance.
Tests at every stage of production during the printing and binding process-
es are conducted at the press facilities and in World Book s Product Produc-
tion Department.

Electronic versions
The content of The World Book Encyclopedia is also available in online
versions on a subscription basis. In addition, World Book is available on CD-
ROM (Compact Disc Read-Only Memory).

For more information,

call:

1 -800-967-5325
write to:
World Book Publishing
233 N. Michigan Avenue
Chicago, IL 60601
visit World Books Web site at
www.worldbook.com

Related publications

Other publications of World Book, Inc., include The World Book Student
Discovery Encyclopedia, Childcraft- The How and Why Library, The World
Book Dictionary, The World Book Encyclopedia of Science, Young Scientist,
The World Book Encyclopedia of People and Places, The World Book Year
Book, Science Year and Childcraft Annual.

The editors
How to use World Book IX

World Book is a tool for learning— a general encyclopedia that tells about
people, places, things, events, and ideas. It provides accurate information
that is easy to understand and easy to find.
You may come to your encyclopedia for ihe answer to a particular ques-
tion, such as "How high is a badminton net?" or What is the population of
Haiti?" Or you may seek general information for a school assignment. Parents
and young people, when they plan together for the future, often come to
World Book to find out about the possibilities in various careers. And, of
course, many people like simply to explore World Book, letting one topic
lead them to another. Browsing or skimming through the encyclopedia is an
enjoyable way to pick up interesting information on many subjects.
All articles, generally called entries in World Book, are arranged alphabet- Assigned a written or
ically, volume by volume and subject by subject. Included in this alphabeti- oral report? Turn to A
cal arrangement are also thousands of entry cross-references. Cross-refer- Student Guide to Better
Writing, Speaking, and
ences are explained in detail later in this section.
Research Skills in Volume
All entries that begin with the letter "A" are found in Volume A, everything
22 for advice on how to
that starts with "B" is in Volume B, and so on throughout most of the set In go about it

some two or more consecutive letters of the al-

cases, entries that start with
phabet are combined in one volume. Or, a single volume may not be large
enough to hold all the articles that start with the same letter. In such cases,
entries starting with the same letter are divided between two volumes. For
example, World Book articles that begin with the letter "C" are contained in
two volumes— C to Ch and Ci to Cz.
In most instances, World Book's alphabetical arrangement of articles and
cross-references will enable you to find the information you are seeking.
However, if you do not find the information, turn to Volume 22, the Research
Guide/Index. Its more than 150,000 index entries provide access to the
wealth of information in World Book
Volume 22 also includes an instructional section titled A Student Guide to
Better Writing, Speaking, and Research Skills. This feature has been de-
signed to help students assigned a written or oral report.
For information on using the index, see Volume 22, the Research
Guide/Index.

The word-by-word arrangement

The alphabetical system used in World Book is the same system used in
arranging a telephone directory and the card catalogs of books in most li-
braries. This word-by-word arrangement puts entries that have titles begin-
ning with a short word ahead of titles that have the short word as the first let-
ters of a longer word. For example, you will find Ant bear and Ant lion
ahead of Antabuse and Antarctic. Similarly, all place names starting with
New are together, and they are followed by names that have New as their
first letters. New Jersey comes before New Mexico, which precedes New

York. Following them are such entries as Newark and Newfoundland.

Exceptions to this rule are certain foreign proper names and English
names of foreign origin that include a preposition or an article. For example,
De Gaulle is alphabetized as if it were one word because De is a preposi-
tion. Likewise, El Dorado is alphabetized as one word because
El is an arti-

cle. Biographies of people whose names begin

with Mac, such as MacDon-
ald, are listed alphabetically under Mac. Names that begin with Mc, such as
Mckinley, are listed alphabetically under Mc, following entries beginning
Ma and Mb.
 How to use World Book
Guide words
At the top of most pages is a 4 Labor movement
guide word. The purpose of the
guide word is to help you locate Labor movement is a term that refers to the efforts of try The union sends men and women called organizers to
workers as a group to improve their economic position persuade workers to join.
quickly the entry you are seeking.
The movement consists chiefly of attempts hy labor Most unions insist on being the sole representative of
On a left hand page, the guide unions to promote the welfare of wage earners But politi a particular group of employees They do not want to
word (or words! may be the title cal parties and other groups have also played a pan in the share the privilege of representing the workers with any
of the first entry that appears in labor movement other group This practice is called the principle ofexclu-
the first column of that page. Or, Before the development of labor unions, individual la- Sf\-e juhsdictton The National Labor Relations Board con-

the guide word may be the title borers had almost no voice in determining their wages ducts secret ballot elections at firms to determine which
hours, or working conditions. There was a plentiful sup union workers want, rf any.
of an article that
is continued

from a preceding page, if the

continuation takes up the whole
column. On a right-hand
first
246 Beluga
page, the guide word is the title
of the last article on that page. Beluga. See Whale 'Belugas and narwhals July. France gave Algeria its independence. Ben Bella
Bemba is a term used to describe the language and then took control of the country. He was elected presi-
culture of a large ethnic group in Central Africa.The dent in 1963. Kenneth FVri.m..
Let us say your question is:
I

Bemba language and culture are both called labemba. See also Algeria Independence!.
What is a labor movement?" The name for the people who belong to this ethnic Ben-Gurion, behn GOO nh uhn David 1886 19731,
First, select the key word— the group is Ababemba. The traditional territory of the Be- served as Israel s first prime minister after rt became in-
most important word— in the mba people, in northern Zambia, is called Ulubemba dependent in 1948 He served as prime minister and
question: "Labor. In most cases, The Bemba language belongs to the Bantu family, minister of defense from 1948 to 1953 and from 1955 to
this word will be the same as the which includes hundreds of other African languages 1963.
such as Swahili and Zulu Bemba is the most widely During the Suez crisis of 1956, Ben-Gurion ordered
entry in World Book. So, look for
spoken language in Zambia. About 4 million people the Israeli invasion of the Gaza Strip and Sinai Penmsu
Labor in Volume L Start leafing speak Bemba or related dialects as their first language la Later. Israeli forces withdrew at the request of the
through Volume L noting the ,
Many other people speak it as a second or third lan- United Nations
guide words on the tops of the guage. Ben Gunon was born David Green in Plonsk, Russia
pages. Most Bemba people in rural areas are farmers. They now in Poland) He settled in Palestine in 1906. By 1919.
grow cassava, maize, millet, peanuts, sweet potatoes, he was a Zionist leader working for creation of a Jew-
and other crops. Fishing and occasional hunting add to ish state in Palestine Isee Zionism) In 1930, he founded
Leaf forward until you see
their diet In cities. Bemba people work in a variety of the Mapai llsrael Workers Partyl. He was a secretary-
guide words that begin with professions. Bemba families are matnlmeah related general of the W/$/acfruTlGeneral Federation of Labon
"Lab, such as Labor, Depart- through the female line! Many Bemba families live as a from 1921 to 1935.
ment of. If you come upon such large extended famih in which parents, children, As chairman of the Executive of the Jewish Agency
guide words as Labrador or grandparents, and other relatives share a home. The ex- for Palestine from 1935 to 1948 Ben Gunon directed all

Labyrinth, vou know you must tended family plays a major role in peoples lives, Jewish affairs in the country. His activities ranged from
providing security and help with farm and household land development and settlement of immigrants to se-
go back to find the Labor move-
chores cret activities against Arabs and the British Ben-Cunon
ment article in its alphabetical The Bemba people were once part of the ancient retired in 1963. EiirsRMjn
place. Finding an entry in World Luba Empire in what is now Congo iKinshasai. They mi- See also Israel History'
Book is very much like finding a grated to northern Zambia in the mid-1600 s. The Bern
word in a dictionary. ba C/wr/mi/Au/u (paramount chief! is the Traditional ruler
within Bemba termors Today, the Chrtimukulu also has
a strong advisory role within the Zambian national gov-
Entry cross-references ernment Debra Spituinik and Ajnander Raymond Mikau Kasonde
Thousands of cross-references See also Bantu; Luba; Zambia.
are important aids to finding in- Bemelmans, 8EHM uhl muhnz Ludwig 1898 1962).
formation in World Book. There was an American author and artist He became best
are several types of cross-refer- known for his children s books, especially six picture
books about a young girl in Pans named Madeline Be-
ences. The principal type is the
melmans won the 1954 Caldecott Medal for his charm-
entry cross-reference. These ing and colorful illustrations for Madelines Rescue
cross-references appear in heavy (1953).He began the series with Madeline 1 9391. 1

type— the same as article titles Bemelmans was born in a section of the Tyro! prov-
and are included in World Books ince of Austria now part of Italy, and moved to the
alphabetical arrangement United States in 1914. He became a U.S. citizen in 1918
Bemelmans also wrote stories and novels for adults. His
nonfiction for adults includes a humorous autobio-
Some entry cross-references graphical account of his experiences in the U.S. Army.
provide you with the titles of top- My War with the United States H9571 A selection of his
ics that can be found in the set writingswas published in 1985, after his death, as Tell
under other names. For example, Them It Was Wonderful. fli p Mq
in Volume B you will find the en- Ben Bella, Ahmed 1919 was the first president
i

of the Republic of Algeria He helped lead the revolt

try Benares. See Varanasi. That
that freed Algeria from French rule. He served as presi-
entry directs you to the Varanasi dent from 963 to 965, when he was overthrown by
1 1

article because the city of the army commander Houan Boumedienne Ben Bella
Benares is also known as was then held prisoner by the Algerian government un-
Varanasi. til 1980, following Boumedienne s death in 1978.

Ben Bella was born in Marnia mow Maghniai Alge-

ria. He served in the French Army during World War II
Other entry cross-references
11939-19451. He later became a leader in the Algerian in-
tellyou in what section of an arti- dependence movement. In 1949. he led a raid on the
cle to find current information. If
Oran post office and stole more than 3 million francs to
you want information about belu- help finance the movement The French jailed him, but
gas, you look up that entry in its he escaped. In 1954, Ben Bella helped found the Alge- m A Ludwig Bemelmans drawing Imm his book. Madeline i Rescue.
proper alphabetical place in Vol- nan National Liberation Front FLNi The French recap- the 1954 Caldeeon Medal winner sJiows Madeline and 1 1 other Imte
tured him in 1956. They released him in March 1962. In piris taking their daiK walk, m Pan* wtrh their teacher
ume B. You will find the entry
cross-reference: Beluga. See
Whaie (Belugas and narwhals).
Then you would turn to the
Whale article and leaf through it
until you come to the section en-
titled Belugas and narwhals.
 How to use World Book XI

m Cross-references within
the text
In addition to the entry cross- Swimming 104)
references. World Book pro-
vides many cross-references |ecl, you ran throw a life preserver, a board, or any

within the text of articles and at

other ob|ect thai will float and support ihe swimmer
the end of articles. These "see" Swimming kicks and strokes
and "see also" cross-references Swimmers move their legs, feet. arms, and hands in
direct you maps,
to particular r ways to propel themselves through the water
ertain
charts, pictures, or articles and easily and quickly The movements of the legs and feet
sections of articles for additional are called kicks These movements combined with

information on material that you movements of the arms and hands are called strokes
The basic kicks. Swimmers use four types of kicks
have just read. Good examples
of this kind of cross-reference
are "see Zionism" found in the
Ben-Gurion, David article and
How a tree grows
the See also cross-reference at
the end of the Ben Bella, Most trees begin life as a seed The young tree that the trunk and of each branch develop a bud The bud
develops from this seed is called a seedling After a tree
Ahmed article. contains a tiny leafy green stem called a shoot The bud
reaches a height of 6 feet (1.8 meters! or more and its is wrapped in a protective covering of bud scales After
trunk becomes 1 to 2 inches 12.5 to 5 centimeters) thick, a period of rest, thebuds swell and open The shoots
Article headings it is called a sapling Many trees reach a height of more thai were inside the buds begin to grow and so make
We have told you about find- than 1 (X) feet (30 meters!. Some old trees have trunks the trunk and branches taller Another type of bud
ing articles in World Book. Now, more than 1 feel (3 meters! in diameter grows on the sides of the trunk and branches These
look at some of the aids that Trees need great amounts of water A large apple tree buds contain a shool that develops into a leaf bearing
help you find information in full leaf may absorb 95 gallons (360 liters) from the twig after the bud opens. As a twig grows larger, it be-
quickly within most of the arti- soil dailyMost of the water goes to the leaves On a comes another branch of the tree Some tree buds de
sunny summer day, some trees move water up through velop into flowers Still others develop into twigs thai
cles. Turn to the Tree article.
their trunks at the rate of 3 feet 191 centimeters!
per min bear both leaves and flowers In warm climates, trees
You will notice this long article ute A tree's wood is about half water produce buds frequently during the year or continue to
is divided into sections, each
How seeds sprout Into trees. A seed contains parts grow without forming buds In colder climates, trees
with its own head ov heading- that develop into the trunk and roots of a tree It also has produce buds only in the summer. These buds rest in
words in large type that tell you one or more cotyledons and a supply of plant food. winter and open after warm weather arrives in spring
what information will be found After a seed has left the parent tree, it rests for a while Trees without branches- cycads, most palms, and
in the section— for example: on the ground Water, air, and sunshine help the seed tree ferns- grow somewhat differently For example, a
germinate (begin to growl The part of the seed that de- young palm tree does not grow taller for a number of
How a tree grows velops into the trunk points upward toward the sunlight
As the seed absorbs water, the root part swells and
years Its short trunk thickens and produces more and
larger leaves each year After the trunk and crown reach
bursts through the seed's shell As the root grows, it adult size, the tree begins to grow taller The trunk slays
Every section has been di- pushes down into the soil The food stored in the seed about the same thickness for the rest of the tree s life
vided into subsections, each nourishes the tree As the root begins to soak up water How trunks and branches grow thicker. The trunk
with a subhead ov subheading from the soil, the trunk begins to develop leaves and branches of a broadleaf or needleleaf tree grow
in heavy type that pinpoints par- How leaves make plant food. As a leaf develops, it thicker as long as the tree lives The cambium tissue |ust
gets sap from the roots. It also absorbs carbon dioxide underneath the inner bark causes this thickening It uses
ticular kinds of information. For
from the air. The leaf uses the energy of sunlight to the sugar produced by the leaves to make new plant tis
example, under the heading sue On its outside, the cambium makes new phloem, or
change the sap and carbon dioxide into sugar, a process
How a tree grows, you will find called photosynthesis The sugar provides food for the inner bark, and on its inside, new xylem, or wood
these subheads: How seeds trunk, branches, and roots During photosynthesis, the Wood consists largely of cellulose, a tough substance
sprout into trees; How leaves leaves also produce oxygen and release it into the at- made from sugar The xylem has two kinds of wood-
make plant food; How trees mosphere See Leaf (How a leaf makes food) sapwood and heartwood The wood nearest the cam-
How trees grow taller. Trees grow taller only at the bium is the sapwood It is living wood and contains the
grow taller; and How trunks
tips of their trunk and branches. Each year, the tips of tiny pipelines that carry sap In tropical climates, the
and branches grow thicker. All
of these heads and subheads
lead you to the particular kinds I How a tree reveals Its history A Crock develop*
qi the log drtei.
of information you might be Most trees in temperate regions
grow a layer of wood each year After
seeking if you did not wish to
such a tree has been cut down, the
read the entire Tree article. layers can be seen as nngs in Ihe
trunk These annual nngs reveal the
trees life story The pine log in this
Note also that the color dia- drawing has 72 annual nngs. showing
grams in the article have special that the tree lived for 72 years

headings that serve a similar

purpose, for example: How a
Narrow center rings indicate that
tree reveals its history. Many |

other trees shaded ihe young tree,

medium-length ^nd short arti- depriving it of moisture and sunlight
cles in World Book are also di-
Wider rings on the log s lower side
vided into sections that have |

after the JOth year show that Ihe tree

heads and subheads, but of was slightlyin this direction The
bent
course some articles are so tree then began to grow more wood
on this side than on the other to keep
short that they do not require from tailing Most nngs after the Wth
separate sections. year are wider than the center rings
This indicates thatmany surrounding
trees had been removed giving the
Captions tree more moisture and sunlight Oil
The illustrations in World ferences in the width of nngs after
the 18th nng were caused mainlv b\
Book all have captions— special varying amounts of rainfall from vear
textwhich usually starts with to year
heavy type that quickly identifies
the subject. Captions give infor-
mation that clarifies or adds to
the information given in the arti-

cle. A caption will be found

close to an illustration.
XII
Other research aids

On this number of special research aids found in World Book are

page, a
shown. you make good use of them, they will facilitate your search for in-
If

formation. Browse through the set and you will find these special features in
many articles. They have been developed to help you get the most out of
World Book

Facts in brief
Facts in brief tables are
Capital: London found in state, province,
Official language: English. country, continent, and
Area: 50,352 sq. mi. (130,410 krrv), Greatest distances— north- many other articles. They
south, about 360 mi. (579 km); east-west, about 270 mi. (435 provide information at a
km). Coastline— about 1,150 mi. (1,851 km). glance.
Elevation: Highest-Scaiett Pike, 3,210 ft. (978 m) above sea
Lowest— Great Holme Fen, near the River Ouse
level. in
Cambridgeshire, 9 ft (2.7 m) below sea level.

Horse terms Tables of terms present

information that defines
Bronco, or Bronc, is an untamed Western horse. certain words or phrases
Colt, technically, is a male horse 4 years old or less. However, the used in discussing spe-
word colt is often used for any young horse. cialized or highly techni-
Crossbred means bred from a sire of one breed and a dam of cal topics.
another.
Dam is the mother of a foal.
Filly is afemale horse 4 years old or less.

Important dates in Kennedy's life

Tables of important
1917 (May
Born in Brookline, Mass.
29)
dates are included in
1940 Graduated from Harvard University. many articles. They pro-
ide quick reference to
1941-1945 Served in the U.S. Navy during World War II.
\

1946 Elected to the U.S. House of Representatives. outstanding events in the

history of a topic.
1952 Elected to the U.S. Senate.
1953 (Sept. 12) Married Jacqueline Lee Bouvier.

Additional resources

Level I
Additional resources at

Harman, Amanda. South American Monkeys. Benchmark Bks., 1996. the end of over 1 ,500 arti-
Sterry, Paul. Monkeys & Apes. 1994. Reprint Todtri, 1998. cles lead to further read
ing Sometimes, books
Level II are grouped on two lev-
Nowak, Ronald M., ed. Walkers Primates of the World. Johns Hopkins, els, with Level books
I

1999. being easier to use than

Rowe, Noel. The Pictorial Guide to the Living Primates Pogonias, 1996. Level II books.

Related articles. See Literature for children and its list of Related
See also the following:
articles. Related articles listings
atthe end of many arti-
Colonial literature ( 1 608- 1 764) cles direct the reader to
Bay Psalm Book Mather, Cotton additional, related infor-
Bradford, William (1590-16571 Mather, Richard mation in World Book
Bradstreet, Anne Dudley Poor Richard's Almanac
Byrd, William, II Smith, John
Edwards, Jonathan Taylor, Edward
Franklin, Benjamin Wigglesworth, Michael
Great Awakening

The revolutionary period (1765-17871

Crevecoeur, Michel- Paine, Thomas
Guillaume Jean de Warren, Mercy Otis
Key to pronunciation XIII

The World Book Encyclopedia provides Letter

or
pronunciation for many unusual or unfa- mark As In Respelling Example
words, either with the article title or
miliar
where the word appears in the text. In the a hat, map a Alphabet AL fuh beht
pronunciation, the words are divided into
a age, face ay Asia AYzhuh
syllables and respelled according to the
way each syllable sounds. The syllables
a care, air ai Bareback BAIR bak
appear in italic letters.For example, here a father, far ah Armistice AHR muh stihs
isan article title along with the respelled ch coild, much ch China CHYnuh
pronunciation for it
e let, best eh Essay EHSay
Antibiotic, an tee byAHTihk e equal, see, ee Leaf leef

The syllable that bears the greatest em- machine, city Marine muh REEN
phasis when the word is spoken appears er term, learn,
in capital letters IAHT). If the word is long
sir, work ur Pearl purl
enough have a syllable that receives
to
secondary emphasis, that syllable appears i it, p/'n, hymn ih System SIHS tuhm
in small capitals (an). More than one pro- i ice, f/ve, y Ohio ohHYoh
nunciation appears for words that have /con eye Iris EYErihs
several accepted pronunciations in Eng-
k coat, \ook k Corn kawrn
lish, for words have distinctive pro-
that
nunciations in other languages, and for o hot, rock ah Ottawa AHTuh wuh
names that have distinctive local pronun- 6 open, go. oh Rainbow RAYNboh
ciations (such as Arkansas River, AHR grow, Chateau shah TOH
kuhn sa w or ahr KANS zuhs).
tableau
World Book uses a number of diacriti-
cal marks and special characters to indi- 6 order, all aw Orchid AWRkihd
cate the correct spellings for many words Mall mawl
and names in languages other than Eng- oi o/'l, voice oy Coinage KOYnihj
lish. These marks have various meanings,

according to the languages in which they

ou bouse, out ow Fountain FOWNtuhn
are used. An acute accent mark over an (
' )
s 5ay, nice s Spice spys
e in a French word indicates that the e is sh she, sh Motion MOHshuhn
pronounced ay. An acute accent mark abolifrbn
over an e in a Spanish word indicates that
the syllable containing the e bears the
u cop, hotter, uh Study STUHD ee
main emphasis in the word. The accented flood Blood bluhd
characters may look difficult, and some of u foil, pot, u Fulbright FUL bryt
them represent sounds that are hard for wood Wool wul
English-speaking people to make. But the
respelled pronunciation normally makes
ii role, move, oo Zulu ZOO loo
the sounds clear, as in Dvorak, DVAWR food,
zhahk, or Lodz, looj or lahdz. mosic yoo Muses MYOOZehz
The pronunciation key at the right
zh pleasure zh Asia AYzhuh
shows how common word sounds are in-

dicated by diacritical marks The World in a about, ameba uh Burma BUR muh
Book Dictionary and by respelling in The taken, purple uh Fiddle FIHD uhl
World Book Encyclopedia. The key also penc/l uh Citizen SIHTuhzuhn
shows examples of the schwa, or unac-
lemon un Lion LYuhn
cented vowel sound. The schwa is repre-
sented by a. circos uh Cyprus SYpruhs
labyrinth uh Physique fuh ZEEK
curtain uh Mountain MOWNtuhn
Egypt/an uh Georgia lAWRjuh
sect/on uh Legion LEEjuhn
fabulous uh Anonymous uh NAHN uh muhs
Contributors and Consultants
A person whose name appears at the end of an article in The World Book Encyclopedia
either wrote it originally or became responsible for its accuracy as a critical reviewer of
the work of another. In preparing The World Book Encyclopedia, the editors also have
the valued assistance and advice of expert consultants in education, readability,
cartography, the graphic arts, and other specialized areas of knowledge.

National Aeronautics and Space Administration Anderson, Celia Catlett, Ph.D. Assoc. Prof, of
Goddard Space Flight Center English, Eastern Connecticut State Univ.
Aaron, Henry J., PhD Senior Fellow, The Brook Atnley, David G., Ph.D. Senior Ecologist, H T Anderson, Dan R., Ph.D. Prof of Risk Manage-
ings Institution Harvey & Associates. ment and Insurance, Univ. of Wisconsin.
Abadinsky, Howard, Ph.D. Prof, Saint Xavier Ajayi, J. F. Ade, LLD Emeritus Prof of History, Anderson, David L, Ph.D. Dean, College of Arts
Univ, Chicago. Llniv. of Ibadan. and Sciences, Univ. of Indianapolis.
Abbate, Carolyn, Ph.D. Prof of Music, Akin, Wallace E-, Ph.D. Prof. Emeritus of Anderson, Donald C Community Relations Di-
Princeton Univ. Geography and Geology, Drake Univ. rector, The (Manchester, NHI Cnion Leader and
Abbott, Carl, Ph.D. Prof of Urban Studies and Aksan, Virginia H., Ph.D. Chair, Dept. of
the New Hampshire Sunday News.
Planning Portland State Univ. History, McMaster Univ. Anderson, Fred Wv Ph.D Prof of History, Univ.
Abbott, Frederick M, ).D ; LLM Edward Ball Albro, Ward S., Ph.D Prof Emeritus of History, of Colorado, Boulder
Prof of Law, Florida State Univ. College of Law. Texas A&M L'niv., Kingsville Anderson, John F., Ph.D Director, Connecticut
AbdehKader, Ali Hassan, Ph.D. Prof, of Islamic Alcock, James F_, Ph.D. Prof of Psychology, Agricultural Experiment Station.
Studies. Columbia Vx\\\ York Univ. Anderson, John G., Ph.D Prof., Univ. of Nevada.
Abel, Francis L, Ph.D Distinguished Prof Emeri- Alexander, Duane F., M.D Director, National Anderson, Stannie Writing Coach, TopekalKS)
tus of Pharmacology and Physiology, Univ. of Institute of Child Health and Human Development. Capita/Journal
South Carolina School of Medicine. National Institutes of Health. Andrea, David J., M.B.A. Chief Economist, CSM
Abeloff, Martin D., M.D Prof and Director, Alexander, Thomas C, Ph.D Prof of Western Worldwide
Johns Hopkins Oncology Center American History, Brigham Young Univ. Andreasen, Nancy C, M.D., Ph.D Chair of Psy-
Abels, Richard P., Ph.D. Prof of History, U.S. Altvisatos, Armand Paul, Ph.D. Prof., Dept. of chiatry, Univ. of Iowa Hospitals and Clinics.
Naval Academy Chemistry, Llniv. of California, Berkeley. Andrews, Frank C, Ph.D. Prof, of Chemistry,
Abramovrtz, Robert H., M.D. Chief Psychiatrist. Allen, Delmas J., Ph.D. President for Academic Univ. of California, Sania Cruz.
Jewish Board of Family and Children's Services. Affairs, North Georgia College. Andrews, Richard N. L, Ph.D. Prof of Environ-
Abrams, Suzanne R-, Ph.D. Principal Research Allen,Garland F_, Ph.D. Prof of Biology, mental Policy, Univ. of North Carolina, Chapel Hill.
Biotechnology
Officer, Plant Institute, National Washington Univ. Andrews, William L, Ph.D E. Maynard Adams
Research Council of Canada
Allen, John L, Ph.D. Prof of Geography, Prof of English, Univ. of North Carolina.
Abu Jaber, Kamel S., Ph.D Prof of Political Univ. of Connecticut.
Angel, Roger P., D.Phil. Regents Prof, Prof of
J.
Science, Jordan Univ.
Allen, Richard, Ph.D. Minister Responsible for Astronomy and Optical Sciences, Univ. of Arizona.
AbuKhalil, As ad Ph.D. Assoc. Prof of Political International Trade, Government of Ontario
Angel I, Carole S., M.Ed Teacher, Fairfax Co.
Science, California State Llniv., Stanislaus.
Allen, Roger, D.Phil. Prof of Arabic, Univ of Public Schools
Acheson, Donald T., Ph.D Consultant; former Pennsylvania Angers, Denis, M.A. Producer, Canadian Broad-
Staff Scientist, National Weather Service.
Allen, William Hand, MS President, Allen & casting Corp.
Acheson, T. W., Ph.D. Former Prof of History, Shariff Corporation.
Antonini, Gustavo A., Ph.D Prof of Latin Ameri-
Univ. of New Brunswick.
Allen, William Sheridan, Ph.D. Prof of History, can Studies and Geography, Univ. of Florida.
Adam, Mohammed M., M.J. Journalist Munici- State LJniv of New York, Buffalo.
Antrim, Zayde G., M.Phil. Ph.D. Candidate, DepL
pal Reporter. Ottawa \QN\ Citizen.
Alley, Phillip W., Ph.D. Prof of Physics, State of History, Harvard Univ.
Adams, Charles J., Ph.D Former Prof, of Islamic Univ. of New York, Geneseo.
Studies, McCill Univ.
A p pel man, Evan H., Ph.D Former Senior
Allin, Craig W., Ph.D. Prof of Political Science, Chemist, Argonne National Laboratory.
Adams, Clark E., Ph.D Prof of Wildlife and Cornell College.
Fisheries Sciences, Texas A&M Univ. Applebaum, Rhona S., Ph.D Executive Vice
AMinson, Gary Boyard Weedon
D., Ph.D. Ellen President of Scientific and Regulatory Affairs,
Adams, jack, B.Sc. in Mech Engineering. Prof of Modern Japanese History, Univ of Virginia National Food Processors Association.
Regional Director for Canada of the National
Horseshoe Pitchers Association of America.
Allmand, CT V D.Phil Prof of History, Univ of Appleman, Jean, ).D. Attorney and legal author

Adams, Nicholas, PhD. Prof of Art,

Liverpool.
Appleton, Jon H., MA Prof of Music, Dart-
Almond, Gabriel A., Ph.D. Coauthor, The Strug- mouth College.
Vassar College.
Adams, Richard N., Ph.D Prof of Liberal Arts
gle for Democracy in Germany. Apseloff, Marilyn Fain, MA Prof of English,
Alsop, Fred J v III, Ph.D. Prof, Dept of Biological Kent State Univ
Emeritus, Univ. of Texas, Austin
Science, East Tennessee State Univ. Archambault, Jo Alh/n, Ph.D. Director, Ameri-
Adams, Robert L A., Ph.D. Former Assoc. Prof
Alten, Stanley R-, Ph.D. Prof, Television Radio can Indian Program in the National Museum of
of Geography, Univ. of New Hampshire.
Film Dept., Newhouse School of Public Communi Natural History, Smithsonian Institution.
Adams, Russ, B.S. Owner, 8arCode-1.com. cations, Syracuse Univ author, Audio in Media.
Arey, J. Norman, A.B. Asst Sports Editor, The At-
;

Adamson, J. C, Vice President, AT&T Financial Althoff, George T., B.S. Former Editor, (Decatur, lanta (GA) Journal and Constitution
Systems. ID Herald & Review.
Argrow, Brian M., Ph.D. Assoc. Prof, Aerospace
Adamson, Jeremy, Ph.D Curator, Renwick Alvares, Norman J., ME. Fire Engineering Engineering Sciences, Univ, of Colorado.
Gallery of the National Museum of American Art Consultant, Fire Science Applications.
Smithsonian Institution.
Ariew, Roger, Ph.D. Prof of Philosophy, Virginia
Aman, Mohammed M., Ph.D. Dean and Prof, Polytechnic Institute and State Univ.
Addington, Larry H., Ph.D Former Prof of School of Information Studies, Univ. of Wisconsin.
History, The Citadel.
Armbruster, David C, Ph.D President,
Ambler, Susan H., Ph.D. Assoc. Prof, of Armbruster Associates Inc., Chemical Consultants
Addis, Paul Bradley, Ph.D. Prof of Food Science Sociology, Maryville College and Specialty Products.
and Nutrition, Univ. of Minnesota, Twin Cities
Campus.
Ambrose, Stephen E., Ph.D. Boyd Prof of Histo Armstrong, Joseph E-, Ph.D Prot of Botany,
ry. Director Emeritus of the Eisenhower Center. Illinois State Univ.
Adler, Thomas P., Ph.D. Head, Dept of English,
Purdue Univ. Ameriks, Karl, Ph.D. Prof of Philosophy, Univ. of Amdt, Roger E. A., Ph.D Prof of Hydromechan
Notre Dame ics, Saint Anthony Falls Laboratory
Africa, Thomas W., Ph.D. Former Prof, of
History, State Univ. of New York Binghamton.
Ammirati, Joe F., Ph.D. Prof and Chair, DepL of Arnold, Eric A., Jr., Ph.D. Assoc. Prof, of
Botany, LJniv of Washington History, Univ. of Denver.
Agranoff, Robert, Ph.D. Prof Emeritus of Public
and Environmental Affairs, Indiana Univ.
Ammons, Patty Editor, (Augusta, MEI Kennebec Arnold, James D-, Ph.D. Former Prof of Agricul
lournal. ture Texas A&M Llniv., Kingsville.
Ahearne, Michael, Ph.D. Asst. Prof, of Market
ing, Univ. of Connecticut.
Andaya, Leonard Y., Ph.D Prof of History, Univ. Aronow, Wilbert M.D. Adjunct Prof of
S.,
of Hawaii, Honolulu. Geriatrics and Adult Development, Mount Sinai
Ahlschwede, William T., Ph.D. Swine Produc School of Medicine.
tion Consultant, Genetic Advisory Service, Univ. of
Anderson, Albert G., Ph.D. Research Assoc f I

du Pont de Nemours & Co., Inc. Aronson, Dan R-, Ph.D. Principal Social Scientist,
Tennessee, Martin.
Anderson, Barrie, M.D. Prof of Obstetrics and World Bank
Ahnert, Frank, Ph D Prof Emeritus of Physical
Geography. Rhenish Westphalian Technical Uni\
Gynecology; Director, Fellowship in Gynecologic D
Arreola, Daniel v Ph.D. Assoc. Prof of
Oncology, Univ. of Iowa Hospitals and Qinii s Geography. Arizona State Univ.
Ahrens, Richard A., Ph.D. Prof Emeritus, Gradu
Anderson, Berlin W., Ph.D. President, Art, Robert Ph.D Herter Prof of International
ate Program in Nutrition, Llniv. of Mar/land J.,
Revegetation and Wildlife Management Center. Relations, Brandeis Univ.
Aiken, Charles S., Ph D Prof of Geography,
Anderson, Carol P., Ph.D Prof of Chemistn, Asay, Kay H., Ph.D. Research Cpnetictst, Agricul-
Univ. of Tennessee, Knoxville.
and Codirector of Coast Environmental Research ture Research Service, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.
Aikin, Arthur C, Ph.D. Senior Scientist, Facilities, Univ. of Connecticut, Avery Point
Ashe, Arthur, B.S. Former tennis champion.
 Contributors and consultants XV
Ashe, Arthur J., Ill, PhD Prof of Chemisir. Sciences, San )ose State Univ. dation; winner of Pulitzer Prize for National Re-
Univ. of Michigan. porting, 1956.
Ball, Samuel, Ph D Emeritus Prof., Chief Execu-
Ashley, Susan A., Ph.D. William R. Hochman te e Officer, Board of Studies, Victoria, Australia. Bartlett, Richard A., PhD Prof Emeritus of
Prof, of History, Colorado College.
Balonek, Thomas J., Ph D Assoc Prof of Physics History, Florida State Univ.
Ashton, Dore, MA Prof of Art History, and Astronomy, Colgate Univ. Bartley, W. W., Ill, Ph.D. Former Senior Research
Cooper Union. Fellow, Hoover Institution on War, Revolution, and
Balph, Martha Hatch, Ph D Former Rsch. Assoc.
Ashton, Peter Ph D. Charles Bullard Research
S., Prof., Fisheries and Wildlife, Utah State Univ. Peace, Stanford Univ.
Prof.; Faculty Fellow Harvard Institute for Interna Basinger, James Geological
Banks, Howard Aviation Editor, Forbes. F., Ph.D. Prof, of
tional Development, Harvard Univ. Sciences, Univ. of Saskatchewan.
Bannatyne, Lesley P., BA Author, A Halloween
Askeland, Donald Ph D Prof Emeritus of
R., Baskin, Jerry M., PhD Prof of Biological Sci-
How-To: Costumes. Parties, Decorations and Desti-
Metallurgical Engineering, Univ. of Missouri. ences, Univ. of Kentucky.
nations.
Askin, Ronald C, PhD Prof of Systems and Bannon, C Basofin, Peter, MLS. Chief Librarian, The Sacra-
J., Ph.D. Assoc. Prof., Dept. of Classi-
Industrial Engineering, Univ. of Arizona. mento (CA) Bee.
cal Studies, Indiana Univ.
Astin, Helen S., Ph D Prof of Higher Education, Basri, Gibor, PhD Prof, of Astronomy, Univ. of
Banuazizi, Ali, Ph.D. Prof, of Cultural Psychology
Univ. of California, Los Angeles. California.
and Modern Iranian History, Boston College.
Augee, Michael L, PhD Secretary, Linnean So-
Baranski, Michael PhD Bassett, Sharon, PhD Prof of English,
Prof of Biology,
ciety of New South Wales.
Catawba College.
J.,
California State Univ., Los Angeles,
Austic, Richard E., Ph.D. Prof, of Nutrition, Dept. Bassett, Thomas J., Ph.D. Assoc Prof, of Geogra
Baratta, Joseph Preston, Ph D. Cofounder and
of Animal Science, Cornell Univ. phy, Univ. of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.
Codirector, Center for Global Community and
Austin, Daniel F., Ph.D. Book Review Editor, Eco- World Law. Bassiouni, M. Cherif, LLD Prof, of Law, DePaul
nomic Botany.
Barbash, Jack, MA Author, The Elements of Univ. College of Law.
Austin, Max E-, Ph D. Emeritus of
Prof. Industrial Relations. Basso, Keith H., Ph.D. Prof, of Anthropology,
Horticulture, Univ. of Georgia.
Barbour, Michael G., PhD Prof of Plant Ecolo- Univ. of New Mexico.
Autry, William O., BA. Consultant, Anthropolog- gy, Univ. of California, Davis. Bates, Robert H., Ph.D. Eaton Prof, of the Science
ical Research Associates. South Bend. of Government and Faculty Fellow of the Center
Bard, Allen J., PhD Prof, of Chemistry, Univ of
Avakumovic, Ivan, D.Phil. Prof, of History, Univ. Texas, Austin. for International Development, Harvard Univ.
of British Columbia.
Bar den, John A, Ph.D. Prof, of Horticulture, Batra, Subhash K., PhD Director Emeritus, Non-
Avallone, Linnea M., PhD Prof., Lab for Atmos- Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State Univ. wovens Cooperative Research Center, College of
pheric and Space Physics. Univ. of Colorado. Textiles, North Carolina State Univ.
Bardolph, Richard, LLD. Prof Emeritus of
Averett, John E., Ph.D. Prof and Chair, Dept of History, Univ. of North Carolina, Greensboro. Battenburg, John D., Ph.D. Prof of English, Cali-
Biology. Georgia Southern Univ. fornia Polytechnic State Univ.
Barefoot, Aldos C, Jr., D F Emeritus Prof, of
Avery, Mary Ellen, M.D. Distinguished Prof, of Wood and Paper Science, North Carolina State Battestin, Martin C, Ph.D. William R. Kenan, |r„

Pediatrics Emerita, Harvard Medical School. Prof. Emeritus of English, Univ. of Virginia.
Univ.
Axelrod, Steven Gould, PhD Prof and Chair of Barendregt, Rene W., Ph.D. Assoc. Dean, Facul-
Bauer, Brian S., PhD Assoc. Prof.. Dept of An-
English, Univ. of California, Riverside. and Science, Univ. of Lethbridge.
ty of Arts
thropology, Univ. of Illinois at Chicago
Axtell, James, PhD Kenan Prof, of Humanities, Bark, William C, PhD Former Senior Research Bauer, Caroline Feller, Ph.D. Lecturer, author
College of William and Mary. Fellow, Hoover Institution on War, Revolution, Baugh, John, Ph.D. Prof, of Education and
Azmeh, Aziz al-, D.Phil. Zayed Prof, of Islamic
and Peace, Stanford Univ. Linguistics, Stanford Univ.

Studies, American Univ. of Beirut Barkan, Elliott Robert, Ph D. Prof, of History, Baughn, W. H., Ph.D. Author, International
California State Univ., San Bernardino. Bankers Handbook
B Barker, Fiona, MA. Ph.D. Candidate, Dept of Bauman, Thomas A, Ph.D. Prof, of Music,
Etabayan, Kathryn, Ph.D. Asst. Prof, of Iranian Government, Harvard Univ. Program Coordinator for Musicology, and Assoc.
History and Culture, Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Barker, Rodney, Ph.D. Reader in Government, Dean, The Graduate School, Northwestern Univ.
Bachrach, Bernard S., Ph.D. Prof of Medieval London School of Economics. Baumgartner, William A, M.D Cardiac
History, Univ. of Minnesota, Twin Cities Campus. Barnard, William D., PhD Former Prof, of Histo-
Surgeon-in-Charge, Johns Hopkins Hospital.
Baerwald, Thomas J., PhD Program Director, ry, Univ. of Alabama. Baxevanis, John J., Ph.D. Prof, of Geography,
Division of Social and Economic Science, National Bambaum, Cecilia, Ph.D. Astronomer, Space East Stroudsburg Univ.
Science Foundation. Telescope Science Institute. Bay butt, Richard C, Ph.D. Assoc. Prof , Dept of
Bagchi, Nandalal, Ph.D. Prof of Medicine, Barnes, Gary M., Ph.D. Prof of Meteorology, Human Nutrition, Kansas State Univ.
Wayne State Univ. Univ. of Hawaii, Honolulu. Bayer, Barbara M., Ph.D. Assoc Prof, of
Bagley, Will, BA. Independent historian; colum- Barnes, Robert D., Ph.D. Former Prof of Biolo- Pharmacology, Georgetown Univ.
nist. The Salt Lake tUTi Tribune. Gettysburg College. Bayrbn-Toro, Fernando, D Prof of Political
gy, J

Baglole, Harry, BA. Director. Institute of Island Sciences, Univ. of Puerto Rico, Mayagiiez
Barnes, Timothy David, D.Phil. Prof of Classics,
Studies, Univ. of Prince Edward Island. Univ. of Toronto. Beam, James C "Jim", MA
Dir Political and ,

Bagshaw, David A., MBA. General Manager, Bamett, Jeffrey C, Ph.D. Dean, College of
Public Affairs, Lake Charles ILAI American Press
W. H. Bagshaw Co., Inc. Education, Univ. of Wisconsin, Whitewater. Bean, Mark C, President, Match Division, D. D.
Bailey, Donald A., Ph.D. Prof of History, Univ. of Bamett, Roger, Ph D Prof of Geography, Univ. Bean & Sons Co.
Winnipeg. of the Pacific. Bean, Pat City Editor. lOgden, LP Standard-Ex-
Bailey, George S., PhD Distinguished Prof, Bamhardt, Robert A., Ed D. Dean, College of
aminer
Dept of Environmental and Molecular Toxicology, Textiles, North Carolina State Univ. Beasley, Maurine H., Ph D Prof, of lournalism
Oregon State Chuv. Univ of Maryland.
Baron, John H., PhD Prof, of Musicology,
Bailey, Ted E-, M.S. Senior Staff Engineer NTN Tulane Univ Beaulieu, Robert J., B S Asst. Prof of Textile De-
Technical Center, Ann Arbor. velopment and Marketing, Fashion Institute of
Bar one, Michael, LLB Senior Writer, U.S. News
Bailey, William L President, AutO-Foto. Teohnology.
& It orld Report magazine.
Bain, Carol, M.A. Former Archivist, Folklore Barr, William, MS
Emeritus Prof, of Geography, Beaver, Donald deB., PhD Prof, of History of

Archives, Indiana Univ., Bloomington. Science, Williams College.

Univ. of Saskatchewan.
Bain, Mary Albertus, AT.GL Historian; member Barrett, Anthony A., PhD Prof of Classics, Univ. Bebb, Phillip N., Ph D Prof, of History, Ohio Univ.
of Dominican Order. of British Columbia. Beck, Alan M., ScD. Prof of Animal Ecology,
C, PhD Prof, of Psychological and Center for the Human Animal Bond, School of Vet-
Baird, John Barrett, Gerald V., Ph D Prof, and Head. Dept of
Brain Sciences, Dartmouth College. erinary Medicine, Purdue Univ.
Psychology I niv. ot Akron.
Baird, Ronald J., Ed D Former Prof of Industrial Barron, Neil, MLS. Substitute librarian and Beck, John H., MM Prof of Percussion, Eastman
Education, Eastern Michigan Univ. School of Music; Timpanist, Rochester Philhar-
free-lance editor.
monic Orchestra.
Baker, Alton F., Ill, BA Editor and Publisher, Barron, Randall F., Ph.D. Prof Emeritus of Me-
Beck, Laurence H., \t D Senior Vice President,
The (Eugene, OR) Register-Guard. chanical Engineering, Louisiana Tech I im
Geisinger Health System; Prof of Medicine,
Baker, Jerry Gardening consultant; author, Barrow, Bruce Ph D Consultant in telecom-
B., lefferson Medical College.
Plants Are Like People and The Impatient munications; Chair, Metric Practice Committee In
Beck, Robert F., Ph D Prot ol \a\al Architecture
Gardener. stitute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
and Marine Engineering, Univ. of Michigan.
Baker, John F., MA Editorial Direr tor Barrows, Robert G., Ph D Assoc Prof of Histo-
Becker, Robert A, Ph D Assoc Prof of
Publishers Weekly. ry, Indiana Univ. at Indianapolis
Historv Louisiana State I ni\
Baker, Vaughan B., Ph D Prof, and Head Dept Barry, Roger D., PhD Former Prof, and Head,
of History and Geography, Univ. of Southwestern
Becker, William H., Ph D Prol ofHistor)
Dept nl Chemistry, Northern Michigan L rm
!

Louisiana.
George Washington Unh
Barth, Daniel S., Ph D Prof, of NeuroM lent e
Ancient Beckett, IanF. W., Ph D Head of School of
Balcer, Jack Martin, Ph D. Prof, of Qept (>' nh of C olnradn. Boulder.
and Hlstor)
literature nh of Luton.
I
History. Ohio State Univ.
Barth, James R., Ph D Lowder Eminent Pi
BA Baldrige Beebe, Ralph K., Hi D Prof Emeritus of Histon.
Baldrige, Letitia, President, Letitia Finance, Aubun
George Fox nh I
Enterprises. Inc
Bartlett, Charies, BA President Jefferson Foun-
Beehler, Bruce M., Ph D Direr tor En\ ironmen-
Balgooyen, Thomas C., Ph D Prot of Biological
XVI Contributors and consultants

tal and Natural Resources, Counterpart Interna- Bergstresser, Paul R-, MD

Prot and Chairman, Blackwell, John, Ph.D Prof of Macromolecular
tional. Dept of Dermatology, Univ. of Texas Southwest- Science, Case Western Reserve Univ.
Beem, John IC, Ph.D. Prot. of Mathematics em Medical Center Blaese, R. Michael, M.D. President, Molecular
Univ. of Missouri, Columbia Berkhofer, Robert F., Jr., Ph.D. Prof. Emeritus of Pharmaceuticals Division and Chief Scientific Offi-
History, Univ. of California, Santa Cruz. cer,Kimeragen, Inc.
Beermann, Donald Prof of Animal
H., Ph.D.
Science and Food Science, Cornell Univ. Berkowttz, Gerald M., Ph.D. Former Prof, of Blasi, Joseph Raphael, Ed.D Prof, School of
Behler, Deborah A., BA
Editor in Chief, English, Northern Illinois Uni\ Management and Labor Relations, Rutgers, the

Wildlife Conservation magazine. Berkowitz, Luci, Ph.D Prof. Emerita of Classics, State Univ. of New Jersey.
Behrman, Cynthia F., PhD Prof Emerita of His- Univ. of California, Irvine. Blecha, Michael F_, BA Opinion Page Editor,

tory, Wittenberg Univ. Berlin, Michael J., M.S.J. Assoc. Prof, of Green Bay WW Press-Gazette.
Beidelman, T. O., D.Phil. Prof, of Anthropology. Journalism, Boston Univ. Blewitt, Richard F., MBA President, Rowan &
Blewitt. Inc.
New York Univ. Berman, David R,, Ph.D. Prof, of Political

Beiswenger, Ronald E., Ph.D. Prof Chair, Dept. Science, Arizona State Univ. Bliss, Lawrence C, Ph.D. Emeritus Prof of
A Haas Prof, in Botany, Univ. of Washington.
of Geography and Recreation. Univ. of Wyoming Berman, Russell A., Ph.D. Walter
Beiswenger, Vivian M., B.S. Senior Vice Presi- the Humanities, Stanford Univ. Bliss, Michael, Ph.D. Prof of History, Univ. of
Toronto.
dent, U.S. Amateur Ballroom Dancers Assoc. Bemhard, Winfred E. A, Ph.D. Former Prof, of

Belanger, Patrice C, Ph.D. Director Quality Early American History, Univ. of Massachusetts. Bliss, Neil W., Ph.D. Consultant; Former Chief Ge-
Assurance, Merck Frosst Canada, Inc. Bernheimer, Martin, MA Music Critic, Los ologist, Alcan International.

Bell,Caroh/n Shaw, Ph.D. Katharine Coman Angeles Times. Blomberg, S. Brock, Ph.D. Prof, Dept of Eco-
Prof of Economics, Emerita, Wellesley College. Bernstein, Melvin, Ph.D. Vice President, Arts, nomics, Wellesley College.

Bellegarde-Smith, Patrick, Ph.D. Prof of Africol Sciences, and Technology, Tufts Univ. Bloom, Ken Author, American Song; The
ogy, Univ. of Wisconsin, Milwaukee. Berst, Charles A, Ph.D Prof, of English Univ. of
Complete Musical Theatre Companion.
Belt, Mike, B.S. Staff Writer, Kansas CityiKS) California, Los Angeles. Bloomfield, Donna J., MA Sessional Instructor,
Kansan. Bertoldi, Gilbert L, M.S. Senior Research Hy- Mount Royal College.

Director and Assoc. drologist Emeritus, U.S. Geological Survey. Bloy, Marjorie, Ph.D. Lecturer in History, Rother-
Bender, Gerald J., Ph.D.
School of International Relations, Univ. of
Prof., Besch, Henry R., Jr., Ph.D Prot and Chair Dept. ham College of Arts and Technology, England.
Southern California. of Pharmacology and Toxicology; Prof, of Medi- Blue, Todd I., MA President Instructor, Con-
Bender, Ronald, B A City Editor, Rapid C7*v(SDI cine, Indiana Univ. School of Medicine struction and Civil Technology, Blue Skye Institute.
journal. Betts, Henry B., M.D. Chairman, Rehabilitation Bluestein, Howard B.,Ph.D. Prof of Meteorolo-

Benedict, Burton, Ph.D. Prof of Anthropology, Institute Foundation. gy, School of Meteorology, Univ. of Oklahoma
Univ. of California, Berkeley; author, Men, Women Beuerlein, Patricia Library Asst, Edmonton lABi Blum, John M., Ph.D. Prof. Emeritus of History,
and Money in Seychelles journal. Yale Univ.; author, The Republican Roosevelt
Benford, Gregory, Ph.D. Prof, of Physics, Univ. of Bevin, A. Griswold, M.D. Former Prof of Plastic Blum, Kenneth, Ph.D. Director, Laboratory of
California, Irvine. Surgery. Univ. North Carolina School of Medicine. Pharmacogenetics; Prof, of Pharmacology, Univ. of
Benjamin, Gerald, Ph.D. Dean, College of Liber- Bewley, Joel J., BA.
Reporter, Times of Trenton Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio.
al Arts and Sciences, State Univ. of New York, New INJ); Adjunct Prof, Rider Univ. Blumberg, Jeffrey B., Ph.D. Prof of Nutrition,
Paltz.
Beyers, William B., Ph.D. Prof of Geography, School of Nutrition Science and Policy, Tufts Univ.

Benkov, Keith J., MD Pediatric Gastroenterolo- Univ. of Washington. Blumhofer, Edith L, Ph.D. Dir., Institute for the
gist, Mount Sinai School of Medicine. Bianchina, Paul General contractor. Spectrum Study of American Evangelicals, Wheaton College.
Bennett, Albert F., Ph.D. Prof, and Chair, Dept of Builders, Inc.; author. Board man, Eugene, Ph.D. Former Prof of Histo-
Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, School of Bio- Bicchieri, M. G v Ph.D. Former Prof, of Anthropol- ry, Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison.
logical Sciences, Univ. of California, Irvine.
ogy, Central Washington Univ. Bobango, Gerald J., Ph.D. Attorney at Law.
Bennett, Andrew, Ph.D. Asst Prof of Govern- Bicha, Karel D., Ph.D Prof of History. Marquette Bodman, Andrew R., Ph.D. Chairperson, Dept
ment, Georgetown Univ. Univ. of Geography, Univ. of Vermont
Bennett, B. G., PhD Secretary, United Nations Bidlack, Richard H., Ph.D Assoc Prof, of History Boehm, Robert Ph.D. Prof of
F., Mechanical
Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic and Chairman of the Russian Studies Program, Engineering, Univ. of Utah.
Radiation. Washington and Lee Univ. Boehme, Sarah E., MA. Curator, Whitney Gal-
Bennett, Gary F., Ph.D. Prof. Emeritus of Bio- Biesenberger, Joseph A., Ph.D. President of the lery of Western Art, Buffalo Bill Historical Center.
chemical Engineering, Univ. of Toledo. Polymer Processing Institute and Prof, of Chemical Bogus, John D., M.S.E. Dept Head, Office of
Bennett, J. Michael, Ed.D. Prof. Emeritus of Engineering, Stevens Institute of Technology. Naval Intelligence.
Rhetoric, Univ. of Minnesota, Twin Cities Campus. Biggar, Jeanne C, Ph.D. Former Assoc. Bohannan, Paul, D.Phil. Prof Emeritus of
Bensman, Joseph, Ph.D. Former Prof, of Prof of Sociology, Univ of Virginia Anthropology, Univ. of Southern California
Sociology, City Univ. of New York. Bilik, Dorothy S., Ph.D Former Assoc. Prof, Ger- Bohren, Craig F., Ph.D. Distinguished Prof of
Benson, Barbara E., Ph.D. Executive Director, manic and Slavic Languages, Univ. of Maryland. Meteorology, Pennsylvania State Univ.
Historical Society of Delaware.
Billington, Ray Allen, Litt.D. Former Senior Re- Bolch, W. Emmett, Ph.D. Prof of Environmental
Benson, Keith R., Ph.D. Prof, of Medical Historv search Assoc, Henry E. Huntington Library. Engineering, Univ. of Florida
and Ethics, Univ. of Washington. Billy, Rich Manager-Editor. 777elFlin Flon, MB) Bolen, Eric G., Ph.D. Prof, of Biology, Univ. of
Bentley, James, D.Phil. Author, Schweitzer The Reminder North Carolina, Wilmington.
Enigma. Bilocerkowycz, Jaroslaw, Ph.D Assoc. Prof, of
Bolen, William H., Ph.D. Business Alumni Prof
Bentley, Jerry H., Ph.D Prof, of History, Univ. of Political Science, Univ. of Davton
and Director, Center for Retailing Studies, Georgia
Hawaii, and Editor, journal of World History. Bilstein, Roger F_,
Ph.D. Prof, of History, Univ. of Southern Univ.
Bercuson, David Jay, Ph.D Prof, of History and Houston, Clear Lake.
Bolick, Margaret R., Ph.D. Curator of Botany and
Director, Center for Military and Strategic Studies, Binford, Henry C, Ph D Assoc. Prof, of History, Assoc. Prof, of Biological Sciences, Univ. of Ne-
Univ. of Calgary. \orthwestern Univ. braska
Berdahl, Robert M., Ph.D. Chancellor, Univ. of Birdsall, Stephen S., Ph.D. Prof of Geography, Bolin, Frances Schoonmaker, Ed.D. Assoc. Prof
California. Berkeley. I rm nt North Carolina, Chapel Hill. of Education, Teachers College, Columbia Univ.
Berenbaum, May R., Ph.D Prof, and Head, Dept. Bish, David L, Ph.D Technical Staff Member Bollinger, Paul P., Jr., B.S.. Vice President,
of Entomology. Univ. of Illinois.
and Mineralogist, Los Alamos National Laboratory. Aviation Client Services, HNTB Corp.
Berenbaum, Michael, Ph.D. President and
Bishop, Finley C, Ph.D. Former Assoc. Prof, of Bondar, Roberta L, Ph.D. Payload Specialist,
Chief Executive Officer, Survivors of the Shoah
Geology, Northwestern Univ National Research Council of Canada
Visual History Foundation.
Blachman, Morris Assoc Director, Insti-
J., Ph.D. Bonello, Frank J., Ph.D. Assoc. Prof of Econom-
Berg, Darrell Matthews, PhD. Visiting Assoi tute of International Studies, Univ. South Carolina. ics, Univ. of Notre Dame.
Prof, of Music, Washington Univ.

Berger, Melvin, MA Author, The Story of Folk

Black, Charles C Phenylketonuria (PKUl patient Bonfante, Larissa, Ph.D Prof of Classics, New
and consultant York Unh
Music.
Berger, Philip A., M.D. Former Prof, of Psychia-
Black, Don, BA
Managing Editor, (Pocatello) Bon jean, Charles M., Ph.D. Hogg Prof of Sociol-
Idaho State journal. ogy and Executive Director, Hogg Foundation for
try, Stanford Univ. School of Medicine
Berger, Rainer, Ph.D. Prof of Anthropology, Ge-
Black, Donald W., MD
Prof, of Psychiatry, Univ.
Mental Health.
of Iowa College of Medicine. Bonney, Richard E., Jr., MPS. Director, Educa-
ography, and Geophysics, Univ. of California, Los
Blackburn, George L, M.D., Ph.D. Assoc. Direc- tion and Citizen Science Programs, Cornell Labo-
Angeles.
tor of Nutrition, S. Daniel Abraham Chair in Nutri- ratory of Ornithology.
Berger, Richard E., M.D Prof, of Urology, Univ. tion Medicine, Assoc. Prof, of Surgery, Har\ard Bonsi, Conrad K-, Ph.D. Prof and Assoc
of Washington
Medical School. Research Director. George Washington Carver
Berghahn, Klaus L, D.Phil. Director, Center for Blacklow, Neil M.D. Chairman, Dept. of Med- Agricultural Experiment Station, Tuskegee Univ.
R.,
German and European Studies, Univ of Wiscon- icine; Richard \\. Haidack Distinguished Prof, of Booth, John A, Ph.D. Regents Prof, of Political
sin, Madison. Medicine, Univ. of Massachusetts Medical School. Science, Univ of North Texas.
Bergholz, Richard C Former Political \\ ritei
Blackwell, James H. Former Executive Secre- Borchert, Larry L, Ph.D Director of Research,
Los Angeles Times tary, American Saddle Horse Breeders Assoc Oscar Mayer Foods Corp.
 1

Contributors and consultants XVII

Bordn-.an, Gerald, PhD Author. American Bradford, James C, Ph D Prof of History Brodd, Ralph J., Ph D Consultant, Broridarp ol
Musical Theatre: A Chronicle and the Oxford Texas A&M Univ. Nevada, Inc.
Companion to American Theatre.
Bradley, Harold W., Ph.D. Former Prof, of Broder, David S., M.A. National Political Corre-
Boren, Henry C, Ph.D. Emeritus Prof, of History, History, Vanderbilt Univ. spondent, Washington Post; winner of Pulitzer
Univ. of North Carolina, Chapel Hill. Bradnock, Robert W., Ph.D. Senior Lecturer, Prize for Commentary, 1973.
Borish, Steven M., PhD Asst. Prof, of Anthropol- Dept of Geography. King's College, London Broderick, Carlfred B., Ph.D. Former Prof of So
ogy, Swarthmore College. Bradsher, Henry S., ciology, Univ. of Southern California.
B.J. Author, foreign aff.nrs
Boritt, Cabor S., Ph.D. Fluhrer Prof of Civil War analyst. Brodman, James W., Ph.D. Prof, of History, Univ.
Studies and Director, Civil War Institute, Gettys-
Brana-Shute, Gary, Ph D Senior Consultant, U.S. of Centra! Arkansas.
burg College. State Dept Brodsky, Arthur Senior News Editor,
R., M.S.).
Borklund, Elmer W., PhD Emeritus Prof of Eng Branch, William D., Ph.D. Prof, of Agronomy, Congressional Quarterly Daily Monitor.
lish. Pennsylvania State Univ.
Univ. of Georgia. Brody, David, Ph D Prof of History. Univ. of
Borkowski, Raymond P., Ph D Prof of Chem Brand, Charles M., Ph D Prof Emeritus of Histo California, Davis.
istry. King s College Mawr College
ry. Bryn Brody, Jane E-, M.S. Personal Health Columnist,
Bom, Brad S v Ph.D Asst. Prof, and Chair, English
Brand, Larry R., MS ME Principal Technology The New York Times.
Dept., Bethel College
Manager. Building Systems Research, Gas Re- Bromke, Adam, Ph.D. Prot., Polish Academy
Born, George H., Ph.D. Director, Colorado Cen- search Institute. of Sciences; author, Poland. The Protracted Crisis.
ter for Astrodynamics, Univ. of Colorado, Boulder Brand, Osa E., Ph.D. Director of Educational Bromley, Ray, PhD Prof Geography and Plan ,

Borrowman, Merle L, Ed.D Former Prof of Affairs, Association of American Geographers ning, Univ. at Albany, State Univ. of New York-
Education, Univ. of California, Berkeley. Former
Brasser, T., Drs Staff Ethnologist, Brooks, John L, II, B.S. Senior Special Agent,
Borza, Eugene N., Ph.D. Prof, of Ancient History, National Museum of Man. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
Pennsylvania State Univ. Bran, James E., PhD Prof and Director, Center Broome, Richard, Ph.D. Assoc. Prof, of History,
Bostian, Charles W., Ph.D. Prof Bradley Dept. of , for High Energy Physics, Univ. of Oregon. La Trobe Univ.
Electrical and Computer Engineering, Virginia Brauer, Kinley J., Ph.D. Prof. Emeritus of History, Brosman, Catharine Savage, Ph D Gore Prof of
Polytechnic Institute and State Univ. Univ. of Minnesota, Twin Cities Campus. French, Emerita, Tulane Univ.; Honorary Research
Boswell, Thomas D., Ph D Prof of Geography, Braunlich, Carl, DBA. Assoc Prof of Hospitality Prof., Univ. of Sheffield; Author and Lecturer.
Univ. of Miami. and Tourism, Purdue Univ. Broun, Elizabeth, Ph D Director, National
Bothwell, Robert, Ph D. Prof of History, Univ. of Braverman, Alan C, M.D Assoc. Prof, of Medi- Museum of American Art.
Toronto. cine, Washington Univ. School of Medicine. Brouwer, Mark. B.A. Managing Editor, Stillwater
Bouchard, Constance B., Ph D Distinguished IMN) Gazette.
Brearley, Joan McDonald
Writer, lecturer, edi
Prof, of History, Univ. of Akron. tor, consultant, and American Kennel Club judge. Brower, Kenneth S., BSE President, Spectrum
Boucher, Rod C Education Services Manager, Brecher, Kenneth, PhD Prof of Astronomy and Associates Inc.
77te(Hobart, Tasmania, Australia) Mercury Physics, Boston Univ. Brown, Alison Ph
President,
K., D CEO NAVSYS
Boullata, Joseph I.,Pharm D Assoc Prof ot
Breckenridge, Roy M., Ph D Assoc Director, Corporation, Colorado Springs.
Pharmacy Practice, Temple Univ Research Geologist, Idaho Geological Survey, Brown, Calvin R-, Jr., M.D. Assoc. Prof, of Medi-
Boulton, Roger, Ph D Prof, of Enology, Univ. of Univ. of Idaho. cine and Orthopaedic; Surgery, Rush-Presbyterian-
California, Davis. St. Luke s Medical Center, Chicago.
Breen, Jon L, M.S. Prof, of English, Rio Hondo
Bourguignon, Erika, PhD Prof Emeritus of College. Brown, Duane, PhD Prof, of Education, Univ. of
Anthropology, Ohio State Univ. North Carolina, Chapel Hill
Breen, T. H., Ph.D. William Smith Mason Prof.,
Bowden, Henry Warner, Ph.D. Prof, of Religion, Northwestern Univ. Brown, Leon Carl, Ph.D. Garrett Prof, of Foreign
Rutgers, the State Univ. of New Jersey. Bi-ehm, Lawrence P., PhD Staff Physicist,
Affairs Emeritus, Princeton Univ.

Bowden, Mark E., BA Managing Editor, The International Business Machines Corp. Brown, Richard D., PhD Prof, of History, Univ.
Cedar Rapids of Connecticut.
II A) Gazette. Bremer, William W., PhD Former Prof ot Histo
Bowen, D. Q., PhD Prof, of Environmental ry, Lawrence Univ. Brown, Richard D., Ph.D. Chair, Biology Dept,
Geoscience, Univ. of Wales, Cardiff. D Brunswick Community College.
Bremner, Robert H., Ph Prof, of History
Bowen, William A., Ph D Prof of Geography, Emeritus, Ohio State Univ. Brown, Robert Craig, Ph.D. Emeritus Prof, of
California State Univ., Northridge. History, Univ. of Toronto.
Brendel, Dale, B.J. Executive Editor. rAeMnrie
Bowers, Douglas E., Ph D Chief Historian, U.S. pendence. MO) Examiner Brown, Stephen W., PhD Prot of History
Dept. of Agriculture. Brennan, Troyen, Prof, of Law, Public Health West Virginia Institute of Technology.
J.D.

Bowers, Jane Ann Raymond, Ph.D. Former and Medicine, Harvard Medical School/School of Browne, Mark J., Ph D Prof., Univ. of Wisconsin,
Head, Dept. of Foods and Nutrition. Kansas State Public Health. Madison
Univ. Brent, Harold Patrick, Ph.D. Prof, ot English, Brubaker, John H., Ill, BA Editor of the Editorial
Bowler, Mike, M.S. Education Editor, TTielBalti- Baruch College, City Univ. of New York. Page and Columnist, Lancaster{?\) New Era
more) Sun. Bretos, Miguel A., PhD Distinguished Prof., Brubaker, Linda B., PhD Prof of Forest
Bowman, Kenneth A., PhD Technical Special William Paterson College. Resources. Univ ot Washington.
ist, Alcoa Laboratories. Brett, Judith, Ph.D. Reader in Politics, School of Brugqer, Robert J., PhD Editor. Maryland His-
Bowman, Larry W., Ph.D. Prof, of Political Sci- Social Science, La Trobe Univ. torical Magazine Maryland Historical Society.

ence, Univ. of Connecticut Brewer, Bruce A., PhD Former Curator of Brugh, Max, D.V.M.. Ph D Former Researrh Vet-

Bowman, Mary Lynne, PhD Assoc Prof. Emeri- Mammals, Chicago Zoological Society. erinarian. U.S. Dept of Agriculture.

tus, School of Natural Resources, Ohio State Univ Brewer, Kelly, B.A. Managing Editor. TheAlbu- Bnimfiel, Elizabeth M, Ph.D. Prof Chair, Dept.
,

Bowsfield, Hartwell Assoc Prof of History querqueiNKV Tribune of Anthropology and Sociologv. Albion College
Emeritus, York Univ. Bridges, Julian C, Ph.D. Prof, and Head Dept ot Bruiting, Donald F., PhD Chaii Curator, Dept.
Bowyer, Jim L, Ph D Director, Forest Products Sociology. Hardin Simmons Univ. of Ornithology. Wildlife Conservation Society.

Management Development Institute, Univ. of Brief, Richard P., Ph D Prof of Statistu s and Ac- Buckley, Thomas H., PhD Prof American His-
Minnesota. counting. New York Univ. tory Assoc Dean. Graduate School Univ ot Tulsa

Boyarsky, Bill, BA. Columnist, Los Angeles Brierley, John S., Ph.D. Prot of Geography Inn Buckner, Phillip, Ph.D. Former Prof of History,
77mes;author, The Rise of Ronald Reagan of Manitoba. Unh ot New Brunsvvu k
Boyce, Ronald Reed, Ph.D. Prof School of So-
,
Brieske, Thomas )., Ph.D. Former Prof., Mathe Buethe, Chris, Ed D Prof of Education Emeritus
cial and Behavioral Sciences, Seattle Pacific Univ. matics and Computer Science Georgia State Intv. t Indiana State Univ., Terre Haute

Boyd, Belvel J., MA. Deputy Editorial Page Edi- Briggs, Tony, BA Managing Editor Online Serv Buffalohead, Prisrilla Giddings, Lecturer Ms
tor, (Minneapolis, MNI Star Tribune ices Davlona BeachifV News journal Cultural Anthropology and Women's Studies.

Boyd, Bill Columnist, The Macon IGAI Telegraph. Bright, George W., PhD
Pro) Emeritus of Math- Buffalohead, W. Roge: , MA Interim Dean,
ematics Education, Univ of North Carolina. Institute of American Indian Arts
Boyd, David R., M.D., CM. Consultant on
Emergency Medical Services. Brimeyer, Jack, B S Managing Editor, Peoria (ID Bugajski, Janusz, M.Phil Director of East
Prof of Transportation and journal Star. European Studies Center tor Strategic and
Boyce, David, PhD
Regional Science, Univ. of Illinois, Chicago. Brinkman, John A., Ph.D. Charies H. Swifl Disiin
International Studies Washington DC
guished Service Prol of Mesopotamii History Bullion,John L, PhD Prof, of Histor) I nry ot
Boyer, John W., Ph.D. Martin A. Ryerson Disiin
Oriental Institute Unh of Chicago Missouri Columbia.
guished Service Prof, of History Unh ot Chicago
Britt, Daniel, PhD Project Managei Lunar* Bump, Jerome, Ph D Prof, of English Unh ot
Boyer, LeRoy T., PhD Prof ot Civil Engineering.
Irvas Austin
Planetary Lab Inh ol Arizona
Univ. of Illinois, Urbana Champaign t

Boyer, Paul, Ph.D. Prof, of History, Una of Wis- James E., Ph.D. Prof School of.Hlstor)
Brittain, Bumsted, J. M, Ph D Prot ot History st |ohn s

Technology and Societ) Georgia Institute ol t ollrcir i rm ot Manitoba

consin, Madison.
I << hnology. Burbelo, Peter, Ph I) Asst Prot ot One olouv
Brace, Richard M., Ph D former Prof ol History
Brittin, Helen C, Ph rod and Nutri Georgetownl my Medical Center
Oakland Univ
lion College of Human Sciences Texas Tech Unh Burdirk, Glenn A., ph li Distinguished Prof
Bradeen, Donald W., Ph.D. Former Pi c

(Vpt.it/onlo
Brockmann, H. Jane, Ph D Prol and Dean Emeritus College of Engineering i nh
Classics and Ancient History Inn of Cincinnati. lor id.!
rth I
XVIII Contributors and consultants

Burg, B. R., PhD Prof of History, Arizona State Creighton Univ Carr, Dale C, MA. Chief Music Librarian, Public
Univ. Library, Groningen, Netherlands.
Calvert, Monte A., Ph.D. Former Prof of History,
Burger, William C, Ph.D. Curator Emeritus of Clarkson College of Technology Carr, Michael H., Ph.D. Geologist, U.S. Geologi
Botany, Field Museum of Natural History- Cameron, Ewen Ph.D Lecturer
A., in Scottish cal Survey

Burgess, Paul L, PhD Prof, of Economics, History, Univ. of Edinburgh. Carr, Stephen H., Ph.D. Assoc Dean of Engineer-
Arizona State Univ. ing, Northwestern Univ.
Camilleri, Joseph, PhD Prof, of Politics,
Burich, Raymond L, Ph.D. Assoc Prof of Physi La Trobe Univ. Can-away, Kermit L, Ph.D Prof., Dept of Cell Bi-
ology, Univ. of Missouri School of Medicine. McKenna Prof, of the ology, Univ. of Miami School of Medicine.
Camp, Roderic A., Ph.D.
Burke, Ronald, Ph.D. Prof of Philosophy Pacific Rim, Claremont McKenna College. Carriker, Robert C, PhD Prof of History,
and Religion, Univ. of Nebraska. Campanella, Ruth S., M.D Asst Prof, of Gonzaga Univ.

Burke, William T., J.S.D. Prof, of Law Emeritus, Otolaryngology, Rush Presbyterian-St Luke's Carroll, Bob, BA
Executive Director, Pro
Univ. of Washington. Medical Center, Chicago. Football Researchers Association.
Burkholder, JoAnn M., Ph.D. Prof., Dept. of Campbell, Bernard G., Ph.D. Former Adjunct Carroll, Holbert N., Ph.D. Prof of Political
Botany, North Carolina State Univ. Anthropology, Univ of California.
Prof, of Science Emeritus, Univ of Pittsburgh.
Burks, R. V., Ph.D. Author, Dynamics of Los Angeles. Carroll, John L, M.D. Prof., Pediatrics and Physi-
Communism in Eastern Europe. Campbell, David J., Ph.D. Prof of Geography ology; Dir., Pediatric Pulmonary Division, Arkansas
Burnett, Adam W., PhD Assoc Prof of Geogra and African Studies, Michigan State Univ. Children's Hospital
phy, Colgate Univ. Campbell, I. C, Ph.D. Senior Lecturer in History, Carroll, Peter N., Ph.D Author, It Seemed Like
Burnett, David, PhD Independent consultant Univ. of Canterbury. Nothing Happened: America in the 1970s.

and writer. Campbell, James N., M.D. Prof of Neuro Carson, Clayborne, Ph.D Prof of History and
Former surgery, Johns Hopkins Univ. Director, Martin Luther King, Jr, Papers Project,
Burns, Robin B., Ph.D. Prof of History,
Stanford Univ.
Bishop's Univ. Campbell, Tracy, Ph.D. Assoc. Prof, of History,
Burns, Sarah, Ph.D. Assoc. Prof, of Fine Arts, In-
Univ. of Kentucky. Carson, Culley C, M.D Prof, and Chairman of
diana Univ., Bloomington. Cancalon, Elaine D., Ph.D. Prof of French, Urology, Univ, of North Carolina.

Burrell, David B., PhD Prof of Philosophy and Florida State Univ. Carson, Robert B., Ph.D. Prof. Emeritus of Eco-
Theology, Univ. of Notre Dame. Cane, Mark A., Ph.D. Prof, of Earth and Climate nomics and Business, State Univ. of New York,
Science, Columbia Univ. Oneonta.
Burrill, Melinda J., Coordinator of
Ph.D. Prof.,
Graduate Studies, Dept. of Animal and Veterinary Canemaker, John, M.F.A. Film animator; author, Carter, Dan T., Ph.D. Education Foundation Prof,

Sciences, California State Polytechnic Univ. Treasures of Disney Animation Art.

of History, Univ. of South Carolina-

Burton, John W
v Ph.D. Prof of Anthropology, Cangelosi, V.E., Ph.D. Prof, of Quantitative Meth-
Carter, Lisle Carleton, Jr., LLB Attorney at Law.
Connecticut College. ods,Dean of the Junior Division, and Director of Carter, William E., Former Research Geo
Ph.D
Burton, Nelson, Jr. Announcer, ABC Sports. Developmental Education, Louisiana State Univ. desist, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Admin.

Burtt, Edward H., Jr., Ph.D. Prof of Zoology, Cannistraro, Philip V., Ph.D. Prof, of History, Cartwright, Donald G., Ph.D. Prof, of Geogra
Ohio Wesleyan Univ. Drexel Univ. phy, Univ. of Western Ontario.
Bury, Charles Editor in Chief, The Sherbroohe Cannon, Patrick J., MBA President, EarthRise Case, Karl E., Ph.D Prof, of Economics,
(PQ) Record
Tethered Balloon Systems and Engineering. Wellesley College.

Busch, A. J., PhD Prof, of History and Dept. Cantril, Albert H., Ph.D. Former Fellow, Institute Case, William B., Ph.D. Prof of Physics,
Chairman, Fort Hays State Univ. of Politics, Harvard Univ Grinnell College.

Busch, August A., Ill President and Chairman Cao, Tian Yu, Ph.D. Asst. Prof, of Philosophy, Caserio, Mariorie C, Ph.D. Prof. Emeritus of
of the Board, Anheuser-Busch Companies, Inc.
Boston Univ. Chemistry ana Biochemistry, Univ. of California,
Capelli, Gregory M., Assoc. Prof, of Biology, Col San Diego.
Busch, Marianna A., PhD Chair, Dept. of Chem
istry and Biochemistry, Baylor Univ.
lege of William and Mary. Cashman, Katharine V., Ph.D. Assoc Prof, of Ge-

Caplan, Arthur, Ph.D. Director, Center for ological Sciences, Univ. of Oregon.
Busch-Vishniac, llene J., PhD Dean, Whiting
School of Engineering, Johns Hopkins Univ. Bioethics, Univ. of Pennsylvania. Caskey, C
Thomas, M.D Senior Vice President,
Capps, Walter Holden, Ph.D. Former
Prof of Re Human Genetics and Vaccines Discovery, Merck
Bush, Sargent, Jr.,John Bascom
Ph.D. Prof, of
Research Laboratories
ligious Studies, Univ. of California, Santa Barbara.
English, Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison.
Captain, George Former Chief, Eastern Cassara, Catherine, Ph.D Assoc. Prof., Dept of
Butler, John C, PhD Prof, of Geosciences, J.
Journalism, Bowling Green State Univ
Univ. of Houston. Shawnee.
Carbo, Toni, Ph.D. Dean and Prof., School of In
Cassell, Carol A., Ph.D. Director, Institute of
Butt, John B., D.Eng. Former Walter P Murphy
formation Sciences, Univ. of Pittsburgh. Sexuality Education and Equity
Prof of Chemical Engineering, Northwestern Univ.
Cardona, George, Ph.D. Graduate Group Chair, Cassidy, David, Ph.D. Assoc. Prof, of Natural
Butter-field, Bruce, B.S. President and CEO, The
Dept of Linguistics, Univ of Pennsylvania. Science, Hofstra Univ.
Forbes Group; former Vice President, Manufac-
tured Housing Institute. Carey, George W., PhD Prof, of Government, Castellanos, F. Xavier, M.D. Prof, of Child and
Georgetown Univ. Adolescent Psychiatry and Director, Institute for
Butts, Thomas, Ph.D. Prof, of Mathematics Edu- Pediatric Neuroscience, New York Univ School of
cation, Univ. of Texas, Dallas. Carey, James W., Ph.D. CBS Prof of International Medicine.
Butts, Virginia, B.A. Public relations counsel to Journalism, Graduate School of Journalism, Co-
lumbia Univ Catanese, Anthony James, Ph.D. President and
Marshall Field V.
Prof., Florida Atlantic Univ.
Butzer, Karl W., D.Sc. Dickson Centennial Prof,
Carico, James E., Ph.D. Dean, School of Sci-
ences, Lynchburg College. Catania, Peter J., Ph.D. Program Chair, Industrial
of Liberal Arts. Univ. of Texas, Austin.
and Petroleum Systems Engineering, Univ. of Regi-
Byrnes, Giselle M., Ph.D. Lecturer in New Caringer, Denise L, B.A Executive Editor, Home na.
Zealand History, Victoria Univ. of Wellington. Decorating and Design, Better Homes and Gar-
dens Books. Cateforis, David, Ph.D. Asst. Prof of Art History,
Univ. of Kansas.
Carlin, Norman F., Ph.D. Lecturer on Biology,
Harvard Univ. Cates, Ward Mitchell, Ed D Prof , College of Ed-
Cady, Edwin H., LittD. Prof of English, Duke ucation, Lehigh Univ.
Univ. Carlson, Ann D., D.LS. Prof., Graduate School of
Library and Information Science, Dominican Univ. Cathey, James E., Ph.D. Prof of Germanic
Cafruny, Alan W., Ph.D. Assoc. Prof, of Languages and Literatures, Univ of Massachusetts,
Government, Hamilton College. Carlson, John, Ph.D. Prof., Dept. of Agriculture, Amherst; coauthor. Old Icelandic
Western Illinois Univ.
Caldarelli, David D., M.D. Prof and Chairman, Causey, Virginia E., Ph.D Assoc. Prof., Dept of
Dept. of Otolaryngology, Rush-Presbyterian St. Carlson, W. Bernard, PhD Assoc. Prof., Tech- History, Columbus State University.
Lukes Medical Center, Chicago. nology, Culture, and Communication, Univ. of Vir
Cauvin, Jean-Pierre, Ph.D. Prof of French, Univ.
ginia.
Caldwell, Dan A., Ph.D. Prof, of Political Science, of Texas.
Pepperdine Univ. Carlson, William H., PhD Prof of Horticulture,
Cech, John, Ph.D. Director, Center for the Study
Michigan State Univ.
Caldwell, Robert J., B S. Editorial Page Editor, of Children's Literature and Media, Univ. of Florida.
The (Portland) Oregonian. Carlton, Charles, Ph.D Prof of History, North
Carolina State Univ. Ceci, Lynn, PhD Former Assoc Prof Anthropol- .,

Cale, |en Shunatona, B.S Pawnee author. ogy,Queen s College, City Univ of New York.
Carlton, James T., Ph.D. Dir Maritime Studies
Calhoun, Ralph V., Ph.D. Sr. Vice President, ,

Cerulo, Karen A., Ph.D. Prof of Sociology, Rut-

Program, Williams College, Mystic Seaport.
Sverdrup Technology, Inc. gers, the State Univ. of New Jersey.
Calinger, Ronald S., Ph.D. Assoc. Prof, of
Carpenter, Kenneth. Ph.D Paleontologist, Den
ver Museum of Natural History. Cezairiiyan, Ared, Ph.D. Former Research Physi-
History, Catholic Univ of Amerii a cist, National Inst of Standards and Technology.

Callahan, Sean, B.A. Former Public Relations

Carpenter, Robert Hv Ph.D. Former geological
consultant Chalmers, David, Ph.D Distinguished Service
Director, US International Speedskatinq Assoc. Prof of History, Univ of Florida.
Callahan, William R. Feature Columnist, The
Carpenter, Thomas P., Ph.D. Prof of Curriculum
and Instruction and Director, National Center for Chalupnik, James D., Ph.D Prof Emeritus, Dept
(St. Johns, NF) Evening Telegram Washington.
Improving Student Learning and Achievement In of Mechanical Engineering, Llniv of
Callan, Terrance D., PhD Athenaeum Dean and Mathematics and Science, Univ of Wisconsin. Chamberlain, David S., Ph.D Former Prof, of
Prof of Biblical Studies, Athenaeum of Ohio. English, Univ of Iowa.
Carr, Anne F_, Ph.D. Prof of Theology, Univ. of
Calvert, John C M., Ph.D. Asst. Prof, of History, Chicago Divinity School. Chambers, Mindy, A.B Political Editor, The
 Contributors and consultants XIX

(Olympic., WA) Olympian. Clapp, John M, Ph D Prof, of Finance and Real Economics, West Virginia Graduate College.
Chambers, Mortimer, PhD Prof Emeritus of Estate, Univ. of Connecticut Coble, Harold D., Ph D. Former Prof, of Crop Sci
History, Univ. of California, Los Angeles. Clapp, Stephen, M Sc. Dean and Violin Faculty ence. North Carolina State Univ.
Chambers, William Nisbet, PhD Former Member, juilliard School.
Prof, Cochran, Robert C, Ph D Prof, of Animal
of History, Washington Univ. Clark, Alan F., Ph D Division Chief, Magnetic Science, Kansas State Univ.
Chamblee, Theresa S., M.S. Senior Scientist, Technology Division. National Inst of Standards
Cockroft, Irene, Dip History Author, Books of
Corporate Research and Development, The Coca- and Technology.
the Month.
Cola Company. Clark, C
B., Ph D Former Prof, of American Coffman, Edward M., Ph.D. Emeritus Prof, of
Champlin, Charles, A.B Arts Editor Emeritus, Indian Studies, California State Univ.
History, Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison.
Los Angeles Times: Author, Hollywood s Revolu- Clark, Charles E., PhD Emeritus Prof of History, Coffman, John Edwin, Ph D Former Assoc Prof
tionary Decade. Univ of New Hampshire. of Geography, Univ of Houston.
Chandler, David P., Ph.D. Prof of History, Clark, Clifford E., Jr., Ph D Prof of History; Hul-
Cohen, Daniel, B.| Writer
Monash Univ.: author, A History of Cambodia. ings Prof of American Studies, Carleton College
Chaney, William A., PhD George McKendree Clark, Edward W., Ph D Prof, of English,
Cohen, Jacob, MA
Prof and Chairman. Dept of
American Studies, Brandeis Univ.
Steele Prof, of Western Culture, Lawrence Univ. Winthrop Univ.
Cohen, Jeremy, Ph.D. Former Assoc Prof of
Chang, Parris H., Ph D Former Director, Center Clark, J. C D., Ph D Prof. Hall Center for the Hu- Communication, Stanford Univ.
for East Asian Studies, Pennsylvania State Univ. manities, Univ. of Kansas.
Cohen, S. Marc, Ph D Prof of Philosophy, Univ
Channell, David F., Ph.D. Prof of Historical Clark, J. Derrell, D Sc Former Prof of Medical
of Washington.
Studies. Univ. of Texas, Dallas. Microbiology, Univ. of Georgia.
Cohen, Sarah Blacher, Ph D Prof of English,
Chapman, Graham P., Ph D Prof., Dept of Ge- Clark, Kenneth E., PhD Smith Richardson
State Univ. of New York, Albany
ography, Lancaster Univ. Senior Scientist, Center for Creative Leadership
Charbonneau, Hubert, Ph D Prof. Emeritus
Cohen, Steve, BA Senior Contributing Editor,
of Clark, Larry V., Ph D Asst Prof., Indiana Univ 5A/ magazine.
Demography, Univ. of Montreal. Clark, Michael P., BA Reader Advocate, The Cohen, Stuart E., MArch Architect; Prof, of
Charles, C
M., Ph D Prof of Teacher Education, l|acksonvillel Florida Times-Union.
Architecture, Univ. of Illinois, Chicago
San Diego State Univ. Nancy L, PhD
Charles, Robert W., PhD Group Leader, Univ.
Clark,
California Polytechnic State Univ.
Assoc Prof of History, Cohn, Martin A., MD Director, Sleep Disorders
Center of Southwest Florida, Naples
of California, Los Alamos National Laboratory.
Clark, Robert E., Ph D Former Asst Prof of Cohn, Sherman L, LLM. Prof of Law, George-
Charlesworth, ). H., PhD Prof of New Testa- Geography, Univ. of Northern Iowa. town Univ.
ment Language and Literature, Director, Dead Sea Clark, Robert Sadler, BA President, United
Scrolls Project, Princeton Theological Seminary. Cole, David E., PhD President, Center for Auto
States Surfing Committee. motive Research, The Altarum Institute.
Chase, Philander D., Ph.D. Editor, The Papers of Clark, Scott, BA Dir Bonsai Clubs International.
George Washington.
,
Cole, Francis T., Ph.D. Former Physicist, Fermi
Clark, Terry Nichols, Ph.D. Prof, of Sociology, National Accelerator Laboratory.
Chatfield, Charles, Ph.D. Emeritus Prof, of
Univ. of Chicago.
History, Wittenberg Univ. Cole, Hugh M., PhD Author, The Ardennes
Clark, Thomas D., PhD Author, A History of Campaign
Chatterjee, Sankar, Ph D Prof of Geology and Kentucky.
Curator of Paleontology, Texas Tech Univ. Cole, I. W., M.S.J Former Dean, Medill School
Clark, W. Dennis, Ph D Assoc. Prof, of Botany, of Journalism. Northwestern Univ.
Chavarria, Jesus, Ph.D. Chairman and Publisher, Arizona State LJniv.
Hispanic Business magazine. Cole, Madison B., Jr., Ph D Former Chief,
Clark, William W., PhD Prof of Art, Queens Electron Microscopy Laboratory, Hines Veterans
Chege, Michael, Ph D Director, Center for College and Grad. Center. City LJniv. of New York. Administration Hospital.
African Studies. Univ. of Florida.
Clauson, Barbara L, MS. Adjunct Curator, Coleman, Dorothy S., BA
Author, Lend Dolls
Cheng, Richard M. H., F.I.Mech.E. Prof Emeritus Univ. of Kansas Natural History Museum. coauthor. The Co/lectors Encyclopedia of Dolls.
of Mechanical Engineering, Concordia Univ.
Cherchi, Paolo, Ph D Prof, of Italian Literature.
Claybaugh, Charles C, B.S Publisher (Brigham Coleman, Evelyn Jane, MA Coauthor, The
City, UT) Box Elder News journal Collectors Encyclopedia of Dolls.
Univ. of Chicago.
Clayton, Lawrence A., PhD Chairman Dept of Coleman, J.M., Ph D Boyd Prof „ Coastal Studies
Cherkauer, Douglas S., Ph D Prof, of Geo History, Univ. of Alabama. Institute, Louisiana State Univ.
sciences, Univ. of Wisconsin, Milwaukee.
Clayton, Paula J., MD Chairman, Depart- Coleman, Kenneth, Ph D Prof Emeritus of
Chemy, Robert W., Ph.D. Prof, of History, San ment of Psychiatry, Univ of Minnesota, Twin History. Univ. of Georgia.
Francisco State Univ. Cities Campus. Coles, William E., Jr., PhD Prof Emeritus of
Chertow, Marian R., PhD Dir , Industrial Envi Cleeton, David L, Ph D Prof and Chair Eco English. Univ. of Pittsburgh.
ronmental Management Program, Yale School of nomics Dept. Oberlin College. Colgan, Charles T., D Executive Vice-Presi-
|
Forestry and Environmental Studies.
Clemens, Diane Shaver, Ph D Prof of History, dent, National Steeplechase Association.
Chesick, John P., PhD Prof Emeritus of Chem- Univ. of California, Berkeley.
istry, Haverford College.
Collier, Virginia P., Ph D Prof of Bilingual Multi
Clemens, Paul a E., Ph D Prof of History, cultural ESL Education, George Mason Univ.
Chikeka, Charles O., Ph D. Assoc Prof of Histo- Rutgers, the State Univ of New Jersey Collins, Arlene R., Ph D Assoc Prof of Microbi-
ry, Morgan State Univ.
ology, State Univ of New York Buffalo School of
Clemens, Walter C, Jr., Ph D Prof, of Political
Child, Jois C, Ph D Former Asst. Prof of Ceogra Science. Boston Univ Associate, Harvard Univ
; Biomedical Sciences.
phy. Eastern Washington Univ. Davis Center for Russian Studies. Collins, K. K., Ph D Assoc. Prof of English,
Childress, Dudley S., Ph D Director, Rehab En- Clements, Kendrick A., Ph D Prof of History, Southern Illinois Univ., Carbondale
gineering Research Program and Prosthetics Re- Univ. of South Carolina. Collins, Nigel Editor in Chief London Publishing
search Lab., Northwestern Univ. Medical School.
Clemmer, Dan O., M LS. Head Librarian. U.S. Coltoff, Philip, MS W Executive Director, The
Childs, William R., Ph D Assoc. Prof of History Dept of State Library Children s Aid Society.
Ohio State Univ.
Clendenning, John, Ph D Prof of English, Colvin, Howard A, Ph D Pro|ect Manager, New
Chisholm, James MS. Engineering Manager, California State Univ Northridge
J., .
Solutions Polymer and Catalyst Research.
Hewlett Packard Co D Research Scientist T Goodyear & Rubber
Clerc, Daryl C, Ph |
Tire Co.
Cho, S. Henry, MS Prof of Karate, St John s Technologies, Inc. Comanor, William S., PhD Prof of Economics.
Univ.; Pres., World Council of Martial Arts Inr
Eugene M., Ph D Reynolds Metals Prof
Cliff, Univ. of California. Santa Barbara; Prof of Health
Chow, Kai-wing, Ph D. Assoc. Prof of History Aerospace & Ocean Engineering, Virginia Services. Univ of California. Los Angeles.
and East Asian Languages and Cultures, Univ. of Polytechnic Institute and State Univ Combs, Jerald A, Ph D Chair and Prof of
Illinois. Urbana-Champaign. Robert G., B S Former Managing Direr History San Francisco State Univ.
Clifton,
Christ, Carol Tecla, PhD Prof, of English, Univ. tor, American Brush Manufacturers Association Commins, Stephen K., Ph D Director Global
of California. Berkeley.
diver, Dean O., PhD Prof Food Safety School Analysis and Polirv World Vision International.
Christensen, Norman
L, Jr., Ph.D. Prof of Ecol- of Veterinary Medicine, Univ. of California Davis. Conception, Anne-Mane, MA President,
ogy Nicholas School of the Environment and
,

Clonts, Howard A., Jr., Ph D Director Environ Seneca Design and Consulting
Earth Sciences, Duke Univ.
mental Institute and Water Resources Research In- Condon, Richard H., Ph D Prof Emeritus of
Christiansen, John B., PhD Prof of Sociology, stitute Auburn Univ. History I ni\ of Maine Farmington.
Gallaudet Univ.
Cloos, Mark, Ph D Prof of Geological Sclent es Conger, Clement Ellis, DHL Former Chairman
Christianson, Eric Howard, Ph D Assoc Prof of Univ. of Texas Austin Fine Arts Committee U S Dept of State
History, Univ of Kentucky Geography
Clout, Hugh D., Ph D Prof of I nh Conibear, Shirley A., M D M P H President
Chuman, Dwight, BA) Former Editor Gam- College London Cvnovk Conibear & Associates Ltd
bling Times magazine.
Clum, James A., Ph D Director Manufacturing Connelly, Owen, Ph D Author B/undenng to
Church, Andrew, Ph D. Prof of Geography, Engineering Program Univ of Detroit Men s Glon- The Milium Campaigns at \apoleon.
School of the Environment, Univ of Brighton. Coakley, Timothy N., Copv Editor TheMA Connelly, Thomas L, PhD Former Prof, of
Churchill, James E. Free lance writer (Schenectady, NY) Daih Catene History I ni\ i»T South Carolina
Ocale, Annie, M FA. Professional calligrapher Coale, Samuel Chase, Ph D Prot nl 1 nqlish Conniff, Michael L, Ph D Director t ami Amen
Clancy, Lou Former Managing Editor The Wheaton Colli can and Ctribbean Studies I m\ ot South Flonda
Toronto Star Cobb, William E., Ph D Prof Emeritus of Connor, Lawrence J., f*h Ovsnei and Direcloi
XX Contributors and consultants

Beekeeping Education Service, Wicwas Press. Courtenay, William J., Ph.D. Prof, of Medieval Culbert, T. Patrick, Ph.D Prof Emeritus of An
Connors, Peter G., PhD Principal Museum History, Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison. thropology, Univ. of Arizona.
Scientist, Bodega Marine Laboratory, Univ. of Covell, Charles V., Jr., Ph.D Prof of Biology, Cullen, Charles T., Ph.D. President and Librarian,
California, Davis. Univ. of Louisville. Newberry Library.

Conover, Mary E, Ph.D. Prof, of Industrial and Cox, Kevin R-, Ph.D. Prof, of Geography, Ohio Cummings, Charles W., M.D. Prof and Chair-
Engineering Technology. Murray State Univ. State Univ. man, Dept of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck
Conrad, Barnaby, BA Surgery, Johns Hopkins Univ Medical Center.
III, Contributing Editor Coxford, Arthur F., Jr., Ph.D. Former Prof of
Horizon. Mathematics Education, Univ. of Michigan. Cummings, Jeffrey L, M.D. Prof, of Neurology
Conway, John R., Ill, Ph.D. Assoc. Prof, of Coyne, Jerry A., Ph.D Prof, of Ecology and and Psychiatry, Univ. of California at Los Angeles.
Biology. Univ. of Scranton. Evolution, Univ. of Chicago. Cummings, S. C, Ph.D. Prof Emeritus of Chem-
Cook, Chris, D Phil Director, Modern Archives Cracraft, James, Ph.D. Prof, of History and I ni\ istry, Wright State Univ.
Unit, London School of Economics. Scholar, Univ. of Illinois, Chicago. Cunningham, Frank R., Ph.D. Prof of English,
Cook, Eddie Publisher, Editor in Chief, and Cragan, Janet D., M.D. Pediatrician and medical Univ of South Dakota.
Managing Director Jazz Journal Limited. epidemiologist in Atlanta, Ga. Cunningham, Noble E_, Jr., Ph.D. Curators Prof
Cook, Frederick A., Ph D Prot Geology and and Head and Emeritus of History, Univ. of Missouri, Columbia.
of Craker, Lyte E, Ph.D Prof of Plant
Geophysics, Univ. of Calgary. Soil Sciences Univ. of Massachusetts, Amherst Cupp, E. W-, Ph.D. Prof of Entomology, Auburn
Cook, James E., BS Columnist, The (Phoenix) Crane, Robert Ford Maxwell
I., Ph.D. Prof, of
Univ.
Arizona Republn South Asian History, Syracuse Univ. Cupp, Melanie Johns, Pharm.D. Clinical Asst
Prof. West Virginia University School of Pharmacy.
Cook, Leon F., M.S.W. Asst to the President for Crawford, Joseph P., BA. Editorial Page Editor,
Diversity, Augsburg College. The Grand Rapids (Ml) Press. Curran, Claude W
v Ph.D. Prof, of Geography
Cook, Noble David, Ph.D. Chair and Prof of Latin Crawford, Maria Luisa, Ph.D. Prof of Geology, Southern Oregon Univ
American History, Florida International Unh Bryn Mawr College. Curran, Lawrence S., B.S. Former Assoc. Facul-
Cook, Richard A., Ph.D. Assoc. Prof, of Human Crawford, Michael H v M.D. Robert S. Flinn Prof, ty, Fire and Rescue Training Institute, Univ. of Mis-
Nutrition, Univ. of Maine, Orono. and Chief. Division of Cardiology, Univ. of New souri, Columbia.

Cook, Robert B., Ph.D. Prof, and Head, Dept of Mexico Health Sciences Center. Curran, Ronald T., Ph.D. Assoc. Prof, ot English,

Geology, Auburn Univ Crawford, Michael Head Earlv History Univ. of Pittsburgh.
J., Ph.D

Cook, Robert Francis, Ph.D. Prof of French,

Branch, Naval Historical Center. Current, Richard N., LH.D Prof Emeritus of His-
tory, Univ. of North Carolina, Greensboro.
Univ. of Virginia- Crawford, Nicholas C, Ph.D. Prof and Dire) toi
Cook, Theodore F., Jr., Ph.D. Prof, of History,
Center for Cave and Karst Studies, Western Ken- Curtis, James C, Ph.D. Prof of History, Univ. of
William Paterson Univ. tucky Univ. Delaware.

Cooke, Jacob E., PhD MacCrarken Prof. Emeri Crawford-Brown, Douglas John, Ph.D. Prof. Curtis, L Perry, Jr., D.Phil. (Oxon 1 Prof of Histo-
tus of History, Lafayette College, of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Univ. ry, Brown Unix.
ot North Carolina, Chapel Hill. Cyr, Arthur!., PhD Distinguished Prof, Political
Cooksey, D. Kay, Ph.D. Assoc Prof Packaging ,

Science Dept, Clemson Univ. Cray, Ed, BA. Prof, School of Journalism, Economy and World Business; Dir. International
Univ. of Southern California- Political Economy Program, Carthage College.
Cooke, Roger, Ph.D. Prof, of Mathematics, Univ.
Creech, James, Ph.D
of Vermont
Miami Univ.
Prof, of French and Italian,
D
Cooley, Marianne, Ph.D. Asst Prof, of English,
Univ. of Houston. Creevey, Lucy E., Ph.D. Prof, of Political Science, Oagg, Anne Innis, Ph.D. Academic Adviser,
Univ. of Connecticut author, Muslim Brother- Independent Studies, Univ. of Waterloo.
Cooper, Abraham, M.S. Assoc Dean, Simon hoods and Politics in Senegal. Dahlinger, Fred, Jr., B.S. Director of Collections
Wiesenthal Center.
Crew, Michael A., PhD. Prof, of Economics, and Research, Robert L Parkinson Library and
Cooper, Barry, PhD Prof, of Political Science. Graduate School of Management, Rutgers, the Research Center, Circus World Museum.
Univ. of Calgary New Jersey.
State Univ. of Dahlsten, Donald L, Ph.D. Prof, and Assoc
Cooper, Belinda, D 1 Senior Fellow, World Poli-
Crispens, Charles G., Jr., Ph.D. Former Prof of Dean. Center for Biological Control, Univ. of Cali-
cy Institute.
Biologv L ni\ ot Alabama, Birmingham. fornia, Berkeley.
Cooper, Leon N., Ph.D. Prof, of Science, Director Croan, Melvin, PhD Prof, of Political Science, Dakan, Olga Former Vice President, Dog World
and Neural Systems, and Brain
Institute for Brain
Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison. Dalrymple, G. Brent, Ph.D Dean, College of
Science Program. Brown Univ.; winner of Nobel
Prize for Physics, 1972.
Croat, Thomas B., Ph D. P. A Schulze Curator of Oceanic & Atmospheric Sciences, Oregon State
Botany, Missouri Botanical Garden. Univ.
Copeland, James M., MA Executive Secretary,
Croft, W. Bruce, Ph.D. Distinguished Univ Prof Dalzell, Robert F., Jr., Ph.D. Prof of History,
National Forensic League.
Computer Science, Univ. of Massachusetts. Williams College.
Coppa, Frank Ph.D. Prof, of History and Direc
Cromie, William J., MS Science Medical
J.,
Dalziel, Ian W. D., Ph.D. Senior Rsch. Scientist
tor of Doctor of Arts Program in Modern World
Writer Hanard News, Harvard Univ. Assoc. Dir., Univ. of Texas Institute for Geoph\ si( s
History, St John s Univ.
Prof of Geological Sciences, Univ. of Texas, Austin.
Coran, Arnold Gerald, M.D. Head, Pediatric Crompton, Paul, BA Director. Paul H. Cromp-
Surgery, Univ of Michigan Medical School; Sur- ton, Ltd D'Amato, Anthony, Ph.D Prof, of Law. North-
western Univ. Law School.
geon in Chief, C S. Mott Children's Hospital. Crone, Anna Lisa, Ph.D. Assoc. Prof, of Slavic
Corbett, Cecil, D.D Executive Director National Languages and Literatures, Univ. of Chicago. DaMatta, Roberto, Ph.D. Edmund P |oyce

Indian Training and Research Center. Cronin, R. F_ Editor in Chief. West Australian
CSC Prof, of Anthropology, Univ. of Notre Dame.

Corbett, J. D., Ph.D Distinguished Prof, of Newspapers, Ltd. Daniell, Jere, Ph D Prot ot History, Dartmouth
College.
Chemistry, Iowa State Uni\ Cronin, Thomas E., Ph.D. President, Whitman
College. Daniels, George H., Ph.D. Former Chair, Dept of
Corbitt, Mary Kay, Ed.D. Assoc Prof., Mathemat
History, Univ oT South Alabama.
ics, Valdosta State Univ.; author. Plane Geometry. Cronon, EL David, Ph.D. Emeritus Prof and Dean,
Cord, Robert U, Ph.D. Matthews Distinguished Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison. Danker, George J., BA WcePres Chief Tech-
nological Officer, Akro Fireguard Products, Inc
Univ. Prof, and Prof, of Political Science, Northeast Crossley, William A., Ph.D. Assoc Prot School
ern L tm of Aeronautics and Astronautics Purdue Univ. Danziger, Sheldon H., Ph.D. Prot ol Soc lal Work
and Public Policy Unh of Michigan
Cordell, Dennis D., Ph.D. Assoc Prof, of Crouch, Harold, PhD Senior Fellow Political
History, Southern Methodist Univ.; Adjunct Prof, and Social Change, Australian National Univ. D'Arcy, William G., Ph.D. Senior Curator
of Demography. Univ. of Montreal. Missouri Botanical Garden
Crouch, Tom D., Ph D. Chairman, Dept ot Aero
Cordes, Joseph J., Ph.D. Prof of Economics, nautics. National Air and Space Museum, Smith- Darvick, Herman, MS Author Collecting
George Washington Univ. sonian Institution. Autographs.
Corliss, John O., Ph.D. Former Prof, and Head, Crouse, James, Ph.D. Former Prof, of Education Das, Mihir K., Ph.D.. ME.
Assoc. Dean of
Dept. of Zoology, Univ. of Maryland. College Park. and Sot Milo(t\ Unh of Delaware. Engineering, California State L nh
Cornell, Vincent J., Ph.D Dire, tor. King Fahd Crovello, Theodore J., Ph D Prof, of Biology Dattwyler, Raymond J., MD
Dir, Lyme Disease
Middle East Studies Program, Univ of Arkansas. and Dean. Graduate Studies and Research, Center State I Inh ol New York. Stony Brook.
Cornwell, Anne Chri stake, PhD Directoi 5IDS California State Univ., Los Angeles Daub, Edward PhD
Prot. Emeritus of
E.,
Research Project and Assoc. Prof, of Pediatric 5 Crowcroft, W. Peter, F.LS. Biology Lecturer, Engineering, Univ. of Wisconsin. Madison.
Albert Einstein College ot Medii ine Univ. of Texas, Austin. Dauben, Joseph W., Ph.D Prof of History and
Corwin, Nancy A., Ph.D. Former Asst Prof of Art Crowe, Michael Ph.D. Prof, of History and
J.,
the History of Si lence. City Univ. of New York.
History. Kansas Qty An Institute Philosophv nt s< ien( r Unh of Notre Dame Dauphin, Roma, MA
Dean ol Faculty of Arts
Cosgrove, John HL, Ph.D Former Manager, Croy, Lavoy I., Ph.D. Prof I meritUS of Agronomy, and Prot of Economics Unh nt sherbrooke.
Avtex Fibers, Inc. Oklahoma State I rth Davenport, Ronald R., LLM Chairman,
Costa, Daniel P., PhD Prot of Biology. Um\ ot Cruz, Jesus, Ph.D. Assoc. Prof., Dept of History Shendan Broadcasting Corp
California, Santa Cruz. 1 nh ol Delaware Davidson, Bonnie Former Technical Commit-
J.

Costello, Bonnie, Ph D Prot ot English, Crystal, Eric, Ph.D. Coordinator, Center for tee member International Federation of
Boston I Inh Southeast Asia Studies Trampoline and Tumbling.
Coulter, C Brewster, Ph.D Formei Pro! ol Cubbins, Octavia N., M.Ed. Director of Davidson, Roger H., PhD Prot ot Com and Poll

Hlstor) l ni\ ol Puget Sound, Education Manners Museum. tics Emeritus Unh ot Maryland, College Park.
 Contributors and consultants XXI

Davidson, William V., PhD Chair, Dept. of Geo- Delh/annis, Deborah Mauskopf, PhD Lecturer, Santa Cruz
ifornia,
grapy-Anthropology, Louisiana State Univ. Dept. of Art History, Indiana Univ., Bloomington
Dinsmore, James J., PhD Prof of Animal Ecolo-
Davidson-Amott, Robin C. D., Ph D Prof, of Delpar, Helen, Ph.D. Prof of History, Univ. of gy, Iowa State Univ.
Geography, Univ. of Cuelph. Alabama.
Diosady, Levente L, Ph.D. Prof of Food Engi-
Davies, Fred T., Jr., Ph.D. Prof, of Horticultural DeMallie, Raymond J., Ph D Prof, American In neering, Univ. of Toronto.
Sciences and Molecular and Environmental Plant dian Studies Research Institute, Indiana Univ.
Sciences. Texas A&M Univ.
DiPaolo, Caroh/n M., BA Managing Editor, The
Demars, Stanford E., Ph.D. Prof and Director of (Ft Wayne, INI News-Sentinel.
Davis, Allen F., Ph.D. Prof, of History, Temple Geography. Rhode Island College. Dippie, Brian W., Ph.D. Prof, of History, Univ. of
Univ. DeMasse, Richard J. Regional Manager, Coats Victoria.
Davis, Audrey B., Ph.D. Former Curator of American.
Dirks, Richard A, Ph.D. Assoc. Director, Joint
Medical Sciences, National Museum of American Demers, Raymond, MD Prof, of Family Medi Office for Science Support, National Center for
History, Smithsonian Institution.
Wayne State Univ.
cine, Atmospheric Research
Davis, Carl L, Ph D Prof of History, Stephen F.
Demko, George J., PhD Prof, of Geography, Diliik, Arif, Ph.D. Prof, of History, Duke Univ.
Austin State Univ. Dartmouth College Dirr, Michael A, Ph.D. Prof, of Horticulture,
Davis, Caroh/ne Kahle, Ph.D. Former Interna- Dempewolff, Richard B S. F., Science writer; Univ. of Georgia.
tional Health Care Adviser, Ernst & Young.

Davis, Clark, PhD Asst Prof, of History, Califor-

former Editor, Science Digest
DiTallo, Cynthia J., B A
Former Manager,
Dempsey, Kristi H., B.S. Editor, ScottsdaleiAZ) Executive Communication, Otis Elevator Co.
nia State Univ., Fullerton. Tribune.
Diver, Stephen G., M.S. Technical Specialist,
Davis, David Brion, LittD. Dir.. Gilder Lehrman De Nault, Kenneth J., Ph.D. Assoc. Prof, of Appropriate Technology Transfer for Rural Areas.
Center for the Study of Slavery, Resistance, and Geology, Univ. of Northern Iowa.
Abolition, Yale Univ. Dixon, Robert G., Jr., |.D Former Daniel Noyes
Denkin, Nathan M., Ph D. Distinguished Mem- Kirby Prof, of Law, Washington Univ.
Davis, Dick, PhD Prof, of Persian, Ohio State
ber of Technical Staff, Lucent Technologies, Inc.
Univ. Dmochowski, Roger R., M.D. Asst Prof, of
Denton, Melinda F., Ph D Former Curator of the Urology, Univ. of Tennessee, Memphis.
Davis, James N., M.D Prof and Chairman of Herbarium, Univ. of Washington. Dmowski, W. Paul, M.D., Ph.D. Prof., Rush Med
Neurology, State Univ. of New York. Stony Brook-
Denton, Tommy, M.P.A. Former Senior Editorial ical College, Rush-Presbyterian-St Luke's Medical
Davis, John A., D.Phil. Emiliana Pasca Noether Writer, Columnist, Tort WorthtDO Star Telegram Center. Chicago: Director, Endometriosis Institute.
Chair in Italian History, Univ. of Connecticut
Deresiewicz, William, Ph.D. Dance critic. Dobelle, William H., Ph.D. Chairman, Dobelle In-
Davis, Joseph A., B.S Former Editor, Concept stitute.
Omega Corp Derman, Gordon M.D. Asst Prof, of Plastic
H.,
Surgery and Hand Surgery, Rush Medical College, Dobris, Joel C, LLB Prof of Law, School of Law,
Davis, Lee, Ph.D. Asst Prof of Anthropology, Rush-Presbyterian-St Lukes Medical Center. Univ. of California, Davis.
Univ. of Nebraska, Lincoln.
Demburg, Thomas F., Ph D Former Prof, of Dobyns, Henry F., Ph.D. Author, The Pima-
Davis, Paul E., B.S. Former Manager, Tin Economics, American Univ. Maricopa
Research Institute. Inc., Palo Alto, Calif.
Desilets, Andree, Ph D Prof Emeritus of History, Dodds, Gordon B., Ph.D. Prof, of History,
Davis, Raymond E., Ph.D. Prof of Chemistry, Univ. of Sherbrooke. Portland State Univ.
Univ. of Texas, Austin.
De Simone, Daniel V., J.D. Consultant; former Dodge, Richard E., Ph.D. Dean and Prof., Nova
Davis, Richard L, PhD Prof of History and East Exec. Dir., Amer. Assn. of Engineering Societies. Southeastern Univ. Oceanographic Center.
Asian Studies, Brown Univ.
Destler, I. M., Ph.D. Prof., School of Public Dodge, Stephen C, Ph.D. Criswold Distin-
Davis, Richard S., Ph.D. Head, Mass Section, Affairs, Univ. of Maryland. guished Prof, of History, Millikin Univ
International Bureau of Weights and Measures.
Dethloff, Henry C, PhD Former Prof of History, Dodson, Peter, Prof of Earth and Environ-
Ph.D.
Davis, Richard W., PhD Prof, of History, Wash- Texas A&M Univ. mental Science, Liniv. of Pennsylvania.
ington Univ.
Dettman, Matthew A, MS Assoc. Prof Dept. , Doedens, Robert J., Ph.D. Prof of Chemistry,
Davis, Stephen M-, Ph.D. Senior Analyst. of Civil Engineering. Western Kentucky Univ. Univ. of California, Irvine.
Investor Responsibility Research Center.
De Turk, William, M.Mus. Archivist, The Guild Doenges, Norman A, Ph.D. Prof of Classics,
Day, Janet, MA Deputy Managing Editor, The of Carillonneurs in North America. Dartmouth College.
Denver Post
Devlin, J. Paul, Ph D. Prof. Emeritus of Chemistry. Doerr, Paul W., Ph.D. Asst Prof Dept. of History.
,

Dean, Dennis R., PhD Former Prof, of English Oklahoma State Univ. Acadia LJniv.
and Humanities, Univ. of Wisconsin, Parkside.
de Vries, Jan, PhD Prof of History and Econom Doherty, Carroll J., MA Staff Writer.Conp'res-
Dean, James A., BA Senior Copy Editor, Battle ics, Univ. of California, Berkeley. sional Quarterly.
Creek (Mil Enquirer. Donna K-, BA
DeVries, Marvin F., Ph D
Mechanical En- Prof . Doherty, Editor, Tennis.
Dean, Richard H.,Senior Vice President
M.D. gineering Dept., Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison. Dolan, James M., Ph.D. Director of Collections,
for Health Affairs, Wake
Forest Univ. and Director,
Dewald, William Former Director of
G., Ph.D. Zoological Society of San Diego.
Wake Forest Univ Baptist Medical Center.
Dean, Walter E., Jr., Ph D. Geologist, U.S. Geo-
Research, Federal Reserve Bank of St Louis. Dolbear, Geoffrey E-, Ph.D. President, G E. Dol-
Dewdney, A. K., Ph D Assoc Prof, of Computer bear and Associates.
logical Survey.
Science, Univ. of Western Ontario Domer, Dennis, Ph.D. Prof, of Architecture, Col-
DeAndrea, Francis T., BA Public relations con-
Dial, Adolph L, LH.D. Former Chairman. Dept. lege of Architecture, Univ. of Kentucky.
sultant
of American Indian Studies, Pembroke State l'niv Domjan, Laszlo K-, Night News Editor, Saint
DeAngelis, Martin, B A Columnist, The Press of
Diamond, Jay, MA Prof of Marketing, Retailing, Louis IMOI Post Dispatch
B.J.

Atlantic Of/INJI.
and Fashion, Nassau Community College. Donald, David Herbert, PhD Charles Warren
DeBusk, F. L, M.D. Prof, of Pediatrics, Univ. of Amencan
Diamond, Norma, Ph D Prof Emeritus of Prof, of History, Harvard Llniv.: winner of
Florida. Biography or Autobiography.
Anthropology, Univ of Michigan. Pulitzer Prize for
Decalo, Samuel, Ph.D. Former Prof of Political 1961 and 1988.
Dickinson, John A, PhD Prof and Chair of
Science. Univ of Florida. Donnelly, John Patrick, Ph.D. Prof of History,
History, Universite de Montreal.
Decker, Hannah S., Ph.D. Prof, of History, Univ Marquette I nh
Dickson, James S., Ph D Chair Dept of Microbi-
of Houston. Donner, Fred M., Ph.D. Prof, of Near Eastern Lan
ology, Iowa State Univ.
Deer, Ada E., MA Former Asst Secretary for In-
Biehl. Paul B., PhD Assoc. Prof, and Director
guages and Civilizations. The Oriental Institute,
Dept of the
dian Affairs, Interior. Univ of Chicago.
The Nonfiction Writing Program, Univ. of Iowa
Deese, David A, Ph.D. Prof, of Political Science, Donoghue, Edmund R., M D Chief Medical
Diehl, Stephen J., MS. Prof, of Photography,
Boston College. Examiner Cook County Illinois
Rochester Institute of Technology.
Degler, Carl N., Ph.D. Winner of Pulitzer Prize for
Prof, of Geography, Univ. of
Donovan, Dianne, \1 A terar) Editor Chicago I
Dienes, Leslie, Ph.D.
History, 1972. Tribune-
Kansas
De Hertogh, August A, Ph.D. Prof, of Horticul-
MA Historian, United States
Donovan, Jane, BA Free lance writer.
Dietrich, Steve E.,
tural Science, North Carolina State Univ. Donovan, William P., Ph.D. Prof Emeritus.
Army Center of Military History.
Deibe!, Richard L, BA Former Business Editor,
Dietz, John L, Ph.D. Prof, of Geography. Univ of Oassit s Dept MacaJestet College
Laredo fTX) News. Northern Colorado. Dooliftle, William E., Ph I ) Assoc Prof, and
Deitzer, Gerald F., Ph.D. Assoc. Prof of Horticul- PhD Assoc Prof of Hisiorv Chair, Dept of Geograph) Unh of Texas Austin
Dieu,Nguyen Thi,
Maryland.
ture, Univ. of
Temple Unh Doreen, DaleD., Ph II Assoi IV
President, Calvin Theo- s, lent es .mil Management Information Systems
De Jong, James A, Th.D Dillard, Dudley, Ph D Former Prof ot Econom-
Concordia I nh
logical Seminary. .1 Maryland College Park.
De Jong, Mavke, Ph D. Pi of. of Medieval History, DorJahn, Vernon Robert, PhD Prof Emeritus
Dilsaver, Steven C, M.D Prol ofPsychlatr)
Univ. of Utrecht. of Anthropolog) Unh of Oregon
and Behavioral S< lent es I nh ot Texas Si hool
DeLancey, Mark W., Ph D Prof of Government of Mriin ine Din* toi and Coordinator ot Re Dorman, Gary Jay, Ph D senior \ u e President
and International Studies, Univ. of South Carolina. anbM Houston I National Economit Research Associates Inr.

Del aria, Giacomo A, MD Head of ( DiMichele, William A, Ph I) Res Dormon, James K, Ph n rVol Emeritus Histon.
Surgery, Scripps Clinic and Research Foundation. tologisi ibotam National Mu and American Studies Unh of southwestern
Ithsonlan Institution louisl.l'1,1
DeLay, Dorothy, LH D Starling Prof of Violin
luilliard School and Univ of< incinnatt Fellow Dine, Michael, PhD Prof ol Hn -n i l nh ol ( ii Doty, R. C, Ph I) I'ur.itoi National Numismatic
Royal College of Music, London.
XXII Contributors and consultants

Collection, Smithsonian Institution. WRS Film and Video Laboratory. Ellison, Herbert J., Ph.D. Prof of Russian History,
Jackson School of International Studies, Univ. of
Dougan, Michael B., Ph.D. Prof of History, Ebersole, Lynn A., PhD Assoc Prof., Dept of Bi
Washington.
Arkansas State Univ. ological Sciences, Northern Kentucky Univ.
Doumato, Eleanor Abdella, PhD Adjunct Prof Ebert, Andrew G., PhD Executive Director, Ellison, William L, Jr., MA
Deputy Managing
Editor, The (Louisville, KYI Courier-Journal
Watson Inst for International Studies, Brown Univ. International Food Additives Council.
Dowlin, Kenneth E., M.PA City Librarian, San Ebert, Roger, B S Film Critic, Chicago Sun-
Ellwood, Robert S., Jr., PhD Former Prof, of Re-
ligion, Univ. of Southern California.
Francisco Public Library. Times; winner of Pulitzer Prize for Criticism, 1975.
Downhower, Jerry F., Ph D Prof, of Zoology, Eck, Paul, PhD Former Prof of Horticulture, Rut- Elmore, Barbara, BA. Managing Editor, Waco
Ohio State Univ. gers, the State Univ of New Jersey. mo Tribune-Herald.

Downs, Timothy, BA Editor in Chief, Triathlete. Ecke, Paul, III, M.S., M BA Chief Executive Elmstrom, Gary W., Ph.D. Plant Breeder, Sun-

Ecke Ranch. seeds.

Officer, Paul
Dowse, Robert E., Ph.D. Prof, of Politics, Univ. of
D Dept Elrod, Linda Henry, J.D. Distinguished Prof, of
Western Australia. Eckert, Carter J., Ph of East Asian
Prof.,
Languages and Civilizations, Harvard Univ.
Law, Washburn Univ. School of Law.
Doyle, Daryl )., Ph.D. Prof, of Chemistry, Ketter-
ing Univ. Eckman, James R-, M.D Prof, of Hematology- Elson, Mary, BA Deputy Metropolitan Editor,

Oncology and Director of Georgia Sickle Cell Cen-

Chicago Tribune.
Doyle, Jeffrey Scott, B.S. Firearms Examiner,
Kentucky State Police. ter, Emory Univ. School of Medicine. Embry, Patrick S. "Pat" Editor, Middle Ten-
Eckstein, Arthur M., Ph.D. Prof of History, Univ. nessee Community Newspapers.
Drake, Frank D., Ph D. Prof Emeritus, Astrono-
my and Astrophysics, Univ. of Calif, Santa Cruz. of Maryland. Emery, Michael, Ph.D. Former Prof, of Journal-
ism, California State Univ., Northridge.
Draper, Crenville, Ph.D. Prof of Geology, Eddy, William P., B.S Feature Sections Editor,
Florida International Univ.
Lincoln (NE) journal Star. Emy, Hugh V., Ph.D. Former Prof of Politics,

Edelman, Jerome P. Shorthand Production Monash Univ.

Drescher, Seymour, Ph.D. Univ. Prof, of History,
Univ. of Pittsburgh.
Manager and Platewriter, McGraw-Hill Book Co. Enderie, John D., PhD Director and Prof, of Bio-
Edgerton, Samuel Y., Jr., Ph.D. Prof, of Art
medical Engineering, Univ. of Connecticut, Storrs.
Drotman, D. Peter, M.D „ M.P.H. Senior Medical
Officer, NationalCenter for Infectious Diseases, History, Williams College. Engel, Toby R., M.D. Prof, of Medicine, Univ. of
Texas.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Edmonds, Richard Louis, Ph D. Senior Lecturer
and Editor, The China Quarterly, SOAS, Univ. of Engels, Donald, Ph.D. Former Asst Prof, of
Druesedow, Jean L, AM. Director, Kent State
London. History, Wellesley College.
Univ. Museum.
Druker, Brian J., M.D. Prof of Medicine, Oregon Edmunds, R. David, PhD Watson Prof of Amer English, John, Ph.D. Prof of History, Univ of
ican History, Univ. of Texas, Dallas. Waterloo.
Health and Science Univ.
Drury, George H., MA Writer, Rail Travel Edwards, M.
Olaf College
U., PhD President Emeritus, St English, Peter
and of History,
C, PhD Assoc.
Duke Univ.
Prof of Pediatrics
Guidebooks.
Dubois, Andre, Ph.D. Rsch. Prof, of Medicine, Edwards, Paul N., PhD Assoc Prof. , School of Engst, Elaine D., MA Archivist, Cornell Univ.

Uniformed Services Univ. of the Health Sciences. Information, Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Enlow, Harold L. Woodcarver and author,
Dudley, Theodore R-, Ph.D. Lead Scientist and Edwards, R. Wayne, Ed D Former Director of Patterns for Wood Carving.
Research Botanist, U.S. National Arboretum. Athletics and Assoc. Vice Chancellor, Univ. of Epps, Helen H., Ph.D. Prof, of Textile Science,
Massachusetts, Lowell. Univ. of Georgia.
Duff, Patrick, M.D. Prof, and Residency Program
Director, Univ. of Florida College of Medicine.
Edwards, Richard A., Ph D Assoc Prof of
Epstein, Cynthia Fuchs, Ph.D. Distinguished
Theology, Marquette Univ. Prof, of Sociology, Graduate Center, City Univ. of
Duffey, Bernard, PhD Former Prof, of English,
Duke Univ. Egan, Clifford L, Ph D Prof, of History, Univ of New York.
Houston. Epstein, William H., Ph.D. Prof, of English, Univ.
Dumaine, Deborah President, Better Communi
cations; author. Write to the Top.
Egerton, Douglas R., Ph D Prof of History, Le of Arizona.
Moyne College. Erickson, Erling A., Ph.D. Prof Emeritus of Histo-
Dumas, Ernest C, B.J. Asst Prof of Mass Com-
munication, Univ. of Central Arkansas. Eqgertsen, Claude A., Ph.D. Former Prof, of ry, Univ. of the Pacific.
Education, Univ. of Michigan. Erickson, H. PhD Prof of Horticulture,
T.,
Dumenil, Lynn, Ph.D. Assoc. Prof of History,
Occidental College. Ehinger, John, MA
Editorial Page Editor, 777e Purdue Univ.
HuntsvilleiAU Times. Erickson, Stephen A., PhD E. Wilson Lyon Prof
Dundes, Alan, Ph.D. Prof, of Anthropology and
Ehrick, Christine, Ph.D. Asst Prof of History, of Humanities and Chairman, Philosophy Dept,
Folklore, Univ. of California, Berkeley.
Univ. of Northern iowa. Pomona College.
Dunlap, Kent, LLM. Principal Legal Adviser,
Copyright Office, Library of Congress. Eichhom, Donald D.Ed Former Superinten
H., Ernst, Carl H., Ph.D. Distinguished Prof of Biolo-
dent, Lewisburg (PA) Area Schools. gy, George Mason Univ.
Dunleavy, Janet Egleson, Ph.D. Prof Emerita of
English and Comparative Literature, Univ. of Eidt, Robert C, PhD Former Prof, of Geography Eschman, Donald F., Ph.D. Prof. Emeritus of
Wisconsin, Milwaukee. and Dir., State Soils Lab., Univ. of Wisconsin. Geology, Univ. of Michigan.

Dunn, Richard J., PhD Prof, of English, Univ. of

Emig, David E., MD
Prof and Chairman, Dept Eschmeyer, William N., PhD Senior Curator,
Washington. of Ophthalmology, Univ. of North Carolina. Dept. of Ichthyology, Calif Academy of Sciences.

MD Eilers, H. Peter, PhD Prof., Dept of Earth Sci- Esenwein, George R., Ph.D. Assoc. Prof of Histo-
DuPont, Robert L, President, Institute for
Behavior and Health, Inc.
ence, Willamette Univ. ry, Univ. of Florida.

Durant, Jack D., PhD Former Prof of English, Eils, Larry M., M.P.H. Director. Health, Safety, Esler, William C, BA Editor in Chief, Quick Print

North Carolina State Univ. and Technical Standards, National Automatic Products.
Merchandising Association. Essex, Randy, BA Journalist, Des Moines, IA
Duren, Stephen, Ph.D. Equine Nutritionist, Ken-
tucky Equine Research Einstein, Herbert H., Dipl. Ing ETH Prof, of Evans, Larry, BA
Five-time U.S. chess champion;
Civil Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of
Durocher, Claudette, BA Editorial Page Editor, author, Chess: Beginner to Expert
Technology
The (Nashua, NH\Telegraph. Evans, Simon M., Ph.D. Former Assoc. Prof, of
Ekirch, Arthur A, Jr., Ph.D. Prof Emeritus of Geography, Memorial Univ. of Newfoundland.
Dutcher, Janice Phillips, M.D. Prof, of Medicine, History, State Univ of New York, Albany.
Assoc. Dir. for Clinical Affairs, Our Lady of Mercy Eve, Raymond A, Ph.D. Prof, of Sociology, Univ
Med. Ctr., Comprehensive Cancer Ctr. Ela, Patrick H., M BA Chair, Board of Trustees, of Texas, Arlington.
Craft and Folk Art Museum, Los Angeles.
Dwyer, Johanna T., D.Sc. Prof of Medicine and Everett, Cathy Carrithers Special Projects
Community Health, Tufts Univ. Schools of Medi- Elbow, Gary S., Ph.D. Prof of Geography, Texas
Editor, Yuma (AZ) Daily Sun.
cine and Nutrition.
Tech Univ.
Everson, Jeff M., PhD Editor in Chief, Planet
Dybas, Cheryl Lyn, MA Free-lance science jour- Elder, E. Rozanne, Ph.D. Director, Institute
Cistercian Studies, Western Michigan Univ.
of Muscle Magazine.
nalist Tennis champion.
Evert, Chris
Dykstra, Daniel J., S J.D Former Prof, of Law, Eldredge, Charles C, Ph.D. Hall Distinguished
Prof of American Art, Univ of Kansas. Eves, Howard W., Ph.D. Distinguished Visiting
Univ of California, Davis. Prof of Mathematics, Univ of Central Florida.
Ellenbogen, Rudolph, M.S. Curator of Rare
Books, Columbia Univ. Ewing, Rodney C, PhD Prof Nuclear Engineer- ,

ing and Radiological Sciences and Adjunct Prof.,

Earle, Rosalie, B S Managing Editor, The Ellerbach, Susan, B.S. Managing Editor, Tulsa
Geological Sciences, Univ. of Michigan.
Charleston (WV) Gazette. IOK) World
Exline, Christopher H., PhD Prof and Chair-
Easby, Rebecca Jeffrey, Ph D Asst. Prof, Trinity Elliot, James L, Ph D Prof, Dept of Earth, At- man, Dept of Geography, Univ. of Nevada, Reno.
College. mospheric, and Planetary Sciences, Massachusetts
Institute of Technology. Eybel, Carl E., M.D. Senior Attending Asst Prof.,
Eastman, Joel Webb, Ph D Former Prof, of His- Rush-Presbyterian-St Lukes Medical Center.
James Robert, II, A.B. Past President,
Elliott,
tory, Univ. of Southern Maine.
Orders and Medals Society of America. Eyman, Alice Page, MA Director and Prof.,
Eaton, George W., Ph.D. Prof. Emeritus, Univ. of Univ. of Delaware Laboratory Preschool, College
British Columbia. Ellis,Elizabeth Canity, Ph.D. Former Asst. Prof of Human Resources, Univ. of Delaware.
of Art History, Southern Methodist Univ.
Eaton, William J., M.S.J. Curator, the Humphrey Eyster, Linda S., Ph.D. Teacher, Milton Academy.
Program at the Univ. of Maryland; winner of Ellis, Mark A. City Editor, The Columbus \OH)
Pulitzer Prize for National Reporting, 1970. Dispatch.

Eaves, Peter O.N.C Chem Technical Director, Ellis, Richard E., Ph.D. Prof of History, State Univ
J.,
of New York. Buffalo
Faber, Betty Lane, PhD Staff Scientist, Liberty
 Contributors and consultants XXIII

Science Center Feretic, Eileen, BA Former Editor in Chief, Be- tant, Alan Fitzgerald & Associates
Faber, Sandra M., PhD
Prof of Astronomy, Lick yond Computing magazine.
Fitzgerald, Ed Author, The Ballplayer.
Observatory, Univ. of California, Santa Cruz. Ferguson, John C, PhD Former Prof, of Biology
and Marint Science, Eckerd College.
Fitzgerald, F. Patrick, MAT. Prof, of Geogra-
Fabian, Carol, M.D. Prof of Medicine, Division phy History, Univ. of Alaska Southeast
of Clinical Oncology, and Breast Program Director, Ferguson, R. Brian, Ph.D. Prof, of Sociology and
Kansas Univ. Cancer Center. Anthropology, Rutgers, the State Univ. of New Jer
F'ltzpatrick, Jim, BA
Executive Director, Interna
tional Assoc, of Skateboard Companies.
Facemire, Charles F., Ph D Former Environmen sey, Newark.
Frtzpatrick, John W., PhD Director, Laboratory
tal Toxicologist, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Fernandez, James W., Ph D Prof of Anthropolo
of Ornithology, Cornell Univ.
Fagan, Brian M., Prof of Anthropology,
Ph.D. gy, Univ. of Chicago.
Donald L, PhD Director, Center for
Fixico, In
Univ. of California, Santa Barbara. Femea, Elizabeth Warnock, BA Prof Emeritus
digenous Nations Studies, Univ. of Kansas.
Fagan, Julie M, Ph.D. Assoc. Prof of Animal of English and Middle Eastern Studies, Univ. of
Texas, Austin. Fleischner, Jeannette E., Ed D Former Prof of
Science, Rutgers, the State Univ. of New Jersey
Special Ed., Teachers College, Columbia Univ.
Fagin, Stephen, BA Asst Sunday Editor, The Ferrara, Ronald J., Ed.D. Prof., Dept of Aero-
Fleishman, Avrom, Ph.D. Prof of English, Johns
Day Publishing Co. space, Middle Tennessee State Univ.
Hopkins Univ.
Fain, Stephen M., Ed.D Prof of Education, Ferrell, Keith Free-lance science writer; former
Florida International Univ. Editor, OMNI magazine. Fleming, Henry P., Ph D Research Leader, Prof.,
Dept of Food Science, U.S. Dept of Agriculture.
Falk, Nancy
Auer, Ph.D.
E. Prof, of Religion, Ferrell, Ray E., Jr., PhD Prof, of Geology,
Louisiana State Univ. Flick, George J., Ph D University Distin-
Jr.,
Western Michigan Univ.
guished Prof., Food Science and Technology, Vir-
Bernard B., Ph.D. Author, The Two Ferrell, Robert H., PhD Distinguished Prof. of
Fall, Viet- ginia Polytechnic Institute and State Univ.
Nams. History, Indiana Univ., Bloomington.
Flick, Reinhard E., PhD Oceanographer, Rsch.
Faha, Ronald W., Ph.D. Asst Prof of Earth Sci-
Arther,
Ferrill, PhD Prof of History, Univ of
Assoc, Scripps Institution of Oceanography.
ences. Clemson Univ. Washington.
Flint, Harrison L, Ph D Prof Emeritus of Horti
Fandy, Mamoun H., Ph.D. Prof., Center for Con- Fetter, Bruce, PhD Prof, of History, Univ of culture, Purdue Univ.
temporary Arab Studies, Georgetown Univ. Wisconsin, Milwaukee.
Floras, Dan L, PhD Hammond Prof of Western
Fangmeier, Delmar D., Ph.D. Prof Emeritus of Field, Bruce F., Ph.D. Acting Assoc Director, History, Univ. of Montana
Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering, Univ. of EEEL, Natl Inst of Standards and Technology.
Fh/nn, Michael S., Ph.D. Assoc. Director, Office
Arizona. Fields, Clark L, PhD Prof of Chemistry, Univ. of for the Study of Automotive Transportation, Univ.
Fantham, Elaine, PhD Ciger Prof, Northern Colorado.
of Latin Emeri- of Michigan Transportation Research Institute.
ta, Dept of Classics, Princeton Univ. Fienberg, Stephen E_, PhD Prof of Statistics Fh/nn, Thomas P. Vice President of Communica-
Farkas, Daniel F., Ph.D. Prof and Head, Dept of and Social Science, Carnegie-Mellon Univ. tions, (Rochester, NY) Democrat and Chronicle.
Food Science and Technology, Oregon State Univ. Fierman, William, Ph D. Director, Inner Asian Fogarty, Gerald P., S.T.M. Prof, of Religious
Farley, Fred, BA Unlimited Hydroplane and Uralic National Resource Center, Indiana Univ. Studies and History, Univ. of Virginia
Historian, American Power Boat Association. Filler, Louis, Ph.D. Former historian, lexicograph-
Fogel, Daniel Mark, PhD Executive Vice Chan
Famham, Dale E., Ph.D. Prof, of Agronomy, Iowa er, and editor.
cellor and Provost, Louisiana State Univ.
State Univ. Filosa, Gary Fairmont R., II, Ph D President, Fogelson, Raymond D., PhD Prof of Anthro-
International Surfing Committee (ISC).
Fan-, D. M. L, D.Phil. Prof. Emeritus of History, pology and Psychology. Univ. of Chicago.
Carleton Univ. Finckenauer, James Director, Interna-
O., Ph.D. Foley, William E., PhD Prof, of History, Central
tional Center, National Institute of Justice.
Fair, Roger, Ed.D. Chancellor s Prof, and Dir of Missouri State Univ.
the Center for Innovation in Assessment. Smith Findlay, Raymond D., Ph D
Director, Engineer Foner, Eric, PhD DeWitt Clinton Prof of History.
Research Center, Indiana Univ., Bloomington. ing and Management, McMaster Univ. Columbia Univ.
Farrell, John T., Ph.D. Former Prof of History, Fingard, Judith, Ph D Former Prof, of History,
Fontaine, Carole R., Ph D Prof of Hebrew
Catholic Univ. of America. Dalnousie Univ. Scriptures, Andover Newton Theological School.
Farrell, Joseph N., BA Columnist, Reading IPAI Fink, Peter E., M.Div. Prof, of Liturgical Theology, Fontana, Lynn A., PhD President, Thoughtful
Eagle Reading Times. Weston Jesuit School of Theology Technologies, LLC
Farrell,Michael, BA Managing Editor, The Finke, Wayne H., Ph D. Asst Prof of Modem Foody, James J., M.D Assoc Prof, Clinical Med
ICovington) Kentucky Post Languages, Baruch College. icine; Assoc Section Chief, Clinical Affairs Section
Farweli, Sherry O., PhD Prof, of Chemistry, Finn, Bernard S., Ph.D. Curator, National Muse- of General Internal Medicine, Univ. of Chicago.
Univ. of Idaho. um of American History. Forbes, Glenn, M.D Prof and Chairman of
Faulk, Odie B., Ph.D. Former Prof, of History, Finn, John W., M.D Executive Medical Director, Radiology, Mayo Clinic
Northeastern State Univ. Hospice of Michigan. Forcey, Charles B., Ph.D. Prof of History Emeri-
Fawcett, John, MA Asst Archivist for Presiden- Finnegan, Gregory Allan, Ph.D. Assoc. Ubrarian tus, Binghamton Univ.
tial Libraries, Natl Archives and Records Admin. and Head of Reference in the
for Public Services Forcey, Linda R., PhD Assoc Prof., School of
Tozzer Ubrary, Harvard Univ. General Studies, State Univ of New York,
Fay, Matthew M-, MS. Scientist, T Technolo-
J

gies, Inc. Finney, Ben, Ph.D. Prof, of Anthropology, Univ. of Binghamton.

Hawaii. Ford, Franklin L, LH D. McLean Prof of Ancient
Feagin, Joe R., PhD Graduate Research Prof of
Sociology, Univ. of Florida. Firmage, Edwin B., S.|.D. Samuel D Thurman and Modem History Emeritus, Harvard Univ.
Prof of Law, Univ. of Utah College of Law. Ford, John K. B., Ph.D. Research Zoologist,
Feather, Leonard Author, The Encyclopedia of
Jazz Firpo, Men, Ph D Research Geneticist, Univ. of Vancouver Aquarium.
California, San Francisco. Ford, Norman L,, PhD Prof Emeritus of Biology,
Feder, Robert, B.S Television and Radio
Columnist, Chicago Sun-Times. Fischer, J. R., Ph D. Dean Director, South Caroli- Saint Johns Univ.
na Agriculture and Forestry Research System, Forester, Don C, PhD Prof of Biology, Towson
Feduccia, Alan, PhD Prof, and Chairman, Dept
Clemson Univ. Univ.
of Biology, Univ. of North Carolina, Chapel Hill.
Fischer, John E., PhD Prof, of Materials Science, Forman, James D., LLB. Attorney and author.
Fee, Elizabeth, Ph.D. Chief, History of Medicine
Univ. of Pennsylvania
Division, National Library of Medicine. Forsman, Eric, PhD Research Wildlife Biologist,
Fischer, Stanley, Ph D First Deputy Managing
Fehl, Pamela J., BA Director, Graphic Artists
Director International Monetary Fund.
U.S. Forest Service.

Guild of New York. Foss, Clh/e, Ph.D. Prof of History, Univ of

Fisher, Bart, B S Coordinator of Athletic Massachusetts, Boston.
Fehrs, Don, PhD. Senior Investment Officer,
Development, Central Connecticut State Univ.
Cornell Univ. Foster, David E., PhD. Prof., Engine Research
Fisher, Edwin B., Jr., PhD Prof, of Psychology, Center, Univ. of Wisconsin. Madison.
Feigl, Dorothy M., Ph D Vice President, Dean of
Medicine, and Pediatrics; Director, Center for
Faculty, Prof, of Chemistry, Saint Marys College. Foster, David William, Ph D Regents Prof, of
Health Behavior Research, Washington Univ.
Spanish. Interdisciplinary Humanities, and
Feinberg, Gerald, PhD Former Prof of Physics,
JamesPh D Prof.. Chairman. Dept of
Columbia Univ
Fisher, F., Women s Studies, Arizona State Univ.
Sociology and Anthropology, Carieton College.
Feinberg, Jack, Ph D.Phys. Prof., Physics Dept, Foster, John Elgin, Ph D former Prof of History,
Fisher, Louis, PhD Senior Specialist in Separa- I nK of Alberta
Univ. of Southern California
tion of Powers, Congressional Research Service,
Feinstein, Myron MBA Former Director, Foster, Stephen C, Ph D Prof of Art History,
E., Ubrary of Congress.
Lever Brothers Co.
Univ. of Iowa
Fisher, Michael Ft, PhD Prof, of History, Oberiin
Prof, of
Fowler, Catherine S., PhD Prof of Anthropolo
Feldman, Gary J., Ph.D. Frank B. Baird, Jr., College
gy, Univ of Nevada. Reno
Science, Harvard Univ. Sydney N., Ph D Author The Middle
Fisher,
Fowler, Don D., PhD Prof of Historic Preserva
Feldman, Richard M., M.D. Chairman, Dept of East A H tion and Anthropolog\ UnK ol Nevada, Reno.
Emergency Medicine, Illinois Masonic Med Or Fisher, Terri D., Ph.D. Assoc Prof, of Psychology
Fowler, Loretta, Ph D Prof of Anthropology.
Felkenes, George T., Dr.Crim. Prof. Emeritus of Ohio State Univ, Mansfield. Indiana Unh Bloomington.
Criminal Justice, Claremont Graduate Univ. Law
Flss, Owen M., LL.B Steriing Prof ol > lie
Fowter, William Morgan, Jr., Ph D Director,
Felson, Nancy, Ph.D. Prof, of Classics, Univ ol Univ.
The Massachusetts Historical Soctet)
Georgia. PhD Portuguese, Spanish,
Prof, of
FTtz, Earl E.,
Fox, Eleanor M., 1 B 1 Prof, of Law New ^>rk
Fenwick, Lynda Beck, D Attorney and author and Comparative Literature, Vanderbilt I idv
J
I nh St hool ot law
of Should the Children Pray?
Fitzgerald, Alan, BA Communications consul
XXIV Contributors and consultants

Fox, Marye Anne, Ph.D. Waggoner Chair in Theodore Roosevelt Associatioa Geherin, David, Ph.D. Prof, of English, Eastern
Chemistry, Univ. of Texas, Austin. Gadwood, Robert C, PhD Senior Scientist, Michigan Univ.
Fox, Michael W., D Sc Senior Scholar, Bioethics, Pharmacia & Upjohn. Ceiger, Cordon H., Ph.D. Consultant, T. P.
Humane Society of the United States. Gager, Wyvoh/n BA Former Editor in Chief, McNulty & Associates.
Fox, Stephen, Ph.D. Historian. Gleaner Publications, Kingston, Jamaica Geist, Valerius, Ph D Prof. Emeritus of Environ-
Frances, Allen, M.D. Prof, of Psychiatry, Duke Cagliano, Joseph A, Ph D Prof of Latin Ameri- mental Sciences, Univ. of Calgary.
Univ. Medical School. can History, Loyola Univ. of Chicago. Getfand, Lawrence E, Ph D Prof Emeritus of
Francko, David A., PhD Prof and Chairman Gailey, Harry A, PhD Prof, of History and Coor- History, Univ. of Iowa
DepL of Botany, Miami Univ. dinator of African Studies, San Jose State Univ. Gelles, Richard J., PhD. Prof of Social Welfare
Frank, Elizabeth S., MA Curator of Large Gait, Robert L, Ph.D. Curator Emeritus of Miner- and Director, Doctoral Program, School of Social
Work, Univ. of Pennsylvania
Mammals, Milwaukee County Zoo. alogy, Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto.
Frankel, Richard PhD
Prof of Physics,
B., Gallagher, Joan S-, Ph.D. Research Assoc, Gellman, Barton, M.LH. Military Correspond-
ent. The Washington Post
California Polytechnic State Univ. Pathology Immunology, Univ. of Cincinnati.
Franklin, James L, M.D Assoc. Prof, of Medi Gallagher, Rachel, BA Author. Games in me Cenovese, E N., Ph.D Prof, and Chair of Classics
cine, Rush-Presbyterian- St Lukes Medical Center. Street and Humanities, San Diego State Univ.
Franklin, William L, PhD Mammalian Wildlife Gallis, Paul E, Ph.D. Section Head, Europe and Genovese, Michael A, Ph.D Loyola Chair of
Ecologist, Iowa State Univ. Eurasia Foreign Affairs, Defense, and Trade Divi- Leadership, Loyola Marymount Univ.

Fraser, Graham, MA Parlimentary Correspond- sion, Congressional Research Service. Genoways, Hugh H., Ph.D Prof., Univ of Nebras-
ka State Museum, Univ. of Nebraska, Uncoln.
ent, 77>e(Toronto, Canada Globe and Mail. Galloway, J. H, Ph D Prof of Geography, Univ. of
Fratkin, Elliot, PhD. Assoc
Prof and Chair Dept Toronto. Gentry, Alwyn H., Ph.D Former Senior Curator,
of Anthropology, Smith College. Gafvin, Antoinette B., Ph.D. Research Assoc, Missouri Botanical Garden

Fraze, Kathleen M., B S. Copy Desk Chief, Akron Prof., Institute for the Study of Earth, Oceans, and George, David B., B S Director, Technology,
iOH Beacon Journal Space, Univ. of New Hampshire. Kennecott Utah Copper Corp.

Frazier, Gregory, MA Executive Director, Gandy, Joan W., BA Former Managing Editor, George, William L, Jr., PhX) Assoc. Dean and
AudioVision Inc.
The Natchez (MSI Demonat Prof, of Horticulture, College of Agriculture, Unfv.
Gangel, Kenneth O., Ph.D Former Academic of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.
Freas, Samuel James, Ed.D. President, Interna-
tional Swimming Hall of Fame. Dean, Dallas Theological Seminary. Gerace, Paul L, Ph.D Former Technical Special-
ist and Project Manager. Xerox Corp.
Geography, Univ. Gantt, Elisabeth, Ph D. Research Biologist,
Frederic, Paul B., Ph.D. Prof, of
of Maine, Farmington.
Smithsonian Institution. Gerard, Valrie A, Ph D. Assoc Prof of Marine
Gantz, Nelson M., M.D. Chairman. DepL of Med- Sciences, State Univ. of New York, Stony Brook.
Fredrickson, Leigh H., Ph.D Rucker Prof, of
icine and Chief, Division of Infectious Diseases, Gerber, Jane S-, Ph.D. Prof, of History. Dir, Insti-
Fisheries and Wildlife and Director, Gaylord
Pinnacle Health Hospitals. tute for Sephardic Studies, City Univ of New York.
Memorial Laboratory. Univ. of Missouri, Columbia
Freedman, David Noel, Th B Arthur F Thurnau Garbarino, Merwyn S-, Ph.D. Emerita of
Prof. Gerbie, Meh/in V., M.D Prof., Clinical Obstetrics
Prof, of Biblical Studies, Univ. of Michigan. Anthropology, Univ. of Illinois, Chicago. and Gynecology, Northwestern Univ. Med School.
Freedman, Wendy, Ph.D. Astronomer, Observa- Carber, Eugene K-, Ph.D Former Prof of Eng- Gerdes, Dick, Ph.D. Prof of Latin-American
tories of the Carnegie Institution of Washington. lish, State Univ. of New York, Albany. Literature, Univ. of New Mexico.
Freehling, William W., PhD Singletary Prof, of Garber, Lawrence L, PhD Prof of Chemistry, Gereau, Roy E, MS. Curatorial Asst. Missouri
the Humanities, Univ. of Kentucky. Indiana Univ., South Bend. Botanical Garden.

Freeman, John C, MA Assoc Prof of Journal-

Garcia, Homer D. C, Ph.D. Vice Provost for Aca- Gergen, Kenneth J., Ph D Prof of Psychology,
ism, Univ. of Florida. demic Planning, Baylor Univ. Swarthmore College.
Freidel, Frank, Ph.D. Author, The Splendid Little Cardin, Julius M., M.D. Medicine, Div. of
Prof, of Gerking, Shelby, Ph.D. Prof, of Economics and
l\ar Cardiology, Univ. of California Irvine Medical Ctr. Finance, Univ. of Wyoming.
Friederich, Werner P., Ph.D. Former Kenan Prof Gardner, Uoyd C, PhD Prof, of History, Rut- Gerlach, John, Ph.D Lead Design Chemist,
ofGerman and Comparative Literature, Univ. of gers, the State Univ. of New Jersey. Unocal Corp.
North Carolina, Chapel Hill. Garfield, Robert, Ph.D. Assoc Prof, of History, Gervers, Michael, Ph.D. Prof, of History, Univ. of

Friedman, Ann, Ph.D. Education Specialist, DePaul Unfv. Toronto, Scarborough.

J. Paul Getty Museum. Garfinkel, Irwin, Ph D Mitchell I. Ginsberg Prof, Getson, Heather-Anne, BA Curator of Collec-
Fritz, Harry W., Ph.D. Chair, DepL of History, of Contemporary Urban Problems, Columbia Univ. tions, FisheriesMuseum of the Atlantic
Univ. of Montana School of Social Work. Getdeman, Marvin E, PhD Prof, of History,
Frodin, Joanna FL, Ph.D. Vice President, Federal Garibaldi, Louis E, Dir , New York Aquarium. Polytechnic Institute of New York.
Reserve Bank of Philadelphia Garmon, Lucille B., PhD Prof of Chemistry, Ghandakly, AdeJ A, Ph.D. Prof, of Electrical En-
State Univ. of West Georgia gineering and Computer Science, Univ of Toledo.
From, Milton, PhD. Asst Prof, of Physics, West-
em Washington Univ. Games, Sara, PhD Assoc Prof of English. Ohio Giacumakis, George, Jr., Ph.D. Prof, of History
Fry, Edward S., Ph D Prof, of Physics, Texas State Univ. and Director of California State Univ., Fullerton,
A&M Univ. Gamick, Marc B., MD Medicine,
Clinical Prof., Mission Viejo Campus.

Frye, B. E., Ph.D. Provost and Vice President for Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Giannelli, Paul C, LLM. Weatherhead Prof, of

Academic Affairs, Emory Univ. Medical School. Law, Case Western Reserve Univ.

Frye, Richard Nelson, Ph D. Prof Emeritus of Garretson, Peter P., PhD Assoc. Prof, of History, Giannetti, Louis, Ph.D. Prof, of English and Film.
Iranian Studies, Harvard Univ.
Florida State Univ. Case Western Reserve Univ.
Frykenberg, Robert Eric, PhD Prof Emer., His- Garrett, Charles L, B.S President, Garrett Gibbard, Bruce C, Ph.D. Senior Physicist.

tory and South Asian Studies. Univ. of Wisconsin. Electronics, Inc. Brookhaven National Laboratory
Fuhrmann, Joseph T., Ph.D. Prof of History. Garrison, David L, Ph.D Asst Program Director. Gibbons, Don C, Ph.D Emeritus Prof, of Sociolo-
Murray State Univ.
Ocean Sciences Div.. National Science Foundation. gy and Urban Studies. Portland State Univ.
Fujita, T. Theodore, ScD. Prof Emeritus of Me- Garrow, David J., Ph.D. Author, Bearing the Gibbons, J. Whitfield, Ph.D Senior Ecologist.
teorology, Univ. of Chicago. Cross: Martin Luther King, Jr.. and the Southern Savannah River Ecology Laboratorv
Christian Leadership Conference; winner, Pulitzer
Fukuta, Norihiko, PhD Prof of Meteorology, Gibson, Anrell Morgan, Ph.D. George Lynn
Prize for Biography or Autobiography. 1987.
Univ. of Utah. Cross Research Prof., Univ. of Oklahoma
Garzke, William H., Jr., MS Staff Naval Archi- Gibson, Chartes, Ph D Former Prof, of History,
Fulghum, Julia E, PhD Prof., DepL of Chemistry,
Gibbs & Cox Inc
tect,
Kent State Univ. Unfv. of Michigan.
Cass, Susan M., Ph D Prof of English, Michigan
Fulton, E Kaye, B A Senior Writer, Macleans State Univ.
Gibson, Janice T., Ed.D Prof, ot Developmental
Psychology, Univ. of Pittsburgh
magazine.
Fulton, Robert, Ph.D. Prof. Emeritus of Sociolo-
Gates, William C, Jr., MA Curator and Histori- Gibson, Lay James Prof, of Geography and
an Ohio Historical Society. Regional Development and Director. Economic
gy, Univ. of Minnesota, Twin Cities Campus.
Gaud, Susan M., Ph.D Director, External Tech- Development Research Program. Univ of Arizona
Furnas, David W., M
D Clinical Prof, of Surgery, nology, Kraft Foods. BA
College of Medicine, Univ. of California, Irvine. Gibson, Robert Ryder, Senior Writer, Politi-
Gauthreaux, Sidney A, Jr., Ph.D Prof of Zoolo- cal Reporter. Charlottesville IVAi Daily Progress
Fusfeld, Daniel R., Ph.D. Prof. Emeritus of
gy, Gemson Univ. Giddins, Gary, BA Columnist Staff Writer
Economics. Univ of Michigan.
Gavrilas, Mirela, Ph.D Asst Prof Dept of Mate- Village Voice
Fuson, Karen Connors, Ph.D. Prof, of Education rials and Nuclear Engineering, University of Mary-
Northwestern Univ. GieJe, Janet Zollinger, Ph.D Prof of Sociology,
land, College Park.
Heller Graduate School Brandeis Univ.
Gavrilovich, Peter Deputy Nation World Editor, Gierasch, Peter PhD Prot of Astronomy,
J.,
Detroit Free Press; author, the Detroit Almanac Cornell Univ.
Cabel, Christopher R., Ph.D. Historian, VS. 300 Years of Life in the Motor City.
Army Command and General Staff College. Gies, David Thatcher, Ph.D Commonwealth
Gedzelman, Stanley David, Ph.D Prof, of
Prof, of Spanish and Chairman, Univ. of Virginia
Cable, Dan, B.S. Former Wrestling Coach, Univ. Meteorology, City College of New York.
of Iowa Gilbert, Marc Jason, Ph D Prut of History. North
Geerken, John H., Ph.D. Prof, of History, Scripps Georgia College and State Unfv.
Cable, John A, Ph.D. Executive Director. College.
 Contributors and consultants XXV

Gilbert, Roger, PhD Asst Prof of English, Gold, Alison Leslie, BA Coauthor, Anne Frank Graff, Harvey J., Ph.D. Prof of History, Division
Cornell Univ. Remembered of Behavioral and Cultural Sciences, Univ. of Texas,
Gilbert, William H., Ph.D. Former Indian Affairs Gold, Mark S., M.D Prof Dept of Psychiatry, ,
San Antonio
Specialist, Library of Congress. Univ. of Florida College of Medicine. Graham, Colin C, Ph.D. President, Compact
Gilder hus. Mark T., PhD Prof of History, Lyn- Goldberg, Alfred, PhD Editor, A History ol the Croup, Bowen Island, British Columbia.
don Baines Johnson Chair, Texas Christian Univ. U.S. Air Force 1907-1957. Graham, Larry L, Ph.D. Prof Paper Science and ,

Gill, Thomas J., Ill, M.D Menten Prof, of Experi Goldberg, Morton F., M.D Prof of Ophthalmol Engineering, Univ. of Wisconsin, Stevens Point.
mental Pathology Emeritus, Univ. of Pittsburgh ogy, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine. Graham, Robert O., M.D. Ophthalmologist
Gillenwater, Mack H., PhD Prof, of Geography, Goldman, Eric F v LLD Former Rollins Prof, of Graham, William P., Ill, M.D. Clinical Prof of
Marshall Univ. History, Princeton Univ. Surgery, Pennsylvania State Univ., Hershey.
Gillespie, Thomas D., Ph.D., P.E. Senior Re Goldman, Sheldon, Ph D Prof of Political Graham-Campbell, James A., PhD Prof, of Me
search Scientist, Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Science, Univ. of Massachusetts, Amherst. dieval Archaeology, Univ. College London
Gillette, Robert, B.S. Former Staff Writer, Wash Goldman, Stuart D., Ph.D. Specialist in Russian Gran, Richard J., PhD Applications Engineer,
ington Bureau, Los Angeles Times. and Eurasian Affairs, Congressional Research The MathWorks
Amy K. (Dubuque, Service, Library of Congress. Granatstein,
Gilligan, City Editor, IA) Tele- J. L, Ph.D. Prof of History Emeritus,
graph Herald. Goldsmith, Timothy H., Ph D Prof, of Biology, York Univ.
Gillingham, John Senior Lecturer, London Yale Univ. Grant, B. J., BA Former Documents Researcher,
School of Economies and Political Science. Goldstein, Erik, Ph D Prof of International Rela Univ. of New Brunswick
tions, Boston Univ.
Gillmor, Desmond A., Ph.D. Emeritus Assoc. Cray, Patrick T. R., Th.D. Assoc. Prof, of
Prof, and Fellow, Trinity College, Univ. of Dublin. Goldstein, Jerome C, M.D Executive Vice Humanities, York Univ.
President Emeritus, American Academy of Oto-
Gilman, Alan David, M.D Asst Prof of Medi Craybill, John R., M.D Prof of Medicine, Univ
cine, Rush-Presbyterian-St. Lukes Medical Center. laryngology-Head and Neck Surgery. of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio.

Gilman, Rhoda R., MA Research Assoc, Goldstein, Malcolm, Ph.D.

English, Queens College, City Univ. of
Prof. Emeritus of
New York.
Grayson, George W., J.D. Class of 9J8 Prof 1 of
Minnesota Historical Society. Government, College of William and Mary.
Gilmore, Daniel, B.A. Former Editor, Prince Ru- Golembiewski, Robert T., PhD Research Prof Greaves, Richard L, Ph.D. Prof, and Chairman,
pert IBC) Daily News.
of Public Administration and Management, LJniv.
Dept. of History, Florida State Univ
of Georgia.
Gilmore, Jesse L, PhD Former Prof of History, Green, Charles P., BA Past Executive Director,
Goliber, Sue Helder, Ph.D. Prof, and Chair, Dept. Museum of Cartoon Art.
Portland State Univ.
of History and Distinguished Prof, of Teacher De-
Gilmour, Jeff, BA, LLB. Research Assoc Arctic ,
velopment, Mount St. Mary's College. Creen, David, PhD Prof of Medicine, North-
Institute of North America, Univ. of Calgary. western Univ.
Golley, Frank B., Ph.D. Research Prof of Ecology,
Gitelman, Zvi, PhD
Prof of Political Science and Institute of Ecology, Univ. of Georgia.
Green, Jonathan, Ph.D. Prof of Biology,
Judaic Studies, Univ. of Michigan. Roosevelt Univ.
Golub, Leon, Astrophysicist, Harvard-
Ph.D.
Gitlow, Howard Seth, Ph D Executive Director, Green, Larry, A.A. Radio broadcaster, outdoor
Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics.
Institute for the Study of Quality, Univ. of Miami. writer, lecturer, and author.
Gontrum, Peter, Ph D Prof of German, Univ. of
Gittleman, Arthur, PhD Prof of Mathematics Oregon. Green, Michael D., Ph.D. Prof, of History, Univ. of
and Computer Science, California State Univ., Kentucky.
Long Beach.
Gooch, Brison D., Ph D Emeritus Prof of Histo-
Texas A&M Univ.
Green, Paul J., Ph.D. Astrophysicist, Smithsonian
ry,
Givens, David B., Ph D Director, Center for Non Astrophysical Observatory.
Good, Alice B. Former Director, Arizona Dept of
verbal Studies.
Library and Archives.
Greenberg, Douglas, Ph.D. Vice President,
Glantz, Stanton A., PhD Prof of Medicine, Univ. American Council of Learned Societies.
Goode, John Free-lance author and journalist
of California, San Francisco. Greenberger, Allen J., Ph.D. Prof of History,
Goode, Stephen, Ph D. Senior Writer, Insight. Pitzer College.
Glaser, Donald A., D Sc. Former Prof, of Physics
and Neurobiology, Univ. of California, Berkeley; Goodheart, Lawrence B., Ph.D. Assoc. Prof, of Creenblatt, Alan, MA
Reporter, Congressional
Winner of Nobel Prize for Physics, 1960. History, Univ. of Connecticut Quarterly, Washington, D.C
Glazier, Stephen D., PhD Prof of Anthropolo Goodman, Alyssa A., Ph.D. Prof, of Astronomy, Creenblatt, Stephen, Ph.D. Prof of English, Univ
gy, Univ. of Nebraska.
Harvard Univ. of California, Berkeley

Glendon, Mary Ann, M.Comp.L Prof of Law, Goodwin, Paul B., Jr., PhD Assoc. Dean, Col- Greene, Charlotte H., PhD Prof of Physiology,
Harvard Law School. lege of Liberal Arts and Sciences, Univ. of Con- Philadelphia College of Osteopathic Medicine.
Glenn, Alan H., PhD Principal Engineer,
necticut
Ph.D. Prof. Emeritus of Span
Greene, Jerome A, MA Historian, National
Flowserve Corp. Goodwyn, Frank, Park Service.
ish and Folklore, Univ of Maryland, College Park
Glenn, Justin M., Ph.D. Prof of Classics, Florida Greenfield, David W., Ph.D. Prof of Zoology,
State Univ. Cordis, Enoch, M.D Director, National Institute
Univ. of Hawaii. Honolulu.
on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism.
Glenn, Stanley L, PhD Emeritus Prof, of Greenfield, Eloise Author. Paul Robeson.
Dramatic Art. Univ of California, Santa Barbara. Cordon, John W., Ph D Prof , Dept. of History,
Potomac
Greenwald, Carol S., Ph.D. President,
The Citadel.
Glickman, Harvey, Ph.D. Prof of Political Sci- Investment Co , Inc
ence. Haverford College. Gordon, Linda, Ph D Florence Kelley Prof of
Greenwell, Francis M. Former Chief Taxider
History. Univ of Wisconsin, Madison
Clover, Sandra J., PhD Prof. Emerita of Biology, mist, Smithsonian Institution.
Appalachian State Univ. Gorenstein, Paul, Ph.D. Supervisory Astrophysi
Gregg, Walter Harold, Ed D Prof Emeritus of
cist, Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory
Gocek, F. Muge, Ph.D. Asst Prof of Sociology, Physical Education and Health. Northwestern Univ
Univ. of Michigan. Gosling, L A. Peter, Ph D Prof of Southeast
Gregory, Hugo H., PhD Prot Emeritus Speech
Asian Studies, Univ. of Michigan.
Goddard, EL D., Ph.D. Corporate Resean h and Language Pathology, Northwestern Univ.
Fellow, Union Carbide Corp Gosner, Kevin, Ph D Assoc. Prof of History.
Gregory, Leonard W., BA Managing Editor,
Univ. of Arizona.
Godfrey, James L, Ph D Distinguished Prof, of Pueblo iCO) Chieftain.
English History Emeritus, Univ of North Carolina. Cottschalk, Stephen, PhD Author The Finer
Gregory, Richard V., PhD Dil School of Tex
genre ol t hristian Science in American Religious
Godson, Roy, PhD Prof, of Government, dies Fiber and Polymer Science, Clemson Unh
Lite
Georgetown Univ. Crendler, Paul F., Ph D Prof of History, Univ. of
Cough, Aidan R., LLM. Prof Emeritus of Law,
Godwin, Joscelyn, F.R.CO Prof, of Music, Santa Clara Univ
Toronto.
Colgate Univ. Cribben, Alan, Ph.D. Prof and Head, Dept. of
Cough, Barry M., D Lit Prof of History Wilfrid
English, Auburn Univ Montgomery
Goering, Joseph, Ph.D. Prof of History, Univ. of
Laurier Univ.
Toronto.
PhD Plot Emeritus of History
Criepp, Eva Botstein, M I ) Clinical Assoi Pro!
Could, Lewis L, ot Pediatru New >ork School ot Medicine
Goertzen, Valerie Woodring, Ph.D. Adjuni i

Univ ot Texas, Austin.

s I n,v

Music; Coordinator of Graduate Studies James W., Ph D Zoology North

Prof, of
School of Music. Univ of Southern Mississippi. Gouttierre, Thomas E., MA Dean International
Crier,
Dakota State niv
Prof ot

Studies and Programs Unh of Nebraska Omaha I

Coetz, Alexander F. R, Ph D Prof Dn. Or. for Griess, Thomas E., D ormer Prof., Ph 1 U.S. Mili-
the Study of Earth from Space, Univ of Colorado. Covenar, Alan, Ph D President Documents!)
i.nv \, adem) Brigadier Gen S *Jtn> l reined
\its in. authoi Meeting the Blues
Coetz,Thomas H., PhD Prof of French, State Grieve, Michael D., B A Managing Editor
New York College, Fredonia.
Univ. of Covig, Valerie, BA Publisher-Edftoi Kite lines
i Thunder Bav. ON!77mes \e\w (hmiiii te louma!
Coetzmann, William H., PhD Pro! ofHistor) Grabar, Oleg, Ph.D. Aga Khan Prol ot Islamk
Griffin, Robert B., Ph D Prol of French and
of Texas, Austin Art Emeritus, Harvj
and American Studies, I Iniv, Comparative Literature v niv ot California.

Goff, John S., D Pro! Emeritus of History,

Grabiner, Judith V., PhD Prol Mathematics Griffis, Patrick D., S I M I DireCtCH Worldwide
I

Phoenix College. and S( iem e, lechnolog) mil sdi iet) Phzei ( ol i\ Standards and Strategy Microsoft Corp
Coist, Park Dixon, Ph U Unci toi Amerii an Griffith, Clark. Phi) Prof Emeritus of English
Grace, Sherrill E., F R s ( Prol and Head Dept
Studies and Assoi Prof, of Theatei Arts
'

i mv ot Oregon
of English Unh of British Columbia
Western Reserve Univ. Griffiths, Ralph A., Dim Prol »t Medieval
Goizueta, Roberto S., PhD Ass,,. Prolol Graebner, Norman A, PhD Prol Emeritus ol
HistOr) I niv ol Wales Swansea
Theology, Loyola Univ ol Chicago. Publn
i. nits ffHMiias a, PhD ProtofPhysta. Untv.ol
XXVI Contributors and consultants

Texas, Austin. Haenlein, Joy L, MS) Editorial Page Editor, The Sciences, Emporia State Univ.
Grim, Pamela, M.D Asst Prof., Univ of Chicago (Stamford,CD Advocate. Hansen, James R., Ph.D. Alumni Prof. Historian

Crima, A. P. Lino, Ph.D. Assoc. Director. Institute Hafner, James A, Ph.D. Prof, Geosciences, Mor- for National Aeronautics and Space Administra-

for Environmental Studies, Univ. of Toronto rill Science Center, Univ of Massachusetts. tion,Auburn Univ.
Grimsley, Judy L, Information Resources Hagan, Kenneth J., Ph.D. Prof of History, U.S. Hansen, Katherine, Ph.D. Assoc. Prof of Geogra-
Manager, The Orlando (FU Sentinel NavalAcademy phy Montana State Univ.

Grodecki, Thomas S., MA Former Historian Hagedorn, John

na! Justice, Univ of
M., Ph.D.
Illinois,
Assoc. Prof of Crimi
Chicago.
Hansen, William F., Ph.D. Prof of
Studies and Folklore, Indiana Univ.
Classical
Analyst, U.S Army Center of Military History,

Grootes, Pieter M., PhD Prof of Physics and Hagen, Charles, M.FA Critic, The New York Hansma, Paul, Ph.D. Prof of Physics, Univ of Cal-
Times. ifornia, Santa Barbara
Dir., Leibniz Laboratory, Christian Albrechts-Univ.
Gross, Beatrice, MA Author and editor. Hahn, H. George,
State Univ.
Ph.D. Prof of English, Towson Hanson, Stephen
Washington.
E., Ph.D Assoc. Prof, Univ. of

Gross, Laurence F., PhD Assoc Prof., DepL of

Regional Economic and Social Development, Univ. Hahn, Richard L, Senior Chemist and
Ph.D. Hapeman, Cathleen J., Ph D Research Chemist,
of Massachusetts, Lowell.
Leader of Solar Neutrino Croup, Chemistry Dept. Agriculture Research Service, U.S Dept of Agri-
Brookhaven National Laboratory. culture.
Gross, Ronald Cochaii Univ. Seminar on Inno
vation in Education Columbia Univ; editor, The Hahn, Wahher L, Ph.D Prof Emeritus of Ger- HardcastJe, David P., Ph.D. Writer and historian.
Great School Debate man, Univ. of Oregon Harden, Lydia Dixon, B.S Former Managing
Haider-Markel, Donald P., Ph.D. Asst Prof, Editor, Music City News.
Grosshortz, Jean, Ph.D. Prof of Political Science,
Mount Holyoke College. DepL of Political Science, Univ of Kansas. Harder, Leland, Ph.D. Former Prof of Practical
Groth, Alexander Emeritus Prof, of Haider, Rebat M., M.D. Prof Chairman, Dept of, Theology, Mennonite Biblical Seminary.
J., Ph.D.
Political Science, Univ. of California, Davis. Dermatology Howard Univ College of Medicine. Hardy, Grant, Ph.D. Asst Prof of History, Univ. of
Groth, Edward, III, PhD Director, Technical Pol Hall, Charles A
S., Ph.D Prof of Environmental North Carolina, Asheville.
icy and Public Service. Consumers Union of Unit
and Forest Biology. State Univ of New York, Hargis, B. M., Ph.D Prof and Director, Poultry
ed States, Inc. College of Environmental Sciences and Forestry. Health Research Laboratory, Center of Excellence
Gruber, Helmut, Ph.D. Former Charles
S Baylis
Haller, Gary L, Ph.D. Prof of Chemical Engineer for Poultry Science, Univ. of Arkansas, Fayetteville.

Prof, of History, Polytechnic Institute of New York.

mg, Yale Unrv. Harik, EJsa Marston, MS Writer
Gruber, Samuel H., PhD Director. Prof., Bimini
HaJlett, Judith P., Ph.D. Prof and Chair, DepL of
Harik, llh/a, Ph.D Prof of Political Science, Indi-
Biological Field Station, Rosenstie! School of Ma Classics, Univ. of Maryland. ana Univ.
rine and Atmospheric Science, Univ. of Miami. Gustav W.,
Hallin, M
D Former Asst Prof, of
Harington, C
R-, Ph.D. Curator of Quaternary
Gruen, Erich S v Ph.D Prof of History, Univ. of Medicine Univ of New Mexico. Zoology Emeritus, Canadian Museum of Nature.
California. Berkeley. Hallion, Richard P., Ph.D. Air Force Historian, Harmon, Daniel P., Ph D Prof and Chairman,
Boiling Air Force Base, Washington, D.C
Gruenbacher, Don M., PhD Asst Prof, Electri- Dept of Classics, Univ. of Washington
cal and Computer Engineering. Kansas State Univ. Hallman, Joseph M., Ph.D. Prof, of Theology, Harmon, Pat Curator Historian, College Football
Gruenberg, Alan M., M.D Prof of Psychiatry Univ. of St Thomas. Hall of Fame.
and Human Behavior Jefferson Medical College. HaJman, Hugh Talat, Ph.D, Visitinq Prof, Middle
Harmon, William, Ph.D. Prof of English, Univ. of
Grumet, Robert Anthropologist, New Eastern Studies Program, Univ, of Arkansas. North Carolina
S., Ph.D.
Hope, PA Halpern, Bruce P., Ph D. Prof, of Psychology and Harper, Craig, B.S.J. Former News Editor,
Gubser, Peter, D.Phil. President, American Near Prof of Neurobiology and Behavior, Cornell Univ. News North. Yellow Knrfe, N.W Ter.
East Refugee Aid. Halstead, Lois Kazmier, Ph.D Director, Curricu Harper, J. E, Ph.D Research Leader, Agricultural
Guengerich, Thomas, BA General Manager, lum and Instruction, College of Nursing, Rush- Research Service, U.S. Dept of Agriculture
Presbyterian St Lukes Medical Center. Chicago.
Spencer County Mi) Journal-Democrat Harper, Kimball T, Ph.D Prof Emeritus of
Guentert, Kenneth, MA Editorial Director, Halverson, Guy, MA
New York Correspondent Botany and Range Science, Brigham Young Univ
Resource Publications, Inc.
The Christian Science Monitor
Harran, Marilyn J.,Ph.D. Prof of Religion and
Guiley, Rosemary Ellen, BA
Author The Ency- HamaJainen, Pekka Kalevi, Ph.D. Prof, of History, Chapman Univ.
clopedia of Witches and Witchcraft History, Chairman of the Western European Area
Studies Program. Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison. Harries, Keith D., Ph.D Contributing author. The
Guillemin, Jeanne, PhD Prof of Sociology, Geography of Oklahoma.
Boston College. Hambleton, Ronald K., Ph.D Distinguished
Univ. Prof, School of Education, Univ. of Massa Harrington, John A, Jr., Ph.D. Assoc. Prof of
Guiley, Rosemarie C, MA
Former Dir „ Com chusetts. Amherst Geography, Kansas State Univ.
munity Relations, WLS-TV, Chicago. Harris, Alan A, M.D Hospital Epidemiologist,
Hamby, Alonzo L, Ph.D. Prof of History, Ohio
Gundersen, Joan R., Ph.D. Prof, of History,
Unrv. Prof. Asst Chairman of Internal Medicine Rush
California State Univ., San Marcos. Presbyterian St Lukes Medical Center, Chicago.
Hamerow, Theodore S., Ph.D. Prof Emeritus of
Gupta, Brijen Dir Rsch. and Develop-
K., Ph.D. ,
History, Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison. Harris, Jules E., M.D. Prof of Medicine Rush
ment, Council on International and Public Affairs Univ.
Hamilton, Charles V., Ph.D Wallace S. Sayre
Gurel, Lois M., Ph.D Former Assoc. Prof, of Prof of Political Science, Columbia Univ.; author.
Harris, Leslie, Ph.D Pres. Emer Memorial
, Univ.
Clothing and Textiles, Virginia Polytechnic Institute The Black Experience in American Politics. Harris, Michael H., Ph.D Prof of Library Science,
and State Univ. Univ. of Kentucky.
Hamilton, David, Ph.D. Prof, of English, Univ. of
Gurney, George, Ph.D. Deputy Chief Curator, Iowa; Editor, The Iowa Review. Harris, Michael W., BA Asst Editor. Houseboat
National Museum of American Art magazine
Hamilton, John, Ph.D. Assoc. Prof, of Oassics,
Gurshtein, Alexander A, D.Sc. Vice President
College of the Holy Cross. Harris, Neil, Ph.D. Prof of History, Univ. of
for the Commission on History of Astronomy, In-
Hamre, Melvin L, Ph.D Former Prof, of Animal Chicago.
ternational Astronomical Union.
Science, Univ. of Minnesota Twin Cities Campus. Harrison, Frederick W., Ph.D Prof of Biology.
Gustin, Lawrence R., BA
Mgr., News Relations Western Carolina Univ.
Buick Motor Division; ed.. Picture History of Flint Hanauer, Stephen B., M.D Prof of Medicine,
Univ. of Chicago, Harrison, Gregory B., BAJ. Vice President,
Gutek, Gerald L, Ph.D. Former Prof of Education Communications, American Motorcyclist Assn.
and History, Loyola Univ of Chicago. Hancock, Joseph G., Ph.D. Prof of Plant Patholo
gy, Univ. of California, Berkeley. Harrison, Michael M., Ph.D Former Assoc Di-
Gutierrez, Joseph A, Jr., MA
Senior Dir. for
Hancock, M
Donald, Ph.D Prof of Political Sci-
rector, Graduate Institute of International Studies
Museum Operations and Education, Jamestown- Geneva, Switzerland.
Yorktown Foundation ence and Director of the Center for European
Studies, Vanderbilt Univ. Hart, Lynn W., Ph.D Physicist, Principal Staff The
Gutnik, Martin J., MS Educator. Shorewood Johns Hopkins Univ Applied Physics Laboratory
Public Schools. Wisconsin. Handelman, Howard, Ph.D. Prof of Political
Science, Univ. of Wisconsin, Milwaukee. Hard, Daniel L, Ph.D. Prof of Organismic and
Guyot, James F., Ph D Prof of Political Science Evolutionary Biology, Harvard Univ.
ana Public Administration, City Univ. of New York Handler, Arden S., Ph.D. Assoc Prof, DepL of
Gyles, Mary Francis, Ph.D Former Prof of
Community Health Sciences, Univ. of Illinois Hardein, Richard A, M S.M.E. Program Manag
School of Public Health, Chicago. er Underground Systems, National Electric Energy
History, Brooklyn College, City Univ. of York. New Testing Research and Applications Center, Geor-
Handlin, Oscar, LLD Prof Emeritus Harvard
Technology
H Univ.; winner of Pulitzer Pnze for History, 1952.
gia Institute of

Hanes, Jeffrey E., Ph.D Asst Prof ot History, Hartman, Ann, D.S.W. Dean, Smith College
Haberman, David L, Ph.D. Assoc. Prof of Reli School for Social Work.
Univ. of Oregon.
gious Studies. Indiana Univ.
Hanks, ReueJ, Ph.D Assoc Prof of Geography, Hartman, J. P., Ph.D. Former Prof of Engineer-
Hachey, Thomas F_, Ph.D Dean College of Arts ing, Univ. of Central Florida, Orlando.
Oklahoma State Univ.
and Sciences, Marquette Unh
Hanlon, David, Ph.D. Assoc Prof of History,
Hartman, Marvis E-, Ph.D Director, Automotive
Hackett, Perry B., Jr., Ph D Prof,. Dept. of Genet Technologies Europe, PPG Industnes.
Univ. of Hawaii Honolulu.
ics. Cell Biology and Development and Institute of
Hanna, Jack, BA Director Emeritus, Columbus Hartman, Mary Ph D Director Institute for
S.,
Human Genetics, Univ. of Minnesota. Women s Leadership, Rutgers, the State Univ. of
Zoological Park.
Haden, Andy Company Manager, Sporting Con- New Jersey: author, Victorian Murderesses.
tacts Ltd Hannigan, James E., BAE Former Senior Staff
Engineer, Eagle Technical Services, Inc.
Hartmann, Ernest, M.D. Prof of Psychiatry, Tufts
Hadow, Harlo H., Ph.D. Prof of Biology, Coe Col Univ. School of Medicine; Director Sleep
lege Hansen, Ellen R., Ph.D. Asst Prof, Dept of Social
Disorders Center, Newton-Wellesley Hospital.
 Contributors and consultants XXVII

Hartwick, Brian, Ph D Assoc. Prof of Biologu <J ence Dept., Embry Riddle Aeronautical Univ Htggins, Lynn A, Ph D Prof of French and
Sciences, Simon Fraser Univ.
ilellen, A., D.Phil Senior Lecturer, Dept of Comparative Literature, Dartmouth College
J.
Harvey, Neil F., PhD Assoc Prof, Dept of Gov- Geogiaphy, Univ, of Newcastle upon Tyne. Highwater, Jamake Author; Arts Critic at large.
ernment, New Mexico State Univ.
Hellickson, Martin L, Ph D. Assoc Prof, of The Christian Science Monitor: Founder and Presi-
Harvey, Maurice, BA
Air Commodore, Royal Bioresource Engineering, Oregon State Univ dent, Native Land Foundation.
Air Force, retired; author, Gibraltar. Helmer, William J., MA Senior Editor, Playboy Hildebrand, Kurtis R., BA Asst Managing Edi-
Harvey, Robert R., M.LA Prof of Landscape tor, Nevada Appeal.
Helms, Christine Moss, Author, D.Phil.
Architecture, Iowa State Univ. Hildebrandt, Jack, Ph D Prof of Physiology,
Cohesion of Saudi Arabia: Evolution of Political
Harwell, Mark A., PhD Director, Center for Ma- Identityand Iraq: Eastern Flank of the Arab World. Biophysics and Medicine, Univ. of Washington.
rine and Environmental Analyses, Univ. of Miami.
Helms, Joseph M., M.D Founding President, Hildesley, C Hugh Executive Vice President,
Haselkom, Robert, PhD F. L Pritzker Distin- American Academy of Medical Acupuncture. Sotheby's.
guished Service Prof, of Molecular Genetics and Helms, Ronald N., PhD Prof, of Architectural En
Hill, Andrew, Ph D Prof of Anthropology, Yale
Cell Biology, Univ of Chicago. gineering, North Carolina Agricultural and Techni- Univ.
Haskett, James P. Former Managing Editor, cal State Univ.; lighting consultant; expert witness. Hill, David T., Ph D Prof of Southeast Asian
Lethbridge (AB) Herald Hemingway, Sam News Columnist, Burlington Studies, Murdoch Univ,
Hassler, Kevin, BA Managing Editor, fn/oMOK) IVD Free Press. Hill, James A, M.D Prof of Clinical Orthopedic
News & Eagle.
Henahan, John F., B.S. Science writer. Surgery, Northwestern Univ. Medical School.
Hastings, Harold M., Ph D Prof and Chairper Henderson, David E., Ph D Prof of Chemistry, Hill,James F_, Ph D Chief, Building Environment
son of Mathematics and Assoc. Dean. Hofstra Univ. Trinity College.
Division, Natl. Inst of Standards ana Technology.

Hatch, Ronald B., Ph D. Assoc. Prof, of English,

Hendler, Nelson H., M.D., MS Clinical Director,
Hillary, SirEdmund P., LLD. Explorer and
Univ. of British Columbia. Mtnsana Clinic.
mountain climber; author. High Adventure, first to

Hathaway, Bradford A., B.S. Former Special reach the summit of Mount Everest.
Hendricks, Lewis Prof and Extension
T., Ph D
Sections Editor, 77ielNew Bedford, MA) Standard Specialist. Forest Products, Univ of Minnesota, Hillson, J., C Prof Emeritus of Botany,
Ph.D
Times Pennsylvania State Univ.
Twin Cities Campus.
Hatzenbuehler, Ronald L, PhD Prof of History, Hendrickson, Chris, PhD Prof of Civil and Envi Hilt, Richard L, Ph D Prof of Physics, Colorado
Idaho State Univ ronmental Engineering, Carnegie Mellon Univ College.
Hauser, Richard J., Ph.D Director of Graduate Henneman, John Bell, Ph.D History Bibliogra Hindman, Sandra L, PhD Prof of Art History.
Programs, Creighton Univ. pher, Princeton Univ.
Northwestern Univ.
Havard, William C, Jr., Ph D. Former Prof, of
Hennessey, William Ph D President and Di- Hinman, Alan R., M.PH. Director, National Cen-
J.,
Political Science, Vanderbilt Univ. rector, Chrysler Museum of Art
ter for Prevention Services, Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention.
Haveman, Robert H., PhD Prof of Economics, Heiming, Basil D., Ph.D Coauthor, Crises in Eng-
Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison lish History, 1066 1945. Hirsch, Edward, Ph D Prof of English, Univ. of
Houston.
Havens, Murray Clark, Ph D Prof of Political Henning, C Randall, Ph D Research Assoc,
Science, Texas Tech Univ. Hirsch, Rick, B.S. Deputy City Editor, The Miami
Institute for International Economics.
(FU Herald.
Haverdink, William H., MS EM Staff Research Henry, Edward O., Ph.D. Prof, of Anthropology,
Engineer, General Motors Research Laboratories Hirschfeld, Sue Ellen, Ph D Prof of Geological
San Diego State Univ.
Sciences, California State Univ, Hayward.
Haverstock, Nathan A., AB Affiliate Scholar,
Henry, Richard W., Ph D Prof, of Physics,
Oberlin College. Bucknell Univ.
Hirschhom, Joel S-, Ph.D. President, Hirschhorn
and Associates.
Hawley, Ellis W., Ph D. Prof, of History, Univ. of Hentoff, Nat, BA Columnist, Washington Post
Iowa. Hirsh, Richard F., Ph.D Prof Virginia Polytech-
,
and Village Voice.
and State Unrv.
nic Institute
Hayes, Denis, J.D. President and CEO, Bullitt
Hepner, George F., Ph D Prof of Geography,
Foundation. Univ. of Utah.
Hirshman, Carol A, M.D Prof of Anesthesiolo-
gy and Vice Chair for Research, Columbia Univ.
Hayes, Mary Eshbaugh, BA Contributing Editor Herbert, Harry John, Sc Wildlife M Biologist, College of Physicians and Surgeons.
and Columnist, The Aspen ICO) Times. Zimbabwe Forestry Commission.
Hitchcock, Bert, Ph D Hargis Prof of American
Hayward, Jane, Ph D. Former Curator, Cloisters, Herbert, Victor, D Prof of Medicine, Mount
J Auburn Univ.
Uterature.
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City. Sinai and Bronx Veterans Affairs Medical Centers
Hobbs, Ray D., BA Deputy Managing Editor,
Hazel, Fred, BA
Editor Emeritus and Columnist, Hermatyn, Gary D., Ed D Executive Director, (Little Rock) Arkansas Democrat-Gazette.
New Brunswick Publishing, Saint |ohn. Bronx County Historical Society; Editor of the Bi
Head, James W., Ph.D.
Ill, Prof, of Geological centennial of the United States Constitution Series.
Hobbs, Richard R., MSA
Phvsics Teacher
Anne Arundel City IMDI Schools; author. Marine
Sciences, Brown Univ. Hermann, Donald Ph.D Prof of Law and
H. J., Navigation.
Heard, Andrew D., Ph.D. Assoc. Prof., Political Philosophy and Director, Health Law Institute.
DePaul Univ author, The Insanity Defense:
Hoberman, Robert D., Ph D Assoc. Prof, Dept
Science Dept, Simon Fraser Univ. ;

of Unguistics. State Univ. of New York, Stony

Historical, Philosophical and Legal Perspectives.
Hearn, M. F., PhD Prof, of Fine Arts and Director Brook
of Architectural Studies, Univ. of Pittsburgh. Hermann, William Jr., M.D. Dir Clinical Lab-
oratories,
J.,
Memorial Hospital-Memorial
,

City.
Hobson, Burton H., BA President and Editorial
Heath, James Edward, PhD Prof, of Physiology Director, Sterling Publishing Co.
and Biophysics, Univ. of Illinois. Hemon, Joseph Martin, Jr., Ph D Prof, of
Hocutt, Charles H., Ph.D Ichthyologist, Center
History, Univ. of Massachusetts, Amherst
Heckman, Timothy M., Ph.D. Prof, of Physics for Environmental and Estuarine Studies, Univ. of
and Astronomy, Johns Hopkins Univ. Herr, Edwin L, Ed.D Distinguished Prof of Edu Maryland.
cation and Assoc. Dean for Graduate Programs,
Hedgecoe, John, Dr RCA Photographer and Research, and Technology, College of Education,
Hodgetts, J. E., F.R.S.C Prof Emeritus of Political
author. Science I'mv of Toronto.
Pennsylvania State Univ.
Hedquist, Valerie Lind, PhD Asst Prof of Art,
Herring, George C, Ph.D. Prof of History, Univ
Hodgetts, Richard M., Ph.D Prof . Florida Inter
Central College, Pella, Iowa national Univ.
of Kentucky.
Hedrick, Philip W., Ph.D. Prof of Biology. Hofferth, Sandra L, Ph D Senior Research
Herron, Ron, AB.J. City Editor, (Frankfort. KYI
Arizona State Univ. Assoc. Urban Institute.
State Journal
Heginbotham, Stanley J., Ph.D. Former Chief, Hoffman, Cyrus M., Ph.D Ad|unct Prof, of
Hersey, G. L, Ph.D. Prof, of the History of Art
Foreign Affairs and National Defense Div„ Con- Physics Los Alamos National Laboratory.
Yale Univ.
gressional Research Service, Library of Congress. Hoffman, Darteane Christian, Ph D Chemists
Hershberg, Theodore, Ph D Director, Center
Graduate School, Univ of California. Berke-
Hehr, John G., Ph.D. Prof of Geosciences and for Greater Philadelphia; Prof of Public Policy and
Prot
Assoc. Dean, J. William Fulbright College of Arts ley; Nuclear Chemist Lawrence Berkeley Nanonal
History, Univ. of Pennsylvania
and Sciences, Univ of Arkansas, Fayetteville Laboratory.
D Director of Re
Heidenreich, Conrad E., Ph.D. Prof, of Geogra
Hertsgaard, Doris
search, DH Research.
F., Ph
Hoffman, M Peter, Ph D Prof of Animal Sci-
phy, York Univ. ence Iowa State Unh
Herzstein, R. Ph D Carolina Distinguished
F_,
Heidt, Gary A., Ph.D. Prof, and Chair, Dept of Bi Hoffmann, Peter, Ph D f ellow of the Royal Soci
Prof, of History, Univ of South Carolina.
ology, Univ. of Arkansas, Little Rock Canada Prof of Historv McGill L'niv.
et\ of
Hess, Andrew C, PhD Prof of Diplomacy.
Heilbrun, Margaret, MLS, MA Library Direc-
Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy. Tufts Unrv.
Hoffmann, Richard J., Ph D Prof of Zoologs and
The New York
tor, Historical Society Genetics u>v%a state Unh
Hess, David F., Ph U Assoc Prof of Geology.
Hoffmeister, Werner, Ph D Prof German and
Heiman, Michael Assoc Prof of Ceoq
K., Ph.D.
of
Western Illinois Univ.
Comparame Literature Dartmouth ollege
raphy and Environmental Studies. Dickinson Col- <

lege. Hesse, Mark B., MA President. The American

Hogan, Edward Patrick, St., Ph D Asst Vice
Mountain Foundation President South Dakota State Unh State Geogra
Heinrich, Bemd, Ph D Prof of Biology, Univ. of
Anthropology
Vermont Hester, Thomas R., Ph.D Prof of nhei tin south Dakota
Uni\ of Tens, Austin Hogg, R-, Ph D IVot ot \Aineral Proi es\mg and
Heitman, J. A. Former Executive Director, Profes
sional Secretaries International.
Heydebrand, Wolf, PhD Prof, of Sodoiog) Geo hnnonmcntal tnginrenng PennsvKanta
New Yorl Mali- nh i
Heitmann, John A., PhD Assoc Prof of History,
Wayne
Univ. of Dayton. Hfckey, Donald R., Ph D Prot of History Hon, LaVahn G-, M A Plot ot Drama im otI I

.liege \ irqinid
Helfrick, Albert, PhD Prof Aeronautical Sci
XXVIII Contributors and consultants

Holland, James C, PhD Prof, of History, Shep- of California, Santa Barbara

i
herd College. Hubbard, Paul, Ph.D Prot. of History Emeritus,
Hollister, C Warren Prof of History, Univ. of Arizona State Univ. Ibbotson, Roger G., Ph.D. Prof, in the Practice of
California, Santa Barbara. Finance, Yale School of Management
Hubbell, John T., Ph.D. Director Kent State Univ.
Holloway, C M. journalist Press. Ifkovic, John W., Ph.D. Prof, of History, Westfield
State College.
Holmes, A. William, M.D. Prof of Medicine, Huddleston, Ellis W., Ph.D. Prof, of Entomology,
Univ of California, San Francisco. New Mexico State Univ. Ihde, Don, Ph.D. Prof of Philosophy, State Univ.
of New York, Stony Brook.
Holmes, johnny B., Ph.D. Prof, of Physics, Hudecki, Michael D
Executive Officer, Bi-
S., Si
Christian Brothers Univ. ological Sciences, State Univ. of New York, Buffalo Ihler,Garret M., M.D. Prof of Medical Biochem
Holmes, Kim R., Ph.D. Vice President, Dir., The Hudson, Charles, Ph.D. Prof of Anthropology,
and Medical Genetics, Texas
istry College of A&M
Medicine.
Kathryn and Shelby Cullom Davis institute for In- Univ. of Georgia
ternational Studies, The Heritage Foundation. Ilyin, Mary Alexander, B.S.M.E. Mechanical
Hudson, John C, B.Sc Former Regional Manag-
Engineer, Pacific Gas and Electric Co.
Holscher, Louis M., Ph.D. Prof and Chair, Mexi- er, Land Transportation, Public Works Canada.
can American Studies, San Jose State Univ. Imbelli, Robert P., Ph.D Assoc. Prof, of Theolo-
Hudson, Michael C, Ph.D. Acting Dir., Center for
gy, Boston College.
Holt, Michael F., PhD Prof of History, Univ. of Contemporary Arab Studies, Georgetown Univ
Virginia. Ingails, Robert P., Ph.D Prof of History, Univ. of
Huey, Raymond B., Ph.D. Prof, of Zoology, Univ.
South Florida.
Holtzman, Neil A., M.D.. M PH Emeritus Prof, of of Washington.
Pediatrics, )ohns Hopkins Univ. Ingersoll, Andrew P., Ph.D. Prof of Planetary
Hufbauer, Gary, Reginald (ones Senior
Ph.D.
Science, California Institute of Technology.
HolzbeHein, Deanne B., Ph.D. Assoc. Prof. Fellow, Institute for International Economics.
of Library Science, Northern Illinois Univ. Ingham, John N., Ph.D. Prof of History, Univ of
Hufbauer, Karl, Ph D Prof of History, Univ. of
Toronto.
Holzner, Lutz, PhD Former Prof, of Geography, California, Irvine.
Univ of Wisconsin, Milwaukee. Inglesby, Thomas V v M.D Asst Prof., Medicine,
Huff, Jerome J., Jr., BA
Managing Editor, (Fort
Johns Hopkins Univ. School of Medicine.
Honig, Donald Novelist and baseball historian. Smith, AR) Southwest rimes Record
Hood, Leroy, Ph.D William Gates III Prof and Huffines, Marion Lois, Ph.D. Assoc. Vice Presi
Ingrao, Charles Wv Ph.D. Prof, of History,
Purdue Univ.
Molecular Biotechnology, Univ. ol
Chair, Dept. of dent. Academic Affairs, Bucknell Univ
Washington. Medical School. Ingwersen, Niels, Cand. Mag. Prof, of Scandina-
Huffman, Carl A., Ph.D. Assoc. Prof, of Classics,
vian Studies, Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison
Hoofnagle, Jay H., M.D. Director, Division of Di- DePauvv Univ.
gestive Diseases and Nutrition. National Institutes Insler, Stanley, Ph.D Salisbury Prof, of Sanskrit
Hughes, George R., M.S. Former Vegetable
of Health. and Comparative Philology, Yale Univ
Crops Specialist and Specialist in Charge, Dept of
Hoogenboom, Ari, Ph.D. Prof, of History, Brook Horticulture Science, North Carolina State Univ. Ireland, Patrick, Ph.D. Assoc. Prof., Graduate
lyn College. City Univ. of New York School of International Studies, Univ. of Denver.
Hughes, Robert M. President, Hughes Sports
Hoogland, John L, PhD Assoc. Prof, of Biology, Television. Irish, Jerry A., Ph.D Prof, of Religious Studies,
Univ of Maryland. Pomona College.
Hulse, James W., Ph.D. Prof, of History, Univ. of
Hopkins, Richard J., Ph.D. Former Assoc. Prof, of Nevada, Reno Irland, Uoyd C, Ph.D. President, The Irland
and Assoc Dean of Humanities, Ohio State
History Group; former Budworm Program Coordinator,
Hume, Stephen, BAColumnist-at-large, Van-
Maine Forest Service.
Univ. couver [BO 5u/7,author, Ghost Camps.
Hopper, Kim, M.Phil. Research Scientist, Nathan Irmscher, William F., Ph.D Prof Emeritus of
Humphris, Susan E., Ph.D. Senior Scientist,
Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research. English, Univ. of Washington.
S.
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution.
Hordon, Robert M., Ph.D. Assoc Prof, of Geog- Hunkins, Francis P., Ph.D
Prot of Education,
Isenberg, Gerald I., M BA Prof, and Executive
raphy, Rutgers, the State Univ. of New Jersey. Director of Electronic Media Projects, School of
Curriculum, Social Studies, Univ. of Washington.
Cinema Television, Univ. of Southern California
Horita, Robert F_, Ph.D. Prof, of Physics, Univ. of
Hunner, Jon, Ph.D. Asst Prof Dept. of History,
victoria Isquith, Irwin Richard, Ph.D Prof of Biology
New Mexico State University. and Assoc. Dean. Fairleigh Dickinson Univ.
Horle, Craig W., Ph.D Chief editor. Lawmaking Hunt, George L, Ph.D Prot. of Ecology and
and Legislators in Pennsylvania A Biographical
Jr.,
Evolutionary Biology, Univ. of California, Irvine.
Israel,Paul B., Ph.D Managing Editor, Thomas A
Dictionary. Edison Papers Rutgers, the State Univ of New
Hunt, Lester H., Ph.D. Assoc. Prof of Philosophy, Jersey.
Hornsby, Ahon, Jr., Ph.D. Fuller E Callaway Prof.
Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison.
of History. Morehouse College. ho, Philip J., Ph.D. Prof of Horticulture and Con-
Hunt, Melody J., Ph.D Asst. Prof, of Environmen sultant on Tropical Fruits and Nuts, Univ. of Hawaii
Horowitz, Leonard M., Ph.D. Prof, of Psycholo- talEngineenng, San Diego State Univ.
gy, Stanford Univ. Ivers,Gregg, Ph.D. Prof, and Chair, Dept. of Gov
Hunt, William R., Ph.D. J.D. Author, Arctic Pas- ernment, American Univ.
Horsman, Reginald, Ph.D. Distinguished Prof, of
sage and To Stand at the Pole
History, Univ. of Wisconsin, Milwaukee. Ivinski, Pamela A., MA Art Historian, Graduate
Hunter, Albert, Ph.D. Prof, of Sociology, North Center, City Univ. of New York
Horwitz, Barbara A., Ph.D. Prof, of Physiology,
western Univ
Univ. of California- Iwamoto, Tomio, Ph.D. Curator of Ichthyology,
Hunter, O. Frank, MS. Assoc Prof., Clemson California Academy of Sciences.
Hose, Louise D., PhD. Environmental Studies Univ. School of Textiles, Fiber and Polymer Sci-
Program Director, Westminster College. Iyer, Raghavan, D.Phil. Former Prof, of Political
ence.
Science, Univ. of California. Santa Barbara
Hoskote, Ranjrt, MA Art Critic and Asst. Editor, Hunter, Rob Coauthor, The Book of Knots.
The Times of India.
Hunter, William D. G. Emeritus Prof, of J
HothersaJI, David, Ph.D. Prof. Emeritus of Psy Economics, McMaster Univ.
chology, Ohio State Univ., Columbus. Jackson, Dennis R., VIA Professional climbing
Hurd, Bradley, BA Former Editor, 77w (Mis- guide and outdoor educator.
Houghton, David D., Ph.D. Prof, of Atmospheric soula, MT) Missoulian
and Oceanic Sciences, Univ. of Wisconsin. Jackson, Kennell A., Jr., Ph.D. Assoc Prof, of
Hurley, Francis T., D.D. Archbishop of Histor) Stanford Univ.
Hounshell, David A., Ph.D. Luce Prof, of Tech- Anchorage
nology and Social Change, Carnegie-Mellon Univ. lackson, Richard, MLS Former Head, Ameri-
Hurst, Michael Fellow in Modern History and can Collection, Music Division. New York Public
Howard, Don, Ph.D Prof., Dept of Philosophy Politics, St. John's College, Oxford Univ. Library.
Univ. of Notre Dame.
Hurt, R. Douglas, Ph.D. Director, Graduate Jackson, W. Turrentine, Ph.D. Prof of History,
Howe, Daniel Walker, Ph.D. Rhodes Prof, of
Program in Agricultural History and Rural Studies, Emeritus, Univ. of California, Davis.
American History, Oxford Univ., England.
Iowa State Univ. Jacob, Charles Ph.D. Prof. Emeritus of Political
E.,
Howe, Gordon Vice President, Howe Enterpris- Hurtado, W. Jean, MA Editor HarperCollins Science. Rutgers, the State Univ. of New Jersey.
es; author. Hockey, Heres Howe! Publishers. Jacob, Margaret C, Ph.D Prof of History, Univ.
Howe, Herbert M., Ph.D. Enter, Prof, of Classics
Huse, Nancy Lyman, Ph.D. Prof of English, Angeles.
of California, Los
and Integrated Liberal Studies, Univ. of Wisconsin
Howe, Russell Warren, LU ense es lettres.
Augustana College. Jacobs, Dale W., MA Editor in Chief, The World
Huseboe, Arthur R., D H.L Executive Dir., The Book Encyclopedia.
Writer.
Centei for Western Studies, Augustana College Jacobs, William Jay, td.D Author: former Coor-
Howell, David L, Ph.D. Assoc. Prof of East Asian Head, Mining Re
Hustrulid, William, Ph.D. dinator History and the Social Sciences, Darien
Studies, Princeton Univ. sean h and Development LKAB, Kiruna, Sweden. (CD Public Schools.
Howell, Roger,
History.
Jr.,
Bowdoin College
D.Phil Formei Hutchison, Jane Campbell, PhD Prot of Art Jacobson, James E., MA
Contributing Editor,
History Univ. of Wisconsin Madison The Birmingham IALI News
Howse, Robert, BA Editor in Chief. The Halifax
Hutjens, Michael F., Ph.D. Prof, of Animal Jaeger, C Stephen, Ph.D. Prof, of German and
INS) Chronicle Herald. Comparative Literature, Univ of Washington
Sciences and Extension Dairy Specialist, Univ of
Hoyt, Reginald A., Senior Vice President Conser- Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.
Jaenen, Cornelius LLD Prof Emeritus of
J.,
vation and Science, Philadelphia Zoo. Hutson, James H., Ph.D. Chief, Manuscript History, Univ. of Ottawa.
Hoyt, Robert D., Ph.D.
Kentucky Univ.
Prof of Biology, Western Dh ision, Library of Congress. Jaffe, Stephen, AM Assoc Prof of Music Duke
Hv land, Douglas K. S., Ph D Director, San Anto Univ
Hoyt, Robert S., Ph.D. Author Europe in the nio Museum of Art. Jahncke, Michael L, Ph.D Dir., Virginia Seafood
Middle ^ges Agn< ultural Research and Extension Center
Hsu, Immanuel C Y., Ph.D. Prof, of History, Univ.
Jalongo, Mary Renck, Ph D Pro! of Education
 Contributors and consultants XXIX

Indiana Univ. of Pennsylvania. Johnston, Laura, B Executive Editor, North Plat

J Karamanski, Theodore J., Ph D Prof, of History
James, D. Clayton, PhD John Biggs Prof, of re'NEI Telegraph Loyola Univ. Chicago.
Military History, Virginia Military Institute; author. Johnston N. Paul, Ph D Prof of Animal Science, Karan, Ph.D Distinguished
P. P., Prof, of Geogra
The Years of MacArthur And A Time for Giants. Brigham Young Univ. phy. Univ. of Kentucky.
Jamieson, Kay Franzen, Ph D Food consultant Johnston, Richard F., Ph U Prot Emeritus of Bio- Karcheski, Walter J., Jr., M.Ed Curator of Arms
Janda, Kenneth, Ph.D. Prof, of Political Science, logical Sciences, Univ. of Kansas and Armor. Higgins Armory Museum.
Northwestern Univ. Johnston, Taylor Ph D Interim Chair, Dept Karenga, Maulana, Ph D
J., of Chair and Assoc. Prof
Janick, Jules, PhD Prof, of Horticulture and Crop and Soil Sciences, Michigan State Univ. of Black Studies, Univ. of California, Long Beach
Landscape Architecture, Purdue Univ. Johnston, W. B., MA
Emeritus Prof of Ceogra Karlin, Eric D Dean, School of Theoretical
F., Ph
Janke, JulieWorld champion logroller phy Uni\. of Canterbury. and Applied Science, Ramapo College of New Jer-
Jansen, Marius B., Ph.D. Emeritus Prof of History Jolliffe, Lee B., Ph D Assoc Prof School of Jour- .
sey.

and East Asian Studies. Princeton Univ nalism and Mass Communication, Drake Univ. Karr, Paul, Ph.D Assoc. Prof of Chemistry.
Jared, Alva H., Ed.D. Chairman. Dept. ot
Prof. . In Jones, Catherine Free-lance children s writer Wayne State College.
dustrial Studies, Univ. of Wisconsin. Platteville. Jones, Charles O., Ph.D. Prof of Political Science, Kasonde, Alexander Raymond Makasa, Ph D
Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison. Research Scholar (Linguistics!. Emory Univ.
Jarvis, Christine W., Ph.D ). E. Sirnne Prof., Tex-
tiles, Fiber and Polymer Science, Clemson Univ Jones, Clyde, Ph.D. Prof of Biological Sciences, Kastenbaum, Robert J. Prof of Communication.
Texas Tech Univ Arizona State Univ.
Jarvis, Donald K., Ph.D. Prof, of Russian,
Brigham Young Univ. Jones, H. R., MA Prof, of Geography, Univ. of Katsaropoulos, Chris, BA Director. Que Col-
lege, a division of Macmillan Publishing.
Jarvis, Robert L, Ph.D. Prof, of Wildlife Ecology, Dundee.
Oregon State Univ. Jones, Ian Historian and author of Ned Kelly: A Katz, Debora M., Ph D Assoc Prof of Physics,
ShoitLife. U.S. Naval Academy.
Jaussi, Laureen R., B S. Owner. Jaussi Publica-
tions. Jones, James W., Ph.D. Prof, and Chairman, Dept Katzenberg, Dena S. Consultant Curator, Balti-

of Surgery, Univ. of Missouri, Columbia. more Museum of Art

Jaynes, Richard A., Ph D Horticulturalist and
consultant. Broken Arrow Nursery. Jones, Ordie R., MS Soil Scientist. Agricultural Kaufman, Burton I., Ph.D. Prof of History. Vir-
Research Service. US Dept of Agriculture ginia Polytechnic Institute and State Univ.
Jeans, D. N., Ph.D. Assoc. Prof, of Geography,
Univ. of Sydney. Jones, Peter d A., Ph.D. Prof, of History, Univ. of Kaufmann, Arleen B., MA
Free-lance naturalist
Illinois, Chicago. and photographer; Biological Scientist, State of
Jednoralski, J. Neil, B.S. Water Resources Engi
Dept of Agriculture.
Florida
neer, Mid-Kansas Engineering Consultants, Inc. Jones, Philip Dwight, Ph.D. Assoc. Prof, of Histo
ry. Bradley Univ. Kaufmann, John H., Ph D Prof, of Zoology. Univ.
Jenkins, Fred M., Ph.D. Assoc Prof., French and
of Florida
Linguistics, Univ. of Illinois. Urbana-Champaign. Jones, Ronald L, Ph.D Prof of Biology, Eastern
Kaye, Neil S., M.D. Asst Clinical Prof, of Family
Jenkins, Phil, BA
Local News Editor. T/wlFred- Kentucky Univ.
Medicine, Jefferson Medical College.
ericksburg, VA) Free Lance-Star. Jones, W. T., Ph.D. Prof, of Philosophy, California
Institute of Technology. Kearley, F. Furman, Ph.D Editor, Gospel Advo-
Jenkins, Reese V., Ph.D. Prof, of History, Rutgers,
cate.
the State Univ. of New Jersey. Jordan, David P., PhD Prot ot History, Univ. of
Illinois, Chicago. Kearns, Robin A, Ph.D. Assoc Prof Dept , of Ge-
Jenks, William A., Ph.D. Prof. Emeritus of Histo-
ography, Univ. of Auckland.
ry, Washington and Lee Univ. Jordan, I. King, Ph.D. President, Gallaudet Univ.
Keating, Richard C, Ph.D Botanist. Missouri
Jennings, Kathryn Pierson, M.LS. Asst Librari- Jordan, Terry C, Ph D Walter Prescott Webb Botanical Garden.
an, Hudson (Wll Public Library. Prof, of Geography, Univ. of Texas.
Keddie, Nikki R., Ph.D. Prof, of History, Univ. of
Jensen, B., Ph.D. Former Assoc Prof, of Physics, Jordan, V. Craig, Ph D, D Si Prof of Cancer Re California. Los Angeles.
Univ. of Lowell. search and Director, Breast Cancer Research Pro-
gram, Northwestern Univ. Med. School. Kedward, H. R., M.Phil. Prof, of French History,
Jensen, Ulla Skovgaard M.Phil Asst Prof , Insti-
Univ. of Sussex
tute of Political Science, Arhus Univ., Denmark. Joseph, James, Ph.D. Dir Emeritus of Investiga-
Jepsen, David A., Ph.D Prof of Counselor Edu tions, Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission. Keefe, John W., MA
Curator of Decorative Arts.
\e\v Orleans Museum of Art
cation, Univ. of Iowa Joseph, Toni Grayson, M.PA Director of
Laboratory Management, U.S. Dept of Energy. Keen, Charlotte E., Ph D F R.S.C, Rsch. Scientist.
Jespersen, James, M.S. Physicist, National Insti-
Atlantic Geoscience Centre. Bedford Institute.
and Technology.
tute of Standards Judd, Denis, Ph D. Pi of ot History, Univ. of North
London Kehoe, Alice B., Ph D Former Prof, of Anthropol-
Jesseph, Douglas M., Ph.D Asst. Prof, of Philoso- ogy. Marquette Univ.
phy. North Carolina State Univ. Judd, Walter S., Ph D Prof, of Botany, Univ of
Florida Keil, David J., Ph.D. Prof of Biology California
Jick, Leon A., Ph.D. Prof. Emeritus of American Poiytechnic State Univ.
Jewish Studies, Brandeis Univ. Juergensmeyer, Mark, Sociology Ph.D. Prof, of
and Religious Studies. Univ of California, Santa Keinath, Thomas M., Ph.D Dean, College of
Joel, Cliffe D., Ph.D. Prof, of Chemistry, Lawrence Engineering, Clemson Univ.
Univ.
Barbara
Keith, Jennie, Ph.D Provost and Centennial Prof
Joes, Anthony James, Ph.D. Director, Interna- Juley, Michael, BA Suburban Editor Milwaukee
of Anthropology, Svvarthmore College.
tional Relations Program, St Joseph's Univ. journal Sentinel
Keith, Michael C, MA
Senior Lecturer in Com-
Johansen, Harley, Ph.D. Prof, of Geography, K munication. Boston College.
Univ. of Idaho.
Kaba, Lansine, PhD. Prof, and Dean Honors Col- Keith, Robert M., CPA Director. School of Ac-
Johnson, Bob, MLS. Reference Librarian, Cali-
Chicago countancy Univ. of South Florida.
lege, Univ. of Illinois.
Room. San Jose Public Library.
fornia
Kadlec, Daniel, BA Columnist, Time magazine Keith-Lucas, Alan, Ph D. Prof. Emeritus of Social
Johnson, Bobby H, Ph.D. Regents Prof of Histo- Work. Univ of North Carolina Chapel Hill.
ry,Stephen F. Austin State Univ. Kado, Clarence I., Ph.D. Prof., Head Davis Crown
Gall Group, Univ. of California. Davis. Kelleher, Paul C, MS
Consultant. Polymer
Johnson, Dale A., Th.D. Prof of Church History, Processing Inst. Stevens Institute of Technology.
Vanderbilt Univ. Kagan, Donald, Ph.D Prot of History and Clas-
sics, Yale Univ. Kelley, Ed, BA Editorial Director The Dail\
Johnson, Donald D., Ph.D Former Prof of Histo- (Oklahoma City, OK) OUahoman.
ry, Univ. of Hawaii. Kagan, Jerome, Ph.D. Prof, of Psychology. Har-
vard Univ Kelley, Patricia H., Ph D Chair Dept of Earth
Johnson, Doris McNeely, M.S. Assoc. Prof, of Sciences I niv ot North Carolina Wilmington*
Psychology, Univ. of the District of Columbia Kahn, Wilma J., DA Instructor of English U est
em Michigan Unh Kellogg, Kim O Connor,
B S Former Asst
Johnson, Douglas A., Ph D Plant Physiologist, Director Public Information. National PTA
Agriculture Research Service Forage and Range Kaiser, Peter K., Dipl Ing. CEO and President
Rsch. Lab., U.S. Dept of Agriculture Logan, Utah. Mining Innovation, Rehabilitation, and Applied Re- Kelly, James P., BA Managing Editor The Hon-
search Corp Laurentian Univ. olulu (HI loVenttser.
Johnson, Eugene M., Jr., Ph.D. Prof, of Neurolo Kelso, Frank M., PhD Fai ultv Dept ot Mec ham
Kalish, Richard A. former Clinical Prot ol
gy. Molecular Biology, and Pharmacology Wash cal Engineering I ot Minnesota.
ington Univ. Medical School. Psychiatry. Univ of New Merit o. niv

Johnson, George Ph.D Prof ot Biology. Kamminga, Alje H Writer editor media spe- Kemball. Walter C, M Ed President u K em
B.,
cialist tin hut Special Projects Coordinator Ot Cumculum Consultants Inc
ball
Washington Univ.
taw a ON i
Otizen Kemmick, Edward A. Reportei The BUSngs
Johnson, James P., B.S Captain and Instructor IMP Gazette
Kane, William J., Ph.D
Prot of Orthop.i.
Delta Air Lines; Consulting Meteorologist, lames
Johnson Associates. Surgery Northwestern Univ. Kenagy, G. J., Ph D Prot of Zoology Unh nt

Kaplan, Edgar Editor and Publisher The Bridge

Washington
Johnson, Ronald C, Ph.D. Prof, of Chemistry
Emory Univ.
Kenkei, Don Phi) Asso Prut Dept ot Pali, v

Kaplan, Edward K-, Ph D Prot ol French and s ind Management Cornell l nh

Johnson, Susan R., M.D. Prof, of Obstetrics and
Gynecology and Epidemiology. Univ of Iowa Col- Comparative Literal Kennedy, Brian. MA Copy Editor Outback
niaq.i:
lege of Medicine. Kaplan, Sheldon L.

Johnson, Thomas H., Ph D As.., Prof, of atrii s B Kennedy, Floyd D., |r. M Mem-
-I'Hal itniting td
Anthropology. Univ. of Wisconsin Stevens Point
;

; s \,,.
Johnston, J. H., Ill Former Executive Lditor The Kappler, Bri.in
Leavenworth IKSI Times.
XXX Contributors and consultants

Kennedy, Gavin, Ph.D. Prof of Defence Finance Kinkade, Richard P., Ph D Prof, of Spanish and Kolars, John, PhD Prof, of Geography. Dept of
Heriot-Watt Univ., Edinburgh Portuguese, Univ. of Arizona. Near East Studies, Univ. of Michigan.
Kennedy, George, Ph D Prof of Journalism, Kinkel, Doreen H. D., PhD Prof of Animal Kolata, Alan L, Ph D Neukom Family Prof of An-
Univ of Missouri, Columbia. Science. Texas A&M
Univ., Kingsvilie. thropology Univ of Chicago.
Kennedy, James E., Ph D Technical Staff Mem- Kionka, Edward J., LLM. Prof, of Law. School of Kolaz, David J., MS
Manager, Air Compliance
Alamos National Laboratory.
ber, Los Law Southern Illinois Univ.
, Section, Illinois Environmental Protection Agency.
Kennedy, Robert A., Ph.D. Vice President for Kirby, F. E., Ph.D. Prof. Emeritus of Music. Lake Koontz, Fred, PhD Program Director. Wildlife
Research and Assoc. Provost for Graduate Studies, Forest College. Preservation Trust International.
Texas A&M
Univ Kirkland, Colin J., FEng. Director Sir Wm. Hal- Kopytoff, Igor, PhD Prof of Anthropology, Univ.
Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark Ph.D. Prof of Anthro- crow & Partners Ltd. of Pennsylvania
pology. Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison. Kirschenbaum, Howard, Ed D Author, educa- Kombluh, Peter, MA Senior Analyst, National
Kem, Edith, Ph D Doris Silbert Prof, of Humani- tor, and consultant: Adjunct faculty. State Univ. of Security Archive.
ties Emeritus. Smith College. New York, Brockport
Komblum, Aaron T., MLS. Archivist, Western
Kerr, Donald R., Jr., Ph D Former Basic Skills Kispert, Robert J., Ph.D. Former Assoc. Prof, of Jewish History Center, Magnes Museum.
Coordinator, Dept of Mathematics, Indiana Univ. English, Univ. of Illinois, Chicago. Kosel, Peter Bohdan, Ph D Director. Gallium Ar-
Kerr, Ian J., Ph D Prof of History, Univ. of Mani- Kiste, Robert C, PhD Director and Prof., Univ. senide Devices and Integrated Circuits Laboratory.
toba. of Hawaii Center for Pacific Islands Studies. Univ. of Cincinnati
Kershaw, G. Peter, Ph.D. Prof Dept of Earth , and Kita, Joe, BAJ Executive Editor Bicycling. Kosinski, Leszek A, PhD Secretary General, In-
Atmospheric Sciences, Univ. of Alberta. Khching, Brian Managing Partner, Kitching, ternational Social Science Council, UNESCO.
Kershaw, Gretha, Ph D. Former Prof of Anthro Ruscoe Public Relations. Kosslyn, S. M., PhD Prof of Psychology, Harvard
pology. California State Univ., Long Beach. Klein, Donald W., Ph D Prof of Political Science, I niv

Kertzer, David I., Ph.D. Dupee Univ. Prof, of So- Tufts Univ.; Research Assoc. Fairbank Center for Koszczuk, Jackie, National Congressional
B.S
cial Science Brown Univ. East Asian Research, Harvard Univ. Correspondent, Knight Ridder Newspapers.
Kesha, Neville N. International Rugby League Klein, Marcus, PhD Prof., Modern American Kottak, Conrad Phillip, PhD Prof of Anthropol-
football referee. Literature, State Univ. of New York, Buffalo. ogy. Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
Kessel, John L, BA Director of Beach Volley- Klein, Michael J., Ph D. Radio Astronomer, Jet Kotynski, Tom, BA Assoc Editor, Great Falls
ball, USA Volleyball. Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Tech- MT Tribune.
Kessell, John U, PhD. Assoc Prof of History, nology; coauthor. Cosmic Quest Searching for In- Koumoulides, John A, PhD Prof, of History,
telligent Life Among the Stars.
Univ. of New Mexico, Editor The Vargas Project Ball State Univ
Kesselman, Mark, Ph.D. Prof of Government, Klein, Milton M., Ph D. Editor, The Empire State: Kovacik, Charles F., PhD Prof, of Geography
Columbia Univ. A History of New York. and Director, Center of Excellence for Geographic
Klein, Philip S., Ph.D. Former Prof, of American Education, Univ of South Carolina
Kestenbaum, Justin L, Ph.D. Former Prof, of
History, Pennsylvania State Univ.
History. Michigan State Univ. Kozloski, Lillian D., B.S. Former Museum
Kester, Dana R., Ph.D. Prof, of Oceanography, Klein, Richard G., Ph D Prof of Anthropology, Specialist National Air and Space Museum.
Graduate School of Oceanography, Univ. of Rhode Stanford Univ. Kozlowski, Don R., M.S.E.E. Former Senior Vice
Island. Klein, Ronald, M.D Prof of Ophthalmology, President. Military Transport Aircraft, McDonnell
Kesterson, David B., PhD. Prof, of English and Univ. of Wisconsin Madison. Douglas Corp.
VPfor Academic Affairs, Univ. of North Texas Kleindorfer, Paul R., Ph.D. Prof, of Decision Sci- Kraft, Donald H., PhD Prof of Computer Sci-

Ketchum, Bostwick H., ScD. Former Senior

ences and Public Policy, Univ. of Pennsylvania ence, Louisiana State Univ.
Scientist, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. Klement, Frank L, Ph D Prof. Emeritus of Histo- Krahmer, John, LLM. Prof, of Law, Texas Tech
ry, Marquette Unh Univ. School of Law.
Kettering, Alison McNeil, PhD Prof, of Art
History, Carleton College. Klemm, David E., Ph.D. Asst Prof, of Religion, Kraig, Bruce, Ph.D. Prof of History and Humani-
Ketd, Donald F., Ph.D. Science
Prof, of Political
Univ. of Iowa Roosevelt Univ.
ties,

and Public Affairs Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison. Kline, Hibberd V. B., Jr., Ph.D. Emeritus Prof, of Kramer, James R,, Ph D Prof of Geochemistry,
Kevles, Daniel Humanities,
Ph.D. Prof, of
Geography. Univ. of Pittsburgh McMaster L niv
J.,
California Institute of Technology. Kline, Ronald R., Ph.D. Asst Prof, of History of Kramer, Victor A, Ph D Prof, of English,

Keyder, Caglar, Ph.D. Prof, of Sociology. Bing- Technology. Cornel! Univ. Georgia State Univ.
hamton Univ. State Univ. of New York. Klocke, Robert A., M.D
Prof of Medicine and Kranzberg, Mefvin, LH.D. Former Callaway Prof,

Keyes, Charles, PhD. Prof of Anthropology and Physiology, State Univ. of New York, Buffalo. of the History of Technology. Georgia Institute of
International Studies, Univ. of Washington. Klotzko, Arlene Judith, J.D. Writer in Residence, Technology.

Keyes, Jane, MA Author and editor. Science Museum. London. Kraus, Pansy D., FCA Gem consultant
Keyes, Landis, Ph D.
P. Prof, of Physiology. Univ.
Kluger, Matthew J., PhD Director, Institute for Krefman, Ronald A, O D Optometrist
of Michigan. Basic and Applied Medical Research, Lovelace In- Kremer, Gary R., Ph D Prof of History, William
stitutes.
Khalidi, Rashid I., D.Phil. Prof of History, Univ. of Woods Uni\.
Chicago. Klumpe, Kerry, J.D Managing Editor, American Kremkau, Frederick W., Ph D. Prof, and Direc-
Bar Association Journal; former Asst Managing tor,Center for Medical Ultrasound, Wake Forest
Kibby, Michael W., PhD. Dir Reading Clinic; .,
Editor, The Cincinnati OH Enquirer
Chair, DepL of Learning and Instruction and Assoc I niv School of Medicine.
Prof, of Education, State Univ. of New York, Buffalo. KJvmyshyn, Alexandra M. Liana, PhD Direc- Krentz, Peter, PhD Prof, of History, Davidson
tor, Multicultural Programming, Central Michigan
Kicza, John E., Ph D Prof of History, Washington College.
Univ.
State Univ. Kress, Jack M., D.Crim. Executive Director, Advi-
Knapp, Gregory, Ph.D. Assoc Prof, and Chair. sory' Committee on Organ Transplantation LS.
Kidwell, Clara Sue, Ph.D. Director, Native Ameri- Dept of Geography. Univ. of Texas, Austin.
can Studies, Univ. of Oklahoma Dept of Health and Human Services
Knapp, Mark L, Ph D. Chair and Jesse H. Jones Krier, James E., D Earl Warren Delano Prof, of
Kidwell, Peggy Aldrich, Ph.D. Museum Special- Centennial Prof, in Communication and Distin-
J

ist, Smithsonian Institution.

Law, Univ. of Michigan Law School.
guished Teaching Prof., Univ. of Texas, Austin.
Kienzler, Michael E., MA
Metro Editor, (Spring- Knechtges, David R., PhD Prof of Chinese,
Krisciunas, Kevin,
of Astronomv L niv
PhD
of
Research Assoc
Washington.
Dept
field, IU State Journal-Register.
Univ. of Washington.
Kieren, Thomas E., Ph.D. Prof. Emeritus of Edu- Kroeber, Donald W., Ph D Dean. College of
Kneebone, Sterling Features Editor The Fred Business and Economics. Radford L niv
cation, Univ. of Alberta ericton, NBi Daily Cleaner
Kiernan, David R., MA Colonel, U.S. Army, ret Kneeshaw, Stephen, PhD Prof of History, Col-
Kropf, Nancy
Social Work.
P.,
Univ. of
Ph D Assoc. Dean. School of
Georgia
Kierszenbaum, Felipe, Ph.D. Prof, of Micro lege of the Ozarks.
biology, .Michigan State Univ. Krosby, H. Peter, Ph D Prof of History. State
Knight, Charles A, Ph.D. Senior Scientist, Na- Univ. of New York, Albany.
Kiger, Joseph C, Ph D Author, Operating tionalCenter for Atmospheric Research
Kuhn, George W. S., J.D. Rsch Fellow Logistics
Principles of the Larger Foundations C
.

Knipe, Lynn, PhD. Assoc Prof, Dept of Food Management Institute: former U.S. Army officer.
Kim, Hyung-chan, Ed D Prof of Education and Science and Technology, Ohio State L niv
Asian American Studies, Western Washington Kulczycki, John J., Ph.D. Assoc Prof of History,
Knopf, Fritz L, PhD Senior Scientist, U.S. Geo- I niv of Illinois, Chicago.
Univ. logical Survev
Kimmich, Christoph Kumbier, William A, PhD Asst Prof of English,
M., D.Phil. Prof, of History, Knowlton, Frederick F., Ph D U ildlife Biologist Missouri Southern State College
Provost, Brooklyn College, City Univ. of New York. and Rsch. Prof., Animal and Plant Health Inspection
King, Dwight Y., PhD Prof, of Political Science Servk e U.S. Dept of Agriculture. Utah State L m\
Kuntz, J. Fred, BAA Publisher, Grand River Val-
ie\ Newspapers; former Assoc Editor, 77?e(Toron-
Northern Illinois Univ. Koehler, Michael Vice President. Retail
F., B.S.
to, Canada Globe.
!

King, John N., PhD Prof of English. Ohio State Worldwide Industry Marketing, AT&T Corp.
Kupperman, Karen Ordahl, PhD Prof, of
Koenig, Michael E. D., Ph D Dean and Prof., Historv Univ of Connecticut
King, Micki, MA
Gold medal winner in diving. Palmer School of Ubrarv and Information Science,
Kurth, William S., Ph.D. Research Scientist Dept
1972 Olympic Games. Long Island L rm
of Physics and Astronomy. Univ. of Iowa
King, Pauline N., Ph.D. Assoc Prof, of History, Koenker, Diane P., Ph D Prof, of History, Univ. of
Univ. of Hawaii Illinois. Urbana-Champaign. Kushma, David, MS Editorial Page Editor. The
(Memphis TNi Commercial Appeal
 Contributors and consultants XXXI

Kutler, Stanley I., Ph.D. Prof, of American Institu- culture, Washington State Univ. Leonard, Joseph W., Ill, MS Former Mining
tions, Univ. of Wisconsin. Madison. Engineering Foundation Prof., Univ. of Kentucky.
Lai-sen, Lawrence H., Ph.D. Coauthor, The Gate
Kutzbach, John E_, Ph.D. Prof, of Atmospheric City; A History of Omaha. Leonard, Thomas C,
Ph.D. Prof., Grad. School of
and Oceanic Sciences, and Director, Center for Larson, Andre P., PhD Prof, of Music and Direc-
Journalism, Univ. of California, Berkeley.
Climatic Research, Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison. tor,America's Shrine to Music Museum, Univ. of Lersten, Nels R., Ph.D. Prof. Emeritus of Botany,
Kuzen, Robin H., M.A. Administrator, Miller South Dakota. Iowa State Univ.
Center of Public Affairs. Univ. of Virginia.
Lasch, Christopher, Ph.D. Former Prof of Histo- Lesko, Leonard H., Ph.D. Prof, of Egyptology and
Kyanka, George H., Ph.D. Prof of Wood Prod- ry, Univ. of Rochester. Chairman, Dept of Egyptology, Brown Univ.
ucts Engineering, State Univ. of New York- Lass, William E, PhD Prof of History, Mankato Lester, David, Ph.D. Prof, ol Psychology, The
Kyle, Richard, Ph.D. Prof, of History and Reli- State Univ. Richard Stockton College of New Jersey.
gion, Tabor College.
Lau, Tin-Man, M.A. Prof., Dept of Industrial De- B.S. Former Research
Lester, Larry, Director,
Kyvig, David E., Ph.D. Prof, of History, Univ. of Auburn Univ.
sign, Negro Leagues Baseball Museum.
Akron. Laudan, Rachel, Ph.D. Prof, of General Science, Levanon, Yosef, Ph.D. Adjunct Assoc. Prof, of
Univ. of Hawaii, Honolulu. Jewish History, Spertus Institute of Jewish Studies.
Laudon, Robert C, Ph.D. Assoc Prof, of Geology Levere, Trevor H., D.Phil. Prof, of the History of
Labuza, Theodore P., Ph.D. Prof, of Food and Geophysics, Univ. of Missouri, Rolla. Science, Univ. of Toronto.
Science, Univ. of Minnesota, Twin Cities Campus.
Laughame, Peter J., Ph.D. Senior Lecturer, Lon- Leveton, Deborah, MA Curator, Des Moines
Lack, Sylvia A., B.S Director, Chronic Pain don Guildhall Univ. Art Center.
Program; Staff Physician, Gaylord Hospital.
Laur, Timothy M., M.A. Lieutenant Colonel, Leviatan, Uriel, Ph.D. Prof , Dept of Sociology,
Laflen,John M,, Ph.D. Dir., National Soil Erosion retired, U.S. Air Force; consultant; lecturer. LJniv. of Haifa.
Research Laboratory, U.S. Dept of Agriculture.
Lawley, Mark A., Ph.D. Asst. Prof., School of In Levier, Francis, Ed.D. Consultant, Levier & Asso-
Laguerre, Michel S., Ph.D. Assoc. Prof, of dustrial Engineering. Purdue Univ. ciates.
Anthropology, Univ. of California, Berkeley.
Lawrence, Keith, M.S. Senior Writer, Owens- Levine, Alan S., Ph.D. Chief Scientific Officer and
LaJ, Anil, M.A. Instructor of English. Truman Col- boro (KYI Messenger-Inquirer. Vice Chairman for Scientific and Medical Affairs,
lege.
Lawson, Wendy, Ph.D. Senior Lecturer, Univ. of NuStem Technologies, Inc.
Lai, Brij V., PhDSenior Fellow in Pacific History, Canterbury, Christchurch. Levine, Gordon L, Ph.D. Director, International
Australian National Univ., Canberra. Education Office, Univ. of Minnesota, Duluth.
Lazarte, Jaime E., Ph.D. Lecturer-Researcher,
Lai, Vlnay, Ph.D. Asst. Prof, of History, Univ. of Harvard Univ. School of Medicine, Center lor Levine, Robert M., Ph.D. Prof, and Dir. of Latin
California, Los Angeles. Blood Research. American Studies, Dept. of History. Univ. of Miami.
Laline, Brian J. Editor, Slaten MtnrflNew York, Lea, David A. M., Ph.D. Executive Director, North Levings, Darryl W., MA. Asst. Managing Editor
NY) Advance. Australia Research Unit. for NationalNews, The Kansas City(MO) Star.
Lamar, Howard R., Ph.D. Prof, of History, Yale Le Bon, Joel, Ph.D. Asst. Prof, of Marketing, Levison, J. J., M.F. Consulting landscape forester.
Univ.; author, The Far Southwest. 1846-1912. ESSEC Business School, France. Levinson, Sanford, Prof of Law and Govern-
J.D
Lamb, David R., PhD
Prof of Exercise Physiolo- Ledbetter, Mary Lee S., Ph.D. Prof, of Biology, ment, Univ. of Texas Law School, Austin.
gy and Preventive Medicine, Ohio State Univ. College of the Holy Cross. Levitzky, Michael C, Ph.D. Prof, of Physiology,
Lamb, Joseph F., Ph.D. Asst. Prof of Art History, Ledeen, Lydia Hailparn, Ph.D. Prof, and Chair of Louisiana State Univ Medical Center.
Ohio Univ. Music Dept, Drew Univ. Levy, B. Barry, Ph.D. Dean, Faculty of Religious
Lamba, Savi, M.S.Ch.E. Technical Director, James Ledes, Allison Eckardt, BA Editor, Antiques. Studies, McGill Univ.
Finlay and Co. (U.S.), Inc. Levy, David Observer, Jamac
Ledgerwood, Judy L, Ph.D. Assoc. Dept. of
Prof., H., M.A.
Lambert, John, D.Phil. Assoc. Prof., Dept of His- Anthropology, Northern Illinois Univ., DeKalb. Laboratory.
tory, Univ. of South Africa.
MACE. Curriculum Lewis, Anthony J., Ph.D. Assoc. Prof, of Geogra-
LeDuff, Garry R., Asst Dir.,
Lambert, Wayne, Ph.D. Assoc. Prof of Geology. Services, Dept. of Employment and Technical and phy and Anthropology, Louisiana State Univ.
West Texas A&M Univ Further Education, Adelaide, South Australia. Lewis, B. M., PhD Senior Rsch. Assoc. National
Lancaster, Roger A., M.S. General Manager, Lee, Chong-Sik, Ph.D. Prof of Political Science, Astronomy and Ionosphere Center lArecibo).
U.S. Dept. of Agriculture Employee Services and Univ. of Pennsylvania. Lewis, Cathleen S., MA. Asst Curator, National
Recreation Association. Lee, Cindy T., MA Research Analyst, Milken In- Air and Space Museum. Smithsonian Institution.
Lance, H. Dan-ell, Ph.D. Prof Emeritus, Old Tes- stitute. Lewis, David L, Ph.D. Prof of Business History,
tament Interpretation, Colgate Rochester. Bexley, Lee, Harry W., Ph.D. Forest Engineer, Forest Univ. of Michigan.
Crozer Theological Seminary. Products Dept, Univ of Idaho. Lewis, Finlay Washington Correspondent, Cop-
Lanctot, Barbara, MA. Senior subject editor, Lee, Kwang-sun, M.D. Prof of Pediatrics and ley News Service.
The World Book Encyclopedia. Obstetrics Gynecology, Univ. of Chicago. Lewis, C. Malcolm, M.Sc. Consultant, G. Mal-
Landen, Robert Geran, PhD Director Center Lee, Warren F., Ph.D. Prof, of Agricultural. Envi- colm Lewis and S. Margaret Lewis History of Car-
for Programs in the Humanities, Virginia Polytech ronmental and Development Economics, Ohio tography Research.
nic Institute and State Univ. State Univ. Lewis, John P., Ph.D. Prof of Economics and
Landers, Jack M., Ed D Prof, of Industrial Tech-
Lefebvre, R. Craig, Ph.D. Vice President and International Policy Emeritus, Princeton L'niv
nology, Central Missouri State Univ. Chief Technical Officer, Intervention Services, Lewis, Laurence A, Ph.D. Prof of Geography
Landis-Tyson, Noreen, BA Asst Executive Prospect Associates. Clark Uni\
Director, U.S. Field Hockey Association. Lefkovitz, Elliot B., Ph.D. Adjunct Prof oi Lewis, Mark Ph.D. Prof Dept of Aerospace
'., .

Lang, Jack Executive Secretary, Baseball Writers History, Loyola Univ. and Spertus Institute of Engineering, Univ. of Maryland, College Park.
Association of America. Jewish Studies.
Lewis, Nancy Davis, Ph D. Assoc Dean, College
Lang, Kate, Ph.D. Asst Prof, of History, Univ. of Lefkowitz, Mary R., PhD Andrew W. Mellon of Social Sciences, Unix of Hawaii
Wisconsin, Eau Claire. Humanities, Dept. of Classical Studies,
Prof, of
Lewis, Thomas R., Ph.D. Assoc Prof, of Geogra-
Wellesley College.
Lang, Robert J., PhD Senior Research Manager, phy I niversity of Connecticut
Spectra Diode Laboratories. Le Call, Dina, MA Scholar in Middle Eastern
Lewis, W. David, Ph.D. Distinguished Univ. Prof.,
studies.
Langdon, Robert Visiting Fellow Pacific and Auburn I niv
Asian History, Australian National Univ Le Call, Michel, Ph.D. Assoc Prof of Middle
Lewis, W. Joe, Ph.D. Rsch Entomologist Agricul-
Eastern History, St. Olaf College.
Lange, Thomas L Former Director of Communi- tural Research Service, US Dept of Agriculture.
cations, U.S. Soccer Federation. Legg, Keith R., PhD Prof of Political Science,
Lewis-Russ, Anne, Ph.D. Senior Pro|ei l Si ientisl
Univ of Florida,
LaNoue, George R., Ph D. Director, Policy Titan Environmental Corp.
Sciences Graduate Program and Prof, of Political Legon, Ronald P., Ph D
Pro\ ost and Prof, of
Lewy, Guenter, Ph D Prof. Emeritus of Political
Science, Univ. of Maryland, Baltimore History, Unix, of Baltimore.
Science Unh of Massar husetts, Amherst
Lansing, Richard H., PhD Prof of Italian and Lehrer, Adrienne, PhD Prof, ol Linguistic s
Ley, Klaus, \VD. Prof and Director, Cardiovascu
Comparative Literature, Brandeis Univ. Univ. of Arizona.
lai Research Center nh of Virginia l

Lanyon, Scott M., PhD James Ford Bell Leiren, Terje Ph.D. Prof Dept of Scandina-
I.,
Dir.,
Liao, Thomas T., Ed.D. Prof and Chairman Dept
,

Museum of Natural History, Univ. of Minnesota. vian Studies. Univ. of Washington. New
of Ti'chnoloqyand Society State I 'nn ol
Lapidus, Leah Blumberg, PhD Prof of Psychol- Lemanske, Robei i F., Jr., M.D Pro) ol Pediatrii s
York Stoin Brook.
ogy, Teachers College, Columbia Univ. and Medicine Univ of Wisconsin Medical School. Libbrerht, Ken C, Ph D A-mu Prof, of Astro
LaPierre, Laurier L, PhD Former Prof of Histo- Lemarchand, Rene, Ph.D. Regional consultant physics Calitomia Institute ol Technology
u-rnational
ry, McGill Univ. on Go Lieber, Charles S-, MP Pro! oiMedicine and
Prof of Public
pment Patnolog) Mo oolof Medicine, Oh,
LaPorte, Robert, Jr., Ph.D.
Administration and Political Science, Pennsylvania LeMone, Margaret A., Ph D entist lnh of \ew > ork
Power and Privilege: A Study of
State Univ.; author. National Center lor Atmosphl liebrrman. lethro k i lean tor Ai .1

Influenceand Decision Making in Pakistan. Lenardon, Robed I

"«- P' drum Attairs and rVol of Law New York law
Lapp, Douglas M., Ed D Formei >i. ei tor, Na- I

tional Science Resources Centei Nati Lengle, James I., ! i nenl Ltabow t ii.uies ft P • •• pi ol Oral
my of Sciences/Smithsonian Institution lentil Medicine State Unh ol

Larsen, Fenton E., PhD Prof Emeritus of Horti

XXXII Contributors and consultants

New York, Buffalo. Lo, Chor-Pang, Ph.D. Prof, of Geography, Univ. of U.S. Dept of Agriculture.
Liepert, Klaus, MA
Director Institute of Applied
Georgia,
MacAndrews, Colin, Ph.D. Fellow, Dept of
Social Research, Bonn, Germany. Lobeck, Anne, Ph.D. Prof, of English and Linguis- Economics, Australian National Univ.
Likens, Gene E., Ph.D. Director, Institute of tics, Western Washington Univ.
MacCallum, Spencer Heath, MA Author, The
Ecosystem Studies. Locascio, S. J., Ph.D. Prof, of Horticultural An of Community.
Paula P.,
Lillard, Ed M Cofounder, Forest Bluff
Sciences, Univ. of Florida. MacDonald, Charles B., D.H. Former Deputy
Montessori School. Locke, Robert, B.A. Editor, Border Business. Chief Historian, U.S. Dept of the Army.
Lincoln, C Eric, LLD. Former William Rand Ke- Lockhart, James, PhD Prof of History, Univ. of MacDonald, Kevin C, Ph.D. Senior Lecturer, In-
nan Prof, of Religion and Culture, Duke Univ. California. Los Angeles. stitute of Archaeology, Univ. College London.
Lincoln, Louise, MA
Curator of African, Lockshin, Michael D., FACP Director, Barbara Macinko, George, Ph.D. Prof of Geography,
Oceanic, and New World Cultures. Minneapolis Volcker Center, Hospital for Special Surgery. Central Washington Univ.
Institute of Arts. Lofaro, Michael A., Ph.D. Prof, of American Liter- Maclntyre, Walter Assoc. Editor,
Lindahl, Carl, PhD Assoc Prot of English, Univ. ature and American Studies, Univ. of Tennessee. 777e Charlotteto\vn, PEII
(
Guardian.
of Houston.
Loft, Abram, Emeritus of
Ph.D. Prof. Chamber Mack, Raymond W., Ph.D. Provost. Northwest-
Linden, James C, Ph.D. Prof of Microbiology Music Eastman School of Music. ern I mv coauthor. Principles of Sociology.
and of Agricultural and Chemical Engineering, Loftus, Elizabeth F., Ph.D. Prof, of Psychology, Mackenzie, Hilary D., M.S.J. Senior Writer,
J.
Colorado State Univ. Univ. of Washington. Specialist in International Affairs, and Washington
Undgren, James, J.D. Prof, of Law, Northwestern Logan, Bob, B.S. Sportsvvnter. Arlington
Bureau Chief, Macleans magazine; specialist on
Univ. School of Law. Heights, ID Daily Herald. Latin American urban areas.

Lindgren, Raymond E., PhD

Emeritus of Prof.
London, Ray William, AB.P.H. President, Chief Mackey, Philip English, Ph.D. Consultant:
History, California State Univ., Long Beach.
Executive Officer, Human Studies Center, Ltd.
author. The Givers Guide: Making Your Charity
Lindheimer, Marshall D., M.D. Prof, of Medi- Dollars Count
Londre, Felicia Hardison, Ph.D. Curators Prof.
cine, Obstetrics and Gynecology, and Clinical
of Theatre Univ of Missouri, Kansas City. Mackey, Robert R., Ph.D. Asst Prof, of History,
Pharmacology Univ. of Chicago. U.S. Military Academy, West Point
Long, Alexis B v Ph.D. Assoc Research Prof, of
Lindow, John, Ph.D. Prof., Dept- of Scandinavian. Atmospheric Sciences, Desert Research Institute.
Mackie, G. O., D.Phil. Prof, of Biology, Univ of
Univ. of California, Berkeley. Victoria.
Long, Charles A., PhD Prof, of Biology, Curator
Lindstrom, Lamont, PhD Prof of Anthropology, of Mammals, Univ. of Wisconsin, Stevens Point MacKillop, James, Ph.D. Prof, of English,
Univ. of Tulsa Onondaga Community College; Reviewer of
Longyear, R. M., Ph.D. Former Prof, of Music, Theater and Films, Syracuse (NYI New Times.
Lindstrom, Marilyn M., PhD Planetary Scientist, Univ. of Kentucky.
National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Mackzum, Mary F., M.S.LS. Head Librarian. The
Johnson Space Center. Looft, W. Gene, B.S. President, Aerospace Divi-
Toledo, OHi Blade.
sion, Rexnord Corp.
Lindstrom, Naomi, Ph.D. Prof, of Spanish and MacLeod, D. Peter, Ph.D. Asst Prof, of History.
Portuguese, Univ. of Texas, Austin. Lopata, Helena Znaniecka, PhD Senior Prof of Univ. of Ottawa.
Sociology and Director, Center for the Compara-
Lineback, Neal C, PhD Prof., DepL of Geogra- tiveStudy of Social Roles, Loyola Univ. of Chicago. MacLeod, Murdo J., Ph.D. Graduate Research
phy and Planning, Appalachian State Univ.; Editor, Prof, of History, Univ. of Florida.
Arias of Alabama. Lorenz, John R., B.B. Transportation Analyst
New Century Freight Traffic Association. Macleod, Roderick C, Ph.D.
Prof, of History,
Uneberry, Robert L, Ph.D. Prof, of Political Univ. of Alberta; author, The Mounties.
Science, Univ. of Houston Lourdou, Dorothy, MLS Librarian III. New York
Public Library. Macmanus, Sheila, |,D. Former Asst States At-
Unhardt, Robert J., Ph.D. F Wendell Miller Dis- torney, Cook County IL State s Attorneys Office.
1

tinguished Prof, of Medicinal and Natural Products Lovejoy, Thomas E.,

PhD. Counselor to the Sec-
retary for Biodiversity and Environmental Affairs,
Maddalena, Ronald J., Ph.D. Astronomer, Na-
Chemistry and Chemical and Biochemical Engi- tional Radio Astronomy Observatory.
neering, Univ. of Iowa- Smithsonian Institution,

David Asst Prof., Dept of Civil Madelung, Wilferd, Ph.D. Prof, of Arabic, Oxford
Linker, H. Michael, Ph.D. Integrated Pest Man- Lovell, J., Ph D.
Engineering, Univ. of Maryland, College Park- Univ.
agement Coordinator, Dept. of Crop Science and
Entomology, North Carolina State Univ. Loving, Jerome, Ph.D. Prof of English, Texas Madsen, Willard )., M.Ed. Coordinator of Sign
A&M Univ. Language Evaluation, Gallaudet Univ.
Lipking, Lawrence, PhD Chester D Tripp Prof
of Humanities, Northwestern Univ. Lovoll, Odd S., Ph.D. Prof, of History, St Olaf Col- Maehl, William H., Ph.D. Prof. Emeritus of
Modern History. Auburn Univ.
Lippy, Charles H., Ph.D. Leroy Martin Distin- A lege.
Magid, Andy R., Ph.D.George Lynn Cross
guished of Prof, of Religious Studies, Univ. of Ten- Low, Frank J., Ph.D. Regents Research Prof.,
nessee, Chattanooga Univ of Arizona. Research Prof of Mathematics, Univ of Oklahoma.

Upset, Seymour Martin, Ph.D. Prof, of Sociolo Lubin, Nancy, Ph.D. Pres., JNA Associates, Inc.
Magrath, C
Peter, Ph.D. President and Prof, of
Political Science, Univ. of Minnesota, Twin Cities
gy in Public Policy, George Mason and Stanford
universities.
Ludwickson, John, MA Curator of Anthropolo- Campus
q\ Nebraska State Historic al Society.
Uptay, Albert, PhD, Research Scientist, Agricul-
Mahaney, William C, PhD Prof, of Geography,
Lukas, Anthony Author and journalist.
J. York Unh
ture & Agri-Food Canada, Government of Canada.
Lukes-Lukaszewski, Edward A., PhD Prof, of Maier, Pauline, Ph.D. William R. Kenan, Jr. Prof.
Litchfield, R. Burr, Ph.D. Prof, of History, Brown History, Hillsborough College.
Univ. of History, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Lum, P. Andrea, F R.CP.C Abdominal Radiolo- Maingot, Anthony P., Ph.D. Prof of Sociology,
Richard Stark, PhD President, Appalachi-
Little,
gist, Ottawa Civic Hospital, Ontario
an Geographic Information Systems. Florida International Univ.
Lunenfeld, Marvin, Ph.D Distinguished Teach- Makward, Prof and Chair, African
Edris, Ph.D.
Little, Trevor J., Ph.D. Prof, of Textile and Appar- ing Prof. Emeritus of History, Fredonia College,
el Management, North Carolina State Univ. Studies Program. Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison.
State Univ. of New York.
Little Soldier, Lee M., Ed D Prof of Education, Malefakis, Edward, Ph.D. Prof, of European
Lurie, Nancy Oestreich, Ph.D. Curator Emerrta History. Columbia Univ.
Texas Tech Univ. of Anthropology, Milwaukee Public Museum.
Littleton, C
Scott, Ph.D. Prof, and Chair, Dept of
Malone, Russell L, Ph.D. Former Director, Pub-
Lussier, Frances M., Ph.D. Senior Policy Analyst. lic Information Dept. American Speech-
Anthropology, Occidental College; author, The The Rand Corp.
New Comparative Mythology and From Scythia to Language-Hearing Association.
Camelot Lutas, Elizabeth Mary, M.D. Attending Phvsi Mamh/a, Lawrence H., PhD Prof of Religion
cian, Depts of Community Medicine and Medi- and Africana Studies, Vassar College.
Utwack, Leon Ph.D.
F., F and May T.A cine, Saint Vincents Hospital
Morrison Prof, of History, Univ. of California Mandel, Carola Champion skeet shooter
Berkeley; winner of Pulitzer Prize for History, 1980, Luteyn, James L, Ph.D. Senior Curator of Botany
and Mary Flagler Curator of Botany, New York Mango, Karin N., M.LS. Writer; librarian; author.
Lhz, Richard E., Ph D. Prof,, Univ. of Florida Botanical Garden. Armor- Yesterda\ and Today.
Tropical Research and Education Center. Mann, Alan E., Ph.D. Prof of Anthropology,
Lutz, Thomas E., Ph.D. Former Prof, of Astrono-
Uu, Philip L-F., St D. Prof, of Environmental my, Washington State Univ.
Prrni Hon Univ.
Engineering, Cornell Univ.
Ly, Uy-Loi, Ph.D. Assoc Prof., Dept of Aeronau Mann, S. Lee, M.FA Assoc. Prof, of Design, Univ.
living, Patricia Communications Coordinator, of Kansas.
tics and Astronautics, Univ. of Washington.
Health and Social Services, Government of Yukon. Manning, Kenneth Thomas Meloy Prof
R., Ph.D.
Lynch, John H., M.D. Prof, and Chief, Division of
Uzzadro, John S. Director, Lizzadro Museum of Urology, Georgetown Univ. Medical Center. of Rhetoric and of the History of Science,
Lapidary Art Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Lynfield, Yelva Liptzin, M
D Clinical Prof, of
Ljungquist, Kent, Ph.D. Prof, of English,
Dermatology, State Univ. of New York Health Sci- Maraldo, Pamela )., FAA.N. Former Chief
Worcester Polytechnic Institute.
ences Center at Brooklyn and Chairman of Derma- Executive Officer, National League for Nursing.
Llanso, Steven L, MALD
Marketing Support tology Dept, Brookdale Univ Medical Center. Marble, Vern L, PhD Extension Agronomist
Coordinator, United Communications Group. Lyon, Bryce, Ph.D. Barnaby C and Mary Critch- Emeritus. Univ. of California, Davis.
Uoyd, Dan, PhD Assoc. Prof, of Philosophy, Keeney Emeritus Prof, of History, Brown Univ.
field March, Robert H., Ph.D. Emeritus Prof, of Physics
Tnnirv College. Lyons, Charles R., Ph.D. Margery Bailey Prof, of and Integrated Liberal Studies. Univ. of Wisconsin,

Uoyd, Howell C, Ph.D. Prof, of Geography, English and Dramatic Literature Stanford Univ. Madison.
Miami Univ. M.SA
Uoyd, James E., Ph.D. Prof of Entomology, Univ.
M Marciniak, Ed,
Urban Life.
President, Institute of

of Florida. Maas, John L, PhD Research Plant Pathologist, Marcum, John A., Ph.D. Universitywide Director

i
 Contributors and consultants XXXIII

of Education Abroad Program and Special Advisor Woodrow Wilson International Center for Schol- demiology and Community Studies, St Mary's
on International Education, Univ of California. San- ar s author, «uum Road to the Cold War. Hospital Center.
ta Barbara.
Matalon, Reuben, Ph.D. Former Prof and Direc- McDade, Barbara E., Ph.D. Assoc Prof., Dept. of
Marcus, Abraham, PhD Director Center for tor Chief of Genetics. Miami Children s Hospital- Geography, Univ. of Florida.
Middle Eastern Studies. Univ. of Texas, Austin. Research Institute.
McDaniel, Ben T., Ph.D Prof of Animal Science,
Marcus, jane, Ph.D Distinguished Prof, of Mateja, James, B.S. Automobile Writer Chicago North Carolina State Univ.
English. City Univ. of New York Graduate School Tribune.
McDermott, Paul D., Former Prof Applied MA
ana City College. Mather, A S., Ph D Prof, of Geography, Univ. of Geography, Montgomery College.
Marcus, Philip S., Ph.D. Prof of Mathematics, Aberdeen. McDermott, Vincent, Ph.D Prof of Music, Lewis
Eureka College. Mather, Keith C., BA Author and expert on and Clark College.
Marcus, Robert, M.D. Prof of Medicine, Africa and the Middle East McDonald, Charles J., M.D Prof, and Head,
Stanford Univ., and Director. Aging Study Unit,
VA Medical Center, Palo Alto, CA.
Matheson, Katy, MA Free lance writer and Division of Dermatology, Brown Univ. and Roger
dance historian. Williams General Hospital.
Mariani, John F., Ph D Free lance entertainment Mathews, Thomas G., Ph D Secretary General, McDonald, Elvin Former Secretary. The Ameri-
writer. Association of Caribbean Universities. can Horticultural Society
Marks, Bonita L, PhD Asst Prof., Exercise Physi- Matloff, Maurice, Ph D
Adjunct Prof of History, McDonald, Robert A. Asst Prof of
J., Ph.D.
ology, Univ. of North Carolina, Chapel Hill
Georgetown Univ.; former Chief Historian, U.S. History, Univ. of British Columbia.
Marquardt, Thomas L, BA Managing Editor, Dept. of the Army. McEachran, John D., Ph.D. Prof of Wildlife and
The (Annapolis, MDi Capital Matolak, David W., Ph.D. Asst Prof., School of Fisheries Sciences, Texas A&M Univ.
Marquis, Robert F_, Ph D Microbiology
Prof, of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, McElroy, David L, Ph D. Former Senior
and Immunology, Univ. of Rochester Medical Ohio Univ. Research Staff Member, Martin Marietta Energy
School. Matt, Paul R. Publisher. Historical Aviation Al- Systems, Inc.. Oak Ridge National Laboratory.
Marrin, Albert, PhD Chairman, Dept of History, bum. McFerrin, John B., Ph.D. Former Prof of Finance
Yeshiva College. Matta, Kristin, Director of Development, U.S. Univ. of Florida.
Marshall, Brian D. Managing Editor, Brandon Figure Skating Association. McGiffert, Michael, Ph.D. Editor, William and
1MB' Sun. Matthai, James, Ed D Former Prof of Geo- Mary Quarterly, and Prof of History, College of
Marshall, Donald C, Ph.D. Prof, and Head, Dept. sciences, Murray State Univ. William and Mary.
of English, Univ. of Illinois, Chicago. Matthee, Rudi, Ph.D Assoc Prof of History, McGill, Lawrence D., Ph.D. Technical Vice
Marshall, Robert T., Ph.D. Arbuckle Prof of Univ. of Delaware. President, Animal Reference Pathology.
Food Science and Human Nutrition, Univ. of Matthews, Leslie S., M.D. Chief of Orthopaedic McGinley, P. A., B.Comm. Managing Director,
Missouri, Columbia. Surgery, Union Memorial Hospital Baltimore Europa Publications Ltd
Marshek, Kurt M., Ph D Harry L Kent Prof, of
Matthews, Peter Hans, Ph.D. Asst Prof of McGinnis, Christine, BA Editor, Special
Mechanical Engineering, Univ. of Texas. Economics and Director, International Politics and Editions, Arkansas Valley Publishing.
Marszalek, John F., PhD William L Giles Distin- Economics, Middlebury College McGinnis, Terri, D.V.M. Veterinarian; author
guished Prof, of History, Mississippi State Univ. Matthews, Robert W., Ph.D. Prof of The Well Dog Book.
Martin, Dale Robert, MA
Assoc. Prof of Entomology, Univ. of Georgia. McGlathery, James M, Ph.D. Prof, of German
Geography. Truman State Univ. Maugh, Thomas H., II, Ph.D. Medical writer. and Head, Dept. of Germanic Languages and
Martin, Franklin W., PhD Former Research Literatures, Univ. of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.
Mauseth, James D., Ph.D. Prof., Dept of Integra-
Horticulturist, Tropical Agriculture Research tive Biology, Univ. of Texas. Austin McGovem, James, B.S. Free-lance writer
Station, Puerto Rico.
Mauskopf, Seymour Harold, PhD Prof of McGovem, William M., LL.B Prof of Law, Univ.
Martin, George C, Ph.D Prof Emeritus of Po- History, Duke Univ. of California, Los Angeles.
mology, Univ of California. Davis.
May, Jill P., MS LS Prof of Children's Literature, McGowan, Alan, B.E. President. The Gene Me-
Martin, George F_, Ph D Prof. Emer Mathemat- ,
Purdue Univ. dia Forum, S. I. Newhouse School of Public Com-
ics and Statistics. State Univ. of New York, Albany. munications, Syracuse Univ.
Maycock, Paul F., Ph.D. Prof, of Botany, Erindale
Martin, James Kirby, Ph.D. Distinguished Uni- College, Univ of Toronto. McGrath, Roger D., Ph.D. Prof of History, Univ.
versity Prof, of History. Univ of Houston. of California, Los Angeles.
Mayer, George H., Ph.D. Prof of History. Univ. of
Martin, June Johnson Caldwell, BA Book Edi- South Florida- McGrath, William J., Ph.D. Prof Emeritus of His-
tor,fTucson) Arizona Daily Star. tory, Univ. of Rochester.
Mayer, Jeremy D., Ph.D. Visiting Asst Prof, of
Martin, Richard, M.Phil. Former Curator, Cos- Government. Georgetown Univ. McGuire, Nancy L, MS Editor and Publisher,
tume Institute, Metropolitan Museum of Art A/omelAKi Nugget.
Mays, Larry W., PH Prof, and Chairman Dept of
Martin, Richard A., Ph.D. Staff Member Los Civil Engineering, Arizona State Univ. McHugh, Paul R., MD Director. Dept of
Alamos National Laboratory Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions
Mazo, Earl Former National Political
Martin, Richard C, PhD Assoc Prof, of Correspondent, Readers Digest Mcintosh, Cecilia A., Ph.D. Prof Dept. of Biolo ,

Religious Studies. Arizona State Univ. gy. East Tennessee State Univ.
Mazrui, Ali A., D.Phil. Director Institute of Glob-
Martin, Steve W., PhD Prof, of Materials alCultural Studies and Albert Schweitzer Prof, in Mcintosh, Christopher, D.Phil. Author
Science and Engineering, Iowa State Univ. the Humanities, Binghamton Univ. Astrology.

Martin, Susan Taylor, BA Senior Foreign Cor- Mazzone, Theodore, Ml). Director, Endo- Mclntyre, Peggy Executive Secretary and Editor
respondent, St Petersburg (F LI Times.
:

crinology and Metabolism Rush Presbyterian-St ial Asst. The Charleston, SO Post and Courier
Martin, William PhD
Director, Division of
H., Luke's Medical Center, Chicago. McKale, Donald M., Ph.D. Class of 1941
Natural Areas, Eastern Kentucky Univ. McArthur, David S., Ph.D. Prof, of Geography, Memorial Prof, of Humanities, Clemson Univ.
Martinson, Candace, Ph.D. Former Asst. Curator San Diego State Univ. McKay, Kenneth B., M.Fd Author Puppetry in

of Entomology, College of Insects and Spiders, McCall, Christina, BA Author Grits: An Intimate Canada: An Art to Enchant
Ohio State Univ. Portrait of the Liberal Party and Trudeau and Our McKay, Nellie Y., Ph.D Prof of American and
Martis, Kenneth C, Ph.D. Prof, of Geography, Times. Afro-American Literature. Univ of Wisconsin,
West Virginia Univ. McCammon Feldman, Beth, Ph.D. Owner, Madison.
Marty, Martin E, Ph.D. Fairfax M. Cone Distin- Lively Run Goat Dairy. McKeen, William, Ph.D Prof and Chair Dept of
guished Service Prof Emeritus. Univ. of Chicago McCann, James C, PhD Prof, of History. Boston Journalism Univ, of Florida, Gainesville

Marvin, Betty, MA Historic Preservation Plan- Universitv McKems, Joseph P., Ph.D. Assoc Prof, of

ner, City of Oakland, CA. McCardell, John, Ph.D. Prof, of History and Presi- Journalism Ohio State Univ.

Marvin, Carolyn, Ph.D Assoc Prof of dent. Middlebury College. McKibben, R. B., Ph.D. Senior Scientist Enrico
Communication. Univ. of Pennsylvania McCarthy, Justin, Ph.D. Prof of Histor) I nh of Fermi Institute I ni\ of Chicago
Marx, Gary T., Ph D Prof of Sociology, Univ. of Louisville McKinley, Mary B., Ph IJ Prof of French Unh ot

Colorado, Boulder. McClintock, Jeffrey E., Ph.D. Astroph) - Virginia

Marx, Robert F., BA Marine Archaeologist, Smithsonian Astropnysical Observatory MrKinnon. William PhD. Prof of Earth and
B.,

Phoenician Explorations. McCJoud, Scott, B FA Comic book writer artist Planet Washington Unh
Masayesva-Jeanne, LaVeme, Assoc. Ph.D. Prof, and scholar. Mcknight, Tom L, Ph I) Prot ofGeograph)
of Anthropology, Univ of Nevada, Reno. McComb, David, Ph.D. Prof of Historv Colorado I ni\ ofCahtornia Los Angeles

Mason, Charles txet utive Editor, Sail magazine. State I McLaughlin, |ohn F., M 1) Assot Prof of

McCosker, John E., Ph.D. Senior Scientist Pediatrics Unh of Washington

Masotti, Louis H., Ph.D Prof, of Managem.-iit
Univ. of California. In me California Academy of Sci« Mclaughlin, P. A, Ph D Resean h S) ientist
and Urban Development,
McCoy, Donald R., Ph.D I nh Distingi ,111 Point Marine Center Western
Mass, Jeffrey P., Ph.D. Prof ol Historv, Stanford
Univ Pro!
McCoy, Jennifer L, Hi D McLaughlin, Peter 1 (Mortal Manage)
Massey, J., Ph.D. Curator, Herbarium ,1 i

North Carolina
Mast, Roderic B. Vice President, Consei
McCracken. |. C. MBA P McLean tan S. PhD Prot of Physics and
'

- >s
International.
St. I. \u PMrfc k I rrotof Histor) Mis
Mastny, Vojtech, Ph D. Senior R.
McCust I
XXXIV Contributors and consultants

souri Western State College. and Hieroglyphs and Red Land, Black Land: Daily Miller, William C, B.S.Ed. Marketing Manager,
McLeay, Elizabeth, Ph.D. Senior Lecturer of Life in Ancient Egypt Clauss Cutlery Co.
Politics, Victoria Univ. of Wellington. New Zealand. MetzJer, John D., Ph.D Asst Prof of African Millett, Allan R-, Ph.D. Prof., Mershon Center,
McLeese, Don, MA Assoc. Editor, Midwest Studies and Education, Michigan State Univ. Ohio State Univ.
Living. Meulenberg, Norman F., MBA Marketing Mills, Daniel Quinn, Ph.D Prof of Business
McLendon, George, Ph.D. Prof of Chemistry,
Manager, Mettler-Toledo, Inc. Administration, Harvard Univ.
Univ. of Rochester Mews, Siegfried, Ph.D Prof of German, Univ. of Milhvard, Hugh, Ph.D. Prof, of Geography, Saint
McLeod, Jean F. Former Editor (Kitimat, BO North Carolina, Chape! Hill. Mary's Univ.
Northern Sentinel Press. Meyer, Alfred G., Ph.D Prof Emeritus of Political Minch, Edwin W., Ph.D Environmental
Science, Univ. of Michigan. Arizona Dept. of Agriculture.
McLernon, Thomas J., MS Former Director, Specialist,

Virginia School Boards Association. Meyer, Consultant; former Prof, of

B., Ph.D. Minkler, Julie, MA. Temporary Instructor of
McLure, Charles E., Jr., Ph.D. Senior Fellow, Chemistry, Univ. of Washington. English and Women s Studies, Iowa State Univ.
Hoover Institution on War, Revolution, and Peace, Meyer, Gary C, Ph.D. Prof of Geography and Minor, Vernon Hyde, Ph.D. Assoc Prof, of Art
Stanford Univ. Natural Resources, Univ. of Wisconsin, Stevens History and Humanities, Univ. of Colorado.
McMahon, James Point
D., Jr., MA. Curator of Mirrtz, Steven, Ph.D Assoc. Prof of History, Univ.
Collections and Exhibitions, Hershey Museum. Meyer, John R., Ph.D. Prof.. North Carolina State of Houston.
McNaJJy, Karen C, PhD. Prof, of Earth Sciences, Univ Minutaglio, Bill, M
S Author First Son: George
Univ. of California, Santa Cruz. Meyer-Arendt, Klaus J., Ph.D. Prof and Chair W. Bush and the Bush Family Dynasty.
McNichol, Ronald W., M.D Former Dir Chemi ,
Department of Environmental Studies, Univ. of Misfeldt, Willard E., Ph.D. Prof, of Art, Bowling
cal Dependence Unit, San Antonio State Hospital
West Florida Green State Univ.
McNuhy, Michael L, PhD Assoc Provost and Meyerhofer, David D v Ph.D.
Mechanical Prof, of
Miskokomon, Roberta, MLS First Nations
Dean, International Programs, Univ. of Iowa. Engineering and Physics and Astronomy, Univ. of Library Coordinator, Southern Ontario Library
Rochester. Service, London.
McPherson, H. J., Ph.D. Former Prof, of
Geography, Univ, of Alberta. Meyers, Carol L, Ph.D Prof of Religion, Duke Mitchell, Charlie, J.D. Managing Editor Attorney,
Univ.
McPherson, James M., Ph.D. Prof of American Vicksburg Printing & Publishing
History, Princeton Univ. author, Battle
; Cry of Free- Meyers, Eric M., Ph.D Prof of Religion. Duke Mitchell, Donald W., Ph.D Author. History of the
dom: The Civil War Era. winner of Pulitzer Prize for Univ. Modern American Navy.
History, 1989. Meyerson, Joel D-, Ph.D. Historian, U.S. Army Mitchell, Otis C, Ph.D. Prof, of History, Univ of
McWilliams, Margaret, Ph.D. Author, Food Fun- Center of Military History. Cincinnati.
damentals Mezey, Susan Gluck, Ph.D. Prof of Political
Mitchell, Robert D., Ph.D. Prof of Geography,
Meade, Marion, M.S. Author, Eleanor of Science, Loyola Univ. Univ of Maryland
Aquitaine. Michopoulos, John G., Ph.D Senior Research Mittermeier, Russell A, Ph.D. President,
Means, D. Bruce, Ph.D President and Executive Scientist, United States Naval Research Laboratory. Conservation International.
Director, Coastal Plains Institute. Middleton, John, D Phil Prof of Anthropology, Miu, Karen N., Ph.D. Asst Prof Dept of Electri- ,

Yale Univ
Mech, L David, Ph.D. Senior Rsch. Scientist, Bio cal and Computer Engineering, Drexel Univ.
logical Resources Division, U.S. Geological Survey. Mikalson, Jon D., Ph.D. Prof of Classics, Univ of
Modell, Harold I., Ph.D. Director, National
Virginia.
Medicine, Beatrice, PhD Assoc Prof. Ementa of Resource for Computers in Life Science Education.
Anthropology, California State Univ. Milbert, Neil, BA Sportswriter, Chicago Tribune.
Modell, Judith, Ph.D. Assoc Prof, of
Meeks, Brian Winston, PhD Head Dept of Milkis, Sidney M-, Ph.D. James Hart Prof of Gov Anthropology, Carnegie Mellon Univ.
Government, Univ. of the West Indies, Mona. ernment and Foreign Affairs and Senior Scholar, Moe, Doug, BA Journalist Author. 777elMadi-
Meeks, Harold A, Ph.D. Prof, of Geography, Miller Center of Public Affairs, Univ. of Virginia. son Wli Capital Times.
Univ. of Vermont Millar, F. G. B., D Lrtt Camden Prof of Ancient Moffatt, Michael, Ph.D Prof of Anthropology,
History, Oxford Univ.
Meier, Heinz K., PhD Former Prof, of History, Rutgers, the State Univ of New jersey.
Old Dominion Univ. Millar, James R., Ph.D. Director of the Institute Moffroid, Mary T v Ph.D Prof of Physical
Meilach, Dona Z., MA Contributing Editor for European, Russian, and Eurasian Studies,
George Washington Univ.
Therapy, Univ. of Vermont
Presentations Magazine and Computer Pictures;
Mole, Paul A, PhD. Prof of Physical Education,
author of art, craft, and graphics books. Millbrooke, Anne, Ph.D Former Manager, Univ of California, Davis.
Meister, F. A, MA President and CEO, Distilled
Archive and Historical Resource Center, United
Technologies Corp. Molho, Anthony, Ph.D Munro Goodwin
Spirits Council of the United States, Inc.
Wilkinson Prof, of European History, Brown Unfv.
Melder, Keith Curator of Miller, Alan L, Ph.D. Assoc Prof, of Religion,
F_, Ph.D. Political
Miami Univ. Molineux, Will, BA Editorial Page Editor,
History, National Museum of American History.
'Newport News, VA) Daily Press.
Melear, Charles, M
S E.E Manager, Advanced
Miller, Arthur I., Ph.D.
Philosophy, and Communication of Science,
Prof, of History,
Mollenhoff, Clark R., D Former Prof of
J
Microcontroller Applications, Motorola Inc. Journalism, Washington and Lee Univ.
Univ. College London
Merford, Sara Stock, PhD Assoc. Prof, of Chem Monath, Thomas P., M.D. Vice President,
istry, DePaul Univ.
Miller, Carman, Ph.D. Prof, of History, McGill
Univ. Research and Medical Affairs. OraVax. Inc
Mellard, James M., Ph.D. Prof of English, Moncton, David E., Ph.D Director, Advanced
Northern Illinois Univ. Miller, Dean, BA Managing Editor, The (Idaho
Falls, IDI Post Register Ftioton Source Argonne National Laboratory.
Mehtzer, Jack, MA Former Dean, School of the
Miller, E. Willard, Ph.D. Prot of Geography and Monet, Jacques, Ph.D Director, Canadian Insti-
Social Sciences, Univ. of Texas, Dallas.
Assoc. Dean for Resident Instruction, College of tute of Jesuit Studies.
Mendelssohn, Irving A, Prof of Oceanog-
Ph.D.
Earth and Mineral Sciences, Pennsylvania State Money, K. E, N.D.C Senior Scientist, Defence
raphy and Coastal Sciences, Louisiana State Univ. Univ. and Gvil Institute of Environmental Medicine.
Mender, Harvey A, PhD Director, Training and Miller, H. Lewis, B.S. Executive Vice President, Monk, Patricia, Ph.D. Prof of English, Dalhousie
Organizational Development, Adecco. International Association of Fairs and Expositions. Univ.
Menke, William
State Historic Site.
V., M.S. Curator, Vincennes Miller, J. D. B., MA
Former Executive Director, Montebn, Michael, Ph.D. Prof of History Univ
Academy of the Social Sciences, Australia of California, San Diego.
Menning, Carol Bresnahan, PhD Prof of Histo
Miller, J. Maxwell, Ph.D Director, Graduate Moody, Joyceryn K., Ph.D Asst Prof, of English,
ry. Univ of Toledo Studies in Religion, Emory Univ. Univ. of Washington.
Mensoian, Michael G., J.D. Prof, of Geography;
Dir., Armenian Studies, Univ of Massachusetts.
Miller,J. Patrick, MA
President, National Moody, Patricia A, Ph.D. Assoc. Prof of English,
Association of Rocketry. Syracuse Univ.
Mercer, Charles, BA Author, Legion of Miller, James E,
M.S. Former Prof, of Mooney, Raymond Prof ofPh.D. Computer
J.,
Strangers: the Vivid History of a Unique Military Meteorology, Polytechnic Univ. of New York- Science. Univ. of Texas at Austin
Tradition: the French Foreign Legion.
Miller, James S., Ph.D. Assoc. Curator and Asst. Moore, Dement Henry, Ph.D Prof, of
Merchant, Carolyn, PhD Prof of Conservation Dept Head, Africa and Madagascar Dept., Mis- Government, Univ of Texas, Austin.
and Resource Studies, Univ. of California,
souri Botanical Garden
Berkeley. Moore, Jeffrey M., Ph.D. Research Scientist,
Miller, Jane K., Ph.D. Former Prof., Lone Moun- National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Merenstein, Gerald B-, M.D. Prof of Pediatrics tain College. Ames Research Center.
and Senior Assoc. Dean of Education, Univ. of Col
orado School of Medicine. Miller, John E., Ph.D Prof, of History, South Moore, Michael O., Ph.D Assoc. Prof of
Dakota State Univ. Economics and International Affairs, George
Merkl, Peter H., Ph.D. Emeritus of Political
Prof.
Washington Univ.
Science, Univ. of California, Santa Barbara Lee D., Ph.D. Curator, Allyn Museum of
Miller,
Entomology Florida Museum of Natural History. Moore, Paul H-, Ph.D Research Leader. Agricul-
Mermel, T. W., B.S.Engr Consulting engineer; tural Research Service, U.S. Dept of Agriculture.
author, Register of Dams in the United States
Miller, Raymond Director, Interna
J., Jr., Ph.D.
tional Program in Agriculture and Natural Re- Moore, Raymond K., Ph.D Prof of Gvil
Merriam, Alan P., Ph.D Former Prof, of sources, Univ. of Maryland, College Park. Engineering, L'niv of Kansas
Anthropology, Indiana Univ.. Bloomington
Miller, Timothy T, M.D. Clinical Asst. Prof, of Morain, Stanley A, Ph.D Director Earth Data
Merritt, James Douglas, Ph.D. Former Prof, of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Univ. of Illinois Analysis Center. Univ of New Mexico.
English, Brooklyn College, City Univ. of New York College of Medicine, Chicago. Moran, Joseph M., Ph.D. Prof of Earth Science,
Mertz, Barbara, Ph.D Author. Temples, Tombs
 Contributors and consultants XXXV

Univ. ot Wisconsin, Green Bay. Univ of North Dakota; Chairperson, North Dakota Neil, Randy L, B.S. Founder and President,
Morant, Ricardo B., Ph D. Fierman Prof of
Geographic Alliance International Cheerleading Association, Inc
Psychology, Brandeis Univ. Munscn. Edwin S., M
D Diplomate of the Nelson, Don H., MD Prof of Medicine Emeri-
Moreno, Cesareo, M.FA Visual Arts Director, American Board of Anesthesiology tus, Univ. of Utah College of Medicine.
Mexican Fine Arts Center Museum. Chicago. Mumane, William )., PhD Prof of Ancient Nelson, Hank, Ph D Prof of Pacific and Asian
Morgan, Anthony W., Ph D Prof., Dept. of Edu- History, Univ. of Memphis. History, Australian National Univ
cation Leadership and Policy, Univ. of Utah. Murphy, Bruce Allen, Ph D Fred Morgan Uirby Nelson, Jack L, Ed.D Former Prof, of Education.
Morgan, H. Wayne, PhD George Lynn Cross Prof, of Civil Rights, Lafayette College. Rutgers, the State Univ. of New Jersey.
Research Prof of History, Univ. of Oklahoma. Murray, Barbara B., PhD Chairperson. Finance Nelson, Mark D-, M.FA Former Asst. Prof, of
Morgan, Richard F_, Ph D Prof of Constitutional and Business Economics School of Management, Music, Wabash College.
Univ. of Michigan, Dearborn.
Law and Government, Bowdoin College. Nelson, Paul David, Ph D Prof of History. Berea
Morgan, T. Clifton, Ph D Albert Thomas Prof of Murray, John P., Ph D Prof., School of Family College.
Studies and Human Services, Kansas State Univ.
Political Science. Rice Univ. Nelson, Roy Paul, MS
Prof of Journalism, Univ
Moritz, Owen, BA Former Urban Affairs Editor, Muscari, Joseph A., Ph D Program Manager, of Oregon; author, The Cartoonist
New York Daily News. Lockheed Martin Corp. Nelson, Thomas, D Phil. Foreign Researcher,
Morowitz, Harold J., Ph D Robinson Prof, of Muscatine, L, PhD Prof Emeritus of Biology, Univ. of Tokyo, HistoriographicaTlnstitute.
Univ. of California, Los Angeles.
Biology and Director of Krasnow Institute, George Netravali, Arun N., Ph.D. Former President, Bell
Mason Univ. Musiek, Frank E., Ph.D. Director of Audiology, Labs, Lucent Technologies.
Morris, Clair E., Ph D Prof of Economics. U.S. Dartmouth Medical School. Neumann, Robert G., Ph.D. Former Senior Ad-
Naval Academy. Musoke, Jessica, Ph D Research Representative, viser, Center for Strategic and International Stud-
Morris, Mark, PhD Prof of Astronomy, Univ. of Mathematica Policy Research. ies. Washington, D.C
California, Los Angeles. Musto, David F., M
D Prof of Child Psychiatry Neusner, Jacob, Ph D Distinguished Research
and History of Medicine, Yale Liniv. Prof, of Religious Studies, Univ of South Florida
Morrison, Rodney J., Ph D William R. Kenan
Prof, of Economics, Wellesley College. Mutu, Margaret, PhD Head, Dept. of Maori Neville, Cynthia )., Ph D Prof of History, Dal-

Morrissett, Irving Emeritus Prof of Economics, Studies, Univ. of Auckland. housie Univ.
Univ. of Colorado. Myers, Garth A., Ph D. Asst Prof, of Geography. Newman, Oscar, BArch Pres and Exec. Dir , In

Morrow, Monica, M.D. Prof of Surgery, North Univ. of Kansas stitute for Community Design Analysis, Inc.
western Univ. Medical School; Director, Lynn Sage Myers, Robert J., MA
Author. Celebrations. The Nicely, Kenneth A, Ph D Prof, of Biology,
Comprehensive Breast Program, Northwestern Complete Book of American Holidays. Western Kentucky Univ.
Memorial Hospital. Myhre, Larry, BA Editor, Sioux OfyllAI journal Nicholson, H. B., Ph D Emeritus Prof, of
Morse, Edward M.D. Prof of Laboratory
E., Myles, Edward L, Ph D Prof Emeritus of Anthropology. Univ of California, Los Angeles.
Medicine, Univ of Connecticut Geography, California State Univ., Chico. Nicholson, Philip D., Ph.D. Prof, of Astronomy.
Morton, Desmond, Ph D Director, McGill Insti- Myrsiades, Kostas, Ph D Prof of Comparative
Cornell Univ.
tute for the Study of Canada Literature, West Chester Univ. Nicodemus, Charles E., Jr., BS Government
Morton, Graeme, Ph D Lecturer in Economic Reporter, Chicago Sun-Times.
and Social History, Univ. of Edinburgh. N Niemeyer, Carl, Ph D Former Prof of English.
Moser, Katrina A., Ph.D. Asst. Prof Dept. of Ge- Nabokov, Peter, Ph D. Asst Prof of Union College.
ography, Univ. of Utah. Anthropology, Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison. Niesen, James R. Executive Director, Binding
Mosher, Paul H., Ph.D. Vice Provost and Director Nadeau, Roger, Ph.D. Head, Dept of Geography, Industries of America
of Libraries, Univ. of Pennsylvania. Univ. of Sherbrooke. Nightingale, Dave, B S Free lance writer Inside
Moss, Cynthia, BA Director, Amboseli Elephant Nadelson, Theodore, MD Clinical Prof, of Sports and Sport Magazine
Research Project Psychiatry, Boston Univ. School of Medicine. Niiler,Peam, Ph D Prof of Oceanography,
Moss, Mark M.D. Fellow in Allergy and Im-
H., Nadler, Henry L, MD Prof.Emeritus of Pedi- Scripps Institution of Oceanography.
munology, Univ of Wisconsin Hospital & Clinics atrics, Univ. of Illinois, Chicago. Niles, David M., PhD Former Curator of Birds,
Mossey, Peter R. Former Editor, Medicine Hat Nadler, Leonard, Ed D Prof Emeritus of Adult Delaware Museum of Natural History.
(ABI News. Education and Human Resource Development, Niles, Susan A, Ph D Prof of Anthropology,
Motd, Thomas O., PhD Division Director, George Washington Univ. Lafayette College.
Strategic Systems, Analytic Sciences Corp. Nagel, Roy K. Editor, The Prince George IBO Nilsson, Greta, AA Wildlife Consultant, Animal
Mould, Jeremy, Ph.D. Director, Mount Stromlo Citizen. Welfare Institute.

and Siding Spring Observatories, National Nagle, D. Brendan, Ph.D. Assoc Prof., Univ. of Nisetich, Frank, Ph.D. Prof of Classics. Univ of
Australia Univ. Southern California. Massachusetts.
Mourton, Alice, B Ed Former Teacher-Librarian. Najfta, Tetsuo, Ph.D. Prof of History, Univ of Nix, J. Rayford, Ph D Nuclear Theory Staff
Winnipeg School Division # 1. Chicago. Member, Los Alamos National Laboratory.
Mourton, Edward C, Ph D Prof of History. Univ. Napier, Rita G., Ph D Assoc Prof of History, Nixon, Donald M. Ph D Prof of Agricultural
of Manitoba. Univ. of Kansas. Economics, Texas A&M Univ., Kingsville.

Moulton, Gary E., Ph D. Prof of History, Univ. of Nash, Bonnie, MA Editor and Publisher, Trap & Noble, Thomas F. X., Ph D Assoc. Prof of
Nebraska, Lincoln. Field magazine. History, Univ of Virginia
Mounfield, Peter R., Ph D Senior Lecturer in Nash, Ray, ArtD Author, Printing As an Art Nochimson, Martha, Ph D Prof of English,
Geography, Univ. of Leicester. Nash, Stanley L, Ph D Prof of Hebrew Litera Mercy College; author No End to Her Soap Opera
Moyer, Albert Ph D Prof and Chair, Dept of
E., Hebrew Union College-Jewish
ture, Institute of and the Female Subject
History, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State Religion. Nock, Steven L, Ph.D Prof, of Sociology. Univ, of
Univ. Virginia.
Nash, Suzanne, Ph D Prof of French, Princeton
Muchie, Mammo, D Phil Visiting Professor Aal Univ Nolan, Mary, PhD Prof, of History, New York
borg Univ., Denmark Naske, Claus-M., Ph D Exec Dir Univ of Alaska Univ.

Muckleston, Keith W., PhD Prof. Emeritus of Press; coauthor, Alaska: A History of the 49th State Noll, Mark A, Ph D. Prof, of History Wheaton
Geography, Oregon State Univ. Nathan, David M., M.D Director, Diabetes College.

Mueller, Robert G, J.D. Commissioner, U.S. Center, Massachusetts General Hospital Nordstrom, Byron J., Ph D Prof of History and
Court of Military Appeals. D Khalid bin Sultan Eminent Scandinavian Studies, Gustavus Adolphus College.
Nathan, James, Ph
Mugnai, Robert Vice President and Publisher, Scholar, Auburn Univ Montgomery , Norfleet, Donald S., BA Business Editor, News
Tribune Co Inc Publications
Salon News, Fairchild Publications Nathan, Ronald G., Ph D Former Prof of Family
Mulder, John M., Ph D President, Louisville Pres- Practice and Psychiatry. Albany Medical College Norse, Elliott A, Ph D President Marine Conser-
byterian Theological Seminary. Nathanson, Stephen, PhD Prof of Philosophy sanon Biology Institute
Mulholland, M. Robert, Jr., Th D VP and Chief Northeastern Lniv Northrop, Gretajo, Ph D Assoc Prof of Medi
Academic Officer, Asbury Theological Seminary cine and of Obstetncs and C>-necology and Assm
Marie D., PhD Prof of Political Science
Natoli,
Attending Physician Rush-Presbvterian-St. Lukes
Mullen, Kieran, Ph.D. Assoc. Prof of Physics, Emmanuel College, Boston
Medical Center Chicago
Univ. of Oklahoma. Navarro, Marysa, Ph D Prof of History,
Norwood, A, Ph D Prof Ementus of Historv ut
Mullen, Patricia Ann, MA
President. Tigon Dartmouth College.
Chnstianirs
F.
Garrett Esangelual Theological Semi-
American, Inc. Nazareth, Peter, BA Prof of English and narv
Muller, Edward K-, Ph D Prof of Historv. Univ. of AfricanAmencan World Studies L'niv of Iowa
Nott, Gerry, BA Deputy Managing Editor 77>e
Pittsburgh. Neal,Dan Editor CasperWY) Star-Tnbune. Hamilton lONi Spectator
Muller, Peter O., Ph D Chairperson, Dept. of Ge- Needles, Howard L, Ph D Pro! truer ol Textile Novick, Julius, DFA Prof of Literature Purchase
ography and Regional Studies, Univ ot Miami and Materials Science Unh . it California Dasis
College Sine I ">s of New York
Mullin, James V., M.E d MLS IS ..
President Irish
Neely, Mark E., Jr., Ph D Pnit ol Historv and Novick, Sheldon M. Si holar in Resident r
Famine Curriculum Committee. Amencan Studies Saint Louis rW> \
Vermont lass School author la*\ ot
Munnell, Alicia Haydock, Ph D. Director, Center Neely, Shartotte. Ph D Prof of Anthropoloqs Fm inwnwntal Protection
for Retirement Research, Boston College Northern K> " Novotny, Donald W., Ph D Prof of Electncal and
Munski, Douglas C, Ph D Prof, of Geography
XXXVI Contributors and consultants

Computer Engineering, Univ. of Wisconsin. Jewish Studies, McGill Univ. Parkinson, Robert L, B.S. Former Research
Nunn, Kenneth B v |.D Prot of Law, Fredric C. Oreskes, Michael Washington Bureau Chief Center Director, Circus World Museum.
Levin College of Law. Univ. of Florida. The Vpm York Times. Parmet, Robert D., Ph.D Prof of History, York
Nye, Joseph S., Jr., Ph.D. Chairman National Orgel, Stephen, PhD Jackson Eli Reynolds Prof,
College, City Univ. of New York.
Intelligence Council, Central Intelligence Agency. of Humanities, Stanford Univ. Parrott, Barton, BA Corporate consultant and
Nye, MJ., Ph.D. Horning Prof, of Humanities and Orlin, Louis L, Ph.D Prof. Emer. of Ancient Near trainer: former Editor, Canoe.

Prof of History. Oregon State Univ. Eastern History and Literature, Univ. of Michigan. Partner, Nancy F., Ph.D Prof of History, McGill
Nyhan, Constance W., MLS. Former Graduate Ormsby, William, MA Former Ar< hiust
Univ.
Ad\iser Graduate School of Library and Informa- Archives of Ontario. Pasachoff, jay M., Ph.D. Field Memorial Prof, of
tion Science, Univ. of California, Los Angeles O'Rourke, Thomas D-, Ph.D Thomas R. Briggs Astronomy and Director, Hopkins Observatory of
Williams College.
o Engineering, School of Civil and Environ-
Prof, of
mental Engineering, Cornell Univ. Passet, Joanne E., Ph.D. Assoc. Prof., School of
Oakes, David D., M.D. Prof of Surgery, Stanford Onr, Delilah, M.Ed. Asst. Prof., DepL of English, Library and Information Science, Indiana Univ.
Univ. School of Medicine. Fort Lewis College. Passow, A Harry, Ed.D. Former Prof, of Educa-
O'Banion, Terry U., PhD Pres. and CEO League Ortiz, Alfonso, Ph.D. Former Prof, of Anthropolo tion, Teachers College. Columbia Univ.
Community College.
for Innovation in the gy, Univ. of New Mexico. Patel, Medha S., BA Former Asst. in Directors
Oberg, James, MS Spaceflight engineer; Osborn, Jack R-, BA. Former President, United
Office, National Museum of American An
author. UFOs and Outer Space Mvstenes. States Croquet Association Smithsonian Institution.

Oberright, John E., B.M.E. Advanced Missions O'Shea, Brian P., MA Content Manager, Inside Patterson, James
Brown Unix
Tv Ph.D Prof, of History,

Study Manager, National Aeronautics and Space Central Florida.

Administration Goddard Space Flight Center. Patterson, Victoria D., Ph.D. Educator,
Osier, Margaret J., Ph.D. Assoc. Prof, of History,
O'Brien, David M., Ph.D. Prof, of Government Univ. of Calgary. Redwood Region Consortium for Professional
Univ. of Virginia. Development, Mendocino College.
Osman, M. O. M., Dr S( Techn. Prof. Emer ot En
O Callaghan, John S., MBA Staff Engineer Bell gineering, Concordia Univ. Patton, James L, Ph.D. Prof. Emeritus, Dept of
& Howell Co Integrative Biology, Museum of Vertebrate
Oster, Harry, Ph.D. Former Prof, of English, Univ.
Zoology, Univ. of California, Berkeley.
O'Connell, Anne C, M.S. Director. Clinical Re- of Iowa.
search Core, National Institute of Dental Research. Paul, Iain C, Ph.D. Prof of Chemistry, Univ. of Illi-
Ostrower, Gary B., Ph.D. Prof, of History, Alfred
nois, Urbana-Champaign.
O'Connell, Marvin R-, Ph.D. Prof, of History, Univ. lni\
of Notre Dame.
Ouellet, Fernand, Ph.D Prof, of History, York
Paul, James C
N v D Brennan Prof, of Law
|

Emeritus, Rutgers, the State Univ. of New Jersey.

OTJell, C R-, Ph.D Prof, of Space Physics and Univ., Canada.
Astronomy, Rice Univ.
Ouellette, Robert Ph.D. Prof, of Chemistry,
Paulenich, Nicholas A., MA Public Relations
J., Director, U.S. Speedskating.
Odell, Daniel K., Ph.D. Adjunct Prof., Dept of Bi- Ohio State Univ.
ology, Univ. of Central Florida. Paulsgrove, Robin, BA Fire Chief, Arlington
Ouse, David J., MLS Manager. Reference and ITX) Fire Dept.
Odom, Selma Landen, Ph.D. Assoc. Prof of Information Services, Duluth Public Library.
Dance and Women s Studies, York Univ. Paulson, Boyd C, Jr., Ph.D Prof ot Civil
Overland, James E., Ph.D. Supervisory Oceanog- Engineering, Stanford Univ.
O Donnell, John L, Jr., B.S. Former Director of rapher, Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory,
Facilities, Dept of Intercollegiate Athletics, Univ. of National Oceanic and Atmospheric Admin. Paulson, Dennis, Ph.D. Director, Museum of
Illinois, Urbana-Champaign. Natural History, Univ, of Puget Sound.
Owen, Tobias C, Ph.D. Prof, of Astronomy,
Oetinger, David F., Ph.D. Prof, of Biology, Instrtute for Astronomy. Univ. of Hawaii. Honolulu. Pausch, Randy, Ph.D. Prof of Computer Science,
Kentucky Wesleyan College. Carnegie Mellon Univ.
Owens, Robert A., Ph.D. Research Chemist, Mo-
Ogan, Ronald A., BA
President, Ogan Antiques, lecular Plant Pathology Laboratory, Beltsville Agri- Pavelka, Ed, B.S. Director of Internet Content.
Ltd; former Editor,Rampant Colt magazine. cultural Research Center, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.
Performance Bicycle.
Ogden, Michael R., Ph.D. Assoc. Prof., Dept of Oyier, David D. Copy Editor, Me (Wilmington, M
Payne, Craig v MS Instructor, Weapons and
Communication, Univ. of Hawaii, Manoa. DFJ News journal. Systems Engineering, U.S. Naval Academy
Oh, Bonnie Bongwan Cho, Ph.D. Distinguished Ozment, Steven, Ph.D. McLean Prof, of Ancient Payne, Robert B., Ph.D. Curator of Birds and
Prof of Korean Studies, Georgetown Univ. and Modern History, Harvard Univ. Prof, of Biology, Univ. of Michigan.
OhnukKTierney, Emiko, PhD William F Vilas Payne, Stanley G., Ph.D. Prof of History, Univ. of
Research Prof, of Anthropology, Univ. of Wiscon- Wisconsin, Madison; author, A History of Spain
sin, Madison. and Portugal.
Paaswell, Robert E., Ph.D. Director. University
O'Leary, Brendan, Ph.D. Prof, of Political Sci- Transportation Research Center, City College of Peacock, James L, Ph.D. Prof of Anthropology,
ence, London School of Economics and Political New York Univ. of North Carolina.
Science. Packer, Alex Ph.D. President and CEO, FCD Pearson, NeaJe )., Ph.D. Prof Emeritus of Politi-
J.,
O'Leary, Philip R., Ph.D. Assoc. Prof, of Engineer Educational Services. cal Science, Texas Tech Univ.
ing Professional Development, Univ. of Wisconsin PaJmateer, James Former Managing Editor, The Pearson, Stuart, Ph.D Lecturer, School of Geo-
Olien, Roger M., Ph.D. Prof, of History, Univ. of OshawalON\ Times. sciences, Univ. of Newcastle.
Texas, Odessa. PaJmer, Colin A, Ph.D Distinguished Prof, of Peck, Abe, BA Chairman, Magazine Publishing
Olsen, Gary J., Ph.D. Assoc. Prof, of Microbiolo History, City Univ. of New York Graduate School. Program Medill School of Journalism, Northwest-
gy, Univ. of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign. ern Univ. %
Pandya, Rajul F_, Ph.D. Asst. Prof, of Atmospher-
Olshansky, S. Jay, Ph.D. Professor of Epidemiol- ic Science, West Chester Univ. Peck, Chris Managing Editor, 77?eiSpokane,
ogy, Univ. of Illinois at Chicago.
Pankhurst, Richard, Ph.D. Prof., Institute of
WAI Spokesman-Review.
Olson, Donald W., PhD Prof., Dept. of Physics, Ethiopian Studies. Peck, Malcolm C, Ph.D. Program Officer, Merid-
Southwest Texas State Univ. ian International Center, Programming Division;
Pankhurst, Tim Editor, rftefChristchurch, NZ)
former Arabian Peninsula Affairs Anafvst. Bureau
Olson, James S., Ph.D. Distinguished Prof, of His- Press.
of Intelligence and Research US Dept of State.
tory, Sam Houston State Univ. Pannabecker, Rachel K., Ph.D. Director. Kauff-
Pellegrino, Charles, Ph.D. Paleontologist and
Olson, Judy M., PhD Prof, of Geography man Museum.
archaeologist
Michigan State Univ. Panozzo, Michael E., BA Editor Billiards Digest
Pelletier, Kenneth
M.D. Director, Stanford
R-,
Olson, Maynard V., Ph.D. Prof, of Medicine and Pantuso, Peter J. President and CEO, American Corporate Health Program, Stanford Univ. School
Genome Sciences, Univ. of Washington Genome Bus Association. of Medicine.
Center.
Papenfuse, Edward C, Ph.D. Sr Facility Assoc, Pelley, Patricia M., Ph.D Asst Prof of Historv
Olson, Richard G., Ph.D. Prof., Dept of Humani Gradual Liberal Arts Program and Division of Un- Texas Tech Univ.
ties and Social Sciences, Harvey Mudd College.
dergraduate Studies, )ohns Hopkins Univ.
NeaJ R., Ph.D. Program Director, Cellular
Pellis,
Michael P., PhD Former Asst Prof, of
O'Neill,
Parascenzo, Marino A, BA Golf Writer, Biotechnology Program, National Aeronautics and
Geography, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State Pittsburgh 'PA' Post Gazette. Space Administration-Johnson Space Center
Univ.
Parashonts, Travis N., BA Administrator, Dept Pelrine, Michael Regional Executive Editor.
Onwudiwe, Ebere, Ph.D. Prof., Political Science; of Family Support, State of Utah. Independent Newspapers,
J.,
Inc.
Dir., Center for African Studies Central State Univ.
Parker, George R., Ph.D. Prof, of Forestn Pemberton, William E-, Ph.D. Prof of History,
Opgrande, J. Donald, M.D. Chairman, Division Purdue Univ Univ of Wisconsin, La Crosse
of Orthopedic Surgery, Univ of North Dakota
Sr hool of Medicine. Parker, Henry S., Ph.D. National Program Leader Pender, Michael R-, M.S. Executive Director,
for Aquaculture, US Dept. of Agriculture World s Fair Collectors Society, Inc
Oppenheimer, Bruce I., Ph.D. Prof, of Political
Science, Vanderbilt Univ. Parker, John, Ph.D Curator Ementus, James Pendleton, Wade C, Ph.D. Prof of Anthropolo-
Ford Bell Library, Univ. of Minnesota. gy. San Diego State Univ.
Oppenheimer, John R., Ph.D. -\ssoc. Prof., Biolo-
gy; Dir Environmental
, Science Masters Program, Parker, Sue Morrow, Ed.D. Asst Prof., Dept of Penn, Richard D., M.D. Prof of Neurosurgery,
City Univ of New
York, College of Staten Island ( Inthing, Textiles and Design, Univ. of Alabama. Rush-Presbyterian-St Lukes Medical Center

Orel, Harold, PhD Univ Prot Emeritus Univ. of Parker, Thomas J., BEET
Rsch Technologist II, Pennington, Kenneth, Ph.D. Prof, of History
Kansas National Electric Energy Testing Research and Ap Syracuse I mv
plications Center, Georgia Institute of Technology.
Orenstein, Eugene V., Ph.D. Assoc. Prof, of Pennycook, Stephen J., Ph.D. Corporate Fellow,
 Contributors and consultants XXXVII

Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Pisetsky, DavidS., M.D., Ph D Prof of Medicine Powell, Arthur G., Ph D. Researcher and
Peregrin, M. Isabelle, B S. Assoc Editor, The and immunology, Duke Univ. Medical Center Consultant.
(Hot Springs, AR) Sentinel-Record. J. Roland, Ph.D.
Pitts, Senior Scientist II, National Powell, Evan, BA Director of Engineering,
Perez, Louis A., Jr., Ph D. Prof of History, Univ. Renewable Energy Laboratory. Southeastern Products, Inc.
of North Carolina, Chapel Hill. Pitts, William Karl, PhD Senior Research Scien- Powell, Roger A., PhD Assoc. Prof of Zoology
Perini, Lynda, B.A. Marketing Mgr., Sony Corp. tist II, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory and Forestry, North Carolina State Univ.
Perkins, Barbara M., Ph.D. Adjunct Prof., Univ. Plante, Julian C, PhD Founding Executive Di- Power, Harry W., PhD Prof., Dept. of Ecology,
of Toledo; Assoc. Editor, Narrative. rector Emeritus. Hill Monastic Manuscript Library. Evolution and Natural Resources, Rutgers, the

Perkins, Edwin J., Ph.D. Prof. Emeritus of History, Plante, Michael, Ph.D. lessie Poesch Prof, of
|
State Univ. of New Jersey.
Univ. of Southern California. Newcomb
Art History, Art Dept., Tulane Univ Powers, Lenita, BA. Reporter, Reno Newspa-
Plaut, Andrew C, M.D. pers, ln<
Perkins, Kenneth )., PhD Prof, of History, Univ. Director of Digestive
of South Carolina. Disease Research Center and Prof of Medicine, Powless, Robert E., Ph.D. Prof and Dept. Head,
New England Medical Center
Tufts Univ., American Indian Studies, Univ. of Minnesota.
Perman, Michael, Prof of History and Re-
Ph.D.
search Prof, in the Humanities, Univ. of Illinois, Pletcher, James, Ph.D. Assoc. Prof, of Political Poynter, Dan, BA. Columnist, Parachutist
Chicago. Science, Denison Univ magazine; author, Parachuting, The Skydiver's
Plotkin, Allen, PhD Prof of Aerospace Handbook.
Perry, Edgar Director, White Mountain Apache
Culture Center. Engineering, San Diego State Univ. Pranger, Robert J., Ph.D. Managing Ed., Med-
Plutchik, Robert, Ph D Prof of Psychiatry and iterranean Quarterly: Adjunct Prof, American Univ.
Pervin, Lawrence A., PhD Prof of Psychology,
Rutgers, the State Univ. of New Jersey. Psychology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine. Pratt, Norman T., Emeritus Prof, of
Ph.D.
Poag, James F., PhD Prof, of German, Classics, Indiana Univ., Bloomington.
Pesic, Peter, PhD Tutor, St John s College; au-
thor, Seeing Double: Shared Identities in Physics, Washington Univ., St. Louis. Presley, Cora Ann, Ph.D. Former Assoc. Prof, of

Philosophy,and Literature. Poeppel, Roger B., Ph.D. Dir, Energy Technolo History, Tulane Univ.

Peters, Charles M., Ph D Kate E Tode Curator of gy Division, Argonne National Laboratory. Presley, Lawrence A., MA Chief, Quality
Botany, The New York Botanical Garden. Poertner, Andrew, BA Managing Editor, Assurance Unit, FBI Laboratory.

Peters, Edward, Ph.D. Prof, of History, Univ. of

RoswelHNMi Daily Record. Pressman, David, D J Patent lawyer and author
Pennsylvania. Pohlmann, Ken C, MS E E Director of Music Preston, Katherine K., Ph.D. Assoc Prof of Mu-
Petersen, Harold A, Ph.D. Former Assoc Prof,
Engineering, Univ. of Miami. sic, College of William and Mary.
of History, Univ of Southwestern Louisiana. Pointer, Richard W., Ph.D. Assoc. Prof, of Prezant, Robert S., PhD Dean, College of Sci-
Peterson, Charles H v Ph.D. Alumni Distin- History, Trinity College. ence and Mathematics, Montclair State Univ.
guished Prof, of Marine Sciences, Biology, and Polachek, Dora E., PhD Senior Lecturer of Price, Bobby E., Ph.D. Prof, of Civil Engineering,
Ecology, Untv. of North Carolina. French, Cornell Univ. Louisiana Tech Univ.
Peterson, John W., B S Wildlife 8iologist, Fish Polachek, Solomon W., Ph D Prof, of Econom- Price, Hugh C, Ph.D. Prof, and Chairperson,
and Wildlife Service, US Dept. of the Interior. ics, State Univ. of New York, Binghamton. Dept of Horticultural Science, Cornell Univ.

Petrie, Joanne, J.D. Senior Attorney, U.S. Dept. of Polasky, Janet l_, PhD Prof of History, Univ. of Price, Richard, Ph.D. Prof, of American Studies
Transportation. New Hampshire. Anthropology, and History, College of William and
B A Former Director of Mary.
Petro, Nicolai N., Ph.D. Prof, of Political Science, Polis, John E.,
Univ. of Rhode Island. Communications, U.S. Soccer Federation. Price, Steven D., LLB Author The Whole Horse
Politoske, Daniel T., PhD Catalog
Pettigrew, Thomas F v Ph D Research Prof, of Prof, of Music
Social Psychology, Univ. of California, Santa Cruz. History, Univ of Kansas. Priddle, George B.,
Former Assoc. Prof, of
Ph.D.

Prof, of English, Univ. of South- Environment and Resource Studies, Univ. of

Petulla,Joseph M., Ph.D. Prof.Emeritus, Environ- Polk, Noel, Ph.D.
Waterloo, Ontario.
mental Management, Univ of San Francisco. ern Mississippi.
Pfaff,Daniel W., Ph.D. Prof. Emeritus of Journal- Pollard, James E., PhD Assoc Prof, of Plant
Pride, Mike, BA Editor, Conrord(NH\ Monitor
ism, Pennsylvania State Univ. Biology and Biology Program Coordinator, Univ Prigo, Robert B., Ph D Prof, of Physics,

Pfeifer, Ellen Music Critic and Arts Writer, The of New Hampshire. Middlebury College.
Boston Globe. Pollock, PhD Dunbar Distinguished
George H., Primack, Joel R., Ph D Prof, of Physics. Urns of
and Behavioral Sciences, North-
Prof, of Psychiatry California, Santa Cruz
Phelps, J. Alfred, MA. Author, Chappie: Daniel
western Univ. Medical School Pritchett, Edward C, Former Chief,
lames, jr., Americas First Black Four-Star General B.S.
Polmar, Norman, B A. Author, Ships and Aircraft Geotechnical Branch, Headquarters, U.S. Army
Phelps, Michael E., PhD Prof and Chair, Dept
of the U.S. Fleet and Guide to the Soviet Navy. Corps of Engineers.
of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, Univ. of
California, Los Angeles, School of Medicine. Poluhowich, John J., Ph D Prof.. Life, Earth, and Prockter, Louise M., PhD Senior Professional
Philips, F. Carter, Ph.D. Assoc. Prof, of Classics,
Environmental Sciences, West Texas A&M Univ. Staff Scientist, Applied Physics Laboratory, Johns

B A City
Hopkins Univ.
Vanderbilt Univ. Pommer, David, Hall Bureau Reporter,
Phillips, Bill Security consultant.
The Calgary (AB) Herald. Procter, James E., BA Night Editor TftelGary,

Phillips, Carla Rahn, Ph.D. Prof of History, Univ.

Pope, Harrison G., Jr., M.D., MP H. Prof, of Psy-
INI Post-Tribune.

of Minnesota, Twin Cities Campus.

chiatry, Harvard Medical School. Prusiner, Stanley B., M
D Director. Institute for
Saskatoon Neurodegenerative Diseases, Univ. of California,
Popoff, Wilfred Former Assoc. Editor,
Phillips, Charles F., Jr., Ph.D. Robert G Brown San Francisco winner of Nobel Prize for physiolo-
(SKI Star-Phoenix.
Prof, of Economics, Washington and Lee Univ. gy or medicine, 1997.
Porch, Douglas, Ph D Mark W. Clark Prof, of
Phillips, Gene D., Ph.D. Prof of English, Loyola Purpel, David E, Ed D Prof of Educational,
History, The Citadel
Univ. of Chicago. Leadership, and Cultural Foundations Univ. of
Porco, Carolyn, Ph D Cussini Imaging
Prof., North Carolina. Greensboro.
Phillips, William D., Jr., Ph.D. Prof of History
Central Laboratory for Operations, Southwest Re-
Univ. of Minnesota, Twin Cities Campus. Pusey, Merlo J., LLD Former Assoc Editor,
search Institute.
Phills, Bobby R., Ph.D. Dean and Director, Col- tl 'asnington Post & Times Herald winner of
Porter, Brian, Ph.D. Assoc. Prof of History, Univ. Pulitzer Prize tor Biographv 1952.
lege of Engineering Sciences, Technology and
of Michigan. Ann Arbor.
Agriculture, Florida A&M Univ. Putzel, James D Phil Director Development Re-
Porter, Stephen C, Ph.D. Prof Dept. of Geologi-
,
search Centre, London School of Economics and
Picard, Louis A., Ph.D. Director, Division of Inter
cal Sciences. Univ. of Washington Political Science
national Development, Graduate School of Public
and International Affairs, Univ. of Pittsburgh. Porton, Gary G., PhD Prof., Director of Program Pyle, Kenneth B., Ph D Prof ot Historv and Asian
Picard, M. Dane, Ph.D. Prof of Geology and
for the Study of Religion, Univ. of Illinois, Urbana- Studies Henr\ M
larkson School of International
Champaign. Studies inn of Washington,
Geophysics, Univ. of Utah.
Posner, Gerald L, |.D. Journalist; Author.
Picciano, Mary Frances, Ph.D. Prof, of Nutrition,
Mengele TheCompleti
Pennsylvania State Univ.
Possony, Stefan T., LLD Author Lenin the Quartaro, Emma Giordano, D S U Director
Picus, Lawrence O., PhD Prof and Chair Divi Compulsive Re\ olutionan Dept. ol Soi ial Work Seton Hall t nn
sion of Administration and Policy, Rossier School
of Education, Univ. of Southern California Post, Robert C, Phi) Editor in Quere, Ralph W., Ph 1) Prot ot HistOT) and
Technology and Culture Warihurq Theological Seminar)
*

Pierce, William S., M.D Prof, of Surgery, Col-

lege of Medicine. Pennsylvania State Univ. Poston, John W., Ph St., D Prof Dept of Nu- Quimby, William R., Us Director ol Publira
clear Engineering, Texas A&M I 'm\ lions Satan Club International.
Pikula, Joan Brock, B.A. Assoc. Editor, Dance
Magazine. Pottage, John C, Jr., M.D Assoc Prof of Quintiere, James C, Ph D Prot ol I ire Protec
Internal Medicine Rush Mel ginooring i nh ot Marjriand
Pinder, D. A., PhD Prof of Economic Ceogra-
Rush-Pn : Quirarte, Jacinto, Pti I) DirecKM RosaarohGen
phy. Univ. of Plymouth
Pough, Frederick H., Pti I) Consulting m ter for the Visual Arts l nh ol Texas San Antonio
Pinkava, Donald J., PhD Prof of Botanv
nisi .mthor Field C::
Arizona State Univ.
Poulson, Barry W.
Pinyuh, George, MA. Area Extension Agent,
Washington State Univ.
Raiit, W Dirk. Ph I) IVot ol FtUXDr) state I nh
Poulson, Thad tdn. ""*< of New >mk lnedonia
Piper, Linda Ph.D. Assoc Prof of History, Univ.
J.,
Thomas L, Ph D Prof, of Biota Rahiger, Michael. :
;
Dot umantHr)
of Georgia. Poulson,
XXXVIII Contributors and consultants

Rabiner, Donald, Ph.D. Former Assoc Prof, of Reich, Kenneth, MA Columnist Los Angeles Richter, David H., Ph.D. Prof, of English. Queens
Art History. Arizona State Univ. Times College, City Univ of New York.
Rabinowicz, Ernest, Ph.D Prof. Emeritus of Me- Reid, Donald J., Ph.D Prof Dept of Agricultural . Rickard, John, PhD Reader in History. Monash
chanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Sciences, Texas A&M
Univ., Commerce Univ.
Technology Reid, W. W., MA
Former Editor, All Hands Rickard, Lee J., PhD Research Astronomer,
Rabinowitz, Philip D., PhD Prof of Oceanogra magazine. Navy Internal Relations Activity. Naval Research Laboratory.
phy and Director, Ocean Drilling Program, Texas Reid, William PhD Coauthor, Massachusetts Rickspoone, Howard A, B.S. Former President,
A&M Univ. J.,

Medi American Contract. Inc

Reider, Bruce, M.D Director of Sports
Raboteau, Albert J., PhD Henry W Putnam cine. Prof, of Surgery. Univ. of Chicago. Ricou, Laurie R-, Ph.D. Prof, of English; Assoc
Prof, of Religion, Princeton Univ. Dean, Graduate Studies, Univ. of British Columbia
Reider, Richard G., Ph D Prof of Geography,
Rader, Patricia W., MLS Asst Catalog Librari-
Univ. ofWyoming. Rider,Jeff, PhD Assoc. Prof of French and
an,Dance Collection, New York Public Library. Medieval Studies, Wesleyan Univ.
Reilingh, Maarten, Ph D Free-lance writer and
Raedeke, Kenneth J., Ph D Research Assoc. editor Ridley, Jeanne Clare, Ph D Prof Emerita of
Prof., Wildlife Sciences Program, College of Forest Demography. Georgetown Univ.
Resources, L'niv. of Washington- Reilly, John G. Assoc Prof, of Culinary Arts, Culi-

Rahman, M. Omar, M.D D Sc Assoc Prof, of

nary Institute of America. Ridolfi, Mark, MA City Editor, (Davenport. LA)
,

Reilly, Timothy F., Ph D Assoc. Prof, of Historical Quad-City Times

Demography and Epidemiology, Harvard School
of Public Health Geography, Univ. of Southwestern Louisiana. Rieck, James Nelson, Ph.D Senior Research
Specialist, Miles, Inc
Raitt, Ph D Prof Emerita, Dept of Religious Reimer, Michael J., Ph D Assoc. Prof, of History,
Jill,

Studies, Univ. of Missouri. Columbia. American Univ in Cairo. Riedy, Mark J., Ph D Ernest Hahn Prof of W
Reimers, David M., PhD Prof Emeritus of Histo-
Real Estate Finance, Univ. of San Diego.
Raitz, Karl B., PhD Prof of Geography, Univ. of
ry, New York Univ. Rigg, Jonathan, Ph.D Reader in Geography,
Kentucky.
Reiners, Stephen, Ph D Assoc. Prof of Horticul- Univ. of Durham.
Rakove, Jack N., Ph D. Coe Prof of History and
American Studies, Stanford Univ. tural Sciences, Cornell Univ. Riggs, Paula DeCraffenreid, M.D Assoc Prof.,
PhD Psychiatry, Univ. of Colorado School of Medicine.
Raleigh, Donald )., PhD Pardue Prof, of History, Reiners, William A., Prof of Botany, Univ.
Univ. of North Carolina, Chapel Hill.
of Wvoming. Riley, Donald R., Ph.D. Assoc Vice President and
Reisch, Bruce Ph D Prof of Crape Genetics, Chief Information Officer, Univ. of Maryland.
Ramanathan, Veerabhadran, Ph D. Alderson I.,

Prof, of Ocean Sciences. Univ. of California, San

Cornell Univ. Riley, James D., PhD Assoc Prof of History,
Diego. Reiss, David L, M.D Head of Endocrinology. Catholic L niv of America

Ramesh, Lalita, Ph.D Research Assoc, Milken Kaiser Permanente Orange County, California. Riley, Jonathan, D.Phil. Prof., Murphy Institute of

Institute Reiss, Edmund, Ph D Author, Arthurian Legend Political Economy, Tuiane Univ.
Ramet, Sabrina Dept of Sociolo-
P., Ph.D. Prof.,
and Literature. Riley-Smith, Jonathan, Ph D Dixie Prof of Eccle-
Political Science, Norwegian Univ. of Sci- Reiter, Russel J., Ph.D Prof of Neuroendocrinol- siastical History, Univ. of Cambridge.
gy and
ence and Technology. Trondheim, Norway. ogy, Univ of Texas Health Science Center. Ring, Richard R., Ph.D. Collection Development
Bruce A, M.D. Norman Shumway Ubrarian, Univ. of Kansas.
Ramsay, O. Bertrand, Ph D Prof Emeritus of Rertz, E. Prof,
Chemistry, Eastern Michigan Univ. and Chairman Dept of Cardiothoracic Surgery. Ringler, Richard N., Ph.D Prof of Scandinavian
Ramsey, Matthew, PhD Assoc Prof. of
Stanford Univ. School of Medicine. Studies. L ni\ of Wisconsin, Madison.
History. Vanderbilt Univ. Rense, William C, Ph.D Prof of Geography, Rink, Oliver A, Ph.D Prof, of History, California

Rango, Albert, Ph D Research Hydrologist, Shippensburg Univ. of Pennsylvania. State L niv. Bakersfield.

Hydrology Laboratory, Agricultural Research Rentzepis, Peter M., Ph D Presidential Chair and Rinke, Carlotta M., M
D Physician; Clinical Asst
Service, U.S. Dept of Agriculture. Prof, of Chemistry, Univ. of California, Irvine. Prof, of Medicine, Loyola Univ. of Chicago.

Rankin, Joanna M., Ph D Prof of Physics. Restak, Richard, MD Clinical Prof, of Neurolo- Rischin, Moses, Ph D Prof of History San Fran-
Vermont
Univ. of gy, George Washington Univ. Medical School. cisco State Univ.
Rapaport, Herman, Ph D Prof, Dept of English, Reyes, Socorro L, PhD Assoc Prof of Political Risso, Patricia, Ph D Assoc Prof, of History,
Univ. of Southampton. Science.De la Salle Univ. Univ. of New Mexico.
Rashkin, Esther, Ph D Prof of French and Com- Reynolds, Barbara A, MS President, Reynolds Ristine, Karen Clark, B.S Asst Metro Editor.
parative Literature, Univ. of Utah. News Service. San Diego Lnion-Tribune.
Raven, Peter H., Ph.D. Dir., Missouri Botanical Reynolds, Frank E., PhD Prof of History of Ritchie, Robert C, Ph.D Dir of Research, Hunt-
Garden: Prof, of Botany, Washington Univ. Religions and Buddhist Studies. Univ of Chicago. ington Library, Art Gallery, and Botanical Gardens.
Rawal, Kanti M., Ph D Pres , California Hybrids Reynolds, Terry S., Ph.D. Prof, of History and Ritter, Jay R., PhD Cordell Prof of Finance, Univ.
Rawls, James Ph.D. Instructor of History, Chair, Dept of Social Sciences. Michigan Techno- of Florida
J.,
logical Univ.
Diablo Valley College. Rivers, Jeff, BA Assoc Editor The Hartford\CV
Ray, Brian D., PhD President, National Home Reznicek, Anton A, Ph.D Curator, Vascular Courant
Education Research Institute.
Plants, Univ. of Michigan Herbarium. Rivkin, Ellis, Ph.D. Prof Ementus of (ewish Histo-

Rea, E., Ph D Prof of History, Univ. of Manito- Rhoades, Everett R., M.D Former Vice Chair- ry, Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Reli-
J.

ba.
man, Kiowa Tribe of Oklahoma gion
Rector, Lee, BA Former Editor, Music Oty Rhoades, Rex H. Executive Editor, ILewiston ME Roan, Vernon P., Ph.D. Prof, of Mechanical
News. Sun Journal- Engineering. Univ. of Florida

Redbird-Smrth, Helen Marie Former Prof, of Rhodes, Benjamin D., Ph.D Prof of History, Robb, Edith, BA Asst Managing Editor. IMonc-
Social Science. Western Oregon State College Univ. of Wisconsin Whitewater. ton NB' Times & Transcript

Reddy, William M., Ph D Laprade Prof of Histo- Rhodes, Russell a, Ph D. Prof of Biology. Robbins, Clarence R-, Ph D Distinguished
ry ana Prof of Cultural Anthropology, Duke Univ. Southwest Missoun State Univ. Fellow Colgate Palmolive Co
Reece, Bonnie B., Ph D Assoc Prof, of Ribera, Feliciano M., Ph D
Prof of History and Robbins, Keith, D.Litt Principal. Univ. of Wales,
Advertising, Michigan State Univ. Mexican American Studies, San Jose State Univ. Lampeter; former Prof, of Modern History, Univ. of
Rice, Phillip L, Ph.D Prof of Psychology, Glasgow.
Reed, Brian V., Ph.D. Assoc Prof, of Physical
Therapy, Univ. of Vermont Moorhead State Univ. Roberts, Harold R., B.S. Consulting Engineer.

Reed, David M., BA

Kentucky com Editor,
Rich, George W., Ph D Prof of Anthropology, Roberts, Jennifer Tolbert, Ph D Prof, of Foreign
Lexington <W Herald-Leader California State Univ Sacramento., Languages and Literatures, Citv College of New
Richards, Joan L, Ph D Assoc Prof of History. York
Reed, James S., PhD Former Prof of Ceramic
Engineering, New York State College of Ceramics,
Brown Univ Roberts, Phil, PhD Asst Prof, of History, Univ. of

Alfred Univ. Richards, Nancy E-, MA Chief Researcher, Wyoming.

Reed, William F., B A Columnist, Lexington IKY)
Cliveden- Roberts, W. Thomas, Jr., Ph D Senior Member,
Herald-Leader. Richards, William J., PhD Senior Scientist, Technical Staff, Jet Propulsion Lab., Pasadena

Thomas Q., Southeast Fisheries Center Robertson, Don, Ph.D Deputy Manager, Marine
Reefe, Ph.D. President, Q Solutions.
Research MAF Fisheries, New Zealand.
Rees, Peter W., PhD Assoc Prof of Geography, Richardson, D. H. S., D Phil Dean of Science, St
Univ. of Delaware. Marys Univ., Halifax Nova Scotia Robertson, Kenneth R., PhD Botanist, Illinois

Richardson, Deborah South, Ph D Natural History Survey, and Prof of Plant Biology.
Reetz, Brian, BA Sports Writer, LincolniNB Prof , Dept
L niv of Illinois
loumal Star. of Psvchologv, Florida Atlantic L niv
Richardson, Elmo R., Ph D Public Historian Robertson, Robert, Ph.D Honorary Curator of
Reeves, Thomas C, PhD Prof of History, Univ. Malacology. Academy of Natural Sciences of
of Wisconsin, Parkside. Historians Services of the Northwest
Philadelphia
Regehr, T. D., Ph D Prof of History, Univ. of Richelson, Jeffrey T., Ph D Senior Fellow, Na-
tional Security Archi\e Robinowitz, Joe, B S Editor in Chief, TV Guide
Saskatchewan.
Richmond, C. Wendell, M.D. Asst. Prof of Im- Robinson, Adrian, Ph.D Former Univ. Reader,
Rehkugler, Gerald E-, Ph D Prof of Agricultural I ni\ ot Leicester.
and Biological Engineering, and Assoc Dean, munology Microbiology Internal Medicine, Rush-
College of Engineering, Cornell Univ. Presbvterian-St Lukes Medical Center Chicago. Robinson, David J., Ph D Dellplain Prof of Latin

Richter, Daniel K-, Ph D Prof of History, Univ of American Geographv Syracuse Univ.
Reich, Bernard, Ph D. Prof.. Political Science and
International Affairs, George Washington Univ. Pennsylvania Robinson, David Mason, Ph D Assoc Director

i
 Contributors and consultants XXXIX

for Scientific Programs, Division of Heart and Rosenstone, Robert A., PhD Prof of History, tional Rice Research Center.
Vascular Diseases, National Institutes of Health. California Institute of Technology
Rutledge, Albert J., M
LA Prof of Landscape
Robinson, Geoffrey, Ph.D. Assoc. Prof of Histo- Rosenthal, Joel T., PhD Prof, of History, State Architecture, Iowa State Univ.
ry, Univ. of California at Los Angeles. Univ. of New York, Stony Brook.
Ryan, Shannon Patrick, Ph.D. Prof, of History,
Robinson, June K., M.D. Prof, of Medicine and Ross, David A., Ph D Senior Scientist, Dept of Memorial Univ. of Newfoundland.
Pathology, Loyola Univ. of Chicago. Geology and Geophysics, Woods Hole Oceano-
Ryll, Thomas Hardy Reporter, The (Vancouver,
Robinson, William W., A.B. Contributing Editor, graphic Institution.
WA) Columbian
CruisingWorld Magazine. Ross, Stewart L, PhD Prof, of Music and
Robison, Henry W., Ph.D. Prof of Biology, Director of Bands, Mankato State Univ.
Southern Arkansas Univ. Rossabi, Morris, PhD Prof of History, City Univ Saab, A. P., Ph D Prof, of History and Assoc
Robson, Gary D. Freelance writer of New York Dean of the Graduate School, Univ. of North
Rochette, Edward C, G.E Author, The Other Rosseker, A D. City Editor, The Regina (SK) Carolina, Greensboro.
Side of the Coin. Leader-Post Saari, Donald G., Ph D Prof of Mathematics,
Rock, Peter A., Ph.D. Dean, Division of Mathe- Rotberg, Robert I., Pres World Peace
D.Phil. ,
Northwestern Univ.
matical and Physical Sciences and Prof, of Chem- Foundation; Dir, WPF
Program on Intrastate Con- Sabatino, Dominick, M.D Dir., Pediatric Hema
istry, Univ. of California, Davis. flict, Conflict Prevention, and Conflict Resolution. tology/Oncology, Nassau County Medical Center.
Rocke, Alan Ph.D.
)., Prof of History, Case West- Roth, Jesse, M.D Lublin Prof, of Medicine and Sack, James J., PhD Prof of History, Univ. of
ern Reserve Univ. Director, Division of Geriatric Medicine, Johns Illinois, Chicago.
Hopkins Univ School of Medicine
Rodabaugh, James H., Ph.D. Former Prof, of Saenz, Candelario, Ph.D. Asst Prof, of
History, Miami Univ. Roth, Leland M., Ph D Marion Dean Ross Prof, Anthropology, State Univ of New York, Purchase
of Architectural History, Univ. of Oregon.
Rodd, Laurel Rasplica, PhD Prof of Japanese, David C, Ph D
Saffell, Prof, of Political Science,
Univ. of Colorado, Boulder. Rourke, Ralph Martin, B.S Dir., Hall of Fame for Ohio Northern Univ.
Great Americans, Bronx Community College.
Roddick, Daniel McCulloch, Ph.D. Writer, St John, Ronald M.D., M.P.H. Senior
K.,
teacher and consultant Rowan, Andrew N., D.Phil. Senior Vice Presi- Consultant, HIV/AIDS, Dept of Health, Canada,
dent, Research, Education and International Is- and Assoc. Prof., Dept of Medicine, Univ. of Ot-
Rodier, Patricia M., PhD Prof, of Obstetrics Gy- sues, Humane Society of the United States. tawa Medical School.
necology and Director, Collaborative Program of
Excellence in Autism, Univ. of Rochester Med. Ctr. Rowan, Carl T., MA Former Syndicated Colum- Sakagawa, Gary T, Ph.D. Chief, Pelagic Fish-
nist, Chicago Sun-Times. eriesResources Division, Southwest Fisheries Sci-
Rodowskas, Christopher A., Jr., PhD Prof, and
Rowe, John A, PhD Assoc Prof Emeritus of ence Center.
Asst Dean, Nova Southeastern Univ.
Roemer, Elizabeth, Ph.D. Prof Emerita of As-
History, Northwestern Univ. Sakalas, Ray V., MS
Director, Vocational

tronomy, Lunar and Planetary Laboratory, Univ. of Rowley, William D., PhD Criffen Prof , Dept of Rehabilitation, Rehabilitation Institute of Chicago.
History, Univ. of Nevada. Sakalowsky, Peter P., Jr., PhD Prof, of
Arizona.
Rozenblit, Marsha, PhD Prof of History, Univ. of Geography, Southern Connecticut State Univ.
Roessel, Ruth W. Former Principal, Pinon Public
School; former Director, Navajo and Indian Maryland, College Park Sakmyster, Thomas, PhD Prof of History, Univ.
Studies Dept, Navajo Community College. Roznowsky, Wayne J. Former Managing Editor, of Cincinnati.

Roessler, David M., PhD Staff Rsch. Scientist, Prince Albert iSK) Daily Herald Salih, H. Ibrahim, Ph D Prof of Political Science,
General Motors Research and Development Ctr. Rubel, David, B A President, Agincourt Press Texas Wesleyan Univ.
Rofen, Robert R., Ph.D. Director, Aquatic Re- Rubens, Jeff, MA Coeditor, The Bridge World. Salisbury, Neal, Ph D Prof, of History, Smith Col-
search Institute lege.
Rubenstein, Allan E.,M.D. Assoc. Prof of Neu-
Rogers, George C, Jr., Ph.D. Former Chairman, rology, Mount Sinai School of Medicine. Salter, C L, Ph D Prof and Chair, Dept of
Dept of History, Univ of South Carolina. Geography, Univ. of Missouri, Columbia.
Rubenstein, Irwin, PhD Prof of Plant Biology,
Rogers, Jay, BA Former Asst. Managing Editor, Univ. of Minnesota, Twin Cities Campus. Saltzman, Arthur M., PhD Prof of English,
San Antonio Express-News. Missouri Southern State College.
Rubin, Kenneth H., Ph D Assoc Prof of Geolo-
Rogers, Quinton R., Ph D Prof, of Physiological gy, Univ. of Hawaii.
Saltzman, Martin D., Ph D Prof of Natural
Chemistry, Univ. of California, Davis. Science, Providence College.
Rubinstein, Donald H., PhD Prof of Anthropol
Rohrbough, Malcolm Ph.D. Prof, of History, ogy and Public Health, Micronesian Area Research Salvador, Ricardo J., PhD Assoc. Prof of
J.,
Univ. of Iowa. Center, Univ. of Guam. Agronomy, Iowa State Univ.
Rojas, Cristina, Ph D Asst Prof Norman Pater- , Rubman, Marc L, B.S Publisher, Fur Age. Salvatore, Nick, Ph.D. Assoc Prof., School of In-
dustrial and Labor Relations, Cornell Univ.
son School of International Affairs, Carleton Univ. Rudd, J. William, MA
Dean, College of
Roland, Alex, PhD Prof, of History, Duke Univ. Architecture and Planning, Univ. of Tennessee, Salzman, Philip Carl, PhD Prof of Anthropolo
Knoxville gy, McGill Univ.
Rolfe, Stanley T., Ph.D. Albert P. Learned Prof, of
Civil and Environmental Engineering, Univ. of Rudisill, Richard, Ph.D. Curator of Photographic Sammons, Jeffrey L, Ph.D. Leavenworth Prof of
Kansas. History, Museum of New Mexico. German, Yale Univ.

Rollinson, Paul A., Ph.D. Prof, Dept of Geogra- Rudnyk, Marian E., B.S. Planetary photogeolo- Samsell, John, B.S. News Editor, IMorgantown,
phy, Geology, and Planning, Southwest Missouri gist astronomer; Consultant, Jet Propulsion Lab., WV) Dominion Post
State Univ. National Aeronautics and Space Administration Sanders, I. J. Author, English Baronies
Romano, Frank J., MA School of Printing,
Prof ,
Rudnytsky, Peter L, Ph D Former Asst Prof., Sanders, Keith P., PhD Prof . School of Journal-
Rochester Institute of Technology. Englisn and Comparative Literature, Columbia ism, Univ. of Missouri.
Univ.
Romanowicz, Barbara, Ph.D. Prof and Director, Sanders, R. M. Managing Editor, LubbockCTXi
Berkeley Seismological Laboratory. Rudolph, Frederick B., Ph D Prof., Chair, Dept A valanche-joumal.
of Biochemistry and Cell Biology; Exec. Dir., Insti-
Romer, Grant B., M.F A Chief Conservator and
tute of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Rice Univ.
Sandhu, Sarwan S., Ph D Prof of Chemical Engi-
Curator, International Museum of Photography neering, Univ. of Dayton.
Rudwick, Elliott, Ph D Former Prof, of Sociology
Sando, Joe MS
Dir Pueblo Indian Study and
Romrell, Lynn J., PhD Assoc. Dean for and History, Center for Urban Regionalism, Kent
S., ,

Education and Prof, of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Research Center; author. The Pueblo Indians.
State Univ.
Univ. of Florida College of Medicine Sanik, Margaret Mietus, PhD Assoc Prof, of
Rulon, Philip Reed, Ed.D Prof of History. North-
Roodman, G. David, PhD Prof, of Medicine, Family Resource Management, Ohio State Univ
ern Arizona Univ.
Univ. of Texas Health Science Center; Chief of Santer, Richard A, Ph D Former Prof of Geog-
Hematology, Murphy Memorial Veterans Hospital. Rumbaugh, Duane M., Ph D Director Emeritus.
raphy Ferris State Uni\
Language Research Center, Georgia State Uni\
Ropp, Steve C, Ph.D. Prof of Political Science, Santino, Jack, Ph D Prof of Popular Culture,
Univ. of Wyoming. Rumbelow, Donald Police Officer, City of Lon Bowling Green State Univ.
don Police; author, The Complete lack the Ripper
Ropp, Theodore, Ph.D. Prof. Emeritus of History, Sardar, Riffat, Ph D Project Officer, UNICEF
Duke Univ author, War in the Modern World. Rumford, Beatrix T., MA
VP, Special Proiects
Sarver, Rebecca Former Managing
;

Colonial Williamsburg Foundation

Editor West
Rorex, Robert A, Ph.D. Assoc. Prof of Art and Virginia Daily \eivs
Art History, Univ of Iowa. Rundel, Philip W., Ph D. Prof., Dept. of Ogams
mic Biology, Ecology and Evolution, Univ. of Cali-
Sassoon, vldat Chairman of the Board, Vidal
Rosario, Ruben A, BA Columnist, St PauliMN)
fornia, Los Angeles.
Sassoon Inc
Pioneer Press. Sauers, Richard A, Ph D
Ruph, Morgan S., MS Ed Senior Program Military historian.
Rosberg, Carl G., D Phil Former Prof, of
Analyst U.S Dept of Veterans Affairs Saul, William E., P E Prof Chair, Civil and Em i

Political Science, Univ. of California, Berkeley.

Rupp, Jennifer A., WD Former Physu lan Dept ronmental Engineering, Michigan State Univ.
Rose, Emily Jane, Ph.D. Science Education Con- Ne« MexR Saunders, Christopher, D Phil Dept
of Infectious Diseases. Univ. ot Prof of
sultant, Science Through Experiments Program. Htstoncal Studies Unh ot Cape Town.
Rushton, Alan R., Ph Dept of Pediairu s
Rose, Richard, Director, Centre for the
D Phil
Hunterdon Medical Center Saunders, Richard, Jr., Ph D *ssoc Prof, of
Study of Public Policy, Univ. of Strathclyde. History Oemson Unh
Ruskin, William R-, B S Vice President, Opera-
Rosecrance, Richard, Ph D Dn Univ. of Califor-
tions Quality Colt international. LLC Savage, Martha Kane, Ph I) Senior Lecturer,
nia, Los Angeles, Center for International Rela- Institute of Geophysics Victoria Unh Wellington
tions.
Russell, Peter H., LLD Prof of Politu .il S< lent a
n Savage, William W„ |r v Ph D Prof of History,
Rosenheim, Daniel E., BA Former City Editor
Neil, Phi) Dmsctoi Dale Bumpers Nl I nh ot Oklahoma
San Francisco Chronicle. Rutger, 1
 XL Contributors and consultants

Sayre, Henry M., Ph D. Distinguished Prof, of Art Schuman, Gerald E., Ph D Adjunct Prof, Soil (now Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
History, Oregon State Univ. Science, Univ. of Wyoming
1

Saywell, John T., Ph.D. Univ. Prof, and Prof,

Shangold, Mona M., M.D Director The Center
of Schurmann, H. F., Ph D Former Prof of History for Women s Health and Sports Gynecology.
History and Social Science, York Univ. and Sociology, Univ of California, Berkeley.
Scarborough, John, Ph D Pro! History of Shannon, David A, Ph.D. Former Prof, of
Schuyler, David, PhD Prof, of American History. Univ of Virginia
Pharmacy and Medicine and Classics, Univ of Studies Franklin and Marshall College.
Wisconsin. Sharer, Robert J., PhD Prof of Anthropology.
Schwartz, Brian B., PhD Vice President for Re- Univ. of Pennsylvania
Scargill, D. Ian, D.Phil. Univ. Lecturer of search, Graduate School. City Univ. of New York.
Geography I niv. ot Oxford Sharkey, John B., PhD Prof of Chemistry and
Schwartz, Gary E., PhD Prof of Psychology. Assoc Dean DepL of Chemistry and Physical
Scavone, Daniel C, PhD. Prof Emeritus of His- Univ. of Arizona Sciences, Pace Univ.
tory. Univ. of Southern Indiana.
Schwartz, Steven J., PhD Prof of Food Science Sharpe, James Anthony,
Schachter, Ruth, MS Communications and Technology, Ohio State Univ.
D.Phil Senior Lecturer
in History Univ of York.
Coordinator. Footwear Industries of America.
.

Schwarzlose, Richard A., PhD Prof of Journal Sharpton, Virgil L, President s Prof, Geo-
Ph.D.
Schaffner, John A., M.D. Assoc Prot Director ot ism, Medill School of Journalism Northwestern physical Institute, Univ. of Alaska Fairbanks
Clinical Gastroenterology. Rush Medical Center. I mv
Schagrin, Morton L, PhD Prof of Philosophy,
Shaw, Brian J., M Sc Senior Lecturer. University
Scott, Anne Firor, Ph D Author, Making the ot Western Australia.
State Unh or \e\v v.ork Fredonia Invisible Woman Visible
Shaw, C Frank, PhD
Prof of Chemistry,
III,
Schaich, K. M., Sc D Prof, of Food and Lipid Scott, Deborah Emont, MA Chief Curator, Nel- Univ. of Wisconsin, Milwaukee.
Chemistry. Rutgers, the State Univ. of New Jersey. son-Atkins Museum of Art
Shearer, Ned A, PhD Prof of Communication
SchaJler, George B., Ph.D. Director for Science, Scoville, James a, PhD Prof of Industrial Rela- Artsand Sciences, Western Illinois Univ.
Wildlife Conservation Society New "lurk tions, Univ. of Minnesota, Twin Cities Campus Shedlin, Michele G-, PhD President.
Schankin, Arthur, B S. Sales Marketing. Scrivener, Leslie, M S.| Start Writer, Toronto Sociomedical Resource Associates.
CollegiateCap & Gown Star.
Schauer, Frederick, J.D. Frank Stanton Prof, of Sheehan, James J., Ph D Dickason Prof, of

the Amendment, Harvard Univ.

First
Scriver, Charles R., M
D Aha Prof, of Human Humanities. Stanford Univ.
Genetics and Prof of Biologv and Pediatrics
Sheets, Payson, Ph.D. Prof and Assoc Chair,
Schebera, Richard L, Ph D Assoc Prof, of McGill Univ Montreal Children s Hospital Re-
Religion, Sl Louis L niv search Institute Dept of Anthropology. Univ. of Colorado.
Scruggs, Otey M., PhD Shelby, Lon R., Ph.D. Former Prof of Sociology
Schein, Jerome D., Ph.D. Author, Speaking the Former Prof, of History.
Syracuse Univ. and History. Southern Illinois Univ.
Language ot Sign.
Scheina, Robert L, Ph.D. Prof of History, Seaborne, Adrian A, Ph.D. Prof and Head, Sheldon, Kathleen, PhD Research Scholar,
Industrial College of the Armed Forces. Dept of Geography. Univ. of Regina UCLA Center for the Study of Women
Shelmerdine, Cynthia W.,
Schrffman, Lawrence H., Ph D Edelman Prof, of Searl, Gary H., MS
Adjunct Asst Prof of
Dept of Classics. Univ. of Texas, Austin.
Ph.D. Prof and Chair,
Hebrew and Judaic Studies, New York L nh Geography, Univ. of Oregon.
Sebranek, Joseph C, Ph.D. Univ. Prof, of Animal Shepherd, Jack, Ph.D. Director War Peace Stud-
Schiller, Dan, PhD Prot of Communication
Univ of California, San Diego. Science, and Food Science and Human Nutrition,
ies. Dartmouth College

Schlesinger, Richard C, Ph
Iowa State Univ. Shepperson, Jacqueline R., Ph D Prof of
D Research
Biology, Winston-Salem State Univ.
Forester. Forest Service, U.S. Dept of Agriculture Sedgwick, Alexander, PhD Dean, Graduate
Schlessinger, David, PhD Prof, of Molecular School of Arts and Sciences, Univ. of Virginia Sherman, Carol L, Ph.D. Prof, of French, Dept of
Microbiology, Washington Univ. School of Seeh/,Bruce E., PhD Assoc Romance Languages, Univ. of North Carolina
Prof, of History,
Michigan Technological Univ. Chapel Hill.
Medicine.
Sherman, Paul W., Ph D. Prof, of Animal
Schlrtter, Duane A., Ph D. Executive Director, Sefton, James E., Ph.D. Prof, of History, California
Behavior Cornell Univ.
Museum Park, Republic of South Africa. State Univ., Northridge.
Sherwin, Martin B., Ph.D.
Schmeltzer, John C, MA Financial Writer. Seidel, Michael, PhD. Prof, of English and
Development Division W
President.
R.
Commercial
Grace & Co.
Chicago Tribune Comparative Literature Columbia Univ.
Schmid-Schoenbein, Geert W., Ph.D. Prof, of Seigler, David S., Ph.D. Prof, of Plant Biology,
ShetJar, David J., PhD Assoc Prof of Landscape
Univ. of Illinois. Urbana-Champaign
Entomology, Ohio State Univ.
Bioengineering, Univ of California, San Diego.
Shields, Dianne, Ph.D. Former Educational
Schmidlin, Thomas W., Ph D Assoc Prot ot Sellers, John Irvin, BA Director of New Media, Evanston Hospital
Specialist.
Geography. Kent State Univ. The Mobile IAU Press
Schmittberger, R. Wayne, J.D. Editor in Chief, Selman, Kelly, PhD. Assoc Prof of Anatomy and
Shiell, Mary C, B A Free-lance journalist
Games magazine. Cell Biology, Univ of Florida College of Medicine Shiff, Richard, Ph.D. Effie Marie Cain Regents
Chair in Art. Univ. of Texas. Austin.
Schneck, Stephen, PhD Chair and Assoc Prof, Seltzer, Albert LLD. Emeritus Prof, Graduate
P.,
Dept of Politics, Catholic Univ. of America. School of Medicine, Univ. of Pennsylvania; author, Shilstone, Frederick W., Ph.D. Prof, of English,

Schneider, Edward L, M.D. Dean. Andrus Bar, Nose and Throat for the General Practitioner. Clemson Univ.
Gerontology Center, Univ. of Southern California Seltzer, Vicki, M.D Chairman,
Obstetrics and Gy- Shinnick, Thomas
M., Ph.D. Chief. Tuberculo-
Schneider, Stephen necology, Long Island Jewish MedicaJ Center and sis Mycobacteriology Branch, Centers for Disease
H., Ph D Prof, of Biological
North Shore University Hospital Control and Prevention.
Sciences. Stanford Univ.
Sefvi,Arthur M., D Pol Sc Prof Emer., Modem Shively, Charles, PhD Prof of American
Schneir, Miriam Writer editor Feminism: The
Essential Historical Writings.
Languages. Central Connecticut State L niv Studies Univ of Massachusetts. Boston.

Schoenbrun, David Lee, Ph D Asst Prof of

Selvin, Hanan C, PhD Former Prof, of Shor, Molly H., Ph.D. Asst Prof Dept of Electri-
History. Northwestern Univ.
Sociology State I niv of New York, Stony Brook. cal and Computer Engineering Oregon State Univ.

Semler, Charles E., Ph D President, Semler Shorrock, William I., Ph D. Prof of History; Vice
Schofield, Robert E, PhD Emeritus Prof., Histo-
Provost for Academic Affairs. Cleveland State Univ.
Materials Services
ry ofTechnology and Science, Iowa State Univ.
Schonchin, Lynn J., Sr., B.S. Consultant: Senften, Rick, BA Special Projects Editor The Short, D. Craig, B.S. Product Development
Educator, Klamath County School District
iCanton, OHi Repository. Manager, Sequoia Pacific Voting Equipment Inc.

Schott, Jeffrey J. Senior Fellow, Institute for

Senn, Frank C, PhD. Pastor, Immanuel Lutheran Short, John Rennie, PhD Prof of Geography,
International Economics. Church. Evanston, III. Syracuse L niv

Schramm, David N., Ph.D. Former Louis Block

Serrano, Roberto, PhD Prof of Economics, Shortridge, James R., Ph.D. Prof of Geography
Prof, of Physical
Brown Univ. I niv ot Kansas.
Sciences, Univ of Chicago
Schuchat, Anne, M.D. Servheen, Christopher, PhD Grizzly Bear Re- Shortz, Will, J.D. Crossword Editor, 77)e New
Chief. Respiratory Dis-
eases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
covery Coordinator US Fish and Wildlife Service. York Times

Schuelein, Marianne, M.D. Asst Prof, of Setta, Susan M., Ph D Assoc Prof of Philosophy ShowaJter, Gerald R., Ph.D. Assoc Prof of
Pediatrics and Neurology, Georgetown Univ.
and Religion Northeastern Univ. Geography Ball State Univ.

Schug, Kenneth, Ph D. Prof., Dept of Biological, Sevareid, Eric Former National Correspondent Shriver, Dirward F., Ph.D. Morrison Prof, of
Chemical, and Physical Sciences Illinois Institute CBS New. Chemistry Northwestern Univ.
of Technology. Sewell, James P., Ph D Prof. Emeritus of Politics, Shuchat, Alan, Ph.D. Prof of Mathematics.
Schuler, Ronald Brock Univ and External Assoc, Centre for Interna Wellesley College
T., Ph.D. Chair. Biological Sys-
tems Engineering, Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison. tional and Strategic Studies, York Inn
Shurdeff, William, MA President, Soyfoods
Schulman, Ivan A., PhD Shabad, Theodore, Ph D Former Member Center
Pro! ot Spanish and
Comparative Literature
Foreign News Staff The New York Times. Sicilia, David B., Ph.D. Assoc. Prof, of History,
I niv ot Illinois, Lrbana
Champaign. Shafer, Byron E., Ph D Andrew Mellon Prof, W Univ. of Maryland
Schuhenover, David G., PhD ofAmerican Government, Oxford I mv Siddiquee, Baker A, Ph.D. Assoc Prof of Eco-
Prof, of Theology,
Creighton Univ Shahady, Edward J., M.D Prof of Family nomics, Univ. of Illinois, Springfield.
Medicine. Univ. of North Carolina, Chapel Hill.
Schultz, Donald O., M.PA Prof, of Criminal Siddiqui,Wasim A, Ph.D. Prof of Tropical
Justice. Broward Community College Shallat, Todd, Ph.D. Prof of History. Boise State Medicine. Univ of Hawaii School of Medicine.
Univ.
Schulz, James H., Ph D Prof ot Economics and Sidey, Hugh S., B.S. Washington Contributing
Kirstein Prof, of Aging Policy, Brandeiv I nh Shands, Kathryn N., M.D Child psychiatrist tor Editor Time magazine.
to the Dir Centers for Disease Control Sidlo, Steven L, MA Managing Editor Davton
 Contributors and consultants XLI

(OH) DJIy News. Carolina State Univ Psychology and Director, Office of Instructional
Sieber, Harry, PhD Prof, of Spanish, |ohns Hop Slattery, Thomas C, Ph D President, Heritage Services, Dartmouth College.
kins Univ. Asm, Mtes Corp.; former Chairman, Dept of Mu- Smock, Raymond W., PhD Coeditor. Booker T
Siedentop, Daryl, D Director. sic, Coe College Washington Papers.
P.E P- 1 2 Pro|ert.
Ohio State Univ. Slav in, Arthur J., Ph D Justus Bier Distinguished Smole, William J., PhD Prof of Anthropology,
Abraham J., Ph D Dean Sloan School
Siegel, of Prof, of Humanities Emeritus, Univ. of Louisville. Univ. of Pittsburgh
Management. Massachusetts Institute of Slemrod, Joel, Ph D Prof, of Economics, Univ. of Smolensky, Michael Prol of Environ
H., Ph.D.
Technology. Michigan, Ann Arbor. mental Sciences, School of Public Health, Univ. of
Sieger, Charles F., M.S.LS Director Lvndhurst Slickpoo, Allen P., Sr. Consultant, History and Texas Health Science Center, Houston.
Free Public Library. Culture, Nez Perce Tribe. Snaddon, Andrew, BA Former Publisher,
Silk,Leonard S., LLD. Author, Economics in the Sloan, Alice S., R.Ph. Pharmacy Consultant, Medicine r/aflABI News.
%ea/ World HealthGuard of Lancaster, Inc. Snipes, David S., Ph.D. Prof of Geology. Clem-
Silver, David F., MA
President. International Sloan, Douglas, Ph.D. Author of Faith and son Univ.
Photographic Historical Organization. Knowledge and Insight-Imagination. Snoble, Joseph J., Ph D Prof of Physics Science
Silverman, Alan K., M.D Sloan, Richard W., M.D Chairman and Residen- Education, Central Missouri State Univ.

Silvers, Anita, PhD Chair, Dept of Philosophy, cy Program Director, Dept. of Family Practice, York Snouffer, Chet A., B S Board of Directors, U.S.
San Francisco State Univ. Hospital. Boomerang Assoc.
Silverstein, Helena, PhD Assoc Prof of Govern- Small, Melvin, Ph D Prof of History, Wayne Snow, Dean, Ph.D. Prof and Head of Anthropol-
ment and Law. Lafayette College. State Univ. ogy. Pennsylvania State Univ.

Silverstein, Melvin )., M.D. Director Harold E. Smelser, Marshall, PhD Former Prof, of History, Snow, Vernon F., PhD Former Prof of History.
and Henrietta C
Lee Breast Center. USC Norris Univ. of Notre Dame. Syracuse Univ.
Comprehensive Cancer Center and Hospital. Smelser, Neil J., PhD Director, Center for Snyder, Gregory K., PhD Prof, of Biology, Univ.
Silverstein, Michael, PhD Charles F. Grey Prof Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences. ol Colorado.
of Anthropology. Linguistics, and Psychology, Smiley, J. H., Ph.D. Extension Prof, of Agronomy, Snyder, John W., Ph.D. Emeritus Prof of History
Univ. of Chicago. Univ. of Kentucky. Kent State Univ.
Silvert, Kalman H., Ph.D. Author. Chile: Yester- Smith, A. Mark, PhD Prof, of History, Univ. of Soast, Allen, BA. Senior Editor. Engineering
day and Today. Missouri, Columbia. News-Record.
Simberloff, Daniel, PhD Nancy Core Hunger Smith, Bradford A., Ph.D. Astronomer, Institute Sobel, Robert, PhD Former Lawrence Stessin
Chair of Excellence in Environmental Studies, for Astronomy, Univ. of Hawaii. Prof, of Business History, Hofstra Univ.
Univ. of Tennesee. Knoxville.
Smith, C Wayne, PhD Prof of Cotton Breeding, Sobieszek, Robert A., M.Phil Curator, Los An-
Simco, Bill A., Ph D Prof of Biology, Univ. of Texas A&M Univ. geles County Museum of Art.
Memphis. Smith, Carolyn J., Ph.D. Prof of Chemistry, Sobre, Judith Berg, PhD Prof of Art History,
Sime, Ruth Lewin, Ph.D. Instructor, Chemistry Delaware County Community College. Univ. of Texas, San Antonio.
Dept, Sacramento City College. Smith, Dale C, PhD Assoc Prof of Medical Sochen, June, PhD Prof of History, Northeast-
Simmons, William B., Jr., PhD Prof of History, Uniformed Services Univ. of the Health ern Illinois Univ ; author, Herstory A Record of the
Mineralogy, Univ. of New Orleans. Sciences. American Womans Past
Simon, James E., Ph.D. Prof, of Horticulture, Smith, David R-, MLS. Archivist, Walt Sokal, Michael M., Ph D. Prof of History,
Purdue Univ. Disney Co. Worcester Polytechnic Institute.

Simon, John Y., Ph D Executive Director and Smith, Deborah K., Ph.D. Senior Scientist Soil, Ivan, Ph.D. Prof, of Philosophy, Univ. of Wis-
Managing Editor, Ulysses S. Grant Association. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. consin. Madison.
Simone, Joseph V., M.D. Physician in Chief, Smith, Douglas Clifford, CA.S. Prof and Solomon, Irvln D., Ph.D. Assoc Prof, of History,
Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center. Director, Graduate Center, West Virginia Univ. Florida Gull Coast Univ.

Sims, Phillip L, PhD Research Leader and Smith, Duane A., PhD Prof, of History, Fort Solomon, Keith Ph.D. J., Asst Vice Chancellor,
Range Scientist, Agricultural Research Service, Lewis College. Northern Territory Univ.
U.S. DepL of Agriculture. Smith, George P., II, LLM Prof of Law, Catholic Solomon, Sean C, PhD Director Dept. ot Ter
Sims, Robert C, Ph.D. Prof, of History, Boise Univ. of America. restrial Magnetism, Carnegie Institution of Wash-
State Univ. ington.
Smith, Glenn, Ph D
Prof Chair Leadership and,

Simson, Robin Peter, M.Sc. Former Principal, Educational Policy Studies, Northern Illinois Univ. Sorrentino, Frank M., Ph D. Prof of Political Sci-
Redbank Plains High School. ence, St Francis College.
Smith, Harding E., Ph.D. Prof of Physics, Center
Sine, Richard L, BA
President, Envision; former for Astrophysics and Space Sciences, Univ. of Southgate, W. M., Ph.D. Prof. Emeritus of
Editorial Director, Scott Publishing Co. California, San Diego. History. Denison Univ.

Singer, Franz J. Master Barber. Smith, John E., LLD Clark Prof Emeritus of Spahr, Sidney L, Ph D Former Prof of Animal
Philosophy, Yale Univ. Sciences, Univ. of Illinois. Urbana-Champaign.
Singer, Marcus C, Ph.D. Emeritus Prof of
Philosophy, Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison. Smith, John M., Ph.D. Former Prof of Sparberg, Marshall, M.D Prof, of Medicine,
Mathematics, George Mason Univ. Northwestern Univ. Medical School.
Singh, Vljay P., Ph.D. Arthur K. Barton Endowed
Prof, Dept of Civil and Environmental Engineer- Smith, Jonathan Z., Ph D Robert O Anderson Spencer, C Bruce, BA President Pipe Collec
ing, Louisiana State Univ Distinguished Service Prof, of the Humanities, tors International.
Univ. of Chicago. Spencer, Cailean Former Education Director
Sinha, Surya Prakash, J.S.D. Former Prof, of
Law, Pace Univ. School of Law. Smith, Lacey Baldwin, DLitt. Prof Emeritus of An Comunn Gaidhealach. Inverness. Scotland.

Sinnigen, William C, PhD Prof, of History, City

English History, Northwestern Univ. Sperandeo, Andy, MA Editor, Model
Univ. of New York Hunter College. Smith, Mary Frances, Ph.D. Asst Prof., Dept of Railroader.
History, Ohio Univ Sperling, Elliot, PhD Prof of Tibetan Studies.
Sivln, N., Ph.D. Prof, of Chinese Culture and of the In

History of Science, Univ. of Pennsylvania. Smith, Maureen E., MS Genetic Counselor and diana Univ., Bloomington.
Past President of the National Society of Genetic Spielman, John P., Jr., Ph D Prof of History,
Skates, John Ray, Jr., Ph.D. Prof, of History, Univ.
Counselors. Haverford College.
of Southern Mississippi.
Smith, Merritt Roe, Ph.D. Cutten Pro! of the His BA Managing
Skeen, C
Edward, Ph.D. Prof of History, Univ. of
tory of Technology, Massachusetts Institute of
Spies, Dennis,
iTXi Cfobe-News
Editor Amarillo
Memphis. Technology.
Skelley, George C, Ph.D. Prof. Emeritus of Ani- Spindel, Donna )., Ph D Prol ol History.
Smith, Philip Chadwick Foster, BA Maritime Marshall I niv
mal Science, Ciemson Univ.
historian.
Skidmore, Bill, B.A. City Editor Helena 1MT1 //) Spinrad, Hyron, Ph D Prof, of Aslronomv Unh
Smith, Robert Ellis, |D Publisher ftrvacj lout ot California Berkeley
dependent Record.
nai
Sklar, Kathryn Kish, Ph D Distinguished Prof Spitulnik,Debra, Ph D Asst. Prof , Dept of An
Smith, Robert Freeman, PhD Distinguished thropoloqv Fmorv L nh
State Univ. of New York, Binghamton.
Univ. Prof, of History. Univ of Toledo.
Cinema Studies, Spitzer, Leo, Ph D Prof of History Dartmouth
Sklar, Robert, Ph D. Prof, of
Smith, Robert William, Ph D Former Prol of College author. The Creoles ot Sierra Leone
New York Univ.
Philosophy Religion Studies Maricopa
Splittstoesser, W. E., Ph D Prot of Plant
Skorupa, Joseph, BA Boating Outdoors Editor, Community Colleges.
Pnysiology in Horticulture niv ot Illinois
MA
i.
Popular Mechanics. Columnist Chicago Tribune
Smith, Sam, l rbana Champaign
Skroch, Walter D Former
Smith, Suzanne J., M D Director of Breast Imag
A., Ph Prof, of
Horticultural Science, North Carolina State Univ
Sproule, Brian J., I) M
Prof. and Directoi Dtvi
ing. Columbia Presbyterian Medical i entei mom of Respirator) Medicine i mv ot Alberta.
Slackman, Joel, MS Principal Ai
Smith, W. Calvin, Ph D Prof, of History Unh of
Sprugel, Douglas C, Ph D Prol ol ores! I
Congressional Budget Office South Carolina Aiken Ecology College of Forest Resources inn of
Sladek, N. E., Ph.D. Prof, of Pharmacology Unh Crop Washington
Smith, W.David, Pti D *SS0( I'rol ot
of Minnesota. Twin Cities Campus Sc ience North Carolina State t ">v
Spychalski, John C, I) B A Prol of Business
Slater, Keith, F Prol Si hool of Engineering,
I I
Smith, Whitney, PhD Director Flag Research Logistics Pennsytania State I nh
Univ. of Guelph
Center flag onsuhant
i
Squyres, Steven W., Ph I) Prof of Astronont)
Slatta, Richard W., Ph D. Prof of Histoi-v \onh PhD Emeritus Prol ol Cornell l my
Smith, William M.,
XLII Contributors and consultants

Stacks, Don W., PhD Director Program in Ad- Stewart, Edward W-, MS Marketing Director, Sues, Hans-Dieter, Ph.D Vice President, Collec-
vertising and Public Relations. Schoolof Commu E Idu Pont de Nemours & Co. tionsand Research, Royal Ontario Museum.
nication, Univ. of Miami.
Stewart, Garrett, Ph D Prof of English, Univ. of Sugar, Bert Randolph, J
D Publisher-Editor,
Stafford, Car) W., E.D.D. Manager Instructional Iowa Boxing Illustrated.
Development, Purdue Univ. Stewart, Robert K., Ph D Prof of Journalism, Sullivan, Daniel R., Ph.D Manager. Product
Stallings, E. Fran, Ph D Former Director, South- Ohio Univ. Development. Keebler Co.
west Florida Office. Florida Wildlife Federation.
Stewart, Roderick J., BA Former Fellow, Sullivan, Donald B., Ph D Chief, Time and
Standen, S. Dale, PhD Prof of History, Trent Bethune College, York Univ.. Toronto. Frequency Division, National Institute of Standards
Univ.
Stinebring, Daniel R., Ph.D. Assoc Prof of and Technology.
Stanley, G. F. C, D Lite Author Canada s Soldiers Physics. Oberlin College. Sullivan, John M., Jr., B S President.
and The War of 1 BIZ Stinger, Charles L, Ph D Prof of History. State International Silk Association.
Stanley, Steven M., Ph D Prof of Earth and Univ. of New York Buffalo Sullivan, Margaret M., MS J.
Editor and Vice
Planetary Sciences. |ohns Hopkins Univ. Donald L, Ph D Consulting engineer. President The Buffalo (NY) News.
Stinson,
Stapleton, Darwin H, Ph D Director, Stivender, Donald L, M.S.E. Owner. Stivender Sullivan, Michael E., Ph.D Assoc Prof of
Rockefeller Archive Center Engineering Associates. Geography, Ball State Univ.

Starr, Chester C, LLD Author, History of the Stocking, George W., Jr., Ph.D Prof, of
Sullivan, Michael P., Ph D Prof, of Political
Ancient World. Anthropology. Univ. of Chicago. Science, Univ. of Arizona
Starrfield, Sumner, PhD Prof of Physics and Stoker, H. Stephen, Ph D. Prof of Chemistry. Sullivan, Peggy, Ph D Executive Director
Astronomy, Arizona State Univ. Weber State Univ.
American Library Association
Stasik, Andrew J., Jr., M FA
President. Andrew Stokes, Carol E., MAT Command Historian, Sullivan, Peter Editor. The (Johannesburg SA
Stasik Fine Arts, founder. Print Review. Star
U.S. Army Signal Corps.
Stauffer, Gary D., PhD Fishery Biologist. Alaska Stokesbury, James L, Ph.D Author Navy and Sullivan, Rosemary, Ph D Prof of English, Univ.
Fisheries Science Center National Marine Empire and A Short History of Air Power of Toronto.
Fisheries Service.
Stokstad, Marilyn, Ph.D. )udith Harris Murphy Sullivan, Teresa A., Ph.D Vice President and
Stavrou, Theofanis C, Ph.D Prof of Modern Distinguished Prof of Art History Univ of Kansas Dean of Graduate Studies and Prof of Sociology
Russian and Near Eastern History. Univ. of and Law Univ of Texas, Austin.
Minnesota. Stolar, Mark, MD Assoc Prof of Medicine,
BA
Northwestern Univ. Sulok, Nancy J., Columnist. 77ie South Bend
Steams, Peter N., Ph D Heinz Prof of History UN! Tribune.
Stone, Andrew, BA, Dip. Journalism. Senior
and Dean. College of Humanities and Social
Sciences. Carnegie-Mellon Univ Journalist. New Zealand Herald. Summers, David, Ph.D. R. Kenan. Wm Jr., Prof,
of the History of Art. Un.v. of Virginia
Stedman, Lew, B S Library Asst. Theremin Play Stone, M. David, BA Free-lance writer
Contributing Editor, PC Magazine. Summers, Holds, D Lift Former Distinguished
er, Newport Beach Public Library.
Prof, of English. Ohio Univ.
Steele, Russell W., MD Prof and Vice Chairman Stone, Neil J., M.D. Prof of Clinical Medicine,
Northwestern Univ. School of Medicine. Sunley, Emil M., Ph D Asst Director of Fiscal Af-
of Pediatrics. Children s Hospital, New Orleans.
fairs International Monetary Fund.
Steele, Valerie, PhD Adjunct Asst Prof Fashion Stone, Orville J., MD
Former Clinical Prof of
Surratt, Jerry L, Ph D Prof of History. Wingate
Institute of Technology. Dermatology. Univ. of California. Irvine.
Univ.
Steffen, Jerome O., Ph D Prof of History. Univ. Stone-Ferrier, Linda, Ph.D Prof and Chair Dept
of Art History. Univ. of Kansas. Susman, Randall L, Ph.D Prof, of Anatomical
of Oklahoma
Sciences. State Univ. of New York, Stony Brook.
Steigerwaid, Bill, BS Writer, Pittsburgh IPAJ Stout, David B., Ph.D Former Prof, of
Anthropology, State Univ. of New York. Buffalo. Sutcliffe, Anthony, F.R.H.S. Special Prof in the
Post Gazette. Dept of History, Univ. of Nottingham. England
Steinberg, David Ph.D President. Long Island Stout, Joseph A., Jr., PhD. Prof of History.
J.,
Oklahoma State Univ. Sutherland, D. A, Ph.D Assoc Prof of History.
Univ.
Dalhousie Univ.
Steinberg, Laurence, PhD Prof, of Psychology. Stow, George B., Ph D Prof of History. LaSalle
Univ. Sutherland, Donald, Ph.D Prof of History. Univ.
Temple Univ.
of Maryland
PhD Stowers, Carlton Free-lance journalist; author.
Steinhardt, Paul Joseph,
Princeton Univ.
Prof, of Physics,
Dallas Cowboys: The First Twenty-Five Years. Sutherland, Zena, MA
Author The Best in
Children s Books and Children and Books
Steinkamp, Myma P., Ph.D Former Rsch. As- Stowers, Stanley K., Ph D Prof of Religious
Studies Brown Univ. Sviedrys, Romualdas, Ph.D Assoc Prof of
soc. Beet Sugar Development Foundation. USDA History of Science, Polytechnic Univ
Crops Rsch. Laboratory, Colorado State Univ. Strahl, Stuart D., Ph D Former Coordinator,
Tropical South America Program. WCI-New York Swain, Carol M., Ph D Prof of Law and Prof, of
Stekert, Ellen J., Ph.D. Prof of English. American
Zoological Society. Political Science Vanderbilt Unfv Law School.
Studies, and Folklore, Univ of Minnesota
Straus, E. C, Ph.D Former Prof of Mathematics. Swainson, Donald, Ph D Former Prof of Histo-
Steketee, Drew, A.B Senior VP Communica- Queens Univ.
ry.
tions, Aircraft Owners and PilotsAssoc Unfv. of California, Los Angeles.

Stephenson, Skye, Ph.D. Regional Director. Latin Strauss, Arnold W., MD

Prof Director, Divi- :
Swan, Patricia B.,Ph£> Vice Provost for Re-
search and Graduate Dean, Iowa State Unfv.
America, Council on International Educational Ex- sion of Pediatric Cardiology, Washington Univ.
change- Stricklin, George P., Ph.D Prof Div of Derma- Swank, Duane, Ph D Assoc Prof of Political Sci-
tology. Vanderbilt Univ School of Medicine. ence, Marquette Unfv.
Sterling, Everett W., Ph D Former Prof, of
History, Univ. of South Dakota Stringer, Gary A., Ph.D. Prof of English Univ. of Swanson, Michael R. H., Ph D Prof of Historic
Southern Mississippi. Preservation, Center for Historic Preservation,
Stem, David, Ph.D. Assoc. Prof, of Asian and
School of Architecture, Roger Williams Unfv.
Middle Eastern Studies. Univ. of Pennsylvania Strohm, Paul, Ph D Prof of English, Indiana
Univ. Swedlund, AJan, Ph.D Prof of Anthropology.
Stem, Louis W., Ph.D John D Cray Distin- Univ. of Massachusetts. Amherst
guished Prof, ofMarketing, Northwestern Univ. Stromberg, Roland N., Ph D Prof of History,
J. L Kellogg Graduate School of Management Univ. of Wisconsin. Milwaukee. Sweet, R. F. C, Ph D Prof of Near Eastern
Studies, Univ of Toronto.
Stem, Robert M., Ph.D. Prof, of Economics and Strong, Gary E., AM LS Director, Queens
Sweetman, Jack, Ph.D Naval and Military
Public Policy, Univ. of Michigan. Borough Public Ubrary, Jamaica. New York City.
Historian U.S. Naval Academy retired.
Stem, Robert S., MD Assoc Prof of Strout, Jeffrey, BA Asst News Editor Bangor
Dermatology, Dermatologist, Beth Israel Hospital. tME) Daily News, Sweet, David C, Ph D President. Youngstown
Harvard Medical School, Boston. State Unfv.
Stuart-Fox, Martin, PhD Head Dept of History
Stem, S. Alan, Ph D Director. Dept of Space Univ. of Queensland Sweets, John F., Ph D Prof of History Univ of
Studies. Southwest Research Institute. Kansas.
Stuckey, Kenneth A, MLS Research Librarian.
Sternberg, Robert J., Ph D IBM Prof of Psychol Perkins School for the Blind Sweitzer, James S., Ph D Dir of Astrophysics
ogy and Education, Yale Univ. Education Rose Center for Earth and Space.
Stucky, Galen D., Ph D Prof, of Chemistry and of
Stevens, Charles F., MD
Ph D Howard Hughes Materials, Univ of California Santa Barbara Swerdlow, David L, M.D Medical Epidemiolo-
Medical Institute Investigator. The Salk Institute. gistFoodbome and Diarrheal Diseases Branch.
Studlar, Susan Moyle, Ph D Adjunct Assoc Prof
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
Stevens, Dale J., Ph D Former Prof of Geogra of Biology. West Virginia Univ Morgantown.
phy, Bngham Young Univ. Swezey, Marilyn Pfeffer, VIA Art Historian
Stuewer, Roger H., Ph D Prof of the History of
Stevens, John H., BSEE, Mgr Video
, Operations Science and Technology, Uni\ ot Minnesota Swinton, Elizabeth deS., Ph D Curator of Asian
Engineering, Thomson Consumer Electronics. Art Worcester Art Museum.
Stults, Taylor, Ph D Prof of History Muskingum
Stevens, Michael B., Ml) Clinical Assoc. Prof of College Sydnor, Charles W., President and
Jr., Ph D
Family and Community Medicine. Stanford Univ. Chief Executive Officer Central Virginia Education-
Sturgill, Claude C, Ph D Prot of History, Univ. of
al Telecommunications Co Inc
School of Medicine. Florida
.

Stevens, Milton C, Ed.M Executive Secretary. Symons, Donald, Ph D Prof of Anthropology.

Su, Linli, BS Graduate Asst Liquid Crystal Insti
rai of California Santa Barbara
American Watchmakers Institute.
tute. Kent State Univ.
I

Stewart, A. T. Q., Ph.D. Former Reader in Insh Szporluk, Roman, Ph D S Hrushevsky M Prof,
Subtelrry, Orest, Ph D Prof of History and Polm of Ukrainian History Harvard Univ.
History. Queen s Univ Belfast
cal Science, York Univ.
Stewart, David K-, Ph D Assoc Dean of Arts, Suchlicki, Jaime, Ph D Prof Graduate School of
Univ. of Manitoba International Studies, Univ. of Miami.
 Contributors and consultants XI III

Political Science, Trinity Univ Tonomura, Hitomi, Ph D Assoc Prof of History;

Tncyer, Ralph E., Ph D Prof of Urban Planning Director, Center for Japanese Studies, Univ. of
Tabuteau, Emily Zack, PhD Assoc Prof, of and Public Administration, Univ of New Orleans. Michigan
History, Michigan State Univ.
Thelen, David P., PhD Prof of History, Indiana Tonos, Michael, BA Executive Editor, The
Tachau, Frank, Ph.D. Author, Turkey: The Politics Univ., Bloomington IBiloxi, MSI Sun Herald
of Authority, Democracy, and Development Toppin, Edgar Allan, PhD Dean
Thiel, Elizabeth, BA Day Metro Editor, The of the Gradu
Taeuber, Karl, PhD Prof. Emeritus of Sociology, (Norfolk, VA) Virginian Pilot.
ate School and Prof, of History, Virginia State Univ
Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison. Torrey, E. Fuller, MD Research Psychiatrist,
Thomas, Steve, B.A. Economy Editor, Savannah
Taft, Robert, Jr., LLB. Former US. senator. (GA) Morning News. National Institute of Mental Health

Takaha, Michael, B S Asst Track Coach, Univ. of Thomas, Wm. Wayt, Ph D Assoc. Curator, New Tortike, W. Simon, Ph D Assoc. Prof of
Houston. York Botanical Garden. Petroleum Engineering, Univ. of Alberta.
Talbott, Basil B., Jr., BA
Washington Corre- Thomasma, David C, PhD Former Prof and Di Tortora, Phyllis, PhD Prof Emerita, Home Eco-
spondent, Chicago Sun-Times. rector, Medical Humanities Program, Loyola Univ. nomics, Queens College, City Univ of New York
Tanabe, Michael J., Ph D Prof of Plant Science, Chicago Medical Center Towell, W. Patrick, PhD Senior Writer,
Univ. of Hawaii, Hilo. Thome, G. D., PhD Consulting scientist,
Congressional Quarterly
Tanis, Nicholas, B.FA Assoc Prof of Film, New Raytheon Co. Trachtenberg, Marc, Ph D Prof of History, Univ
York Univ. Thompson, Brian Ph D Distinguished Univ of Pennsylvania.
J.,

Tanner, Allan B., M.LS. Former Librarian, The Prof., and Prof, of Optics, Univ of Rochester. Trachtenberg, Marvin, PhD Edith Kitzmiller
Wichita (KSI Eagle. Thompson, Brian S., PhD Prof of Mechanical Prof., Institute of Fine Arts, New York Univ.

Tanner, Raymond L, PhD Prof. Emeritus of Ra Engineering, Michigan State Univ. Travisono, Anthony P., B A
Former Executive
diology, Univ. of Tennessee Center for the Health Thompson, Carol L, MA Former Editor, Director, American Correctional Association.
Sciences. Current History magazine Trede, Larry D., Ph.D. Prof. Dept of Agricultural
Tanzi, Vito, PhD Director, Fiscal Affairs Dept, Thompson, David W., PhD Chancellor Prof of Education and Studies, Iowa State Univ.
International Monetary Fund. Chemistry, College of William and Mary. TrefiT, James, PhD Clarence J
Robinson Prof of
Tao, Eugene, MA Editor, (Hilol Hawaii Tribune Thompson, Dennis L, Ph D Prof of Political Physics, George Mason Univ.
Herald. Science, Brigham Young Univ. Tripathi, Brenda, Ph D
Prof of Pathology and
Tardif, Claude, MBA Director, International Thompson, Hugh A., M.S. Engineer/Inventor, Adjunct Prof, of Ophthalmology. Univ. of South
Maple Syrup Institute. & Gamble Co.
Procter Carolina School of Medicine.

Tarter, Brent, MA Editor, Dictionary of Virginia Thompson, James E., PhD Prof , Chair, Dept Tripathi, Ramesh C, F RCPath Prof and
Biography. of Electric Engineering, Univ. of Texas, Arlington.
Chairman, Dept of Ophthalmology, Univ. of South
Carolina School of Medicine
Tarter, Jill C, PhD Director, SET! Research, SETI Thompson, John R., Jr., PhD Former Head
Institute Basketball Coach, Georgetown Univ Tripathi, Vljai K., PhD Prof, of Electrical and
Computer Engineering, Oregon State Univ.
Tate, Lisa M., B A
Former Media Relations Thompson, Larry C, PhD Prof of Chemistry,
Coordinator, Distilled Spirits Council, U.S. Univ. of Minnesota, Duluth. Trotta, Paul D., Ph D Assoc Prof of
Engineering, Northern Arizona Univ.
Tatum, Henry K., BA Assoc. Editor, Editorial Thompson, Levi T., Ph.D. Prof., Dept of Chemi-
Page, Dallas Morning News. Trotter, William R., BA Free-lance writer; au-
cal Engineering, Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
thor,A Frozen Hell: The Russo-Finnish Winter War
Taubman, Paul, PhD Prof of Economics. Univ Thompson, Louis S., M.B.A. Railways Adviser, of 1939-1940.
of Pennsylvania. World Bank
Troxell, Harry E., DF Former Prof of Forest and
Taylor, Andrew C, III, B.S. Metro Editor. Rich- Thompson, W. Scott, D.Phil. Adjunct Prof., Wood Science, Colorado State Univ
mond {VA} Times-Dispatch Georgetown and Fletcher School of Law and
Univ,
Troy, Nancy J., PhD Chair, Art History Dept,
Taylor, C Richard, PhD Former Charles P. Diplomacy, Tufts Univ.; editor, The Third World.
College of Letters, Arts, and Sciences, Univ. of
Lyman Prof, of Biology, Harvard Univ. Thompson, Wayne, Ph D Historian, Center for Southern California, Los Angeles.
Taylor, George E., D.Litt Prof Emeritus of Asian Air Force History, Headquarters, U.S. Air Force.
Truemper, David G., S.T.D. Prof of Theology
Studies, Jackson School of International Studies, Thomson, Dale C, PhD Prof of Political Valparaiso Univ
Univ. of Washington. Science, McGill Univ.
Trujillo, Chadwick A., PhD Postdoctoral Schol-
Taylor, Harriet V., Ph.D. Assoc Prof, of Thomson, Keith Stewart, Ph.D. President, ar in Planetary Science, California Institute of Tech-
Chemistry, Miami Univ. Academy of Natural Sciences. nology.
Taylor, Heber, BA Editor, The Galveston County Thornton, John I., D Crim. Emeritus Prof, of Trussell, James, PhD Prof, of Economics and
m6 Daily News. Forensic Science, Univ of California, Berkeley. Pi'blic Affairs and Director. Office of Population
Taylor, Kathleen C, PhD Physical Chemistry Thornton, Lee, PhD Prof, and Chair, College of Research. Princeton Univ.
Dept Head, General Motors Research and Journalism, Univ. of Maryland, College Park Truzzi, Marcello, Ph D Prof of Sociology,
Development Center. Thurman, Harold V., Former Prof of Earth MA Eastern Michigan Univ.
Taylor, Leighton R-, Jr., Ph.D. Research Assoc, Science, Mount San Antonio College. Tu, Anthony T., PhD Prof of Biochemistry and
California Academy of Sciences.
Thursby, Gene R-, Ph.D. Assoc. Prof, of Religion, Molecular Biology. Colorado State Univ.
Taylor, Michael J. H. Author and editor of books Univ. of Florida. Tuck, James A, Ph D Prof of Archaeology,
on aircraft Tidwell, William D., Ph D. Prof, of Botany, Memorial Univ, of Newfoundland.
Taylor, R. Craig, Ph.D. Prof, of Chemistry, Brigham Young Univ Tucker, Barbara M, PhD Prof of History and
Oakland Univ. Tierney, Kevin, LLM Prof of Law, Hastings Col Director, Center for Connecticut Studies. Eastern
Taylor, R. William President, American Society lege of the Law, Univ of California, San Francisco. Connecticut State Univ.
of Association Executives. T'rrfney, Bruce H., Ph D Assoc Prof of Geologi Tunks, Thomas W., Ph D Assoc Provost, South
Taylor, Robert H., PhD Prof, of Politics, School cal Sciences Univ of California, Santa Barbara. ern Methodist Univ.
of Oriental and African Studies. Tignor, Robert L, Ph D. Prof of History, Prince- Tunnell, Ted, PhD Assoc Prof of Historv \ il

Taylor, Robert W., PhD Prof and Chair, Dept ton Univ. ginia Commonwealth Univ.
of Criminal Justice, Univ of North Texas. Tillman, Barrett, B.S. Secretary, American Turley, William S., Ph D Prof Dept ot Political
Tebben, Joseph R-, Ph.D. Assoc. Prof, of Classics, Lighter Aces Association. Science, Southern Illinois LJniv Carbondale
Ohio State Univ. Timm, Robert Curator of Mammals
M., Ph D Turner, Howard, Ph.D. Prof of Surveying
Tefft, Stanton K., Ph.D. Prof of Anthropology, and Assoc Prof of Ecology and Evolutionary Biolo Engineering, California State Polytechnic Univ.,
Wake Forest Univ. gy. Museum of Natural History, Univ of Kansas. Pomona.
Teitelbaum, Jeremy, Ph D Prof of Mathematics, Timms, Howard, BA Editorial and Media Direc Turner, R. Carroll, M BA Technical Assoc,
Dir of Graduate Studies, Univ of Illinois, Chicago lor ISurtd Book Onlinr Carpet and Rug Institute

Temperley, Howard, Ph.D. Prof, of History. Tirro, Frank, PhD Prof, of Music. Yale Univ. Turner, Robert L, M PA Deputy Editor Editor*
al page Boston Globe
Univ. of East Anglia. Tismaneanu, Vladimir, Ph D Proi of Govern-
Temperley, Judith K-, Ph D Chief Weapons ment and Politics Univ oi Marvland; Senior Turner, Walter W. Vice President and Manager
Analysis Branch. U.S.Army Research Laboratory fellow Foreign Policy Research Institute Marketing and Development Inriustnal Pit. h
PhD Koppers Industries Inc
Temple, Frederick T., PhD Chief, Resident Trtman, Rodger D., Asmii Prof, of Wildlife
Mission in Turkey, World Bank Biology Macaonald Campus of McGill Unh Tunque, Bill, B A Washington v orrespondenl
Vmvmwv'^ author lm fitting At Gore
Templeton, Alan R., Ph D Rebstock Prof of Biol- Tobach, Ethel, Ph D Curator Emertta American
ogy, Washington Univ. Museum of Natural History Ad|un< I Prof of Tweton, D. Jerome, Hi D miner i I hester Fritz
Biology and Psv< hology. City Univ of New York. Distinguished Pro! Historv I m\ ot \orth Dakota
terHorst, J. F., BA Author, Gerald Ford and the
Future of the Presidency. Todd, James K., M.D Pro! ol Pedum, s Tyler, Seth, Ph I) Dept of Bioloqiial
Prot S. i

Microbiology and Preventive Medicine Unh ot en. i'v I tm ol Maine Orono

Terrasse, Jean, PhD Prof of French Language
Colorado School of Meifn me
and Literature, McGill Univ
Pro! ol Am lwe.il.uiv
u
Todd, Malcolm, DLitt
TeSelle, Eugene, PhD Prof, of Church History Ubetaker, Douglas H., Ph t) t uiatoi ot Ptnsn al
l irnv or I

and Theology, Divinity School, Vanderbilt Univ Anthiopoloqv Smithsonian Institution

s ''•* h
Tong, Phillip ;
~
Tetreaurt, Mary Ann, Ph D Una Chapman Cox * Por/tw hnh State nn I* nendu, Victor Chikezie,
no locn t Iti I) D
Distinguished Prof of International Att,urs Dept of
I i
XLIV Contributors and consultants

Institute of Public Policy, Univ. of Calabar, Nigeria. Packaging Science, Clemson Univ. gia, Georgia Station.

Udelson, Joseph H., Ph.D. Prof, of History. Verity, John W. Dept. Editor, Business Week Wallace, M.,C PhD Assoc. Prof, of History,
Tennessee State Univ. Vermeer, Donald F_, Ph.D. Prof, and Chair, Dept Laurentian Univ.
Uhler, Sharron C, B.Phil. Archivist, Colorado of Geography and Regional Science, George Wallace, Jane M.S. Former Vice President,
Y.,
Springs Pioneers Museum. Washington Univ. Publisher, Restaurants and Institutions magazine.
Ullrich, Arthur H., Jr. Fellow, Academy of Ver Steeg, Clarence L, Ph.D. Prof, of History, Wallace, Susan Lutz, Ph D Asst Prof.. Division
Underwater Arts and Sciences; Member, Board Northwestern Univ. of Sociology, Anthropology, and Gerontology,
of Advisers, National Association of Underwater Baylor Univ.
Verts, William T., Ph.D. Asst. Prof., Dept of Com
Instructors.
puter Science, Univ. of Massachusetts, Amherst Wallechinsky, David Chief Executive Officer,
Ultee, Maarten, Ph.D. Prof, of History, Univ. of
Vickery, John B., Ph.D. Prof, of English Emeritus,
Almanac Researchers.
Alabama. Univ. of California, Riverside. Waller, Bruce F., M.D. Cardiologist, Nasser
Uman, Martin A., Ph.D. Prof, of Electrical and Videon, Fred F., Ph.D. Senior Structural Smith Pinkerton Cardiology, Saint Vincent Hospi-
Computer Engineering, Univ. of Florida. Engineer, Bridger Engineers, Inc. tal. Indianapolis.
Underwood, T. Bryan, Jr., ].D Attorney, Vietor, Richard H. K., Ph.D. Senator John Heinz Waller, John F., M.D. Chief, Foot Service, Mount
Northern Trust Co. Prof of Environmental Management, Harvard Univ. Sinai Hospital.

Ungar, Sanford J., MS Director, Voice of Amer- Graduate School of Business Administration. Wallerstein, Immanuel, Ph.D. Distinguished
ica Prof, of Sociology and Director of the Fernand
Vincenti, Virginia B., PhD, Prof., Dept of Family
Unger, Richard W., Ph.D. Prof, of History, Univ and Consumer Sciences, Univ. of Wyoming. Braudel Center, Binghamton Univ.
of British Columbia Vinquist, Mary, Ph.D. Author, Performance Walsberg, Glenn E., Ph.D. Prof of Biology, Ari-
Urban, Joan Barth, Ph.D. Ordinary Prof of Practice: A Bibliography. zona State Univ.
Politics, Catholic Univ. of America.
Vinson, S. Bradleigh, Ph.D. Prof, of Entomology, Walsh, J. Michael, Ph.D. President, Walsh
Urla, Jacqueline, Ph.D. Assoc. Prof, of Anthropol- Texas A&M Univ. Group, Public Accountants.
ogy, Univ. of Massachusetts, Amherst Visich, Marian, Jr., PhD Assoc. Dean of Walsh, Patrick, J D. Prof and Asst. Dean, Univ. of
Usselman, Melvyn C, Ph.D. Assoc. Prof, of Engineering, State Univ. of New York, Stony Brook. Wisconsin, Madison.
Chemistry, Univ. of Western Ontario. Vrtt, Dale H., Ph.D. Prof., Dept. of Plant Biology, Walter, Hartmut S., Ph.D. Prof of Geography,
Utley, Robert M., MA Former Chief Historian Southern Illinois Univ., Carbondale. Univ. of California, Los Angeles.
and Asst. Director, National Park Service. Vrtt, Laurie Ph.D. Prof, of Biology, Univ. of Cali-
Walters, James C, PhD Prof, of Geology, Univ.
J.,
of Northern Iowa.
fornia, Los Angeles.

Vizenor, Gerald, Prof, BA American Studies, Walters, William D., Jr., Ph.D. Prof of Geogra-
Vachon, Andre, Docteur en Histoire. Fellow of Univ. of California, Berkeley. phy, Illinois State Univ
the Royal Society of Canada, historian, and writer.
Vogel, Morris J., Ph.D. Prof, of History, Temple Walton, Clyde C, MA Former Director of
Vahala, George, Ph.D. Assoc. Prof, of Physics,
Univ. Libraries, Univ. of Colorado, Boulder.
William and Mary College. Walton, Craig, PhD Prof, of Philosophy and
Vogele, William B., PhD Asst Prof of Politic al
Vail, Leroy, PhD Former Prof, of History, Har-
Science and Coordinator of the Program in Social Director, Institute for Ethics and Policy Studies,
vard Univ. and Political Systems, Pine Manor College. Univ. of Nevada, Las Vegas.
Valbuena, Jose A. Fernandez, Ph.D. Lecturer in Walton, Hanes, Jr., Ph D Prof, of Political
Voorhies, Michael R., Ph.D. Curator, Vertebrate
Anthropology, Baylor Univ. Paleontology, Univ. of Nebraska State Museum. Science, Univ. of Michigan.
VaJgemae, Mardi, Ph.D. Prof, of English, City
Voyles, J. Bruce, B.A, Publisher and Author, Walz, Arthur H., Jr., MS Chief, Geotechnical
Univ. of New York Herbert H. Lehman College. Chattanooga, TN. and Materials Branch, Directorate of Civil Works.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
Van Camp, Leonard W., DMA.
Activities, Southern Illinois Univ.,
Dir. of Choral
Edwardsville. w Wanatee, Donald W.,
Sac and Fox Tribe of the Mississippi
Sr., M.S.W Historian,

Vance, Charles C
Former Director of Public Wacker, Peter O v PhD Prof of Geography,
Mesquaki.
in Iowa;
Relations, National Safety Count il. Rutgers, the State Univ. of New Jersey.
Vancko, Robert M., Ph.D. Prof, of Mathematics, MA Managing
Wang, Chien Yi, Ph D Research Horticulturist,
Waddell, Eileen, Asst. Editor,
Ohio Univ U.S. Dept of Agriculture.
The (Columbia, SO State.
Van den Berghe, Pierre L, Ph.D. Prof, of Ward, Graham, M.Ed Former Senior Rsch.
Wade, John W., S.J.D. Former Dean and Prof of
Officer, Australian Council for Educational Rsch.
Sociology, Univ. of Washington. Law, Vanderbilt Univ. School of Law.
Vandergrift, Kay Ward, Norman, LLD Prof Emeritus of Political
E., Ed.D. Assoc. Dean, School Wade, Thomas Edward, Ph.D. Professor of Elec
Science, Univ. of Saskatchewan.
of Communication, Information and Library Stud- trical Engineering, Univ. of South Florida.
ies, Rutgers, the State Univ. of New Jersey.
Wadsworth, Frank W., Ph.D. Prof Emeritus,
Ward, Roger, Ph D Curator of European Art
Van der Linden, F. Robert, Curator of MA State Univ. of New York College, Purchase.
Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art.

Aeronautics, National Air and Space Museum. Ward, William A., PhD Prof., Brown Univ.
Wagner, David H., Ph.D. Senior Scientist,
VanDerWege, David, Director of Member
M.S. Northwest Botanical Institute Wardowski, Wilfred F., Ph.D. Coauthor, Florida
and Field Services, American Camping Assoc. Citrus Diagnostic Guide.
Wagner, John E., Jr., M.D. Assoc. Director,
Vander Zanden, James W., Ph.D. Former Prof. Blood and Marrow Transplantation, Univ. of Mm- Ware, Donna M. Eggers, PhD Research Assoc.
of Sociology, Ohio State Univ. nesota, Minneapolis. Prof, of Biology. College of William and Mary.
Vandiver, Frank, Ph.D. Author, Rebel Brass: The Wagner, Mary Emma, Ph.D. Lecturer Emerita in Wareham, Rachel E. Former Editor,
Confederate Command System. Geology, Univ. of Pennsylvania. International Old Lacers.
Vandiver, J. Kim, PhD Dean for Undergraduate Wagner-Martin, Linda, PhD Hanes Prof, of Waring, Geo. H., PhD Prof of Ethology,
Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. English, Univ of North Carolina, Chapel Hill. Southern Illinois Univ.

Van Dusen, Albert F_, Ph.D. Emeritus Prof, of Wailes, Assoc.

B., Ph.D. Prof, of Anthropology, Waring, Richard H., Ph.D. Prof Emeritus of For-
History, Univ. of Connecticut Univ. of Pennsylvania. est Ecology, Oregon State Univ.

Van Riper, Charles, HI, Ph.D. Prof, of Biology, Waiser, Bill, PhD Head. Dept. of History, Univ. Warner, H. Jack, B S President and Chief
U.S. Geological Survey, Northern Arizona Univ. of Saskatchewan. Executive Officer, Beatreme Foods, Inc.
Van Riper, Sandra, M.S. Science writer. Waite, P. B., LLD Prof. Emeritus of History, Warner, Ralph P., M.Ed. Former President, RAM
Van Tine, Warren, Ph.D. Prof of History, Ohio Dalhousie Univ Radio Controlled Models, Inc.
State Univ. Waite, Robert G. L, Ph.D. Brown Prof of History Warren, Ann Alexander, MA Instructor

VanWingen, Peter M., M.S. in LS. Former Spe- Emeritus, Williams College. Kansas State Univ.
cialist for the Book Arts, Library of Congress. Wakeman, Frederic, Ph.D. Haas Prof, of
Jr., Warren, Cliff, MA
President. Raytek, Inc.;
Vardy, Steven Bela, Ph.D. Prof, of History, Asian Studies. Univ. of California, Berkeley. former Managing Director, AGA Infrared Systems.
Duquesne Univ. Walcott, Charles, Ph.D. Prof., Neurobiology and Warren, Dennis M., PhD Former Prof, of An-
Vardys, V. Stanley, Ph.D. Former Prof, of Polttu Behavior, Cornell Univ. thropology, Iowa State Univ.
aj
Science, Univ. of Oklahoma. Waldfogel, Jane, Ph D Assoc. Prof, of Social Waterland, Larry R., PhD Operations Manager,
Vatai, Frank L, PhD Asst Prof of History Work and Public Affairs. Columbia Univ School of Energy Systems, Arthur D Little, Inc.

California State Univ., Northridge. Social Work Watermeier, Daniel J., Ph D Prof, of Theatre,

Wales, Patience, B A Chief Editor SAIL maga- Film, and Dance, Univ of Toledo.
Vaughan, Alden T., Ph D Prof of History,
Columbia Univ. zine. Watson, David Lowes, PhD Prof of Theology
Wales, Robert W., PhD Prof of Geography, and Congregational Life and Mission, Wesley
Vehrencamp, Sandra L, Ph.D. Prof, of Neurobi-
Univ. of Southern Mississippi. Theological Seminary, Washington, D.C
ology and Behavior, Cornell Lab. of Ornithology.

Veillette, Robert D., B C.S. Managing Editor, Walker, Dt ward E., Jr., Ph D Prof of Watson, Harry L, PhD Prof, of History. Diiector

The Waterbury (CD Republican-American. Anthropology, Univ. of Colorado. of the UNC Center for the Study of the American
South, Univ. of North Carolina, Chapel Hill
Venit, Marjorie S., PhD Assoc Prof, of Art His- Walker, James C
G., Ph.D. Prof of Atmospheric
tory and Archaeology, Univ. of Maryland Sc lent c Univ. of Mit higan. Watson, John L, Ph D Chair Prof Dept of Met- ,

allurgical Engineering. Univ. of Missouri, Rolla.

Verderber, Nadine L, Ph D I ormer Prof, of Walker, Jearl, Ph.D. Prof of Physics, Cleveland
Mathematics, Southern Illinois Univ., Edwardsville. State Univ. Watson, Richard L, Jr., PhD Prof Emeritus of
History, Duke Univ
Vergano, Peter Sc.D. Assoc. Prof, of Walker, Jerry T., Ph.D. Prof., College of Agncul
J.,
tural and Environmental Sciences, Univ. of Geor Watt, Ian, MA Author The Rise of the Novel
 Contributors and consultants XLV

and Ccnrad in the Nineteenth Century. Dean, College of Arts and Sciences, Indiana Univ. Wilkinson, Sylvia, MA
Journalist and author of
Wayman, Michael L, PhD Prof, of Metallurgy, Wespestad, Vidar C., Ph.D. Chief Sc lentist Pac if
books on automobile racing.
Univ. of Alberta, Edmonton. ic vVhiting Conservation Cooperative. Willett, Debra A, Assoc BA Director, Long Is-

Weale, David, Ph.D. Prof, of History, Univ. of Wester, Lyndon, PhD Assoc. Prof, of
land Studies, Hofstra Univ.
Prince Edward Island. Geography, Univ of Hawaii. Williams, Bob, BA J Executive Editor. Oil and
Wearing, P., Ph.D. Prof, of English, Univ. of An Westermann, Edwin Prof Emeritus of Gas lournai
J., Ph.D.
).

zona. History, Univ. of Missouri, Kansas City. Williams, Edward V., PhD, Prot of Music. Penn-
Weart, Spencer PhD
Director, Center for
R., Weston, Michele, B A Editor, American Power sylvania State Univ.
History of Physics, American Institute of Phvsn s Boat Assni Williams, Irving G., Ph.D. Author, The American
Weaver, David C, Ph.D. Prof, and Chair Dept. of Wetz, Max, B.S. City Editor, Black HillslSOi Pio Vice-Presidency Men Look.
Geography, Univ. of Alabama neer. Williams, James C, Ph.D. Prof, of Information
Weaver, Robert F., PhD Assoc Dean, College Weyant, Robert C, Ph.D. Prot of General Sciences. Univ. of Pittsburgh.
of Liberal Arts and Sciences and Dept. of Prof., Studies, Univ. ot Calgary. Williams, Jerre S-, J.D. Former Judge, United
Molecular Biosciences, Univ. of Kansas. Wharton, Annabel Jane, States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit
Ph.D. Assoc Prof, of
Webb, Charles H., DM. Dean, School of Music, Duke Univ.
Art History, Williams, Jerry R., PhD Prof of Geography,
Indiana Univ. Wheaton, Bruce R., PhD California State Univ, Chico
Director, Inventory of
Webb, John W., PhD Prof of Geography and Sources for History of Twentieth-Century Physics. Williams, Joseph M., PhD Prof of English, Univ.
Planning, State Univ. of New York, Albany Wheeler, Douglas L, PhD of Chicago.
Prof of History, Univ.
Webb, Kempton E., PhD Prof. Emeritus of of New Hampshire, Durham; author. Republu an Williams, Larry E, Ph D Prof of Viticulture and
Geography, Columbia Univ. Portugal Enology, Univ of California. Davis.
Webb, Leland F., PhD
Prof and Chair, Dept of Wheeler, James O., Ph D Prof, of Geography, Williams, Nudie Eugene, Ph.D. Assoc Prof, of
Mathematics, California State Univ., Bakersfield Univ. of Georgia History, Univ. of Arkansas, Fayerteville.

Weber, Darrell J., PhD Prof of Botany, Brigham Wheelwright, Julie, MA Writer; Lecturer, City Williams, Peter W., Ph.D. Prof of Religion and
Young Univ. Univ, London. American Studies. Miami Univ.
Weber, Herb, Prof and Director of Work
Ph.D. Whitaker, Jim Editor, HannibaHMOl Courier- Williams, Robert E., Ph.D. Assoc. Prot of Political
Physiology Laboratory, East Stroudsburg Univ. Post. Science, Pepperdine Univ.
Weber, Joan, BA Consumer Affairs Manager, White, Charles S. J., Ph D Prof Emeritus of Williamson, Frank, Jr., Ph.D. Author of
Win. Wrigley, jr., Co. Philosophy and Religion, American Univ. mathematics articles.
Webster, Duane F_, MALS. Executive Director, White, D. E., Ph.D. Assoc. Prof, Dept of English Willis, ElizaJ., Ph.D. Assoc. Prof, of Political
Association of Research Libraries. and Comparative Literature, Columbia Univ. Science. Grinnell College.
Webster, Frederick E-, Jr., Ph.D. Charles Henry White, Geoffrey M., Ph D Senior Fellow, Willits, Ann, MA Director, Parable Conference
Jones Third Century Prof, of Management, Tuck Education Program. East-West Center. for Dominican Life and Mission.
School of Business, Dartmouth College. White, John H., Jr., BA Curator Emeritus, Willmarth, Philip R., BA. Executive Editor and
Weertman, Johannes, D.Sc. Walter P. Murphy National Museum of American History. Business Manager, The Linking Ring.
Prof, of Materials Science and Engineering Emeri- White, John Kenneth, Ph.D. Prof, of Politics, Wills, John E., Jr., Ph D. Prof, of History, Univ. of
tus, Northwestern Univ. Catholic Univ. Southern California.
Wehner, Todd, Prof, Dept of Horticultural
Ph.D. White, K. H. Senior Journalist. Northern Territory Wilmeth, Don B., Ph D Asa Messer Prof.; Prof, of
Sciences, North Carolina State Univ., Raleigh. News Services. Theatre and English; Brown Univ.
Weigl, Peter D., Ph.D. Prof, of Biology, Wake White, Linda R., B A. Former AssL Production Di- Wilson, Alan, Ph D Prof Emeritus of History,
Forest Univ. rector, Portland Newspapers. Trent Univ
Weil, Andrew, M.D. Assoc. Director, Division of White, Ralph E., PhD Prot. and Chairman, Dept Wilson, Carroll,MA Editor, IWichita TX) Falls,
Social Perspectives in Medicine, Univ. of Arizona. of Chemical Engineering, Univ. of South Carolina. Times Record News.
Wein, Ross W., Ph.D. Prof., Dept of Renewable White, Raymond E., PhD
Prot Emeritus Dept. Wilson, Dru, B A Feature Writer The (Colorado
Resources and Dept of Biological Sciences, Univ of Astronomy, Univ. of Arizona. Springs, CO! Gazette.
of Alberta.
White, S. Elizabeth, AEd. M Former Senior As- Wilson, Jean Caddy, B.J. Executive Director
Weinberg, Martin S., Ph.D. Prof, of Sociology, soc, American Red Cross. New Directions for News.
Indiana Univ.
Whitehead, Nancy Dickerson, B.S. Author Wilson, John F., Ph D Collord Prof, of Religion,
Weiner, Myron, Ph.D. Former Prof of Political Among Those Present Princeton Univ.
Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Whiteside, Don, PhD Former Social Research Wilson, John S. Free-lance music critic.
Weiner, William M.D. Prof of Neurology, Analyst, Dept. of Indian and Northern Affairs.
J.,
Wilson, Margaret D., Ph.D. Former Prof, of Phi
Univ. of Miami.
Whitfield, Chris Editor Ope Town, SA) Week- losophy. Princeton Univ.
Weir, Lorraine, Ph.D. Prof, of English and
Comparative Literature, Univ. of British Columbia.
end Argus. Wilson, Randy, MA Editor, (Flagstaff) Arizona
Whorton, M. Donald, M.D., M.P.H. Consultant, Daily Sun.
Weir, Robert M., Ph.D. Prof. Emeritus of History, Whorton and Associates Wilson, Samuel M., Ph.D. Assoc. Prot of
Univ. of South Carolina. Anthropology I ni v of Texas, Austin.
Wick, Susan M., Ph.D. Prof, of Plant Biology,
Weisberg, Martin, M.D. Clinical Assoc. Prof, of Campus
Univ of Minnesota, Twin Cities Wilson, Terry P., PhD Prof, of Ethnic Studies,
Obstetrics and Gynecology, Thomas Jefferson
Univ.
Wickham St Germain, Margaret E., B.S. Emi Univ. of California Berkeley.
ronmental Scientist, Environmental Protection Wilson, Theodore A, Ph.D. Prof ot Histor\
Weishampel, David B., Ph.D. Prof , Johns Hop- Agency. of Kansas.
L ni\
kins Univ. School of Medicine.
Wicklund, Douglas M., MA Curator of Wilson, W. Herbert, Ph D. Asst Prof, andJr.,
Weishar, Peter, oA. Prof, of Film and Television, Collections, National Firearms Museum. Chair. Dept of Biolog\ Colin College.
New York University.
Wielebnowski, Nadja, Ph D Postdoctoral Fel- Wilson, William Julius, Ph D Malcolm Wiener
Weiss, Nancy Ph.D. Prof, of History, Princeton low, Conservation and Research Center, National
J., Prof, of Social Policy. Harvard
L nh
Univ. Zoological Park, Smithsonian Institution.
Winberry, John J., Ph D. Prof, of Ceograph\
Weller, Milton W., Ph.D. Prof, Kleberg Chair in Wiens, John A., Ph D Prof of Biology, Univ. of I nh of South Carolina.
Wildlife Ecology, Texas A&M Urm New Mcxh o.
Windeyer, Kendal Former Transport Editor The
Wellford, Charles F., Ph D Prof, ot Criminolog) Wigge, Larry Hockey Editoi Chief Statistician, MontreaD Gazette
and Criminal Justice, Univ. of Maryland. The Sporting Nev\ i
Winfield, Barry Technical Director, Car and
Welling, Joel S., PhD Senior Scientific Special- Wilbur, Richard, MA Author: historian former 0m cv magazine
ist, Pittsburgh Supercomputing Center, Carnegie Supervisor Legislative Research Service, New
Mellon Univ. Brunswick Legislative Assembly.
Wing, John F., MBA
Senior Vice President.
Booz Allen & Hamilton.
Wells, Paul F., MA
Director, Center for Popular Wilczek, Frank, Ph D Herman Feshbach Prot of
Winks, Robin W., Ph D Randolph W Townsend
Music, Middle Tennessee State Univ. Physics, Massachusetts Institute ot Technology
Prot ot History Yale L nh
Welsch, Frank, D.V.M Senior Scientist, Wild, M. Trevor, Ph D Senior Lecturer Dept of Hinokur, James L, LLB Prot ot L.n\ I nh ol
Chemical Industry Institute of Toxicology. Geograptn Unh of Hull. trrw Spei Counsel Holme Rol
i.i'

MA
i

Welther, Barbara L, Historian of Astronu Wilentz, Sean, PhD Dayton-Stockton Prol ot

Winsberg, G Wynne Roeseler, PhD -V
my, Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory. Histon Princeton I nh
Dean ami >Vsso< Prof of Community and Family
Welty, Cus, BA Senior Editor, Railway Age. Wiles, Richard C, Ph D Charles Ranlen Flint Mi'du nip Loyola l ni\

M.D. Assoc. Prof of Urology, Prot ot Economics Bard College

Wendel, Earl F., Wuislow, David J.,
Ph I) I olklonst and museum
I Drrespond
Northwestern Univ. Medical School Wilford, John Noble i
» onsuhant
Wendland, Wayne M., Ph U Prof, of Geography, ent The Veil >ork Time* winner of the Pulitzer Dim tot
\\ inston. Judith E., Ph D ot Rim
National Reporting 1984
Univ of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign \ mjima Museum Of Natural rUstOf)
DirectOI Division of Head Wilkie, Richard W., Ph D iph)
PhD
Wenig, Barry L, M.D
I

Am \\lntri unite. Orval, Prot ot Religion Duke

and Neck Surgery and Prut Northwestern Univ. Univ of Massachusetts i nh
Medical School. Wilkins, Frederick C, Ph I) Prot and Chairman,
Winters, Harold A. Hi I) .iph\
Wertheim, Albert, PhD Prot of English
and Drama, and Comparative Literature
XLVI Contributors and consultants

Wise, M. Norton, Ph.D. Prof, of History, Princeton Wright, Paul W., M.D. Prof, of Family Practice, Ziegler, Gregory R., Ph.D. Assoc. Prof of Food
Univ. Univ. of Texas Health Center, Tyler. Sciences, Pennsylvania State Univ.
Wise, Thomas N v M.D. Prof, of Psychiatry, Wrighton, Mark S., Ph.D. Chancellor, Washing- Zigler, Edward, Ph.D. Sterling Prof, of
Georgetown Univ. School of Medicine. ton Univ., St. Louis. Psychology, Yale Univ.
Wishart, David, Ph.D Prof, of Geography, Univ. Wuhl, Charles Michael, M.D. Clinical Asst Prof Zihlman, Adrienne L, Ph.D. Prof, of
of Nebraska. of Psychiatry, New York Univ. Anthropology, Univ. of California, Santa Cruz.
Wiswell, Thomas E., M.D. Prof, of Pediatrics, Wursig, Bernd, Ph.D. Prof, of Marine Biology, Zils, John J., M.S. Assoc. Partner, Skidmore, Ow-
State Univ. of New York, Stony Brook. Texas A&M Univ., Galveston. ings, & Merrill.

Wit, Lawrence C, Ph D. Prof., Dept of Biological Wych, Robert D., Ph.D. Senior Research Scien- Zimmer, David Ph.D. Technology Transfer
E.,
Sciences, Auburn Univ. tist, Pioneer Hi-Bred International, Inc. Coordinator, Agricultural Research Service, U.S.
Wrthiam, Glenn, B.S. Executive Editor, Cornell Wynn, Graeme, Ph.D. Prof, of Geography, Univ. Dept of Agriculture.
Hotel Quarterly. of British Columbia. Zimmerman, Barry, Ph.D. VPand Managing Di-
Withuhn, William L, MB A Curator of Wyse, Roger E., Ph.D Dean and Director, Col- rector, 21 International Holdings, Inc.

Transportation, National Museum of American lege of Agricultural and Life Sciences, Univ. of Zimring, Franklin E., J.D. Dir., Earl Warren Legal
History, Smithsonian Institution. Wisconsin, Madison. Institute, Prof, of Law, Univ. of California, Berkeley.
Wohlstetter, Pris cilia, Ph.D. Director, Center on Wyszecki, Gunter, Dr.Eng. Former Dir., Institute Ziskind, Samuel J., MA Former Managing
Educational Governance, Rossier School of Educa- of Optics, National Research Council of Canada. Editor, Soldiers, U.S. Dept of the Army.
tion, Univ. of Southern California.
Zobel, Donald B., Ph.D. Prof, of Botany, Oregon
Wojcicki, Stanley G., Ph.D. Prof, of Physics, State Univ.
Stanford Univ. Xanthos, Marino, Ph.D. Director of Research, ZobelL Charles, BA Managing Editor, Las Ve-
Wolchik, Sharon L, Ph.D. Prof, of Political Sci- Polymer Processing Institute, New Jersey Institute gas (NV) Review-Journal.
ence and International Affairs, George Washing- of Technology.
Zolberg, Aristide R., Ph.D. University-in-Exile
ton Univ. Prof., Graduate Faculty, New School Univ.
Wolf, Kirsten, Ph.D. Prof, of Scandinavian Stud- Zophy, Jonathan W., Ph.D. Prof, of History, Univ.
ies, Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison. Yaffe, Michael P., Ph.D. Prof, of Biology, Univ. of
of Houston, Clear Lake.
California,San Diego.
Wolf, Larry L, Ph.D. Prof, of Biology, Syracuse Zuckerman, Harriet, Ph.D Senior Vice Presi-
Univ. Yaqo, Glenn, Ph.D. Director, Capital Studies,
Milken Institute. dent, Andrew W. Mellon Foundation
Wolf, Richard M., Ph.D. Prof. Emeritus of Psy- ZumBrunnen, Craig, Ph.D. Prof of Geography,
chology and Education, Columbia Univ. Yang, Chen Ning, Ph.D. Director, Institute for
Theoretical Physics, State Univ. of New York, Stony Univ. of Washington.
Wolf, Virginia L, Ph.D. Prof, of English, Univ. of
Brook; winner of Nobel Prize for Physics, 957. 1 Zwicker, Steven N., Ph D. Prof, of English,
Wisconsin, Stout Washington Univ.
Yarar, Baki, DIC Prof., Dept of Mining, Colorado
Wolfe, Willard / Ph.D. Former Social Sciences School of Mines.
Bibliographer, State Univ. of New York,
Binghamton. Yasso, Warren E., Ph.D Prof, of Natural Sciences
and Chairman, Dept of Mathematics and Science
Wolff, Margaret A., B.A. Author, Finger Painting. Education, Teachers College, Columbia Univ.
Wolfgang, Marvin E., Ph.D. Former Prof, of Yatskievych, George, Ph.D. Curator of Missouri
Criminology and Law, Univ. of Pennsylvania. Plants, Missouri Botanical Garden.
Wolfson, Richard, Ph.D. Prof, of Physics,
Middlebury College.
Yeninas, Barbara, MA
Executive Director,
Containerization and Intermodal Institute.
Wolk, Donald J., Ph.D. Clinical psychologist; Yeomans, Donald K., Ph.D Senior Research
former Prof, of Psychology, Univ. of Bridgeport Scientist, Jet Propulsion Laboratory.
Woll, Peter, Ph.D. Prof, of Politics, Brandeis Univ. Yoffee, Norman,
Ph.D. Prof, of Near Eastern
Wolman, Howard B., Ph.D. Prof, of Classics, Studies, Univ. of Michigan.
Brooklyn College, City Univ. of New York. Young, Hugh D., Ph.D. Prof, of Physics,
Woloch, Isser, Ph.D Prof, of History, Columbia Carnegie-Mellon Univ.
Univ. Young, M. Crawford, Ph.D. Prof, of Political
Woloch, Nancy / Ph.D. Author, Women and the Science, Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison.
American Experience. Youngman, Joan, J.D. Senior Fellow, Lincoln In-
Wood, Lon, BA Columnist, Victoria, BC, Times stitute of Land Policy.
Colonist Yu, Victor L, M.D. Prof, of Medicine, Univ. of
Wood, Louise Later, BA
Writer, Editor, and Pittsburgh.
Public Relations Consultant, Louise L Wood Public
Relations.

Woodard, Fredrick, Ph.D. Assoc. Prof., Chair, Zabik, Mary E., Ph.D. Univ. Distinguished Prof, of
African American World Studies, Univ. of Iowa. Food Science and Human Nutrition and Assoc.
Woodward, Susan L, Ph.D. Prof, of Geography, Dean for Academic Affairs, Michigan State Univ.
Radford Univ. Zablocki, Benjamin, Ph.D. Prof, of Sociology,
Woodley, David T., M.D. Prof, and Co-Chief, Rutgers, the State Univ. of New Jersey.
Univ. of Southern California Division of Dermatol Zafran, Eric M., Ph.D. Curator, Dept of European
ogy, LAC + USC Medical Center. Paintings and Sculpture, Wadswortn Atheneum.
Woodside, Jeffrey R., MBA
Prof, of Urology Zagare, Frank C, Ph.D. Prof, of Political Science,
and Executive Director, Univ. of Tennessee State Univ. of New York, Buffalo.
Medical Center, Univ. of Tennessee, Memphis.
Zarchan, Paul, M.S.E.E. Staff Engineer, C S.
Woodworth, Steven F_, Ph.D Assoc. Prof, of Draper Laboratory, Inc.
History, Toccoa Falls College.
Zebley, Eric, BA Senior Communications
Workman, David L Director of Communica- Manager, Binney & Smith Inc.
tions, Washington Dept. of Natural Resources;
Zee, Yuan Chung, Ph.D Prof, of Veterinary
author, Washington: A Centennial Portrait
Microbiology and Immunology, Univ. of California
Workman, Mark E., Ph.D. Chair and Prof, of School of Veterinary Medicine, Davis.
Literature and Folklore, Univ. of North Florida.
Dan, M.S.J. Humanities Subject Editor, The
Zeff,
Worley, Barbara A., Ph.D. Lecturer, Dept. of An- World Book Encyclopedia; theater critic for the
thropology, Boston Univ. Copley News Service.
Worster, Donald, Ph.D. Hall Distinguished Prof, Zehnder, Kirk Lee, BA President, Continental
of American History, Univ. of Kansas. Candle Co.
Wortel, John P., M.S. Assoc. Clinical Prof, of Zeitlin, Irving M., Ph.D Prof, of Sociology, Univ.
General and Oral Pathology, Loyola Univ. School of Toronto.
of Dentistry.
Zenilman, Jonathan M., M.D. Assoc. Prof, of
Worth, John Former Executive Director, Acade- Medicine, Johns Hopkins Univ. School of Medi-
my of Model Aeronautics. cine.
Wright, Grant, BA Publisher, Thompson [MB] Zettl, J. Robert, M.PA; DABFE President, Foren-
Citizen. sic Consultant, Inc.
 A 1

A is the first letter of our alphabet. It was the first letter or before noon. The a is used to abbreviate such words

in all the alphabets from which ours evolved. The Sem- as adjective, alto, and ampere.
ites, who and Palestine, named their first
lived in Syria Pronunciation. In English, the principal sound oiA
letter aleph, meaning They adapted an Egyptian hi-
ox. or a is long a, as in fate. Long a is pronounced by raising
eroglyphic (picture symbol) for an ox. The ancient the tongue toward the roof of the mouth and holding
Greeks later used this symbol, and called it alpha. Our the mouth slightly open. Short a, as in hat, is pro-
word alphabet comes from alpha and beta, the second nounced with the tip of the tongue below the edges of
letter in Greek. The Romans gave the letter its present the lower front teeth, the back of the tongue raised, the
form. See Alphabet. jaw lowered, and the lips moderately open. Broad a, as
Uses. A or a is about the third most frequently used in father, ispronounced with the tip of the tongue
letter in books, newspapers, and other printed material placed first below the edges of the lower front teeth and
in English. When used on a report card, A represents later raised. The mouth is opened wide. Unstressed a, as
the highest grade given in a school subject. In Latin, a in loyal oy about, is roughly equivalent to unstressed u

stands for ante, or before, as in a.m. for ante meridiem, in unfit. See Pronunciation. Marianne cooiey

Development of the letter

The ancient Egyptians,

A

about 3000 B.C,

1 The small
had developed
letter
its
a appeared during the A.D. 300s.
present shape by about 1500.
It

drew this symbol of an ox's head.

cX CL a
A.D. 300 1500 Today
The Semites simplified the Egyptian
symbol about 1500 B.C They called their
letter aleph, their word for ox.

Special ways of expressing the letter A

The Phoenicians, about 1 000 B.C, sim-
plified the Semitic letter.

International Braille
Morse Code
The Greeks adapted the letter about 600
B.C They called it alpha and made it the
first letter of their alphabet.

A The Romans
ent form about A.D.
gave the
1 14.
letter A its pres-

International
Flag Code
Semaphore Code Sign Language
Alphabet

Common forms of the letter A

Aa da, Aa Aa Aa Aa fl

Handwritten letters vary Roman letters have small Sans-serM letters are also Computer letters have spe-
finishing strokes called serifs called gothic letters. They cial shapes Computers can
from person to person. Manu-
that extend from the main have no serifs. The type face "read" these letters either opti-
script (printedl letters, left,
The type face shown shown above is called Futura. call\ or bv means of the mag
have simple curves and strokes.
straight lines. Cursive letters, above is Baskerville The italic the italic form of Futura ap- iietic ink m ith \\ hirh the let-

form appears at the rtgh' pean hi the right ters mav be printed.
right, have flowing lines.
2 A. A.

A.A. See Alcoholics Anonymous.

Aachen, AH kuhn (pop. 238,587), is an industrial city in
Germany. It is called Aix-la-Chapelle by the French. For
the location of Aachen, see Germany (political map).
A number of historic buildings stand near the center
of Aachen. The magnificent cathedral was begun by the
European ruler Charlemagne during the 700s and con-
tains his tomb. The Imperial and City Hall dates from
1 330 and is a fine example of Gothic architecture. It

houses a number of art treasures. Each year, thousands

of people visit the city's resort, Bad Aachen (pronounced
BAHD AH kuhn), whose hot mineral springs are be-
lieved to cure some ailments. Aachen's factories pro-
duce machinery, metal products, and textiles.
Roman soldiers established a settlement on the site of
Aachen shortly after the birth of Jesus Christ. Charle-
magne was born Aachen in 742 and made it the capi-
in
Norman Mvers Brute Coleman Ltd
tal European empire.
of his western Peter h Merki

Aalto, AHL taw, Alvar, AHL vahr( 1898- 1976), was a The aardvark rips open the nests of ants and termites with its

claws. Then it catches the insects with its long, sticky tongue.
Finnish architect, town planner, and furniture designer.
He gained fame for buildings that imaginatively com-
bine modern design principles with traditional materi- uses its excellent senses of smell and hearing to find
als, especially wood. Aalto often used flowing, wavy prey. When an aardvark searches for food, its snout
forms that marked a strong departure from the strict stays close to the ground and its ears point forward. The
geometric lines favored by other modern architects. animal uses its claws to rip open ant or termite nests,
Aalto designed his first two major works in the 1920s, and it licks up the insects with its long, sticky tongue.
a tuberculosis sanitarium in Paimio, Finland, near Turku, The tongue is about 12 inches (30 centimeters) long.
and a municipal library in Viipuri, Finland (now Vyborg, Females give birth to one baby at the start of the rainy
in Russia). He designed birchwood tables and chairs for season. Young aardvarks start digging burrows at about
these projects that made him famous as a furniture de- 6 months of age. After about a year, males move away
signer. His other buildings include a number of civic, from their mothers. Young females also become inde-
university,and apartment buildings. The Hall of Resi- pendent but stay near their mothers. Duane a. schntter
dence (1947-1949), at the Massachusetts Institute of Scientific classification. The aardvark is the only living
Technology, with its curved facade, is one of his most member of the order Tubulidentata. It is Orycteropus afer.

distinguished buildings in North America. The Aalto Aardwolf, AHRD an unusual type of hyena that
wulf, is

Theater, an opera house he designed in Essen, Ger- lives on the plains of southern and eastern Africa. Most
many, opened in 1988, after his death. Aalto's projects as hyenas have powerful jaws and strong teeth, but the
a town planner include a town center in Seinajoki, Fin- aardwolf s teeth are small, weak, and cone-shaped. It
land. The center features several small wedge-shaped feeds chiefly on termites, which it laps up with its broad,
buildings, largely made of wood. Aalto was born on Feb. sticky tongue. The aardwolf is unlike other hyenas be-
3, 1898, in Kuortane, nearVaasa. Nicholas Adams cause it has five toes on its front feet, and four toes on
See also Architecture (introduction (picture)); Furni- its hind feet. Other kinds of hyenas have four toes on

ture (The 1900s to the present [picture]). each foot. It is also smaller than other hyenas, standing
Aardvark, AHRD vahrk, is an African mammal that eats 20 inches (51 centimetersl high at the shoulder.
ants and termites. It has an arched body with a tubelike Aardwolves live alone, in pairs, or in family groups
snout, large ears, and a long The animal hunts for
tail. with two to four young. The aardwolf has a mane along
food at night and sleeps in a burrow during the day. In
the 1600s, Dutch settlers southern Africa gave the
in

aardvark its name, which means earth pig.

Aardvarks grow 4 to 6 feet (1.2 to 1.8 meters) long and
weigh about 140 pounds (64 kilograms). Their coarse
hair ranges from pinkish to grayish. The animals lack
front teeth. But peglike molars on the sides of their
mouths grow continuously. Unlike teeth of many mam-
mals, aardvarks' molars have no enamel coating. Instead,
a hard tissue called cementum covers the teeth. Aard-
varks have four sharp, spoon-shaped claws on their
front feet and five on their hind feet. When attacked,
they roll on their backs and use their claws for defense.
Lions, leopards, and people often kill aardvarks for food.
An aardvark digs burrows faster than most other ani-
mals. It can make a deep hole in only a few minutes. Per- ©Tom M<:Hugh Photo Researchers

manent burrows may extend to 43 feet (13 meters) in The aardwolf tawny-colored with black stripes, black
is feet,
length. The aardvark does not have good eyesight, but it and a black-tipped bushy tail. It is not a wolf but a hyena.
 Abacus 3

the back. It can raise the mane to make itself look larger. public bodies.AARP also works to improve the lives of
The name aardwolf, which is Afrikaans for earth wolf, older people by promoting their independence and dig-
was given the animal because it lives in a burrow. Aard- nity and by encouraging them to pursue personal goals.
wolves Only COme OUt at night. Anne Innis Dagg AARP offers members a number of benefits, including
Scientific classification. Aardwolves are in the hyena family, group health insurance, legal services, and a mail-order
Hyaenidae. They are Proteles cristatus.
pharmacy. The AARP magazine, Modern Maturity, is the
Aaron, AIR uhn, in the Bible, was the brother of Moses largest circulation magazine in the United States.
and Miriam. In earlier Biblical traditions, he was seen as Ethel Percy Andrus, a retired educator, founded the
a prophet and as Moses's helper. In later traditions, he American Association of Retired Persons in 1958. The
was viewed as the first high priest of Israel. Aaron may group changed its name to AARP in 1998. Its headquar-
have originally played an independent role from Moses ters are in Washington, D.C For more information, see
in the Israelites' deliverance from slavery in Egypt. Like its Web Site at WWW.aarp.org. Critically reviewed by AARP
Moses, Aaron was denied entrance into Canaan and AALW. See American Association of University
died on Mount Hor in Edom. The priestly traditions in Women.
the Bible give Aaron an expanded role in Israelite reli- Abaca, ah huh KAH, is a plant grown in Borneo, the
gious life and consider him founder of the Aaronite Philippines, and Sumatra for its fiber. The plant grows
priesthood. This priesthood became important in Jeru- about 20 feet meters) high and has large oblong
(6

salem after the Israelite return from exile in 538 B.C. See leaves. The leaves grow from the trunk of the plant, and
Moses; High
also priest; Birthstone. Carole r. Fontaine the bases of the leaves form a sheath (covering) around
Aaron, AIR uhn, Henry (1934- hit 755 regular- ), the trunk. These sheaths contain the valuable fiber. The
season home runs, more than any other baseball player coarse fibers grow 5 to 1 1 ] feet (1 .5 to 3.5 meters) long
in major league history. Aaron hit his 715th home run, and consist primarily of the plant materials cellulose,
which broke Babe Ruth s record of 714 homers, on April lignin, and pectin. Abaca fiber is sold under the name
8,1974. manila, after the major city of the Philippines. See also
Aaron played for the Milwaukee (later Atlanta) Braves Philippines (picture: Manila hemp). Christine w. jarvis

of the National League from 1954 through 1974. He was Scientific classification. The abaca plant belongs to the ba-

traded to the Milwaukee Brewers of the American nana family, Musaceae. It is Musa textilis.

League following the 1974 season and retired as a play- Abacus, AB uh kuhs, is an ancient device used in Chi-
er after the 1976 season. Aaron played right field most of na and other countries to perform arithmetic problems.
his career but also played It can be used to add, subtract, multiply, and divide, and

left field, center field, and to calculate square roots and cube roots. The abacus
first base. consists of a frame containing columns of beads. The
Aaron led the National beads, which represent numbers, are strung on wires or
League in home runs in narrow wooden rods attached to the frame.
1957, 1963, 1966, and 1967. The abacus was used by the ancient Greeks and Ro-
He won the league batting mans. The Chinese abacus is called suanpan, which
championship twice. He means counting, or reckoning, board. A typical Chinese
also holds the major abacus has columns of beads separated by a crossbar.
league career record for Each column has two beads above the crossbar and five
runs batted in— 2,297. below Each upper bead represents five units, and
it.

Aaron led the National each lower bead equals one unit
League in runs batted in The first column on the right is the ones column. The
He received
four times. second column is the tens column. The third column is
the 1975Spingam Medal, Henry Aaron the hundreds, and so on. The ones column represents
and he was elected to the numbers from one to nine. Each bead below the cross
National Baseball Hall of
Fame in 1982. Henry Louis Aaron was born on Feb. 5,

1934, in Mobile, Alabama. Dave Nightingale Jb?

See also Baseball (picture).

#
Additional resources c
x<- # O* vS
e »>°%
^ jr^jrjr*
e
vP d? *<
c<> x<.

Aaron, Henry, and Wheeler, Lonnie. I Had a Hammer. 1991.

Reprint. HarperCollins, 1992. Autobiography.
Rennert, Richard S. Hank Aaron. Chelsea Hse., 1993. Younger
readers.

AARP, ahrp, isthe largest private nonprofit member- II I I I I II I I

ship organization in the world. Its name is a shortened

form of its original title, the American Association of Re-

tired Persons. It has over 30 million members, who must
be 50 years old or older.
AARFs main purpose is to address the needs of older
people in the United States. It does this by providing
them with education and services and by representing
UllKII' BlHlki
their interests before government agencies and c\
4 Abadan

bar has a value of one lor 1 and each bead above the
), trafrom 1 979 to 1 988. He was also music director for the
crossbar has a value of 5 ones (or 51. The tens column Vienna State Opera from 1986 to 1991.
represents numbers from 10 to 90. Each lower bead in Abbado became principal conductor for the Vienna
the tens column represents 1 ten (or 101, and each upper Philharmonic in 1971 and artistic director and principal
bead represents 5 tens (or 50). A number is represented conductor of the Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra in 1989.
on the abacus by moving the appropriate beads to the Over the years, Abbado has established several new or-
Crossbar. Arthur Cittleman chestras and music festivals. He has been especially in-

Abadan, ah bah DAHN, ipop. 206,073), is a refining cen- terested in training young musicians. )ohn h Baron
ter for Iran s oil industry. It lies on Abadan Island, on the Abbas I, ab BAHS (1 571 -1 629), was the shah (king) of the

Shatt al Arab River in southwestern Iran (see Iran [map)). Safavid dynasty in Southwest Asia from 1 587 until his
Pipelines link Abadan with Iranian oil fields. The city s death in 1629. Under Abbas, the Safavids reached the
petroleum refinery, completed in 1913, ranks among the height of their power, ruling all or parts of present-day
largest in the world. was badly damaged by Iraqi for-
It Iran, Iraq, Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan, and Afghanistan.
ces in 1980, during a war between Iran and Iraq. The An- Abbas brought peace and stability to an empire that
glo-Persian Oil Company, a British firm, began the de- had been weakened by internal conflict since the 1570s.
velopment of Abadan in the early 900 s. Michel Le Gall
1 Before Abbas's reign, the Safavids relied on Turkic war-
Abalone, ab uh LOH nee, is a marine snail found in riors called Qizilbash (Red Heads) for military and ad-
most mild and tropical seas. It is sometimes called an ministrative support But Qizilbash tribes constantly
ear shell or ormer. found along the coasts of Califor-
It is fought with one another for power. As shah, Abbas re-
nia, Australia, Japan, New Zealand, South Africa, and Eu- duced Qizilbash influence by creating an army of Geor-
rope. It clings to submerged rocks by means of a flat, gian, Armenian, and Circassian slaves who were loyal
muscular foot It feeds on plants that it scrapes off the only to him. He also seized land that had been under
rocks with its filelike tongue. Abalone steak, the snail's Qizilbash control. Under Abbas, the Safavids regained
muscular foot, is a popular seafood dish on the Pacific territory that had been lost to the Ottoman Empire in the
Coast of the United States and in Japan. The abalone's west and to the Uzbek and Mughal empires in the east
colorful shell, which may be from to 1 2 inches (2.5 to
1 Abbas relocated the Safavid capital to the Persian city
30 centimeters) long, is used in making costume jewelry. of Isfahan in 598. He turned Isfahan into a splendid cap-
1

See also Mother-of-pearl. Robert Robertson ital with a magnificent public square and beautiful
Scientific classification. Abalones are in the family Halioti- mosques, palaces, and gardens.
dae, and the genus Haliotis. Abbas was born on Jan. 27, 1571, in Herat, a city in
Abandonment is a legal term that has two chief what is now Afghanistan. He died on Jan. 19, 1629, in
meanings. In the field of property law, abandonment oc- Ashraf (now Behshahr). Kathrvn Babayan

curs whenperson intentionally gives up all rights to

a See also Isfahan; Safavid dynasty.
something he or she owns. For example, if a person pur- Abbot is the religious superior of a monastery of an
posely throws away a ring, it has been abandoned. In early religious order, such as the Benedictines and Cis-
family law, abandonment refers to the desertion of a tercians. The term comes from the Aramaic word abba,
husband, wife, or child without intention to support the which means father. Young Egyptian monks first used
person. Most states of the United States make it a crime the title in the early 300s. These monks would seek an
for a parent to abandon a child. A father or mother who older monk or a hermit of the desert, whom they called
does this may lose the right to raise the child. abba, to teach and guide them. In the 500s, the Benedic-
Abandonment, also called desertion, is grounds for tine order established the title for the monk who had au-
divorce in states that permit divorce because of a wrong thority over other monks and monastic property.
done by the husband or wife (see Desertion). Some In early times, monks often appointed an abbot for
states allow no-fault divorce, in which one of the part- life. In the Middle Ages, abbots were often appointed by

ners simply testifies that the marriage has failed. As a re- civil officials. Today, monks elect an abbot, usually to

sult of no-fault divorce, fewer people seek divorce on serve a limited term. Abbots are generally independent
the ground of abandonment Mary Ann ciendon of the local bishop. A woman who is the head of an
Abbado, Claudio 11933- is an internationally
), abbey of nuns is called an abbess. David g schuitenover

known Italian symphony orchestra and opera conductor. Abbott was the name of two sisters who were Ameri-
Abbado has been music director of several of the major can social-work pioneers. They were born in Grand Is-
orchestras and opera companies in Europe. land, Nebraska— Edith on Sept 26, 1876, and Grace on
Abbado was born on June 26, 1933, in Milan, Italy. He Nov. 17, 1878.
studied piano with his father, and at the Milan Conserva- Edith Abbott (1876-19571 taught at the Chicago
tory. He then studied conducting at the Vienna Academy School of Civics and Philanthropy and was dean of the
of Music. Abbado won two prestigious international University of Chicago s School of Social Service Admin-
conducting competitions in 1958 and 1963. By the mid- istration from 1924 to 1942. She fought against injustices
1960 s, he had become recognized as one of the leading in the treatment of the poor and was a critic of politics in

conductors of his generation. welfare programs. She helped awaken the government
In 1968, Abbado became principal conductor of the to its responsibility in the welfare field.
La Scala opera in Milan. He served as the institution s Grace Abbott (1878-1939) was chief of the United
music director from 1971 to 1986. He won praise for rais- States Childrens Bureau from 1921 to 1934 and fought
ing the artistic standards of the La Scala orchestra both for the rights of women and children worldwide. She
in opera and in concert performances. Abbado was was on the Committee on Economic Security, which de-
principal conductor for the London Symphony Orches- veloped the Social Security Act. Alan Keith Lucas
 Abbott, Sir John Joseph Caldwell 5

SirJohn Joseph
Caldwell Abbott

Prime Minister of Canada

1891-1892

Thompson
1892-1894

The Public Archives of Canada. Ottawa

Abbott, Sir John Joseph Caldwell (1 821 1 893), in 1818.Soon after arriving in Canada, he married Har-
served as prime minister of Canada from June 1891 to riet Bradford, the daughter of a Canadian minister.
November 1892. He succeeded Sir John A. Macdonald, The Abbott family moved to Grenville, Lower Canada,
who died in office. During his administration, Abbott in 1830, but John spent much time with an uncle in St.

faced many problems that he could not solve. They in- Andrews. He learned about astronomy and mathematics
cluded a severe nationwide depression and major con- from a retired sea captain there and attended school in
between English- and French-speaking Canadians.
flicts the nearby village of Carillon.
Abbott became prime minister at the age of 70 and re- Abbott left home at age 17 and began a business ca-
signed because of poor health. reer, which he followed most of the time through the
Abbott was a distinguished lawyer, a position that mid-1 840"s. He conducted his activities, which included
drew him into politics. Before becoming prime minister, selling cloth, packing apples, and buying grain, in Mont-
he had served in the Assembly of the Province of Can- real and other communities. He interrupted these activi-

ada and in the Canadian Parliament. He also had been ties to attend law school at McGill College.
dean of the law school of McGill College (now McGill Abbott received a law degree in 1847 and began to
University) in Montreal. practice in Montreal that year. He specialized in corpo-
Abbott claimed he did not like politics. He said he ration law and soon became known as an authority in
held political office because he believed public service this field. In 1849, he married Mary Bethune, whose fa-

was his duty. Shortly before taking office as prime minis- ther was the principal of McGill College. Abbott served
ter, Abbott wrote a friend, hate notoriety, public meet-
"I
as dean of the law school at McGill from 1 855 to 1 880.
ings, public speeches, caucuses, and everything that I Early political career. Abbott was elected to the leg-
know of what is apparently the necessary incident of islature of the Province of Canada in 1857 and served

politics— except doing public work to the best of my until 1867. He entered politics as a Liberal but gradually

ability." shifted toward the Conservative Party. During the early

Abbott had a wide range of interests. He owned a 1860s, some Conservatives favored the unification
salmon stream where he often fished, and he grew under one government of all the British colonies in

many varieties of rare orchids. He also loved animals North America. In 1865, Abbott joined these Conserva-
and helped establish the Canadian Society for the Pre- tives insupport of the movement for confederation. The
vention of Cruelty to Animals. Dominion of Canada was established in 1867. It con-
Early life. John Abbott was born on March 12, 1821, sisted of the provinces of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia,

in St. Andrews, near Montreal, Lower Canada (present- Ontario, and Quebec. That same year, Abbott was
day Quebec province) His father, Joseph Abbott, was an elected to the Dominion's House of Commons,
first

Anglican missionary who had come there from England where he served until 1874.
6 Abbott, Sir John Joseph Caldwell

Abbott continued his thriving law practice while serv- change for money. An investigation was conducted, and
ing as a legislator. During the early 1870s, he became in- the department head, Sir Hector-Louis Langevin, was
volved in negotiations for the construction of a Canadian found to have been negligent Abbott asked for his res-
transcontinental railroad.Two financial groups were ignation, and Langevin submitted it in September 1891.
competing for the construction contract. One group was In 1892, the Manitoba school dispute caused addi-

headed by a client of Abbotts, Sir Hugh Allan, a Montre- tional problems for Abbott's administration. The Mani-
al shipping line owner. Abbott tried to unite the two toba provincial government had passed a law in 1890
groups into one company, but he could not do so. Al- that abolished tax support for Roman Catholic and
lan's group eventually received the construction con- French-language schools. A single nonreligious school
tract. system was established, with English as the official lan-
The Pacific Scandal. In 1873, a clerk in Abbott's of- guage. The Roman Catholic and French-speaking popu-
fice stole some papers that revealed large campaign lation in Manitoba charged that this action violated a law
contributions by Allan to the Conservatives in the 1872 of 1870. In 1891, the Supreme Court of Canada had de-
general election. The papers included a telegram in clared the 1890 law unconstitutional. However, in the
which Prime Minister John A. Macdonald, the Conserva- summer of 1892, the court's ruling was reversed by the
tive leader, had demanded of Allan: "Send me another British Privy Council, which was then the highest court
ten thousand. Do not fail me. Liberal members of Parlia- of appeal. Tension between English- and French-
ment acquired the papers and revealed their contents. speaking Canadians increased. But Abbott, with Thomp-
Macdonald admitted receiving the money, but he de- son's help, prevented a political crisis by keeping the
nied that the contributions had influenced his decision dispute in court.

to give the contract to Allan. The government appointed A depression that had hit Canada in 1890 became
a royal commission to investigate the case, which be- worse during Abbott's term. His health began to fail, and
came known as the Pacific Scandal. he was able to handle fewer responsibilities. Queen Vic-
The scandal finally forced Macdonald to resign as toria of Britain knighted Abbott in May 1892. He went to
prime minister in November 1873 and led to formation London in October for medical advice but resigned
of a Liberal government headed by Alexander Macken- from office in November. Thompson succeeded Abbott
zie. Abbott lost his seat in the House in the 1874 election. as leader of the Conservative Party and as prime minis-
Historians disagree about Abbott's involvement in the ter. Abbott later returned to Montreal, where he died on

scandal.Most believe he was innocent of personal mis- Oct. 30, 1 893. P B Waite

conduct but was probably aware of some of the deal- See also Prime minister of Canada.
ings between Macdonald and Allan.
Additional resources
The railroad project was abandoned after the Pacific
Donaldson, Gordon. The Prime Ministers ot Canada. Doubleday,
Scandal, and Mackenzie failed in his efforts to reorgan-
1994. Includes a chapter on Abbott
ize The Conservatives regained control of Parliament
it.
Waite, P. B. Canada, 18741 896: Arduous Destiny. 1971. Reprint
in and Macdonald again became prime minister.
1878, Oxford, 1996. Examines the years of the Abbott administration.
He quickly revived the railroad plans. In 1880, Abbott be-
came the lawyer of the Canadian Pacific Railway. He Abbott, Robert Sengstacke II 868 1 940), was an
wrote the charter for the railroad, which was completed African American journalist. He founded the Chicago
in 1885. Defender, which became one of the nation's largest and
Return to Parliament Abbott was reelected to the most influential black newspapers.
Canadian House of Commons in 1880 and served until Under Abbott's leadership, the £>e/encferencouraged
1887. He was then appointed to Macdonald's Cabinet Southern blacks to move
and to the Canadian Senate, where he served as govern- to the industrial states of
ment leader. In 1887, Abbott was also elected mayor of the North. Beginning in
Montreal, a position he held until 1889. In 1891, Prime the 1910s, and continuing
Minister Macdonald wanted to increase Abbotts duties after World War I (1914-
in the Cabinet. However, Abbott refused because he did 1918), hundreds of thou-
not feel capable of handling more speeches and public sands of blacks moved to
meetings. the North in search of bet-

Prime minister. Macdonald died in June 1891. The ter job opportunities. Ab-
Conservatives wanted either Sir John S. D. Thompson, bott's editorials demanded
the Minister of Justice, or Sir Charles Tupper, the Cana- full equality for blacks.
dian High Commissioner in the United Kingdom, to be Abbott was born on
the party leader. Both Thompson and Tupper refused Nov. 28, 1868, on St. Si-
the position, however, and Abbott was chosen. Abbott, mon's Island, Georgia. His ( hit <i(]o Dail\ Defender

who preferred Thompson for the leadership, reluctantly parents had been slaves. Robert Sengstacke Abbott
took over as party leader and became prime minister. He learned about printing
Abbott relied on Thompson to handle many of the re- at his stepfather'snewspaper, the Woodville (Georgia)
sponsibilities in the House of Commons and in the Cabi- Times, and later at Hampton Institute in Virginia. Abbott
net. put himself through Kent Law School (now Chicago-Kent
Even before Abbott took office, a scandal in the public College of Law) by working as a printer. He graduated in
works department had shaken the Conservative govern- 1899 and became a lawyer. But he decided he could bet-
ment. Some employees in that department were found ter serve African Americans by publishing a newspaper.
guilty of awarding railroad contracts to companies in ex- He founded the Chicago Defender, a weekly, in 1905.
 Abbreviation 7

In 1956, under John H. Sengstacke, Abbotts nephew and space. Many Latin abbreviations are still used.
and successor, the Defender became a daily. Around the Many World Book articles contain abbreviations in
Defender, Sengstacke built the largest chain of black lists, tables, picture credits, and captions. Abbreviations
newspapers in the United States. Robert k. Stewart are also used to a limited extent in the text of articles.
Abbreviation is a shortened form of a word or a This article includes a table of abbreviations commonly
phrase. Some abbreviations include only initial letters of used published works. Other categories of abbrevia-
in
a word, as when Feb. stands for February. Other abbrevi- tions can be found in the following World Book articles:
ations use first and last letters, as when VT stands for Canadian provinces. Abbreviations are given in the
Vermont Key letters in a word or phrase may also be Canada article in the table The provinces and territories
used, as when VCR stands for videocassette recorder. of Canada.
Abbreviations save space. They are used in tables, in College degrees. Some common abbreviations can
technical and scientific material, and in indexes, foot- be found in the article Degree, College.
notes, and bibliographies. They are also used instead of New Deal agencies. Abbreviations for many New
long official names, as in AFL-OO (American Federation Deal agencies are in a table in the article New Deal.
of /abor and Congress of /ndustrial Organizations). Ab- Proofreading. The most common abbreviations and
breviations called acronyms are words made up of the marks used by proofreaders are in a table in the article
first letters or syllables of other words, such as UNESCO Proofreading.
(United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Or- States. Abbreviations for the states are in a table with
ganization).Such abbreviations are often written without the article United States.
periods. Symbols that are not made up of letters of the United Nations. Abbreviations for United Nations
alphabet are not abbreviations, but they serve the same agencies and committees are given in the table The
purpose abbreviations do (see Symbol). United Nations system with the article United Nations.
Abbreviations have been found on the earliest known Weights and measures. Abbreviations can be found
tombs, monuments, and coins. When manuscripts were in tables with the article Weights and measures.

written by hand, abbreviations were used to save time Sara Games

Common abbreviations
A.A.— Alcoholics Anonymous; B.C-before Christ d.— died EU— European Union
Associate in Arts bibliog.— bibliography D.A.— district attorney FAA— Federal Aviation Ad-
AAA— American Automobile biog.— biography DAR-Daughters of the ministration
Association bldg.— building American Revolution FBI— Federal Bureau of Inves-
AAU— Amateur Athletic blvd.— boulevard db, dB-decibel tigation
Union Br.— Britain; British; Brother D.C— District of Columbia FCC— Federal Communica-
AC— alternating current Btu— British thermal unit DC— direct current tions Commission
ACLU— American Civil Liber- c— circa (about); centum (cen- DDT— dichloro-diphenyl- FDA— Food and Drug Admin-
ties Union tury);copy; copyright trichloroethane istration

A.D.— anno Dominion the cal,cal.— calorie Iheat) dec— deceased FDIC— Federal Deposit Insur-
year of our Lord) Cal, Cal.— calorie (nutrition) Dec— December ance Corporation
ad lib— ad libitum (as one cap.— capital; capital letter Dem.— Democrat Feb.— February
pleases) CB— citizens band dept— department ff.— folios (page numbersi; fol-

AFL-CIO— American Federa- CBC— Canadian Broadcasting DNA— deoxyribonucleic acid lowing (pages)
tion of Labor and Congress Corporation DOA— dead on arrival FHA— Federal Housing Ad-
of Industrial Organizations CD— compact disc; certificate Dr.— doctor ministration; Future Home-
AIDS— acquired immunodefi- of deposit DST— daylight saving time makers of America
ciency syndrome CDC— Centers for Disease DUI— driving under the influ- FICA-Federal Insurance
a.k.a.— also known as Control and Prevention ence Contributions Act
ALA— American Library Asso- CD-ROM— compact disc E.— east fig.-figure
ciation read-only memory ECG— electrocardiogram f\.— floruit (flourished!

AM— amplitude modulation CDT-Central Daylight Time ed.— edition; editor; edited FM —frequency modulation
a.m., A.M.— ante meridiem cent— century EEOC— Equal Employment Fr.— Father; French; Friar

(before noon) CEO— chief executive officer Opportunity Commission Fri.— Friday
AMA— American Medical As- ch.,chap.-chapter e.g.— exempli gratia (for exam- FTC Federal Trade Commis-
CIA-Central Intelligence ple) sion
sociation
AMVETS— American Veter- Agency EPA -Environmental Protec- GDP— gross domestic prod-

ans of World War II, Korea, CO— commanding officer tion Agency uct

and Vietnam c/o— in care of eq.— equal; equation GED-Ceneral Educational

anon.— anonymous co.— company; county ERA— Equal Rights Amend- Development
AP— Associated Press COD cash on delivery ment; earned run average Gl— government issue

assn.— association Cong.— Congress ESP— extrasensory perception GNP- gross national product
cont— continued esp.— especially Gov. Governor
assoc— associate; association
coop.— cooperative EST-Eastern Standard Time Govt.— government
asst— assistant
E.T.A.- estimated time ol ar h.— hour
ATM— automated teller ma- corp.— corporation
HIV human immunodefi-
CPA-certified public ac- rival
chine
el al. etalibHand else- i lency virus
any.— attorney countant
Aug.— August CPB-Corporation for Public where' el a/// land others) HMO health maintenance
etsp<i se organization
ave.— avenue Broadcasting
<equentia (and
AWOL— absent without leave CST Central Standard Time
b.— born CT computed tomogi
BBC-British Broadcasting D— Democrat (Ml

Corporation
8 Abbreviation

Common abbreviations (continued)

H.M.S.— His lor Her) Majesty's N.— north p.m., P.M.— post meridiem sq.— square
Ship NAACP— National Associa- (after noon) Sr.— Senior
Hon.— Honorable tion for the Advancement P.O.— post office SS.— Saints
H.P.,h.p.— horsepower of Colored People pop.— population S.S.— steamship
HQ— headquarters NAFTA— North American POW— prisoner of war SST— supersonic transport
hr.— hour Free Trade Agreement p.p.— parcel post St— Saint; strait; street
HUD— Department of Hous- NAIA- National Associa- ppd.— prepaid STD— sexually transmitted
ing and Urban Develop- tion of Intercollegiate Ath- pref.— preface disease
ment letics pro tern.— pro tempore (for Ste.— Sainte
Hz-hertz NASA— National Aeronautics the time being) Sun.— Sunday
and Space Administration prov.— province Supt— Superintendent
ibid.— ibidem (in the same NASDAQ— National Associa- P.S.— post scriptum (post- syn.— synonym
place) tion of Securities Dealers script)
IBM— International Business Automated Quotation (sys- pseud.— pseudonym tech.— technical; technology
Machines Corporation tem) PST— Pacific
Standard Time temp.— temperature
ICBM— intercontinental bal- nati.— national PTA— Parent-Teacher Associ- terr.— territory; terrace
ter.,
listic missile NATO-North Atlantic Treaty ation theol.— theological; theology
1CU— intensive care unit Organization Thurs.— Thursday
id.— idem (the samel N.B., n.b.— nota beneirxoxe Q.E.D.— quod erat demon- TNT— trinitrotoluene
i.e.— id est (that is)
well) strandum (which was to be tp., twp.— township
ill.— illustrated NBC— National Broadcasting shown or proved) tr.— translation; transpose
IMF— International Monetary Company quot— quotation treas.— treasurer
Fund NCAA— National Collegiate q.v.— quod vide (which see) trig.— trigonometry
inc.— incorporated; including Athletic Association Tues.— Tuesday
I.O.U.— owe you R.— recking); regina (queen); typ., typo., typog.— typogra-
I
NCO— noncommissioned offi-
Republican; River
IQ— intelligence quotient cer phy
IRA— Irish Republican Army; RAF Royal Air Force
NEA— National Education As-
RAM— random-access memo- UAW— United Automobile
individual retirement ac- sociation
count ry Workers
NIH-National Institutes of
R.C— Red Cross; Roman UFO— unidentified flying ob-
Health
J— joule Catholic ject
NLRB-National Labor Rela-
Jan.— January R.D.— rural delivery UHF— ultrahigh frequency
tions Board
Jr.— Junior rd.— road univ.— university
no.— numero; number
ref.— refer; reference UPI— United Press Interna-
k.— carat; knot non seq.— non sequituriW
reg.— region; regulation tional
kHz— kilohertz does not follow)
Rep.— Republic; Republican; UPS— United Parcel Service
KP— kitchen police Nov.— November
Representative URL— uniform resource loca-
NOW— National Organization Rev.— Reverend tor
lab.— laboratory for Women rev.— revised U.S.-United States
lang.— language N.P.— notary public
R.I.P.— requiescat in pace (rest
lat— latitude N/S, N.S.F.-not sufficient v.— verb
peace)
in
LC— Library of Congress funds
R.N.— Royal Navy; registered V-volt
lit— literature v., vid— w'o'e(see)
OAS— Organization of Ameri- nurse
loc cit—loco citato (in the vs.— versus (against)
can States RNA— ribonucleic acid v.,
place cited)
ROM— read-only memory VAT— value-added tax
log.— logarithm ob.— o6//f(died)
Oct-October ROTC— Reserve Officers VCR— videocassette recorder
Ion., long.— longitude vet— veteran, veterinarian
OK, O.K.-correct; all right Training Corps
Ltd.— Limited
o.p.— out of print rpm— revolutions per minute VFW— Veterans of Foreign
R.R.— railroad; rural route Wars of the United States
m.— minute; mile; meter op. cit— opere citatoim the
R.S.V.— Revised Standard VHF— very high frequency
max.— maximum work cited)
Version (Bible) VIP— very important person
meas.— measure OPEC— Organization of Petro-
viz.— videlicet (namely)
meg, MB— megabyte leum Exporting Countries R.S.V.P.— Repondez, s'ilvous
plait (Answer, if you vol.— volume
mfd.— manufactured OSHA— Occupational Safety
v.p— vice president
mfg.— manufacturing and Health Administration please)
mfr.— manufacturer Rt Rev.-Right Reverend
W-Watt
MHz— megahertz p.— page; part RV— recreational vehicle W.-West
M.I.A.— missing in action p— pence; penny R.V.-Revised Version (Bible)
WCTU-Woman s Christian
min.— minimum; minute PAC— political action commit-
Temperance Union
tee S.— south
misc.— miscellaneous
Pari.— Parliament s— second Wed— Wednesday
M.O.— money order; mail or- wt— weight
pat.— patent; patented Sat— Saturday
der; modus operandi
PBS— Public Broadcasting sci.— science; scientific
(method of working) Xmas— Christmas
System sec— second
Mon.— Monday
PC personal computer SEC— Securities and Ex- YMCA— Young Men s Chris-
M.P.— Member of Parliament
F*CB— polychlorinated change Commission
MP— Military Police Sept September
tian Association

mph— miles per hour biphenyl YWCA— Young Women's

pd.— paid secy.— secretary Christian Association
MR1— magnetic resonance
PIN— personal identification Sen.— Senator YM-YWHA-Young Men s
imaging
number sig.— signature and Young Women's He-
mss.— manuscripts
pk.— park; peak; peck sing, singular brew Association
MST— Mountain Standard sp.— spelling; species
Time pi.— plural; place; plate
Mt— Mount PLO— Palestine Liberation SPCA— Society for the Pre- ZIP— Zoning Improvement
Organization vention of Cruelty to Ani- Plan

a— noun; note (footnote) p.m.-post mortem mals zool.— zoology

,
 Abdullah II 9

ation (NBA) from 1 969 until his retirement at the end of

the 1988-1989 season. During his professional career, he
scored a record 38,387 regular-season points. He played
in 1,560 regular season games over 20 seasons. Abdul-
Thorax -

Jabbar led the NBA in scoring in the 1970-1971 and 1971-

1972 seasons. He was named the league s Most Valuable
Player six times.
Diaphragm
During his college career, Abdul-Jabbar led UCLA to
-
Liver national championships in 1967, 1968, and 1969. After
graduation, he joined the Milwaukee Bucks of the NBA.
Spleen In 1975, he was traded to the Los Angeles Lakers, finish-

Stomach ing his career with that team.

Abdomen -
Abdul-Jabbar was born in New York City. His given
and family name was Ferdinand Lewis Alcindor, Jr. He
Urge
intestine
received the name Kareem Abdul-Jabbar when he

Small
adopted the Islamic religion in 1971. His name was
intestine legally changed to Abdul-Jabbar in 1971. An autobiogra-
phy, Kareem, was published in 1990. Bob Logan

Pelvic -

cavity

WORLD BOOK illustration by Robert Demarest

The abdomen is a large body cavity that lies between the thorax
(chest) and the pelvic cavity. The abdomen contains various inter-
nal organs, including the major organs of digestion.

Abdomen is between the thorax

a large body cavity
(chest) and the pelvic strong wall of muscle,
cavity. A
called the diaphragm, separates the abdomen from the
thorax But no structure separates the abdomen from the
pelvic cavity.The abdominal organs include the stom-
ach, pancreas, intestines, kidneys, adrenal glands,
liver,

and spleen. A thin membrane known as the peritoneum

lines the entire abdominal cavity and covers most of the
abdominal organs. Two large blood vessels, the aorta
and vena cava, run along the spine and pass through the
diaphragm and into the thorax.
The front wall of the abdomen consists of layers of
sheetlike muscles attached to the ribs above and the
pelvic bones below. These muscles hold in the abdomi- Focus on Sports

nal organs and assist in bending and rotating the body Kareem Abdul-Jabbar scored more points than any other play-
er in the history of the National Basketball Association.
trunk. Other muscles and the backbone form the rear
abdomen.
wall of the
The abdomen is the part of the body behind the tho- Abdullah II, ab DUHL uh or ab dool MWI1962- ),

rax of insects, crustaceans, and certain other kinds of an- became king of Jordan in 1999, following the death of

imals without backbones. Uurence H. Beck his father, Hussein. He is the oldest son of Hussein and
Related articles. See the Trans-Vision three-dimensional pic- his second wife, Princess Muna al-Hussein. Before tak-
ture with Human body. See also: ing the throne, Abdullah was a career military officer.
Appendix Intestine Pancreas Spleen Abdullah was born in Amman, the capita! of Jordan,
Coelom Kidney Pelvis Stomach
and attended high school at Deerfield Academy in the
Diaphragm Liver Solar plexus
United States. In the 1980s, he studied international rela-
Abduction. See Kidnapping. tions at Oxford University in the United Kingdom and

Abdul-Jabbar, ahb dool juh BAHR, Kareem, kuh Georgetown University in the United States. He also had
became one of the greatest centers both countries.
military training at schools in
REEM (1947- ),
in
In 1981 Abdullah joined the Jordanian army as a sec
basketball history. Standing 7 feet 2 inches (218 centime-
,

ters) tall, he combined his height advantage with quick,

ond lieutenant. He was promoted to colonel in 1993 and
graceful movements, fine shooting, and excellent team
became commander of Jordan s special forces in 1994.

known for a sweeping hook While the military Abdullah represented his father on
in
work. He was especially
diplomatic missions to the Middle East, Europe and the
shot that became known as the sky hook."
Abdul-)abbar played in the National Basketh
•
United States
1 A Becket, Thomas
Abdullah is married to Queen Rania Abdullah, a Pales- Aberdeen and Temair, ab ur DEEN, tuh MAIR, Mar-
tinian from the West Bank. They have a son, Hussein, quess of (1847-1934), a British politician, served as gov-
and a daughter, Iman. PeterGubser ernor general of Canada from 1893 to 1898. In 1896, he
A Becket, Thomas. See Becket, Saint Thomas. set an example for future governors general when he
Abel, AY buhl, the second son of Adam and Eve, was a refused to approve last-minute political appointments
shepherd (Genesis 4). He offered some of the first born recommended by outgoing Prime Minister Sir Charles
of his flocks as a sacrifice to the Lord. His sacrifice was Tupper.
accepted. But when his older brother, Cain, who was a Aberdeen was born in Edinburgh, Scotland. His given
farmer, offered "fruit of the ground," his sacrifice was re- and family name was John Campbell Hamilton-Gordon.
fused. Cain grew angry and killed Abel. See also Adam He became the seventh Earl of Aberdeen in 1870. Lord
and Eve; Cain. Carole R. Fontaine Aberdeen attended St. Andrews University and Oxford
Abelard, AB uh lahrd, Peter (1079-1 142), was one of University. He began his political career as a Conserva-
the leading philosophers and theologians of the Middle tive but later joined the Liberal Party. Aberdeen was the
Ages. But he is probably best known for his love affair chief British administrator in Ireland in 1886 and from
with HeloYse, a gifted young Frenchwoman. 1905 to 1915. He became a marquess in 1916. Aberdeen
Abelard was born near Nantes, France. His father, a and his wife wrote a book about their life called We Twa
nobleman, planned a military career for him, but (1925). Jacques Monet
Abelard became a scholar. From 1113 to 1118, he taught Aberdeen Proving Ground, AB uhrDEEN, Maryland,
theology in Paris. There, Abelard founded a school that, is the United States Army's center for ordnance activi-
along with two others, developed into the University of ties. The Army tests vehicles, bombs, guns, and other
Paris. ordnance there. The post is the home of the Army Ord-
In 1113, Abelard became the tutor of HeloYse, the nance Center and School, the Army Test and Evaluation
niece of an official of the Cathedral of Notre Dame. A Command, and the Chemical Research Development
love affair developed between Abelard and the young and Engineering Center. It also has laboratories for bal-
woman, and she became pregnant. Soon after the birth listic research, development and proof services, ord-

of their baby in 1118, HeloYse and Abelard were secretly nance disposal, and ergonomics (see Ergonomics). The
married. Fulbert, HeloYse's uncle, learned of the love af- post covers about 73,000 acres (29,000 hectares) and ex-
fair and marriage and was outraged. In anger, Fulbert tends about 18 miles (29 kilometers) along the upper
hired several men who broke into Abelard's house and part of Chesapeake Bay near Aberdeen. It was estab-
castrated him. After the attack, Abelard and HeloYse sep- lished in 1917. It is recognized as one of the leading mili-
arated. Abelard became a monk, and HeloYse joined an tary testing and research facilities in the world.
order of nuns. The fame of their tragic love affair result- Steve E. Dietrich

ed largely from the many letters they exchanged. Abernathy, Ralph David (1926-1990), was an Ameri-
Abelard's major contributions to medieval thought can civil Abernathy served as president of
rights leader.
were in the areas of logic and theology. He urged the the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLO
use of logic in order to understand and defend Christi- from 1968 to 1977. He succeeded Martin Luther King, Jr.,
anity. Abelard compiled a book called Sic et Non (Yes who was murdered. In 1955 and 1956, Abernathy helped
and No). It consisted of the conflicting views of theologi- King lead a bus boycott in Montgomery, Alabama, to
cal authorities on various religious problems and princi- protest racial discrimination (see King, Martin Luther, Jr.
ples. The work became an influential textbook in the me- (The early civil rights movement]). He and King helped
dieval philosophical system called Scholasticism (see organize the SCLC in 1957.
Scholasticism). Abelard also wrote an important book Abernathy became the
on ethics and The Story of My Misfortunes, a revealing SCLCs vice president at
autobiography. William Courtenay |. large in 1965. In May 1968,
Aberdeen, ab uhrDEENipop. 201,099), is the third he led the "Poor People's
Only Glasgow and Edinburgh
largest city in Scotland. March" on Washington,
have more people. Aberdeen lies on the east coast of D.C, which dramatized
northern Scotland, along the North Sea and between problems faced by poor
the River Dee and River Don (see Scotland (political people.
map)). Sometimes called the Granite City, Aberdeen has Abernathy was born in

many office and apartment buildings made of gleaming Linden, Alabama. He

gray granite. It has long been the main port and distribu- earned a B.S. degree at Al-
tion center for products of northern Scotland. Its econo- abama State College and
my is based on trade and other service industries. an M.S. degree at Atlanta Elaine Tomlin

Aberdeen dates from the 1100s. Much of the modern University. He became a Ralph David Abernathy
city was laid out during the late 1700s and 1800s. During Baptist minister in 1948.
the 800 s, Aberdeen became the marketing center for
1 Abernathy wrote And the Walls Came Tumbling Down:
the surrounding agricultural area, and it developed fish- An Autobiography (1 989) c Enr Lincoln
ing, granite, and textile industries. Since the 1970s, the Aberration, in optics, is the failure of a lens or mirror
production of petroleum in the North Sea has brought to produce an image that is sharply focused and has the
new growth and prosperity to Aberdeen. The city has same proportions as the object being viewed. There are
become the headquarters for businesses related to pe- three main kinds of aberration: (1) point aberration, (2)

troleum production. Thousands of new jobs have been distortion, and (3) chromatic aberration.
created by this economic activity. a. s. Mather Point aberration produces a fuzzy image by failing
 1

Abnormal psychology 1

to focus light to a point The three primary types of point Chromatic aberration occurs in lenses but not in
aberration are (1) spherical aberration, (2) astigmatism, mirrors. It occurs because a lens focuses light rays of
and (3) coma. different colors at different distances. The distance to
Spherical aberration occurs in a lens in which one or the focal point of a ray of light depends upon the wave-
both sides are curved like a portion of the surface of a length of the 'ight. Wavelength is the distance between
sphere. A spherical surface is easy and inexpensive to successive crests of a light wave. Each color has its own
produce. As a result, a typical lens in a camera, a pair of wavelength. From the longest wavelength to the short-
binoculars, or a small telescope is a piece of glass with est, the colors of visible light include red, orange, yel-
spherical surfaces. This kind of lens focuses light well low, green, blue, and violet
enough for those applications. In longitudinal chromatic aberration, a lens focuses
To understand spherical aberration, imagine that par- the different colors at different points on the optical axis.
allel rays of light strike a lens as shown in the accompa- comes to a focus that is closest to the lens.
Violet light
nying illustration. If there were no aberration, all the rays Then comes the focal point for blue light, then the point
would come to a focus at a point on the other side of for green, and so forth. In lateral chromatic aberration,
the lens. But because of aberration, rays that pass focal points are also offset above and below the optical
through different parts of it come to a focus at different axis — red the least, violet the most. W Thomas Roberts. |r

points. All the points are located along the optical axis, See also Lens; Mirror; Parabola; Telescope.
an imaginary line through the center of the lens. Rays Abidjan, ab ihJAHN (pop. 1,930,000), is the largest city
that pass through the lens near its center come to a fo- of Cote d'lvoire and one of the busiest seaports in west-
cus at a point relatively far from the lens. Rays that pass ern Africa. The city lies along a lagoon. A canal connects
through the lens near its edge come to a relatively close the lagoon with the Gulf of Guinea, an arm of the At-
focus. An inward-curving spherical mirror produces lantic Ocean (see Cote d'lvoire [map]).
spherical aberration in a similar way. Abidjan has many high-rise office and apartment
Aberrations are not necessarily a result of manufactur- buildings and single-family houses. But it also has areas
ing errors. For example, even a lens with perfectly of overcrowded slums, especially in the suburbs. Its
spherical sides could not focus all parallel rays that pass port is a center of West African import and export activi-
through it to a single point. ties. Products made in the city include automobile parts,

In astigmatism, light comes to a focus as a line, rather beer, and soap. Businesses in Abidjan also process ca-
than a point. coma, the light focuses in the shape of a
In cao beans, coffee beans, and palm and vegetable oils.
cone. Astigmatism and coma make the image blurry at In the late 1800s, France took control of Abidjan and

its edge but not its center. the rest of Cote d'lvoire. In 1934, Abidjan became the
Distortion results when a lens or mirror focuses light capital. Cote d'lvoire gained independence from France

at an incorrect distance from the optical axis. The image in 1960. In 1983, the country's legislature approved a

will appear either stretched or compressed near the proposal allowing the capital to be moved from Abidjan
edges. tO Yamoussoukro. Robert Rotberg I.

Abilene, AB uh iff/v(pop. 6,543), a city in east-central

Kansas, is a railroad shipping center for crops raised in

the east-central part of the state (see Kansas [political

mapl). Abilene is the seat of Dickinson County.

Spherical aberration occurs Between 1867 and 1872, cowhands drove longhorn
in a lens because light rays cattleover the Chisholm Trail to Abilene, where the
that pass through the lens at stock was loaded and shipped to Eastern markets. Prob-
different distances from its ably the biggest year was 871 when 5,000 cowhands
1 ,

center come to a focus at dif-

and 700,000 head of cattle came to Abilene from Texas.
ferent distances from its edge.
Wild Bill Hickok became famous as a "two-gun marshal"
of Abilene.
President Dwight D. Eisenhower grew up in Abilene.
The city is the site of the Eisenhower Center. The center
WORLD BOOK illustration includes Eisenhower's boyhood home, the Eisenhower
Museum, Eisenhower Library, and the Place of Medita-
where Eisenhower is
tion, buried. The city has a council-
manager form of government lames R shortndge
See also Westward movement in America (Cattle
frontiers).
Abnormal psychology is the scientific study of psy-
chological disorders. These disorders affect the way
people feel, think, speak, and behave. The field of abnor-
mal psychology is sometimes called psychopatholog\
Standards of normal and abnormal behavior differ
from society to society and change as social conditions
and customs change, for example, the practice of se-
v ei el) beating children to discipline them was consid-
Chromatic aberration occurs because a lens fo< uses
m ered normal behavior for many centuries. Today, many
colors of light at different points -violel light .it the
red at the farthest, and the other colors at points in bl people consider such behavior abnormal <\\m\ cruel
1 2 Abnormal psychology

Studies in abnormal psychology are conducted mal. Disturbed individuals were imprisoned, sometimes
mainly by clinical psychologists, psychiatrists, and social locked in chains, or sent to dismal institutions called in-
workers. These experts collect data by such means as sane asylums.
personality and intelligence tests, experiments, and case During the late 1700s, the idea that abnormal behav-
studies. One kind of case study, an idiographic study, ior resulted from serious personal problems began to
describes the behavior and thought patterns of one per- be investigated. People started treating the mentally ill
son. Another type, called a nomothetic study, examines more humanely. In the 1800s, people believed in possi-
the behavior and thought patterns common to many ble physical reasons for different kinds of mental disor-
people who same disorder.
suffer the ders.A German psychiatrist named Emil Kraepelin be-
Theories of abnormal psychology describe mental came famous for his Kompendium der Psychiatrie {A
illnesses, suggest their possible causes, and propose Textbook of Psychiatry, 1883). This book classified vari-
certain methods of treating them. These theories can be ous mental illnesses according to their specific types of
divided into four main groups or schools: (1 ) biophysi- abnormal behaviors.
cal, (2) intrapsychic, (3) existential, and (4) behavioral. In the late 1800s and early 1900s, Sigmund Freud, an
Biophysical theories emphasize the importance of un- Austrian physician, developed theories about the effects
derlying physical causes of psychological disturbances. of unconscious drives on behavior. Freud and his fol-
Such disturbances include two main groups: (1) those lowers laid the foundations for both the intrapsychic
due to a medical condition, such as a disease or injury, school of psychopathology and psychoanalysis. The
and (2) those related to the use of a drug or medication. Freudians became especially known for their use of free
In these disorders, the condition, drug, or medication is association to interpret dreams, analyze memories, and
believed to cause mental problems by affecting the make people aware of their unconscious conflicts.
brain or other parts of the nervous system. Biophysical Later in the 1900 s, researchers proposed several oth-
theorists think such factors also underlie mental disturb- er theories and treatments of abnormal psychology.
ances whose causes have not yet been identified. They These proposals centered on the relationship of psycho-
believe many disturbances result from inherited physi- logical, physical, and social conditions in the individual
cal defects. and Society. Leah Blumberg Lapidus
Biophysical therapists treat mental disorders mainly See also Mental illness and its list of Related articles.
with tranquilizers, antidepressants, sleeping pills, and
Additional resources
other drugs. They sometimes use electric shock or sur-
Frances, Allen, and First, M. B. Your Mental Health. Scribner,
gery on the brain or other parts of the nervous system.
1998.
Intrapsychic theories focus on the emotional basis of Hales, Dianneand R. E. Caring for the Mind: The Comprehensive
abnormal behavior. Intrapsychic theorists believe that Guide to Mental Health Bantam, 1995.
conflicts in early childhood cause people to worry or
have other unpleasant feelings throughout life. Abolition movement was activity that took place in
Psychologists use the term neurotic to describe peo- the 1800s to end slavery. Most abolitionist activity oc-
ple who sometimes behave abnormally but can usually curred in the United States and Britain, but antislavery
cope with everyday problems. Individuals who lose movements operated in other countries as well.
track of reality are called psychotic. Some psychotics be- In the United States, antislavery activity began in
lieve in very unrealistic ideas called delusions. They may colonial days. During the 1680s, Quakers in Pennsylva-
also think perceptions such as "hearing voices'' or "see- nia condemned slavery on moral grounds. In the late
ing visions," called hallucinations, are real. 1700 s, several leaders of the American revolutionary
A treatment called psychoanalysis is often used to movement, including Thomas Jefferson and Patrick Hen-
help neurotics and psychotics understand and resolve ry, spoke out against slavery.

their conflicts and anxieties. During psychoanalysis, the The American Colonization Society, founded in 1816,
patient talks to the therapist, who is called an analyst. In led antislavery protests during the early 1800s. It tried to
one technique, called free association, the patient talks send freed slaves to Liberia in Africa. The abolitionist Eli-
to the analyst about whatever thoughts, images, or feel- hu Embree published the first periodicals devoted whol-
ings come to mind. ly to the abolition of slavery. He established a weekly

Existential theories of abnormal behavior stress the newspaper in Jonesborough, Tenn., in 1819 and a
importance of current experiences and the person's monthly publication, The Emancipator, which appeared
view of himself or herself. Existential therapists try to in 1820. In 1831, the abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison

help patients gain insight into their feelings, accept re- began publication of his newspaper, The Liberator. Gar-
sponsibility for their lives, and fulfill their potential. rison demanded immediate freedom for slaves. The
Behavioral theories emphasize the effects of learning American Anti-Slavery Society, founded in 1833, sup-
on behavior. Behaviorists use a learning process called ported Garrison's crusade. The abolition movement
conditioning to change abnormal behavior. In this gradually spread throughout the Northern States de-
process, behaviorists treat disturbed people by teaching spite bitter and violent opposition by Southern slave-
them acceptable behavior patterns and reinforcing de- holders and Northerners who favored slavery. In 1837, a
sired behavior by rewards and punishments. mob murdered Elijah P. Lovejoy, a newspaper editor of
History. Since ancient times, people have attempted Alton, who had published antislavery editorials.
III.,

to understand and treat mental disorders. Many early Many famous abolitionists came from New England.
societies believed that demons caused abnormal behav- They included Garrison, poets James Russell Lowell and
ior. Later, people came to regard the mentally ill as dan- John Greenleaf Whittier, and reformer Wendell Phillips.
gerous persons with insufficient self-control to be nor- Others, such as the merchant brothers Arthur and
 Aborigines, Australian 13

Lewis Tappan and the reformer Theodore Weld, came Abominable Snowman, uh BAHM uh nuh buhl, also
from Middle Atlantic or Midwestern states. called Yeti, YEH tee, is a creature said to live on Mount
Women also played an important role in the abolition Everest and other mountains of the Himalaya range of
movement. Lucretia Mott and the sisters Sarah and An- Asia. Reports of such a creature have also come from re-
gelinaGrimke organized groups and made speeches. mote parts of China, Siberia, and other parts of Asia. Ac-
Many free blacks also joined the abolitionists. They in- cording to legend, the Abominable Snowman is a hairy
cluded James Forten and Robert Purvis, wealthy beast with a large, apelike body and resem-
a face that
Philadelphia merchants; Frederick Douglass, a former bles that of a human being. It has long arms, and it walks
fugitive slave from Maryland; and Sojourner Truth, a erect on thick legs.
freed slave from New York. The name Abominable Snowman may have come
The movement entered a new phase in 1840, when from a journalist's translation of metoh kangmi, a Ti-
some of its leaders entered politics and founded the Lib- betan name for the creature. The name Yeti was given to
erty Party. James G. Birney, a former slaveholder born in it by the Sherpa people of Nepal. The word probably

Kentucky, ran as the party's candidate for president in once meant all-devouring creature. It may refer to a
1840 and 1844. In 1848, abolitionists became an impor- mountain demon rather than a real creature.
tantelement in the Free Soil Party. After 1854, most abo- There is no direct evidence that the Yeti exists. Local
supported the Republican Party.
litionists tribes have reported seeing it, but their stories cannot
Even after abolitionists entered politics, they re- be verified. Since the 1890 s, travelers have reported
mained more interested in their cause than in political sightings, and explorers have seen footprints of a large,
offices. They combined political protest with direct ac- unknown creature in the snow. In 1951, Eric Shipton, a
tion. Their homes often became stations on the under- British explorer, photographed "snowman" tracks near
ground railroad, which helped slaves fleeing to the free Everest. Several expeditions, including one sponsored
states or to Canada. by World Book in 1960, have searched for the creature.
After the American Civil War began in 1861, abolition- The explorers neither captured nor saw anything that
ists rallied to the Union cause. They rejoiced when Presi- might be the snowman. Scientists of the World Book ex-
dent Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Procla- pedition said the tracks may have been made by bears
mation on Jan. 1 1 863, declaring the slaves free in many
, or other animals. They found that the sun can cause
parts of the South. In 1865, the 13th Amendment to the such tracks to melt into large footprints. Daniel Cohen

Constitution abolished slavery in the United States.

Additional resources
Large numbers of abolitionists then joined the fight to
Coleman, Loren, and Huyghe, Patrick. The Field Guide to Bigfoot,
win and political equality for blacks.
social Yeti, and Other Mystery Primates Worldwide. Avon, 1999.
In the United Kingdom, abolitionists worked to end Landau, Elaine. Yeti. Millbrook. 1993. Younger readers.
the international slave trade and to free slaves in the
British colonies. Slavery had never flourished in England Aborigines, AB uh RIHJ uh neez, Australian, are the
itself. On the other hand, many English people had be- modern descendants of the first people to live in Aus-
come wealthy through the slave trade. tralia. The word aborigines comes from the Latin phrase

William Wilberforce, a statesman and orator, headed ab origine, meaning from the beginning. Spelled with a

the antislavery movement in England. In 1807, he helped small a, the term refers to any people whose ancestors
persuade Parliament to pass a bill outlawing the slave were the first to live in a country. The group of indige-

trade. In 1833, another bill abolished slavery throughout nous Australians who live on islands off the northern tip
the British Empire. David Herbert Donald of Queensland are known as Torres Strait Islanders.
Related articles m World Book include: Most scholars believe the ancestors of todays Aborig-
Adams, Charles Francis Kemble, Fanny ines first arrived in Australia from Southeast Asia be-
Adams, John Quincy (The Gag Liberty Party tween 50,000 and 120,000 years ago. More than 300,000
Rules) Lovejoy, Elijah P.
Aborigines lived on the continent when European
Banneker, Benjamin Lowell, James Russell
colonists first reached Australia in 1788. These Aborig-
Barnburners Lundy, Benjamin
Brown, John Mott, Lucretia Coffin ines spoke about 250 distinct languages with about 600
Child, Lydia Maria Phillips, Wendell dialects. Today, most of these languages have been lost.
Clay, Cassius M. Stone, Lucy Some Aboriginal languages have between 3,000 and
Crandall, Prudence Stowe, Harriet Beecher 4,000 speakers today. Many Aborigines speak a local va-
Dickinson, Anna Elizabeth Sumner, Charles
riety of English called Aboriginal English or Creole.
Douglass, Frederick Truth, Sojourner
Underground railroad Most European colonists considered the
early
Emancipation Proclamation
Forten, James Walker, David Aborigines primitive. Because Aborigines have dark
Free Soil Party Whittier, John Creenleaf skin, Europeans thought that the Aborigines were inferi-
Gabriel Wilberforce, William or to them. When Europeans arrived. Aborigines had
Garrison, William Lloyd Woolman, John complex cultural, political, and economic rules and be-
Grimke (family)
liefs. But Europeans did not initially understand or ap-

Additional resources preciate these elaborate social systems.

McPherson, James M. The Abolitionist Legacy 2nd ed. Prince- During the 150 years of European settlement,
first

ton, 1995. The Struggle for Equality. 2nd ed. 1995. many Aborigines were killed in skirmishes across the
Ripley, C Peter, and others, eds. Witness for Freedom: African frontier, poisoned by settlers or died of diseases intro
American Voices on Race, Slavery, and Emancipation I ni\ of duced by the Europeans. Others were forced into gov-
N. C Pr., 1993. Representative documents from The Black
Abo
ernment or missionary settlements. In the far north of
litionist Papers ( 1 985- 1 992).
Australia, however many Aborigines were able to li\e
14 Aborigines, Australian

somewhat independently through the 1930s. Today, the coal. Some groups drew figures of the Dreamtime be-
Aborigines and the Torres Strait Islanders make up ings on these items as well as on cave walls, rock sur-
about 2 percent of the country s population. faces, stones, and wooden planks. Some drawings were
Aboriginal life. Prior to the European colonization of part of secret ceremonies.
Australia, Aborigines had complex social systems and Aboriginal today. Aborigines today are Aus-
life

beliefs that varied across the continent Most Aboriginal tralian citizens. But most
still face discrimination and

groups were composed of people closely related prejudice and are underprivileged economically, social-
through descent and marriage. Each group had its own ly, and politically. Prior to the 1930s, the government

spiritual ceremonies and stories about the origin of the thought that the Aboriginal population would die out as
group itself and its territory. Some ceremonies were se- settlers moved onto their land. Children with mixed Eu-
cret. Men and women often had separate ceremonial ropean and Aboriginal ancestry were separated from
practices but also came together in joint ceremonies. their families and placed in institutions, missions, and
Aborigines had a spiritual relationship to the land foster homes. These people became known as the
through ancestral beings. According to Aboriginal be- Stolen Generation. From the 1930s through the 1960s,
liefs, these beings created the world long ago during a the government sought to assimilate (incorporate) Abo-
period called the Dreaming, or Dreamtime. Aborigines rigines into the country's economic, social, and political
believe that these ancestral beings never died but life. They discouraged Aboriginal social practices, reli-

merged with the natural world. gious observances, and cultural beliefs.
Aboriginal groups did not have a formal government In the late 1960s, Aboriginal activists fought the gov-
or a single leader. Territorial rights were based on de- ernment policy of assimilation. In 1976, the government
scent, birth,and ceremonial ties to a region. When dis- passed the Aboriginal Land Rights (Northern Territory)
putes about the use of the land arose, Aborigines nego- Act, which allowed Aboriginal groups in the Northern
tiated among themselves to solve the dispute. Territory to reclaim their traditional lands. In 1980, the
The economy of Aboriginal society before European government formed the Aboriginal Development Com-
colonization consisted of hunting, fishing, and gather- mission. The commission, which is made up of Aborig-
ing. Men and boys hunted large sea and land animals, ines, manages lands regained by Aboriginal groups and
such as kangaroo, emu, and sea turtles. Women and makes loans to Aboriginal businesses. Today, Aborig-
young children collected plants, turtles, lizards, and sea ines in Australia blend traditional and contemporary
snails, using digging sticks, boomerangs, and clubs. lifestyles and practices. Elizabeth a. Pouneiii

Aboriginal society emphasized sharing food among the Related articles in World Book include:
larger family group. Aboriginal men and women wore Australia Uhe Aborigines; pic- Races. Human 'Climatic adap-
waistbands and ornaments but little other clothing in turesl tations)
the warm climate. In colder areas, the Aborigines used Boomerang Stolen Generation
kangaroo and possum fur to make cloaks and beds. Jandamarra Tasmania
Aboriginal men and women crafted bags, baskets, Additional resources
and hunting instruments from bark, root fibers, and Bartlett, Anne. The Aboriginal Peoples of Australia. Lerner, 2001.
many other materials. They often decorated these items Younger readers.
with red, yellow, and white ochres (pigments) and char- Mulvaney, John, and Kamminga, |ohan. Prehistory of Australia.
Smithsonian Institution, 1999.
Oxford Companion to Aboriginal Art and Culture. Oxford, 2000.
Reynolds, Henry. Aboriginal Sovereignty. Allen & Unvvin, 1996.

Abortion is the ending of a pregnancy before birth.

Early in a pregnancy, the fertilized egg that grows and
develops is called an embryo. After three months of de-
velopment, it is usually called a fetus. An abortion caus-
es the embryo or fetus to die. In a spontaneous abortion,
also called a miscarriage, the fetus passes from the
woman's body. Spontaneous abortions may result from
such natural causes as an abnormality in the embryo, a
hormonal imbalance, a long-term disease, or some oth-
\JHAT bfoc/r er disorder in the woman. In an induced abortion, the
fetus is purposely removed from the woman s body.
This article deals with induced abortion.

AvrftAUA't Abortion methods. Physicians perform abortions in

several ways. During the first trimester of pregnancy, the
most common method is suction curettage, also known
as vacuum aspiration. This method involves removing
the fetus by suction, then scraping the woman's uterus
with surgical instruments called curettes.

Violations ! Abortion can also be caused in the first trimester by a

drug called mifepristone or RU-486. The drug blocks the
- ImMrii HU-kwuml Aqenc e France-PreS!
action of the hormone progesterone in the woman's
An Aborigine takes part in a protest in Canberra. Australian
Aborigines have called upon the government to apologize for body. Normally, this hormone prepares the woman s

the hardships that settlement has caused Aboriginal people. uterus to receive and nourish the embryo.
 Abortion 15

In the second trimester, many doctors use a method tion. Church scholars defined animation as the point at
called dilation D
and evacuation, or simply and E In this which the fetus received a soul. According to church
way, the fetus is taken apart in the uterus and removed. teachings, animation occurred between 40 and 80 days
Another method involves adding a salt solution to the after conception (fertilization). From about the 1300 s to
amniotic fluid, the liquid that surrounds the fetus. The fe- the 1800 s, abortion before animation became generally

tus then dies and passes from the woman's body. An accepted in Europe if the pregnancy endangered the life
abortion also may be performed by adding hormonelike of the mother. If an abortion before animation took
drugs called prostaglandins to the amniotic fluid. The place for a less serious reason, many church scholars
drugs cause muscle contractions that expel the fetus. considered it to be wrong, but not homicide.
Induced abortion has been a topic of dispute for hun- In 1869, Pope Pius IX condemned abortion from the

dreds of years. People disagree on two basic questions. moment of conception, but some Catholic church schol-
One question is whether the law should permit a ars continued to teach that abortions performed to save
woman to have an abortion and, if so, under what cir- the mother were morally acceptable. In 1895, the Roman
cumstances. The other is whether the law should pro- Catholic Church declared that abortion never justifi-
is

tect the unborn. Those who wish to legally limit or for- able. Today, the Catholic church condemns all forms of
bid abortion describe their position as "right-to-life" or direct abortion— that is, the intentional ending of preg-
"pro-life." Those who believe a
woman should have the nancy. Current Catholic teaching permits indirect abor-
right to an abortion refer tothemselves as "pro-choice." tion, in which the fetus is lost as a side effect of medical
Arguments against abortion are generally based treatment designed to save the mother's life.
on the belief that an abortion is the unjustified killing of Abortion in the United States is a subject of public
an unborn child. Most people who oppose abortion be- debate. Opinion polls show that most people think abor-
lieve that human life begins as soon as a sperm fertilizes tion should be legal. These people might disapprove of
an egg. Some believe that human embryos and fetuses abortion or disagree with some of the reasons that
should have legal rights and that abortion is actually a women seek abortions, but they would permit a legal
form of murder. Many pro-life people believe that legal- choice. Some believe only the states— and not the feder-
ization of abortion increases the number of irresponsi- al government— should regulate or outlaw abortion.
ble pregnancies and leads to a disrespect for human life. Before the mid-1 800s, abortion was not a crime under
The Roman Catholic Church is probably the leading U.S. common law if it took place before quickening.
opponent of abortion. Conservative branches of other Quickening is the time when the mother first feels the
religions also disapprove of abortion. fetus moving. State laws prohibiting abortion began to
Arguments for abortion. Many people would allow appear in the 1820s. By 1900, every state except Ken-
abortion under certain circumstances. Some approve of tucky had made abortion a serious crime. But some
abortion if a woman's life or health is endangered by courts refused to impose penalties for early abortion.
her pregnancy. Others find abortion permissible if med- By the 1960s, pro-choice organizations in the United
ical tests predict that the child will be born with a seri- States had begun working to change state abortion
ous mental or physical defect. Some people would per- laws. By the early 1970s, 14 states had laws permitting
mit abortion when a pregnancy has resulted from rape abortion if the woman's health was in danger or if the
or incest. Others believe that a woman should have an woman was a victim of incest or rape.
unrestricted right to an abortion, especially before the In 1973, the Supreme Court of the United States deliv-

fetus becomes viable—that is, capable of living outside ered a historic decision on abortion in the case of Roe v.
the mother's body. Most fetuses become viable after the Wade. The court ruled that states could not forbid a
sixth month of the pregnancy. woman to have an abortion during the first trimester
People who favor an unrestricted right to abortion (three months) of pregnancy. The court also ruled that,

during early pregnancy often separate human life from during the second trimester, states may regulate abor-
personhood. They argue that personhood includes an tion only to protect women's health. Once the fetus be-

ability toexperience self-consciousness and to be ac- comes viable in the third trimester, states may regulate

cepted as a member of a community. These people be- abortion to protect the interests of both women and the
lieve fetuses are not persons and thus should not be unborn. The Roe v. Wade decision stated that the U.S.
granted the rights given to persons. Such pro-choice Constitution implies the right of privacy and allows a
thinkers consider birth the beginning of personhood. woman to decide for herself if she will have an abortion.
Another pro-choice argument is that legal abortion The 1973 decision also defined when a fetus becomes

eliminates many of the illegal abortions performed by viable. It stated, Viability is usually placed at about sev-

unskilled individuals under unsanitary conditions. These en months (28 weeks) but may occur earlier, even at 24
abortions cause many women permanent injury or re- weeks." The court said that states may forbid abortion of
sult in their deaths. Also, some argue that women a viable fetus except when the abortion is necessary to

should not have to give birth to unwanted children be- protect the mothers life or health.

cause the world's population is growing rapidly and nat- Since the Roe v. Wade decision, many groups have
ural resources are becoming scarce.
organized to oppose abortion and the legislation and
Abortion history. Abortion has been practiced and court decisions that permit it. These groups include the
National Right to Life Committee the Christian Coalition,
debated since ancient times. The ancient Hebrews per
mitted itcases where the mother's life was at risk.
in
and Operation Rescue Most pro life groups strongly
The early Christian church generally opposed abor- oppose illegal acts. But some individuals have vandal-
ized bombed, or set fire to abortion clinics Others have
tion. For hundreds of years, however, the church debat-
attacked and killed doctors and other clinic employees
ed whether abortion might be justifiable before anima-
16 Abortion

Pro-choice groups also have expanded their efforts. In other countries, abortion laws differ. Lawmakers
They contact lawmakers, hold demonstrations, and at- in some countries have considered abortion an effective
tack restrictive abortion laws in court. Pro-choice organi- tool for limiting family size and combating poverty. In
zations include the National Abortion and Reproductive China, for example, abortions are legal and common be-
Rights Action League, the Planned Parenthood Federa- cause the government allows only a limited number of
tion of America, and the National Organization for children per family. Chinese women may have an abor-
Women. tion at any time during their pregnancy. In Russia, abor-
Since 1973, some Supreme Court rulings have limited tion is allowed up to the 29th week of pregnancy. Japan
the influence of Roe v. Wade. One such case was Web- restricts abortions to the first 24 weeks of pregnancy.
ster Reproductive Health Services (1 9891. The court
v. Both Russian and Japanese women are allowed to use
ruled that statesmay require doctors to test a fetus's via- abortion as a method of birth control.
bility before performing an abortion on a woman preg- In the United Kingdom, an abortion may be per-
nant for 20 weeks or more. The court also ruled that formed up to the 24th week of pregnancy. However, it
states may outlaw abortions in public hospitals and pro- must be shown that continuing the pregnancy would
hibit public employees from assisting in abortions. endanger the physical or mental health of the woman or
Following the Roe v. Wade decision, the federal gov- her children. Canadian law permits abortion at any time
ernment and many state governments began to pay for during pregnancy and for any reason. However, most
abortions for poor women under the Medicaid pro- physicians avoid performing abortions during the later
gram. Many opponents of abortion objected to this use stages of pregnancy and do not offer abortion as a
of government funds. In 1977, the Supreme Court ruled method of birth control. David M. O Brien

that the government was not obligated to finance abor- See also Miscarriage; National Right to Life Commit-
tions considered unnecessary to preserve the mother s tee; Planned Parenthood Federation of America; Roe v.
physical or emotional health. In 1980, the court said the Wade.
government had no obligation even most
to pay for
Additional resources
medically necessary abortions. This ruling upheld a fed-
eral law called the Hyde Amendment.
Hull, N. E. H„ and Hoffer, P. C Roe vs. Wade. Univ. Pr. of Kans.,
2001.
In 1990, the Supreme Court decided that states may Knapp, Lynette, ed. The Abortion Controversy. Rev. ed. Green-
require minors to obtain parental or court consent be- haven, 2000.
fore having an abortion. In Planned Parenthood of East-
ern Pennsylvania v. Casey^992), both sides of the abor- Abraham was the founder of Judaism and the ances-
tion dispute asked the Supreme Court to review the tor of both theArabs and the Jews. The Arabs trace their
ruling in Roe v. Wade. The justices upheld the ruling by ancestry to Abraham s oldest son, Ishmaei. The Jews
a vote of 5 to The court also ruled that states may re-
4. consider Abraham their ancestor through another son,
quire women
seeking an abortion to first receive coun- Isaac. Abraham, Isaac, and Isaac s son Jacob are called
seling by a doctor about fetal development and abortion the patriarchs (founding fathers) of the Jews.
risks. The court also decided that states may require Many scholars believe that Abraham lived between
women to wait 24 hours between the counseling and about 1 500 B.C The story of his life is told in
800 and 1

the abortion. Genesis, the book of the Bible. During his early life,
first

The case of National Organization for Women v. Abraham was called Abram. He was born in the city of
5c/?e/c//er(1994) was a legal response to incidents at Ur, in ancient Mesopotamia (now mostly Iraq). The peo-
abortion clinics. The Supreme Court decided that pro- ple of Ur, like most people then, worshiped many gods.
testers who block access to clinics can be prosecuted However, Abram believed in one Cod. Abram left Ur
under federal racketeering laws. In 1994, Congress and traveled west with his wife, Sarah; his nephew Lot;
passed the Freedom of Access to Clinic Entrances Act, and other members of his household. At God s com-
which protects abortion clinics and their staff members mand, he went to a land called Canaan (later called
from violence and blockades. Palestine). God told Abram that the land would belong
In Stenberg v. Carhart (2000), the Supreme Court ruled to Abram and his descendants.
that a Nebraska law banning what pro-life activists call Abram settled in Canaan, where God made a cove-
partial-birth abortions was unconstitutional. The proce- nant (special agreement) with him. The covenant prom-
dure, which doctors call intact dilation and extraction, in- ised that Abram would have many descendants and that
volves aborting a fetus after it has been partially re- Canaan would be their everlasting possession if they
moved from a woman s body. The court stated that the remained faithful to God (Genesis 17:4-8). To symbolize
Nebraska law placed an undue burden on a woman's His pledge, God changed Abram s name to Abraham,
right to choose an abortion and did not allow the proce- which means father of many nations. God commanded
dure even to protect a woman's health. him and all males in his family to be circumcised as a
In September 2000, the U.S. Food and Drug Adminis- symbol of this covenant (see Circumcision).
tration approved the sale of the abortion drug mifepris- God repeatedly promised Abraham many children.
tone, marketed by the name Mifeprex. The decision al- But he and Sarah remained childless. Following a cus-
lows women to buy pills through physicians to end tom of the time, Sarah gave her maid Hagar to Abraham
pregnancies. Supporters of the drug claimed that it to bear him a child. Hagar bore Abraham a son, Ishmaei.
would enable women to end their pregnancies earlier, When Abraham and Sarah were very old, God
more safely, and with greater privacy than before. The promised them a son within a year. God also told Abra-
drug had been available in Europe for more than 10 ham that He intended to destroy the cities of Sodom and
years. Gomorrah because nearly all the people were wicked.
 7

Absorption and adsorption 1

Abraham pleaded with God to spare the cities for the used in the United States for certain kinds of engineer-
sake of the righteous but could not persuade Him to do ing work. A Rankine temperature is obtained by adding
so. But Cod saved Lot, who lived in Sodom. The next 459.67 to a corresponding Fahrenheit temperature. For
year, Abraham and Sarah had a son, Isaac. example, 68 F equals 527.67 °R.
God later gave Abraham his greatest test of faith and Physicists theorize that it is impossible to attain a tem-
obedience. He commanded Abraham to sacrifice Isaac. perature of precisely absolute zero. But scientists have
Abraham took his son to a mountaintop, laid him on an recorded temperatures of less than 1 trillionth of a
altar, and prepared to kill him. At the last minute, howev- kelvin in experiments in which they exposed samples of
er, God intervened, stopped the killing, and provided a metal to magnetic forces. Nuclei of the metal atoms re-
ram for the sacrifice. acted to the forces in a way that caused the nuclei to
The Bible says Abraham died at an advanced age. Ac- lose energy, thereby becoming extremely cold.
cording to tradition, he was buried in the Cave of Mach- Hugh D. Young
pelah in Hebron, in what is now the West Bank region See also Cryogenics; Gas; Temperature.
Of Southwest Asia. Eric M. Meyers Absolutism, AB suh loo tihz uhm, is a form of govern-
See also Isaac; Ishmael; Jews (Beginnings); Judaism ment in which one or more persons rule with power
(The covenant with God); Lot. unlimited by law. It includes dictatorships and absolute
Absalom. See David. monarchies. Most dictatorships are run by a ruler or rul-
Abscess, AB sehs, is a collection of pus within an in- ers who seized power by force. In some dictatorships,
fected part of the body. Pus contains bacteria, blood the government is satisfied to keep the people from re-
plasma, and debris from dead cells. It also contains volting while the rulers obtain advantages for them-
white blood cells, which the body uses to combat infec- selves. Other dictatorships try to maintain almost com-
tion. An abscess often appears as a red and swollen plete control over people so as to make great changes
lump, which may open and drain. Abscesses may occur in society. Adolf Hitler of Germany and Joseph Stalin of

inany tissue that becomes infected by bacteria. the Soviet Union headed such absolutist governments.
When abscesses form, blood vessels dilate (expand) The power of most absolute monarchs is inherited
and fluid from the blood collects in the injured tissue. and is supposed to derive from God's will. The monarch
Serum and white blood cells help destroy the invading may do what he or she wishes. In practice, however,
bacteria and their poisons. Abscesses swell because the judges, governors, and other officials carry out govern-
blood vessels expand and the amount of blood in the in- ment functions according to laws, customs, or simply
fected area increases. An abscess is painful because the their own judgment. Absolute monarchs ruled ancient
pus presses on the nerve endings. China, Egypt, and Rome. Absolute rulers called czars
Small superficial abscesses, such as pimples, need no governed Russia until the early 1900s. Alexander Croth|,

special treatment. Boils, carbuncles, or internal abscess- Related articles in World Book include:
Authoritarianism Divine right of Monarchy
es are treated with antibiotics, such as penicillin, and
Despotism kings Totalitarianism
surgical incision if necessary (see Antibiotic). An abscess
Dictatorship Fascism Tyranny
at the root of a tooth should be treated by a dentist. No
abscess, regardless of size, should be squeezed, be- Absorption and adsorption, ab SAWRP shuhn, ad
cause bacteria can enter the bloodstream and produce SAWRP shuhn, are processes by which substances take
infection elsewhere. David t. woodley inmatter or energy, or both. In absorption, the matter or
See also Boil; Carbuncle; Teeth (Diseases and defects energy taken in becomes distributed throughout the ab-
of the teeth). sorbing material. Adsorption is the gathering of matter
Absentee voting. See Voting (Methods of voting). only.The matter collects on the surface of the adsorbing
It does not enter the interior.
Absolute zero the theoretical temperature at which
is material.

the atoms and molecules of a substance have the least Absorption. There are many familiar examples of ab-
possible energy. This temperature, which scientists be- sorption. Heavy drapes absorb sound energy. The

lieve the lowest attainable, equals -273.15 C, or

is
sound waves make the fibers in the drapes vibrate and
-459.67 °F. These values are based partly on observa-
rub together. Friction turns the sound energy into heat
tions of the relationship between the temperature and so the sound cannot be reflected as an echo (see Insula-
pressure of a gas. When the temperature of a gas con-
fined in a fixed volume is lowered, its pressure decreas-
es proportion- as though it would become
in direct
Sponge
zero at -273.15 C.
A temperature scale that has absolute zero for its zero
point is called an absolute temperature scale. One such
scale is the Kelvin scale, the international standard for
scientific temperature measurement. On the Kelvin
scale, absolute zero equals zero kelvin 10 K). The word

degree and the degree symbol are not used with

( )

Kelvin temperature readings.

The Kelvin scale is related to the Celsius scale. A Kel-
Molecules of oas or liquid
vin temperature can be obtained by adding 273.15 to a
form film around particle
corresponding Celsius temperature. For example, t
equals 293.15 K. An absolute temperature scale related
Absorption Adsorption
to the Fahrenheit scale is the Rankine -rale.
II
II Abstract art

tion [Insulation against soundl). Colored objects and fil- on Materialism. It appeared first in the work of the Con-
ters selectively absorb light energy. White light iscom- structivist artists in Russia about 1915. Their art essential-
posed of all colors of light When white light strikes a ly dealt with textures, shapes, colors, and patterns. Their
colored substance, some colors of light energy are ab- paintings rejected storytelling, poetry, or emotional ex-
sorbed. The absorbed light energy excites electrons in periences. To portray new age and its
objectively the
the atoms of the colored substance— that is, it raises scientific basis, artists stressedgeometric forms; flat, un-
them to higher energy levels. The substance will trans- modulated colors; and an impersonal approach to their
mit or reflect the colors of light that have not been ab- art Leading Russian Constructivists included Vladimir
sorbed. Dry earth absorbs water by a process called Tatlin, El Lissitsky, Naum Gabo, and Alexander Rod-
capillarity {see Capillarity). The water in a lake absorbs chenko.
oxygen by dissolving it The term abstract art was originally confusing be-
Adsorption. Usually only solid material can act as an cause it could mean art with altered but still recogniz-
adsorbent The adsorbed matter can be the molecules able content, or totally nonfigurative or nonobjective art
of a liquid or a gas, or tiny particles of a solid. Adsorp- However, by the end of World War II in 1945, the term
tion is often highly selective, making it useful for sepa- was used primarily as a synonym for art completely
rating or purifying liquids and gases. A charcoal filter without recognizable subject matter. Total abstraction
adsorbs molecules on the surface of each charcoal parti- was given wide publicity through the work of the ab-
cle. Silica gel adsorbs water molecules from moist air stract expressionist, or New York School, artists such as
and holds them on the surface of each grain. Adsorption Jackson Pollock, Willem de Kooning, Arshile Gorky,
releases heat called heat of adsorption. Franz Kline, and Robert Motherwell. David catefonsr

The interaction of adsorbed molecules with the ad- Related articles in World Book include:
sorbing surface may be weak or strong. Molecules are Abstract expressionism Painting (The 1900 s in Eu-

weakly held when physical attraction holds them to the Cubism rope; The 1900s in North
Expressionism Americal
adsorbing surface (see Molecule [Molecules and mat-
Fauves Sculpture (Modern interna-
ter]!. This process is called physiosorption. When ad- Futurism tional sculpture)
sorbed molecules are united chemically with the sur- Malevich, Kasimir
face, they are strongly held. This process is called
chemisorption. In chemisorption, the adsorbed mole- Abstract expressionism was a movement in Ameri-
cules form a single layer. In physiosorption, they may can painting that flourished from the mid-1940 s to the
form layers several molecules deep. Emily jane Rose mid-1950 s. The abstract expressionists developed a rev-
See also Plant (Water movement). olutionary approach to the nature and purpose of paint-
Abstract art is a style of art of the 900 1 s that discards ing. They influenced artists in many countries.
identifiable subject matter. Abstract art is sometimes The abstract expressionists rejected many of the cus-
called nonobjective art or nonfigurative art.

Abstract art broke with a long tradition in Western

culture that considered art a kind of refined illustration.
Works of art were often admired because of the impor-
tance given to the story or theme they represented. This
view began to change in the first decade of the 1 900s.
At that time, painters allowed the means of imagemak-
ing— brushstrokes, color, and shapes— to overshadow
or distort the subject matter. They discovered that the
formal characteristics of painting were interesting in
their own right
The first abstract art was produced by painters identi-
fied with such movements as Fauvism, Expressionism,
Cubism, and Futurism. Their paintings were called ab-
stract, though subject matter could still be recognized
in their work.
After about 1910, some artists eliminated all subject
matter in favor of pure forms. Two and opposite
distinct
theoretical defenses of totally abstract art emerged. The
Spiritualists worked from the belief that the elements of
art could stir the soul and spirit directly. For these artists,
references to the material world hindered their ability to
convey emotional messages directly and powerfully.
Leading Spiritualists were Wassily Kandinsky and
Kasimir Malevich of Russia and Piet Mondrian of the
Netherlands. Kandinsky was a founder of a German art
movement known as Der Blaue Reiterilbe Blue Rider).
Malevich was a leader of a Russian movement called
West brant I960 an oil painting on canvas by Franz Kline:
Suprematism. Mondrian was a member of a Dutch art
1

Mr and Mrs Graham Gund 'Art Resource

collection ot

movement known as Neoplasticism or Die Stiji Abstract expressionist paintings include West Brant, a power-
The other major theory of abstract art was grounded ful black-and-white work by Franz Kline.

:
 9

Acacia 1

toms and rules of earlier art They did not paint tradition- Abuja's major buildings include the National Mosque
al pictures that told a story or created the appearance of and the administrative headquarters of the Economic
reality. Instead, the abstract expressionists emphasized Community of West African States. Many modern roads
color, the physical qualities of paint, and the enveloping connect Abuja with surrounding cities and towns. The
character of very large paintings. city is served by an international airport Huge rock for-
The abstract expressionist movement was more a mations lying in or near the city include Aso and Zuma
philosophical attitude than a particular style. For exam- rocks. The official residence of the Nigerian president
ple, certain abstract expressionist works feature many stands near Aso Rock and is itself nicknamed Aso Rock.
shapes and thick paint, while others are exceptionally Nigeria created the capital territory in 1976 mainly be-
simple and thinly painted. Some of the painters deliber- cause Lagos, the former capital, was overcrowded and
ately left portions of the canvas unpainted to provide a lacked room for expansion. Construction of the new city
contrast with the painted areas. But all the diverse per- of Abuja has occurred since the 980s. Abuja officially
1

sonalities in this movement shared the belief that both became the new capital in 991 By the late 990s, all of
1 . 1

the figurative and abstract traditions of modern art Nigeria's government ministries had moved their head-
could be used freely to express their immediate feelings quarters from LagOS tO Abuja. Ebere Onwudiwe
and their attitude toward life. They maintained that no See also Nigeria (picture).
matter how abstract their paintings appeared, there was Abyssinia. See Ethiopia
always an underlying serious subject. Abzug, ABzuhg, Bella Savftzky (1920-1998), a Demo-
One of the important abstract expressionists was Jack- crat from New York, served in the United States House
son Pollock. He placed his canvas on the floor and of Representatives from 1971 to 1977. She gained fame
dripped and splattered the paint from above. This tech- for her support of the women's rights movement Abzug
nique led some critics to call Pollock and certain other also supported legislation that promotes federal job
members of the movement action painters. Other lead- programs, public transportation, and the individual's
ing abstract expressionists included Willem de Kooning, right to privacy. She served on the House Government
Helen Frankenthaler, Arshile Corky, Adolph Gottlieb, Operations Committee.
Philip Guston, Franz Kline, Joan Mitchell, Robert Abzug was born on July 24, 1920, in New York City.
Motherwell, Barnett Newman, Mark Rothko, Clyfford She earned a law degree from Columbia University. In
Still, and Bradley Walker Tomlin. DoreAshton 1961, she helped establish Women Strike for Peace,
Each artist discussed in this article has a biography in which works for nuclear disarmament. In 1971, Abzug
World Book See also Painting (Abstract expressionism). helped found the National Women's Political Caucus,
Abu Bakr. See Muslims (The early caliphs). which aids women running for office. CuyHaiverson

Abu Dhabi, AH boo DAH bee (pop. 242,975), also AC. See Electric current
called AbuZaby, is the capital of the United Arab Emi- Acacia, uh KA Yshuh, is the name of about ,200 spe- 1

rates, aconfederation of seven Arab states. Abu Dhabi is cies of trees and shrubs in the pea family. Many acacias
also the capital of the emirate of Abu Dhabi, which is grow in tropical and subtropical regions of Australia, Af-
one of the seven states. Founded in 1761 as a pearl-fish- rica, and the Americas. Over 30 species, most of them

ing port, Abu Dhabi lies on an island in the Persian Gulf shrubs, grow in the United States. They are most com-
(see United Arab Emirates [map]). Abu Dhabi has devel- mon from Texas to California. The flowers of most aca-
oped rapidly since oil was discovered on the land and in cias are yellow or white and grow in round or long clus-

offshore fields in the early 1960s. A development pro- ters. Many species have compound leaves consisting of

gram improved its harbor and constructed buildings,

roads, and an international airport Robert ceran Landen

Abu Simbel, AH boo SIHM buhl, Temples of, are

two ancient Egyptian temples that were carved in a
mountainside beside the Nile River in southern Egypt.
The pharaoh Ramses built the temples in the 1200s
II

B.C The Great Temple extended 200 feet (60 meters) into
the mountainside. Four seated figures of Ramses II, each
67 feet (20 meters) high, guarded the entrance. Four fig-
ures of Ramses and two of his wife, Queen Nefertari,
II

stood at the entrance to the other temple.

The temples' original location is now covered by Lake
Nasser, which was formed by the Aswan High Dam. In
the mid-1960s, the temples were cut into huge blocks
and moved to higher ground. About 50 nations contrib-
uted funds to this project. Leonard H. Lesko

See also Egypt, Ancient (map); Ramses II.

Abuja, ah BOOH /ah (pop. 378,671), is the capital of
Nigeria. The city lies in a hilly region in the central part
\0>
of the country. For location, see Nigeria (political map).
Abuja is part of the Abuja Federal Capital Territory,
which has an area of about 3,100 square miles (8.000 *OOK iMmtrmon h» Ov

square kilometers). The city itself covers about 100 The catclaw acacia grows in the southwestern I nited State*.
The plant has \ellow Rowers Its seeds grow in pods
square miles (260 square kilometers).
20 Academic freedom

numerous leaflets. In some species, the leaves grow subject only to their taking a final examination. Such
from wide, flat leafstalks. Other species lack true leaves ideas influenced the growth of American universities.
and have only the leafstalks. Certain species, including In the United States, academic freedom has faced a
the catclaw acacia of the southwestern United States and variety of threats. In colonial times, religious intolerance
the bullhorn acacia of Mexico, have sharp spines. The presented the biggest danger to academic freedom.
bullhorn acacia has large, paired hornlike spines that Universities dismissed many teachers whose religious
are partly hollow and often inhabited by ferocious ants. beliefs conflicted with the established views.
These ants attack any other animal that invades the tree. During the 1800s, economic and political power be-
Some acacias produce a gum called gum arabic that is came the major source of threats to academic freedom
used in making foods, drugs, and other products. The in the United States. Many private universities had

bark of various acacias produces tannin, a substance wealthy benefactors as trustees, and most state universi-
used to make leather. In arid regions, acacia leaves and ties had politically appointed trustees. Some trustees felt
fruits provide food for livestock. y Massey that the teaching in their universities should agree with
Scientific classification. Acacias belong to the pea family, their own economic and political views. As a result, a
Leguminosae or Fabaceae. The catclaw acacia is Acacia greggii. number of professors lost their jobs for teaching certain
The bullhorn acacia is A cornigera.
economic or political concepts. However, most universi-
See also Catechu; Gum arabic; Mimosa. ty trustees respected academic freedom.
Academic freedom is a term that refers primarily to The 1900's. After World War ended in 1945, acade-
II

certain rights claimed by professors at universities and mic freedom in the United States came under attack by
colleges. The term also refers to various rights claimed many people who feared possible Communist infiltra-
by students at those institutions and by the institutions tion of universities. An investigation by the Un-American
themselves. During the 1960s, the term academic free- Activities Committee of the U.S. House of Representa-
dom came into use to describe rights claimed by ele- tives found Communists on the faculty of a few universi-
mentary-school and high-school teachers as well. ties. As a result, many people feared that most universi-

For professors, academic freedom means the right to ties were full of Communists. A number of professors
teach, to conduct research, and to write without fear of were unjustly accused of supporting Communism and
dismissal. For their students, it means the right to chal- lost their jobs.
lenge the professors' views without being penalized. For In the 1960s, academic freedom faced new chal-
the institutions, it means the right to determine what is lenges from the campus itself. Many students opposed
taught and what research is conducted on the campus. the U.S. role in the Vietnam War (1957-1975)— and all
For teachers, such freedom means a larger share in se- forms of war as well. They resented having military re-
lecting the contents of courses, and greater freedom to search conducted on campus. They thought that funds
engage in political and social activities. spent for military purposes should go instead to help
Academic freedom grew out of freedom of thought minority groups gain equality and to eliminate poverty
and expression, a basic right of any free society. Without and pollution. Many students also questioned the rela-
such freedom, scholars cannot perform their vital role of tionship of some of their courses to current problems. A
seeking and spreading new knowledge. Scholars insist number of faculty members joined the student protests.
on having the freedom to present the truth as they find Student unrest brought different types of academic
it, even if it conflicts with popular belief. They say that freedom into conflict with one another. Student de-
creative research is impossible if its findings must be mands challenged the right of professors to teach and
withheld or distorted to agree with established views. to conduct research. Similarly, student and faculty de-
This spirit of free inquiry and teaching helps give univer- mands challenged the universities' right to decide what
sities and colleges their unique character. should be taught and what research should be conduct-
The chief importance of academic freedom is that so- ed. This clash raised serious issues. For example, what
ciety benefits from the knowledge discovered by schol- responsibilities accompany
the rights of academic free-
ars. Yet, the history of academic freedom is largely the dom? To what does a person's academic freedom
extent
history of the many attacks on it entitle him or her to interfere with that of others? The fu-
Beginnings. The idea of academic freedom devel- ture of universities and colleges in the United States de-
oped with the rise of universities in Europe during the pends largely on solutions to these issues.
1100's and 1200s. The scholars at those institutions want- A. Harry Passovv

ed freedom to pursue their studies. The universities Academy is the general name for a group of people or

governed themselves, and many became famous and an organization that promotes art, literature, science, or
powerful. But even the most powerful universities were some other field of knowledge. Some high schools are
subject to church control. The church persecuted many also called academies. See also Arts and Sciences,
scholars whose ideas and teaching contradicted reli- American Academy of; Education (The colonial period);
gious beliefs. One such scholar was the Italian as- French Academy; National Academy of Sciences.
tronomer and physicist Galileo. In the 1600s, the church Academy Award. See Motion picture (table: Acade-
persecuted Galileo for supporting various theories, in- my Award winners).
cluding the one that the earth moves around the sun. Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences
By the 1800s, the concept of academic freedom had is an honorary nonprofit organization. It was founded in
been established in Germany, along with the idea of the 1927. Its 5,200 members represent leaders in every
university as a research institution. Professors could phase of filmmaking. Its purposes are to advance the
teach whatever they desired and could undertake any arts and sciences of motion pictures; to foster coopera-
research. Students could study whatever they wanted, tion in the industry for cultural, educational, and techno-
 Acapulco 21

logical progress; and to recognize outstanding film Mississippi River. Itlies in Maine on Mount Desert Is-
achievements through the presentation of annual land, Isle au Haut, and on the Schoodic Peninsula. For
awards called Oscars. See also Motion picture (table). the area of Acadia National Park, see National Park Sys-
Critically reviewed by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences tem (table: National parks).
Acadia, uh KAY dee uh, was a region in eastern Cana- Acadia National Park contains several peaks, including
da that became the site of the first permanent French Cadillac Mountain (1,530 feet, or 466 meters). Cadillac
colony inNorth America. French colonists settled there Mountain is the highest granite mountain on the eastern
in 1 604. Acadia included what are now the provinces of coast Forests and lakes make the park an excellent
Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island. wildlife sanctuary. A marine biological laboratory has
Also in Acadia were parts of what are now the province been established in the park. Acadia National Park was
of Quebec and the state of Maine. Acadia is best known established on land donated by residents of the island in
as the setting for the romantic poem Evangeline (1847) 1916. Critically reviewed by the National Park Service

by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, an American poet. Acanthus, uh KAN thuhs, is a group of shrubs or

The French explorer Sieur de Monts founded the herbs that are found chiefly in Asia, Africa, and southern
original settlement in Acadia. Acadia remained a French Europe. They spread from underground stems and
settlement until the early 1700s, when it became in- sometimes become pests. The flowers vary in color
volved in the struggle for control of North America be- from white to purple and develop on rigid spikes. The
tween France and England. large leaves have many
During Queen Anne's War (1 702-1 713), Port Royal, the narrow, pointed lobes.
seat of the Acadian government, surrendered to the Acanthus plants prefer
British. The Treaty of Utrecht, which ended the war, and some shade,
rich soil
gave Acadia to Britain. A dispute arose, however, when and can live with little wa-
France only ceded (surrendered) what is now mainland ter. One species grows in

Nova Scotia. The other parts of Acadia tried to remain semiarid parts of the
neutral in the dispute. Southwestern United
In 1755, during the French and Indian War, British offi- States.
cials tried to force the Acadians to take an oath of alle- In architecture, acan-
thus refers to a leafy deco-
ration that was popular in
Anticosti
Island
Greek and Roman times.
The design at the top of
the Corinthian column is
Eric Crichton. Bruce Coleman Ltd
Newfoundland an example of acanthus.
and Labrador
See Column Acanthus
Melinda F. Denton

Prince Edward Scientific classification. Acanthus plants belong to the acan-

Island thus family, Acanthaceae. They are in the genus Acanthus.
Acapulco, ah kah POOL koh (pop. 721 ,01 officially 1 ),

Beaubassih known as Acapulco de Juarez, day HVVAH rehz, is a

Mexican port and resort city. Its beautiful scenery and
Grand Pre
warm, sunny climate make it one of the world's most
Nova Scotia
popular vacation spots. Acapulco lies on forested hills
la Have
along a deep, natural harbor on Mexico s Pacific coast
The city is about 190 miles (306 kilometers) southwest of
Mexico City (see Mexico [political mapl).
100 Kilometers
Acapulco has many activities for vacationers, includ-
WORLD BOOK map
ing sunbathing, swimming, sailing, deep-sea fishing,
Location of Acadia and water-skiing. People also enjoy the city s fine restau-
rants and nightclubs. Visitors are thrilled by the divers at

giance to the British king. But the Acadians refused to the nearby La Quebrada cliffs. These daring di\ers

do so, and between 1755 and 1763 about 10,000 men, plunge more than 20 feet (37 metersi from a platform
1

into the water of a rocky cove. The cove is too shallow

women, and children were forced to move to colonies
farther south. After suffering much hardship, most of except when large waves surge in, and so the divers
these people time returned to Acadia and settled in
in
must time their fall to hit one of the waves.
southeastern New Brunswick. Over 350,000 of their de- Tourism became Acapulco s leading industry after the
city underwent rapid expansion beginning in the 1950s
scendants still live there. About 4,000 Acadians went to
Louisiana, a former French colony in what is now the
Acapulco has over 250 hotels and motels
United States. Descendants of these Acadians are known
A small Indian village stood near what is now Acapul-
co when Spanish explorers arrived there during the
as Cajuns. Many of them still speak a French dialect
early 1 500 s. The Spaniards founded Acapulco in 1 550 as
John A Dickinson
a seaport and built ships there for Pacific exploration
See also Cajuns; French and Indian wars; Grand Pre;
and trade During Spanish rule Acapulco uas the last
Monts, Sieur de; Nova Scotia (The struggle in Acai
stop for ships bringing silks and spices from the Philip-
Acadia National Park, uh KAY dee uh was
east of the pines In 1616 Fort San Diego uas (unit to protect Aia
national park established in the United States
22 Acceleration

Scenic Acapulco lies on

Mexico s Pacific coast The
warm, sunny climate and
beautiful beaches of this pop-
ular resort city attract thou-
sands of visitors yearly.

Barbara Van Cleve

pulco from pirates. The fort was rebuilt in the 1 780s af- Accounting is a system of gathering, summarizing,

teran earthquake and still stands in the center of the and communicating financial information for a business
City. Nathan A. Haverstock firm, government, or other organization. Accounting,
Acceleration. See Motion (Acceleration); Falling bod- also called accountancy, enables decision makers to in-
ies, Law of; Velocity (Acceleration). terpret financial information and use the results in plan-
Accelerator, Particle. See Particle accelerator. ning for the future. For example, such data tell execu-
Accent, AK sehnt, in language, is an emphasis placed tives which products or departments are doing well and
on a syllable in a word and is often called stress. Dictio- which poorly.
naries usually indicate an accented syllable by the mark, Business people often call accounting the "language
',placed after the syllable. A secondary accent can be in- of business'' because they use accounting data in com-
dicated by two marks, " or by one light accent mark.
,

Accented syllables can also be shown by capital letters VVORLD BOOK illustration bv Oxford Illustrators Umrted
or italics. Where pronunciations are given in The World
Book Encyclopedia, capital letters are used for the sylla- Headboard Button keyboard
ble with the primary accent and small capital letters for
the secondary accent. See Key to pronunciation at the
beginning of the A volume.
The tendency in English is to shift the accent toward
the beginning of the word. The accent in the word re
VOKE shifts toward the beginning in the form irREV
ocable. This tendency often causes a change in the lan-
guage. The accent in the word BAL con y was once
placed on the second syllable \bal CON y).
Words spelled in the same way are sometimes ac-
cented on different syllables. This usually means they
have different meanings or different usages. The verb of
a pair of identical words may have the accent on the sec-
ond syllable, although the noun or adjective has it on
the first. For example, ab SENTis the verb, while AB sent
is the adjective. Accent is important in sentences as well

as in words. Marianne Cooley

See also Meter (in poetry); Music (Rhythm).
Acclimatization. See Adaptation.
Piano keyboard Bellows
Accommodation, in physiology. See Eye (Focusing).
Accordion any of a family of portable reed instru-
is David R hrazier

ments with bellows suspended in front of the player by The accordion is played by
shoulder straps. The player stretches and compresses stretching and compressing
the bellows by hand. These movements force air past the bellows while the fingers
metal reeds, making them vibrate and produce sounds. press various keys and but-
tons.
The right hand plays buttons or keys arranged in the or-
der of the scale, like piano keys. The left hand presses
buttons that produce single tones and chords. In many
countries, accordions are used in folk and popular mu-
sic. Cyrillys Damian invented an accordion in Vienna in

1829. But the principle had been known for centuries in

China. Valerie VVoodring Goertzen

See also Concertina.

 Accounting 23

municating about a firm's activities, information provid- business's financial statements, mainly for users outside
ed by accountants helps managers and other executives the business. These reports are used by owners and po-
understand the results of business transactions and in- tentialowners of a business and by people who have
terpret the financial status of their organization. With loaned a company money. Some government agencies
this knowledge, managers can make informed decisions that regulate business and the stock market require
about such matters as production, marketing, and fi- companies to submit financial statements to them.
nancing. Charities, churches, colleges, government Management accounting helps managers plan and
agencies, and other nonprofit organizations also use ac- control a company's operations. Accountants prepare
counting to keep track of their financial situation. budgets to express management's goals in financial
Bookkeeping is a small but important part of account- terms. After a budget has been adopted, performance
ing.It involves recording financial transactions and reports compare actual results with the budget. Cost ac-
keeping other financial records. Most repetitive book- countants help management keep track of how much it
keeping is done with computers. costs a company to make the product, or provide the
service, it sells.
Financial reports
Tax accounting consists of preparing tax returns for
In the United States, publicly owned businesses are organizations or individuals and determining the taxes
required by law to issue financial reports. These reports involved proposed business transactions. Tax accoun-
in

are used by investors; officials of banks, government tants suggest ways to save money on taxes. They must
agencies, and labor unions; and others interested in a have a thorough knowledge of the tax laws that affect
firm or its Accountants prepare the reports,
industry. their clients or employers. They also must know the de-
which provide summaries of a company's financial con- tails of court rulings in a wide variety of tax cases.

dition. Most companies issue quarterly reports. All firms Auditing involves the examination of an organiza-
use similar accounting procedures so that the reports tion's financial statements and records. CPA auditors
can be compared. In the United States, the Financial Ac- from outside the organization provide assurance that
counting Standards Board (FASB), a group of profession- the organization's statements present financial informa-
al accountants, establishes these procedures, which are and that they follow generally accepted ac-
tion fairly
called accounting principles. counting principles. People use such statements when
The most important financial reports include balance deciding which companies to invest in and lend money
sheets, income statements, and statements of cash flows. to.

A balance sheet shows a company's assets, liabilities, Internal auditors are employees of an organization
and net worth. An income statement is a report of a who make sure that organization follows the accounting
firm's revenue and expenses during a certain period. procedures management wants. They also seek ways to
The bottom line of an income statement shows whether increase efficiency and reduce waste.
the company had a net profit or a net loss for that peri- Management consulting services consist of a vari-
od. A statement of cash flows shows the amounts of ety of activities that many accountants perform. These
money flowing into a company and out of it as a result services include the design and installation of comput-
of itsoperating, investing, and financing activities. erized financial information systems, assistance in set-
Organizations that do not seek a profit need many of ting up employee pension plans, and the planning of an
the same kinds of financial reports. For example, private individual's personal finances.

schools must keep track of their tuition income and their

Careers
expenses. A government agency may wish to compare
the cost of a program with the benefits. Possible donors The number of jobs in many accounting fields is
to a charity may like to see how previous donations growing. Increasingly sophisticated management tech-
were used. niques demand information that can be provided most
efficiently by accountants. Accounting requires the abili-
Fields of accounting ty to gather data, analyze problems completely, and pre-

Accountants may be classified by the type of organiza- sent conclusions clearly.

tion for which they work. For example, business accoun- A college education with a major in accounting is
tants are employed by all types of companies. A small good preparation for an accounting career. Many
firm may have one general accountant who handles all organizations prefer accountants with a masters degree
financial records. But a large corporation may have in accounting or management. Many accountants be-

many accountants for the various duties involved. come certified public accountants because they wish to
Organizations or individuals may hire professional practice public accounting or to have the distinction of

public accountantsTor occasional tasks or special ac- earning a CPA certificate.

counting services. Most public accountants have passed Most accountants work for business companies or
a state examination and obtained a license to practice a 3 government agencies. Some have jobs with founda-
Such accountants tions, hospitals, labor unions, universities, or other non-
certified public accountants (CPA's).
are called chartered accountants \n Canada, the United
profit organizations. Many CPAs practice in public ac-

Kingdom, and some other countries. counting firms that provide a wide range of services. In
the United States four large public accounting firms
Most accountants specialize in a field of accounting.
The major fields include financial accounting, manage- dominate the accounting industry. These four firms are
fouche Tohmatsu: Ernst & Young: KPMC Inter
ment accounting, tax accounting, auditing, and manage- Deloitte
national and Pnce\%aterhouseCoopcis Rohen si Ketth
ment consulting services.
See also Audit; Bookkeeping; Spreadsheet.
Financial accounting involves the preparation
24 Accra

Accra, uh KRAH or AKruh (pop. 964,879; met. area pop.

1 ,420,065), is the capital and largest city of Ghana. It lies

on the northern coast of the Gulf of Guinea. For the loca-

tion of Accra, see Ghana (map). Accra's transportation fa-

cilities include a railroad and an international airport

The city's industries include the production of tife and

brick and the processing of diamonds and lumber. The

University of Ghana is located in Legon, a residential
area north of the city.

Accra was established by the Ga people by the mid-

1600s. It was a center of the African slave trade from the

1500s to the mid-1 800s. European nations competing

for slaves built several forts in Accra. In 1923, a railroad
Accra and the interior added to the city's eco-
linking
nomic importance. Samuel Decalo
Acculturation. See Culture (Contact with other cul-
tures).
Ace is a pilot who shot down at least five enemy aircraft

during a war. By military custom, most air forces award

a victory or a kill only when a pilot causes an enemy air- WOKLD BOOK illustration by Kate Lloyd-|ones, Linden Artists Ltd

craft to crash or destroys it in flight In addition, most air Acerola is the nutritious fruit of a bushy tree that is also called
forces require confirmation by an eyewitness or by the acerola. "I he ripened fruit resembles a deep red cherry.
videotape or film of the incident Because of human er-
ror and differences in counting practices, the actual
number of aircraft a pilot has shot down can be higher The acerola is also called the Puerto Rican, West Indian,
or lower than a force's official tally of victories. or Barbados cherry. The fruits are about the size of cher-
The custom of qualifying aces originated during ries. When ripe, acerolas have a deep red color and soft

World War (1914-1918). A minimum of five victories be-

I flesh. Most have a tart flavor.
came widely used as the standard for becoming an ace. The acerola ranks as the richest known natural source
The leading aces of World War became national he- I of vitamin C (ascorbic acid). The vitamin C content varies
roes. The top ace of the war was Baron Manfred von in different varieties and under different environmental

Richthofen of Germany, who was known as the Red conditions. Green fruits contain more vitamin Cthan
Baron or Red Knight. Von Richthofen shot down 80 ene- ripe fruits. The edible part of the acerola has about 1 to 4
my aircraft before he was killed in action in 1918. Aces percent ascorbic acid. In other kinds of fruits, even 0.06
from other countries included Captain Rene Fonck of percent ascorbic acid is high. Jelly and juices made from
France, with 75 kills; and Major Edward Mannock of acerolas retain the fruit's high vitamin C content
Britain, with 61. Canadian Major Billy Bishop claimed 72 The acerola was eaten by Indians long before the Eu-
kills, but some historians have questioned that number. ropeans came to the Western Hemisphere. During the
The top American ace, Captain Eddie Rickenbacker, had late 1940s, commercial canners began to use the acero-
26 kills. la in fruit juice mixes. Today, the fruit is an important

During World War II (1939-1945), Major Erich Hart- crop in Puerto Rico. Philip jito

mann of Germany was the top ace, with 352 victories. In Scientific classification. The acerola belongs to the
addition, thousands of other German aviators qualified malpiyhia family Malpighiaceae. The scientific name is
Mdlpighid emarginata. In the past, it was often classified as M.
as aces by U.S. standards, many with 100 victories or
glabra u, M. puncifolia.
more. Warrant Officer Hiroyoshi Nishizawa of Japan de-
stroyed or damaged 87 Allied planes. Major Richard I. Acetaminophen, uh seet uh MIHN uh fuhn, is a com-
Bong of the U.S. Army Air Force became the leading monly used drug that relieves pain and reduces fever.
American ace, shooting down 40 Japanese planes. Six Many people take acetaminophen instead of aspirin be-
other Americans also equaled or surpassed Eddie Rick- cause they are allergic to aspirin, have stomach ail-
enbacker's World War record. The Soviet Union's top
I ments, or use anticoagulants (substances that prevent or
ace, Major Ivan Kozhedub, claimed 62 victories from slow blood clotting). Acetaminophen, unlike aspirin,
1942 to 1945. does not irritate the stomach or interfere with blood
During the Korean War (1950-1953), U.S. Air Force clotting. Hovvevei, acetaminophen cannot reduce in
Captain James Jabara became the first jet-to-jet combat flammation nearly as well as aspirin. Therefore, it is not
ace, destroying 15 enemy jets. During the Vietnam War as useful in treating inflammatory conditions, such as
(1957-1975), two American pilots became aces. arthritis or rheumatic fever.
Barren Tillman Acetaminophen can be purchased without a prescrip-
See also Air Force, United States (History); Bishop, tion under many trade names, including Tylenol. Doc-
Foss, Joseph J.; Rickenbacker, Eddie.
Billy; tors advise people to be extremely careful not to take
Acerola, as uh ROH luh, is the fruit of a bushy tree that more than the recommended dose. The drug can cause
grows 10 to 15 feet (3.0 to 4.6 meters) tall. It is native to liver damage that may, in some cases, progress to liver
the West Indies and parts of Mexico, Central America, failure and death.
and northern South America. The tree has deep roots Acetaminophen was first used in medicine in 1893.
and grows well even in poor soil, if there is enough rain. However, it gained widespread use only after 1949,
 Achebe, Chinua 25

when discovered that another oopular drug,

scientists Acetylene, uh SEHT uh leen, is a colorless, flammable
phenacetin, converted to acetaminophen rn the body.
is qas used for welding and for preparing other chemical
Acetaminophen proved to be as effective as phenacetin compounds. Its chemical formula is C,H,. Acetylene is
but less toxic. Eugene M Johnson, Jr poisonous if inhaled. It also forms explosive mixtures
Acetate, AS uh tayt, is a manufactured fiber produced with air. Edmund Davy, an English chemist, first pro-
from wood. It is delicate and resembles silk in feeland duced acetylene in 1836. The gas was forgotten until
appearance. Acetate is used primarily in textiles, espe- 1860, when the French chemist Marcelin Berthelot dis-
cially draperies, linings for clothing, and formal wear. covered a way to synthesize the gas from carbon and
Incommon method of acetate
a production, called hydrogen, using an electric arc.
acetylation, pulped wood is mixed with acetic acid, Acetylene mixed with oxygen produces a flame that
acetic anhydride, and sulfuric acid. The mixture is added reaches a temperature of about 6000 F (3316 C). This
to water, and white flakes of cellulose acetate form. The flame, called the oxyacetylene flame, is used to weld and
flakes are dried and dissolved in acetone. The resulting cut metals. In welding, the edges of the metal are melt-
solution, pure or with dyes added, is then forced ed by the flame and then fused together (see Welding).
through a spinneret (plate with tiny holes), forming a In cutting, the metal to be cut is heated but not melted

continuous filament. Acetate filaments can be spun into by the oxyacetylene flame. Then a fine stream of oxygen
threads and yarns of different thicknesses and textures. is sprayed onto the metal. The oxygen burns through the

Acetate s naturally shiny finish can be dulled by metal, leaving a clean-cut edge. Acetylene also serves as
adding titanium dioxide to the solution before forcing it a raw material in the preparation of certain chemical
through the spinneret. Acetate melts when exposed to compounds used to manufacture plastics. In addition,
temperatures of 350 F (177 C) or higher, so acetate fab- acetylene is used in the manufacture of vitamins.
rics must be ironed at low settings. Richard V. Gregory Acetylene may be produced commercially by creating
Acetic acid, uh SEEtihk, is an important organic acid a chemical reaction between calcium carbide and water.
and industrial chemical. It gives vinegar its sour taste. It is also made in industry by decomposing methane at

Vinegar used in the home contains about 5 percent of high temperatures. Acetylene is stored in cylinders un-
the acid. Pure acetic acid is called glacial acetic acid'be- der high pressure. If not properly handled, the com-
cause it solidifies at 62 F (17 C), the temperature of a pressed gas can break down chemically and explode. To
cool room. When diluted with water, it is known simply prevent explosions, acetylene is dissolved in acetone in
as acetic acid. See Vinegar. Special Cylinders. Suzanne R. Abrams
Georg Stahl, a German chemist, first isolated glacial See also Acetone; Calcium carbide; Hydrocarbon.
acetic acid from vinegar in 1700. Commercially, the acid Acetylsalicylic acid. See Aspirin.
is usually produced by such chemical processes as the Achaeans, uh KEE uhnz, were people of ancient
oxidation of acetaldehyde with air in the presence of cat- Greece who lived in the Peloponnesus (Greece s south-
alysts. Acetaldehyde is itself formed from the oxidation ern peninsula), in east-central Greece, and on the islands
of ethylene obtained from petroleum. of Crete, Rhodes, Cephalonia, and Ithaca. The term
One of the chief uses of acetic acid is as an intermedi- Achaeans appears in the epic the Iliad to identify the
ate for making other chemicals. Manufacturers convert Greeks who fought in the Trojan War. Achaeans are also
it into acetic anhydride and acetate esters. Acetic anhy-
mentioned in Hittite documents from the 1300 s and
1 200 s B.C, found in what is now Turkey. Some
dride is used to make acetate fibers and cellulose ac-
etate, a plastic. Ethyl acetate is an important ester used Achaeans may have taken part in sea raids on Egypt in
as a solvent for varnishes and in nail polish remover. As the early 1100s B.C Later in the 1100s B.C, Dorian in-
a reagent, acetic acid is used to make synthetics, rubber, vaders swept across Greece and drove the Achaeans to
and aspirin and other pharmaceuticals. a region in the northern Peloponnesus. This region later
Acetic acid is a colorless liquid with a sharp, irritating became known as Achaea.

odor. It is and concentrated forms

a caustic substance, In the 300 Achaean cities formed a confeder-
s B.C, 12

of it can cause severe burns. The chemical formula of ation that was known
as the Achaean League. The

is CH,COOH.
acetic acid Robert J.
Ouellette league played an important part in Greek politics, op-
Acetone, AS uh tohn, is an important industrial chemi- posing first the Macedonians and then the Romans. The
chief use is in making other compounds. Industry
cal. Its
Romans conquered Greece and broke up the league in
prepares acetone commercially from isopropyl alcohol, 146 B.C Norman A Doenges

using brass or copper catalysts. Acetone can also be ob- See also Aeolians; Dorians; Iliad
tained from corn and other starchy products by ferment- Achebe, ah CHA Y ba\ Chinua, CHIHN ooah(\ 930-
ing them with a special bacteria and then distilling them. ), is a leading Nigerian author best known for nov
explore the psychological and social impact of
Acetone also forms in the body of a diabetic person. els that

Its presence in urine is one symptom of the

disease. Western colonialism on traditional African societies.
Acetone dissolves many substances, including gums, Achebe, who writes in English, also deals with aspects
of African life after Africans gained their independence
oils, resins, fats, and cellulose. Industry uses acetone
in

paints, varnish removers, nail polish and nail polish re-

from European colonial powers in the mid-1900 s. Critics
have praised the simplicity of Achebe s language his
movers, and some polishes and lacquers.
Acetone is a clear, colorless, flammable liquid with a use of proverbs and folklore his irony and his objectivi
chemical tor ty in presenting complex issues
fruity odor. It mixes easily with water. Its

mula is CH^OCH,, and it boils at 56.2 C (133 Achebe gained international recognition with his Brsl
novel, Things tall 4/u/f (19581 The work portrays the in
Suzanne R. Abrams
tlueni e nt colonial European missionaries a\m\ govern
See also Acetylene.
26 Acheron

merit on a west African tribe during the late 1800 s. mander Greek forces, sent soldiers to recruit
of the
Achebe continued this theme in the novel Arrow of Achilles into the Greek army. Thetis feared her son, who
Gbcni964). He dealt with late colonial and postcolonial was just approaching manhood, would be killed in bat-
life in Africa in the novels No Longer at Ease (1960), A tle.She sent him, disguised in women's clothing, to live
Man of the People (1 966), and Anthills of the Savannah with King Lycomedes on the island of Skiros. But
(1987). Odysseus (Ulysses in Latin), who was a cunning Greek
In addition to his novels, Achebe has published the general, saw through the disguise, and Achilles joined
short-story collections The Sacrificial Egg (1962) and the army.
He has written a number of children's
Girls at WarC\97?>). During the last year of the war, Achilles quarreled
books, including Chike and the Riveril966), How the with Agamemnon, who took away Briseis, a young
Leopard Cot His Claws (1 972) as co-author, and The Flute woman Achilles had captured as a prize of war. In
and The Drum (both 1977). His poetry has been collected anger, Achilles refused to fight any longer and, without
in Beware, Soul-Brother(]97'\ and Christmas in Biafra
) him, the Greek forces began to lose. Achilles allowed
(1973). Many of his essays have been published in Morn- Patroclus, his best friend, to join the battle wearing his
ing Yet on Creation Day (1975), The Trouble with Nigeria armor. Patroclus was slain by Hector, the greatest Trojan
(1 983), and Hopes and Impediments (1 988). warrior. Enraged, Achilles returned to the battlefield,
Albert Chinualumogu Achebe was born in Ogidi, slaughtering everyone in his path. He eventually killed
Nigeria, which was then a British colony. He attended Hector, aided by the goddess Athena. According to
University College in Ibadan from 1948 to 1953. Achebe some stories, Hector's brother Paris shot an arrow into
worked in broadcasting in Nigeria from 1954 to 1966 Achilles s heel, and Achilles died from the wound.
and was professor of English at the University of Nigeria Nancy Felson
from 1976 to 1981. He has also taught at several universi- See also Trojan War; Iliad; Hector; Priam.
ties in the United States. Peter Nazareth Achilles tendon, uh KIHL eez, is the tendon at the
Acheron. See Hades. back of the ankle. It attaches the muscles of the calf to
Acheson, ACH ih suhn, Dean Gooderham (1 893- the heel bone and is one of the strongest tendons in the
1971), was United States secretary of state under Presi- body. The name Achilles tendon comes from the legend
dent Harry S. Truman from 1949 to 1953. Before he held of Achilles, a Greek hero killed by an arrow in the heel.
that position, Acheson had served as undersecretary to The Achilles tendon may rupture as the result of a
three secretaries of state— Cordell Hull, James F. Byrnes, powerful upward movement of the foot or a blow to the
and George C. Marshall. calf when the calf muscles are contracted. This injury
In the Acheson-Lilienthal Report of 1946, Acheson most commonly occurs in people over the age of 30
urged international control of nuclear power. He negoti- who compete in sports that involve running. Complete
ated the treaty that led to the North Atlantic Treaty Or- rupture frequently is accompanied by a snap, severe
ganization (NATO) in 1949. He began carrying out the pain, and the inability to
Marshall Plan in 1948. This plan aided the economic re- push off or stand on the
covery of Europe after World War II (see Marshall Plan). toes. As soon as possible,
Acheson began much of the Truman Doctrine to protect ice should be applied to
Greece and Turkey from Soviet imperialism (see Tru- the back of the ankle, and
man, Harry S. [The Truman Doctrine!). the leg should be raised
Senator Joseph McCarthy and other people accused and immobilized. Surgery
Acheson of "coddling" Communists in the State Depart- may be necessary to sew
ment His critics also blamed him for encouraging the the tendon together. The
Communist invasion of South Korea in 1950 and for the person should stay off the
Communist victory in China in 949. But his supporters
1 injured leg for up to two
have argued that Chiang Kai-shek, leader of the Chinese months before beginning
government, lost to the Communists because he lacked a program of gradual
the support of his own people, and not because of lack stretching and strengthen-
of U.S. support. Most historians have also rejected the ing exercises. Full recov-
other charges against Acheson. ery may take a year or
WORLD BOOK illustration by Charles Wellek
Acheson wrote many books, including Present at the more.
Achilles tendon
Creation: My Years in the State Department (1 969), which John R_ Conway III

won the 1970 Pulitzer Prize for history. He was born in Acid is any of a group of

Middletown, Connecticut. William e. Pemberton chemical compounds with certain similar properties.
Achilles, uh KIHL eez, in Greek mythology, was the Solutions of acids have a sour taste and produce a prick-
best Greek warrior in the Trojan War. In the 10th year of ling or burning sensation if they come into contact with
that war, the Greeks defeated the city of Troy. the skin. They dissolve many metals and turn blue litmus
The events in Achilles's life are legends but may have paper red. Chemical compounds called bases or alkalis
some historical basis. Achilles was the son of Peleus, the neutralize acids.
king of Phthia in Thessaly, and Thetis, an immortal sea Many acids occur naturally and some are essential for
nymph. Soon after Achilles was born, Thetis dipped him For example, hydrochloric acid (HC\) is produced in
life.

in the River Styx, whose water would make him invul- the stomach of most people and helps digestion. Acids
nerable, like a god. However, the immortalizing water are also used widely in industry, and they are a part of a
did not touch the heel by which Thetis held him. large number of foods and beverages. But many acids
When the Trojan War began, Agamemnon, the com- are poisonous, and strong acids can cause severe burns.
 Acne 27

Chemists use several definitions to describe the be- including sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, come
havior of acids. When water is the solvent, an acid is largely from the burning of coal, gasoline, and oil. Most
often defined as a compound that dissolves to produce automobiles, factories, and power plants burn such fu-
hydrogen ions (H + in solution. A hydrogen atom con-
) els for energy. Regions affected by acid rain include
sists of one proton, which has a positive electric charge, large parts of eastern North America, Scandinavia and
and one electron, which has a negative charge. A hydro- central Europe, and parts of Asia. Since about the 1950s,
gen ion is the proton that remains when the atom loses the problem has increased in rural areas. This has oc-
its electron. In solution, the proton is closely associated curred because the use of taller smokestacks in urban
with solvent molecules, forming hydronium ions\H£> + ). areas has enabled the winds to transport pollutants far-
An acid may also be defined as a substance that ther from their sources.
serves as a proton donor—that is, it readily gives up a Scientists and engineers have developed ways to re-
proton to another substance. However, acids are most duce the acidity of rain. For example, several kinds of
broadly defined as compounds that are electron pair ac- devices remove sulfur and nitrogen compounds from
ceptors. This definition describes all acids, including fuels or industrial emissions before they reach the at-
those that have no hydrogen that they can release and mosphere. Adding lime to lakes and rivers and their
that cannot serve as proton donors. The acid accepts a drainage areas temporarily neutralizes their acidity. But
pair of electrons from another atom or molecule. In the neutralization may have harmful side effects.
such cases, the acid and the electron pair donor form a In 1990, the United States Congress amended the

new molecule in which they share the electrons. Clean Air Act of 1970 to reduce acid rain in the United
The strength of an acid depends on the degree to States and Canada. The amendments tightened emis-
which the acid dissociates (breaks up) in solution to sions standards and required fuels that burn more
form hydrogen ions. For example, in water solution, cleanly. In 1999, the World Health Organization pub-
every molecule of hydrogen chloride (HCI) releases a hy- lished air quality guidelines designed to reduce world-
drogen ion to form hydrochloric acid. Hydrochloric acid wide production of pollutants that result in acid rain and
is therefore considered a strong acid. Acetic acid other environmental problems. Marian r. chertow

(CHjCOOH), which is found in vinegar, forms only a few See also Air pollution.
hydrogen ions in solution. It is a weak acid. Acidosis, as uh DOHsihs, is a condition in which the
Inorganic acids, in general, do not contain carbon body fluids tend to have a higher acid content than nor-
atoms. Many inorganic acids are strong acids. They are mal. The body has a variety of ways to compensate for
used in the production of other chemicals, explosives, mild acidosis. But prolonged acidosis can produce
fertilizers, metals, paints, plastics, and synthetic fibers, weakness, headache, and heavy or rapid breathing. Se-
and in the refining of petroleum. Sulfuric acid (H, SOJ, a vere acidosis may lead to acidemia— a build-up of acids
strong inorganic acid, is commonly used as the fluid in in the blood. Acidemia can result in coma and death.

automobile batteries. Other important inorganic acids Acidosis itself is not a disease, but it may warn of the

are hydrochloric acid and nitric acid \V\NO J. presence of a disease. It arises from disorders that cause
Organic acids contain carbon atoms. They are used the body to accumulate excess acid or to lose too much
inbeverages, cosmetics, detergents, foods, drugs, plas- Most of these disorders are respiratory failures or
alkali.

and soaps. Common organic acids include citric

tics, metabolic failures. Respiratory acidosis results from
acidiC^Hfl), which is found in citrus fruits; ascorbic such disturbances as severe lung disease, blockage of
acidlCJHtOX or vitamin C; and acetylsa/icylic acid the upper air passages, and chest injury. Metabolic fail-
(C,H 8 or aspirin. Amino acids, which contain nitrogen, ures involve malfunctioning of the process by which the
4 ),

are also organic acids. Amino acids are the building body changes food into energy and tissue. Metabolic
blocks of proteins, and some of them are necessary for acidosis arises from kidney failure, diabetes, poisoning,
human life. Emily Jane Rose and severe diarrhea. Treatment usually consists of cor-
Related articles in World Book include: recting the underlying problem and administering sodi-
um bicarbonate or another alkaline substance through a
Acids
vein. Edward E Morse
Acetic acid Hydrofluoric acid Prussic acid
See also Alkalosis.
Amino acid Hypochlorous acid Salicylic acid
Stearic acid
ACLLI. See American Civil Liberties Union.
Aqua regia Lactic acid
Chromic acid Nitric acid Sulfuric acid Acne is a skin disorder that occurs most commonly
Citric acid Oxalic acid Tannic acid among teen-agers. It consists of \arious kinds of blem-
Formic acid Phosphoric acid Tartaric acid ishes, mainly on theupper chest, and back A tew
face,
Hydrochloric acid blemishes are normal, but severe acne may result in
Other related articles permanent scarring. Some teen-agers find severe acne
pH so distressing that they develop emotional problems.
Acid rain Base
Salt, Chemical In most cases, acne appears during early adolescence
Anhydride Litmus
Acid rain a term for rain, snow, sleet, o
is
—at about the age of 3 w hen a child starts to develop
1

physicallv into an adult. This development is controlled

precipitation that is polluted by such acids as sulfuric
by chemical substances called hormones One kind of
acid and nitric acid. Acid rain harms thousands of

rivers, and streams worldwide, killing fish and

hormone stimulates the oil glands in the skin. These
buildings bridges ,,nd statues. glands which are called sebaceous glands grow larger
wildlife. It also damages
and produce more oil. Eai h sebaceous gland empties
In high concentrations, it can harm forests and soil
into a hair follicle a c\linderlike structure that sur-
Acid rain forms when water vapor in the air n
rounds a hair Normalh the empties out ot the
with certain chemical compounds These compoi
oil folli-
28 Acne

Aconcagua, ah kawng KAH gwah, is an extinct vol-

cano and the highest mountain in the Western Hemi-
sphere. It is part of the Andes range in South America.
Aconcagua stands 22,831 feet (6,959 meters) high in
west-central Argentina, near Chile. Long ago, Acon-
cagua was probably more than ,000 feet (300 meters) 1

higher than now. But its upper part has crumbled away
and no trace of its crater remains. jerry r. Williams

See also Andes Mountains; Mountain (diagram: Ma-

jor mountains).
Aconite, AK uh nyt, name
group of plants
is the of a
that thrive in cool, northern regions. They are perennials,
which means they can live for more than two years.
There are more than 00 species. Most of them grow in
1

Asia. Aconite flowers bloom in spring and summer and

vary in color from purple-blue to yellow and white.
Aconites may grow from to 6 feet (30 to 180 centime-
1

ters) high. The upper parts of their flowers resemble

hoods or helmets. The roots, seeds, and leaves of some
WORLD BOOK illustrations by Charles Wellek

The development of an acne pimple is illustrated above. Fig-

ure A shows a normal hair follicle and sebaceous gland. In fig-
ure B, a blockage prevents the flow of oil out of the hair follicle.
Bacteria breed in the backed-up oil. In figures C and D, the folli-

cle swells with pus. The walls of the follicle eventually burst, and
the pus drains away, as shown in figure E.

cle through a pore that opens onto the surface of the

skin.
Sometimes the pores become plugged and oil accu-
mulates under the plugs. A plugged pore forms a blem-
ish called a blackhead or whitehead. The black color of a
blackhead comes from a normal skin pigment that dark-
ens when exposed to air. A whitehead develops if a
pore is so clogged that no air can enter.
Small, pus-filled bumps called pimples, or tender red
lumps called cysts, may also develop. In pimples and
cysts, a type of bacteria called Propionibacterium acnes
breeds in the follicles, sebaceous glands, and backed- WORLD BOOK illustration by Chnstabel King
up oil, producing inflammation that causes the redness The helmet flower is an aconite that has purplish flowers. The
and pus. Cysts may leave permanent scars, but pimples plant produces a poisonous drug also called aconite.
usually do not scar unless squeezed or picked.
A poor diet, worry, and various bad habits are often aconites are poisonous. A species of aconite called the
blamed for acne, but they have little to do with the dis- helmet flower produces a poisonous drug also called
order. A balanced diet, enough sleep and exercise, and aconite. This drug contains a powerful chemical, aconi-
regular washing are good for the complexion and gen- tine, which was once used extensively as a medicine.
eral health but cannot prevent or cure acne. Mild acne jerry M Baskin

can be treated with nonprescription lotions that contain Scientific classification. Aconites belong to the crowfoot
benzoyl peroxide or other medications. Heavy makeup family, Ranunculaceae. The scientific name for the helmet flower

makes acne worse and should not be used. is Aconitum Napellus.

Severe acne should be treated by a physician. An an- Acorn is the nut produced by any of the various kinds
tibiotic called tetracycline may be prescribed. This drug of oak trees. Acorns are sometimes used to feed hogs.
blocks the growth and reproduction of Propionibacteri- Many wild birds and mammals, including quail, deer,
um acnes bacteria. Medications containing vitamin A and squirrels, eat acorns. Many kinds of acorns are bit-

acid may be applied to the skin to help prevent new ter.American Indians crushed acorns and soaked them
blemishes. Other treatment used by doctors includes re- in water to remove the bitterness. American pioneers
moving blackheads, freezing the skin with dry ice or liq- ate acorns when food was scarce. See also Oak.
uid nitrogen to make it peel, and using a sun lamp. A Richard A. )aynes

drug called isotretinoin may be used to treat severe Acoustics, uh KOOS tihks, is the study of how sounds
acne. But this drug, which has the trade name Accutane, are created, transmitted, and received. The word
can cause birth defects. It should not be used by women acoustics also refers to the quality of sound as heard or
who are pregnant or who may become pregnant while transmitted in a room or concert hall. Two of the major
undergoing treatment. David t. woodley fields in the study of acoustics are architectural acoustics
See also Abscess; Pimple. and environmental acoustics.
 Acrylic 29

Architectural acoustics deals with making rooms is square in shape measures about 208.7 feet (63.6 me-
and buildings quiet and providing good conditions for ters) on each side. There are 640 acres in a square mile.
listening to speech and music. It plays an important role In the metric system, one measure of land area is the
in the planning and construction of auditoriums, church- hectare, which equals 10,000 square meters, or 2.471
es, halls, libraries, and music rooms. acres. Rif hard S Davis
The acoustical quality of a room is affected by various Acrobatics. See Gymnastics; Diving.
factors. These include (1 the size and shape of the room;
) Acronym. See Abbreviation.
(2) the ability of the ceiling, walls, and floor to keep out Acropolis, uh KRAHPuh lihs, was the religiousand
unwanted sound; and (3) the use of furnishings made of military center of a city-state in ancient Greece. The
sound-absorbing materials. Greeks usually fortified a hill, called an acropolis, within
Another factor in the acoustical quality of a room is or near the city for defense. The acropolis was often the
the way the room reflects sound. Sounds made by a first place to be inhabited. During the height of the My-

speaker or a musical instrument bounce back and forth cenaean era (1 400 to
200 B.G), the palace of a local king
1

against the ceiling, walls, floor, and other surfaces. was usually built hill. The palace also served as a
on a
These reflections of a sound make up its reverberation. military fort and a place of refuge for the townspeople
The reverberation time of a room is the time in which a in emergencies. The most important temples were also

sound dies away to one-millionth of its original energy. built on the hill, including the local shrines of the gods.
Reverberations should last about one second in an audi- The most famous acropolis was in Athens. The Athen-
torium designed for speech, and about two seconds in a ian Acropolis was a rocky hilltop, originally the site of
music hall. But no single strong reflection should arrive the local armory and royal palace. The Persians demol-
at a listener's ear later than about ^ of a second after the ished many old buildings on the Acropolis during a de-
arrival of the direct sound from a speaker or instrument structive invasion in 480 B.G The Athenians then built a
Otherwise, the listener hears the strong reflection as a magnificent new group of temples. From 447 to 432 B.G,
disturbing echo of the original sound.
Furnishings made of sound-absorbing materials con-
trol reflection in a room. These include acoustical tiles,
carpets, drapes, and upholstered furniture.
Environmental acoustics involves the control of
noise pollution, a widespread problem in many residen-
areas. Major sources of environmental noise include
tial

automobiles and other motor vehicles, aircraft, industri-

alplants, and heavy construction equipment
Noise pollution can be controlled in three ways: (1 by )

quieting the source of the noise, (2) by blocking the pas-

sage of noise from one place to another, and (3) by ab-
sorbing noise energy. For example, mufflers quiet the
noise of automobile engines, heavy walls that have no
cracks or pores block noise, and furnishings made of
acoustical materials absorb noise.
Frequent exposure to intense noise can damage a
person's hearing temporarily or permanently. The inten-
sity of noise is measured in units called decibels. Feder-

allaws require industries to reduce factory noise to 90

decibels or lower or to order workers to use protective
earplugs or earmuffs.
Other areas of acoustics include (1 physiological
) An acropolis served as the religious and military center of an
ancient Greek city-state. The Acropolis in Athens includes the
acoustics— the way we hear sounds; (2) psychological
Parthenon, upper right, and ruins of other ancient temples.
acoustics— the way we interpret sounds; (3) musical
acoustics— the way instruments and voices produce
sounds; and (4) speech communication— the way we the Athenians built the Parthenon, dedicated to the vir-
produce and hear speech. Acoustics also includes the gin goddess Athena, the patron of the city (see Parthe-

study of sound waves that we cannot hear. For example, non). The Erechtheum, built to honor the legendary

infrasounds too low in frequency for the human ear, founders of the city, was constructed from 421 to about
and ultrasound's too high in frequency. Sound waves 406 B.G The Temple of Athena Nike, built about 425 B.G.
within the earth and underwater also fall outside the honored Athena as the goddess of \ ictory. Two theaters
range of human hearing and form fields of study. and several minor sanctuaries also occupied the slopes
of the hilltop. On sacred holidays, a procession made its
lames D. Chalupnik

See also Insulation (Insulation against sound); Muf- wa) up the slopes of the Acropolis and passed through
the Propylaea a large roofed gatewav to \arious tem-
fler; Sound; Ultrasound
vVWUm HtT
Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. See ples. I

For pictures of the Acropolis in Athens see Athens;

AIDS.
Greece.
a unit of land area in the inch-pound system
of
Acre is
Acrylic, uh KRIHL ihk is am one of a group of synthet-
measurement One acre equals 160 square roil

An acre that products made primarily from petroleum Acrylics are

43,560 square feet 14046.856 square meters).
ic
30 Act of

manufactured as fibers or plastics or as substances and boils at 2470 C. Most simple actinium compounds,
called resins (see Resin, Synthetic). Common acrylics in- such as the oxides, hydrides, and halides, contain the
clude Acrilan, Lucite, Orion, and Plexiglas. positively charged actinium ion, Ac". Andre Debierne, a
Acrylic fibers are woven or knitted into durable fab- French scientist, discovered actinium in 1899.
rics of various textures. These fabrics dry rapidly and re- S. C Cummings

sist fading, wrinkling, and mildew. They are used to Actinomycosis, ak tuh nuh my KOH sihs, is a rare, in-
make blankets, carpets, sweaters, and many other prod- fectious disease that affects human beings. It is charac-
ucts. terized by the formation of painful abscesses in the
Acrylic plastics are tough materials that resist weath- mouth, lungs, or digestive organs. These abscesses
ering, sharp blows, and corrosion. Acrylic plastics are grow larger as the disease progresses, often over a peri-
often used as substitutes for glass in such products as od of months. In severe cases, the abscesses may bore
aircraft windows, television screens, automobile tail through bone and muscle to the skin, where they break
lights, and lighting fixtures. They are less breakable than open and leak large amounts of pus. Actinomycosis can
glass but are more easily scratched. destroy a person's jaw or lungs. It can also block the
Liquid acrylic resins are used to make
paints and syn- passage of food through the digestive system. It occurs
thetic waxes. Acrylic paints dry quickly and provide in cattle and other animals as a disease called lumpy jaw.

strong protection against the weather. They are widely This name refers to the large abscesses that grow on the
used as house paints and in coatings for automobiles. head and neck of the infected animal.
High-gloss acrylic waxes are spread as protective coat- Actinomycosis is caused by any of several members
ings on floors and automobiles. of a group of bacteria called actinomyces. These bacte-
Acrylic adhesives and sealants are made from soft, ria are anaerobes— that is, they cannot survive in the

elastic acrylic resins. Acrylic adhesives are used in such presence of large amounts of oxygen. Actinomyces nor-
products as prepasted wallpaper and tapes. Acrylic mally live harmlessly in the small spaces between the
sealants are used to seal cracks and joints in buildings. teeth and gums. They cause infection only when they
Marvis E. Hartman can multiply freely in places where oxygen cannot reach
Art of Laws that begin Act of or Act for appear under
. . . them. The three most common sites of infection are de-
words, as in Union, Act of.
their key cayed teeth, the lungs, and the intestines. Doctors use
Artaeon. See Artemis. penicillin to treat actinomycosis. |ohn r. craybiii

ACTH is an abbreviation of the chemical substance ACTION was a federal agency that directed the domes-
adrenocorticofropic /?ormone. This hormone is pro- tic volunteer programs of the United States government
duced, stored, and released into the blood by the pitu- from 1971 ACTION'S programs included those
to 1993.
itary gland, a pea-sized organ that lies at the base of the that aided senior citizens, assistedlow-income commu-
brain. ACTH is necessary for the normal growth and nities, and worked to prevent drug abuse. In 1993, most
function of the adrenal glands, two organs located on of these programs were transferred to the Corporation
top of the kidneys. ACTH stimulates the adrenal glands for National and Community Service. Some of them have
to secrete various hormones, including a group called been changed somewhat and renamed.
glucocorticoids. Glucocorticoids regulate the use of di- ACTION volunteers varied in age from 14 to more
gested food and help the body adjust to stress. than 60 years old. They carried out programs in the 50
Normally, the pituitary gland releases high levels of states, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, the Virgin
ACTH in the morning and low levels at night. Physical or Islands, and Guam.
mental stress or disruption of a person's normal sleep- ACTION originally included the Peace Corps, which
ing habits can change this pattern. Disturbances in the coordinates U.S. volunteers who serve outside the coun-
production or release of ACTH can cause severe illness. try. In 1982, the Peace Corps became an independent

Physicians use ACTH in the treatment of certain ill- agency (see Peace Corps).
nesses and of inflammation. ACTH used for medical pur- Actium, AKtee uhm or AK shee uhm, Battle of, was
poses is obtained either synthetically or from the pitu- a naval battle that settled the struggle for control of an-
itary glands of animals. Charlotte H. Greene cient Rome between co-rulers Gaius Octavian and Mark
See also Gland; Hormone. Antony. Octavian's forces won the battle, which took
Acting. See Motion picture (Assembling the cast; place in 31 B.C off the coast of Actium, near present-day
Holding rehearsals); Television; Theater (The perform- Preveza in western Greece.
ers). Antony wanted to become the sole ruler of the vast
Actinide. See Rare earth; Element, Chemical (Periodic Roman lands, which stretched across Europe. About 37
table of the elements). B.C, he married Cleopatra, the queen of Egypt, and be-
Actinium, ak TIHN ee uhm, a chemical element, is an gan giving her Roman lands. War between Rome and
extremely rare, silvery-white, radioactive metal that Egypt broke out in 32 B.C Antony and Cleopatra led 400
glows in the dark. It is formed naturally by the decay of ships into the Battle of Actium. Marcus Agrippa, Octa-
uranium 235. Actinium also can be artificially prepared vian's chief military leader, commanded a fleet of equal
from radium treated with neutrons in a nuclear reactor. size. Soon after the fighting began, Antony and Cleopa-

It is a difficult element to study because it can be pro- tra apparently fled from the battle. Their navy then sur-
duced only in very small quantities and because it de- rendered to Octavian's forces. In 30 B.C, Antony and
cays into products that give off radiation. Cleopatra committed suicide. In 27 B.C, Octavian be-
Actinium has the chemical symbol Ac. Its atomic num- came Emperor Augustus, the first emperor of the Ro-
ber is 89. Its most stable isotope has an atomic weight of man Empire. William C. Sinnigen

227 and a half-life of 22 years. Actinium melts at 81 7 C See also Agrippa, Marcus.
 Adam 31

Acton, AKtuhn, Lord (1834-1902), was one of the most between these two forces
respected historians of the 1800s. Many of his works fo- causes disease and pain.
cused on the history of freedom. Acton also planned the Insertion of the needles
massive Cambridge Modern History. His statement that produces a pinching feel-
"Power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts ing. This feeiing quickly
absolutely" has become a famous proverb. disappears and may be re-
Acton was a prominent liberal Roman Catholic. At Vat- placed by occasional tin-
ican Council I he worked with bishops who
(1869-1870), gling or a sense of numb-
opposed the church's adoption of the doctrine of papal ness, heaviness, or
infallibility. This doctrine states that the pope can com- soreness while the nee-
mit no errors when he speaks as head of the church to dles are in place.
define solemnly, in matters of faith and morals, what is Acupuncture is used
to be accepted by all Roman Catholics. alone or in combination
John Emerich Edward Dalberg Acton was born on Jan. with Western medicine or
10, 1834, in Naples, Italy. As a child, he moved with his Chinese herbal prepara- L Steinmark, Custom Medical

family to the United Kingdom. In 1869, he became a bar- It is most often used
tions. Acupuncture relieves pain

on. He was a professor of modern history at Cambridge to relieve pain due to by the insertion of needles.
This photo shows needles in-
University from 1895 until his death on June 19, 1902. chronic illness and severe
serted near a person's ear.
lames C Holland injury. Some common af-

Actor and actress. See the lists of biographies in the flictions acupuncturists
Related articles of Motion picture and Theater. treat include headaches, sinusitis, chronic respiratory
Acts of Supremacy. See Church of England. and drug dependen-
infections, digestive disturbances,
Acts of the Apostles is the fifth book of the New Tes- cies. Since the late China have used
1950s, doctors in

tament It is a continuation of the Gospel of Luke. This acupuncture to relieve pain during major surgery. The
Gospel and Acts are volumes one and two of a single patient is conscious and seems to feel little or no pain.
work. According to Christian tradition, Acts was written Researchers have shown that acupuncture increases
by Saint Luke, a companion of Saint Paul. But many the brain's production of natural painkillers called en-
scholars doubt that this is true. Most scholars believe dorphins.Jhese substances are morphinelike chemicals
that Luke and Acts were written about A.D. 85. that influence the body's perception of pain (see Endor-
Acts is the only record of the Christian church in the phin). Much of acupunctures influence, however, is not
years just after the death of Jesus. It tells how followers understood.
of Jesus were His witnesses, Jerusalem and then
first in Acupuncture is practiced widely in Asia and Europe,
in Judea and Samaria and finally "to the end of the earth" and it is gaining popularity and respect in the United
(Acts 1:8). Acts tells the story of the spread of the church States. Its practitioners include many medical doctors.

mainly by narrating the career of Paul. In three mission- Joseph M. Helms

ary journeys, Paul evangelized what is now Turkey and A.D. is the abbreviation for anno Domini, which is Latin

Greece. After Paul was imprisoned and taken to Rome, for in the year of our Lord. In 532, the Dionysius monk
he evangelized there. Terrance o. Caiian Exiguus introduced a system of dating events, beginning
See also Bible (Books of the New Testament); Luke, with the year he believed Jesus Christ was born. In this
Saint system, the year of Christ s birth was A.D. 1 and the year ,

Acuff, Roy (1903-1992), was an American country mu- before that was B.C (before Christ). Modern scholars
1

sic singer and fiddler. Acuff and his band, the Smoky believe Christ was actually born no later than B.C But 1

Mountain Boys, helped make Tennessee mountain mu- people still determine dates using the original system.
sic internationally known. Such recordings as The Great Writers generally use AD. and B.C only to avoid con-
Speckled Bird" (1 936) and "Wabash Cannonball" (1 936) fusion. When a writer mentions a year without using ei-

became country music classics. ther abbreviation, readers should assume that the year
Acuff was born on Sept 15, 1903, in Maynardville, was, or is, an A.D. year.
Tennessee. He became a radio entertainer and began Because there is no "year zero in the dating system, it
recording in 1936. In 1938, he joined The Grand Ole takes two steps to calculate an interval between a date
in a B.C vear and the same date in an A.D. year First,
Opry" radio show in Nashville and became one of its
longest-running performers. He died on Nov. 23, 1992. add the numbers representing the vears. Then subtract
1. Thus, the interval between the end of B.C and the
See also Popular music (picture: Country music). 1

Lee Rector
end of A.D. was year. The interval between the end
1 1

Acupuncture, AKyuh puhngk chuhr, is an ancient of 2000 B.C and the end of AD. 2000 was 3,999 years.

Chinese method of relieving pain and treating various An alternative system uses the same numbering
diseases by inserting needles into specific places on the method as that of Dionysius Exiguus, but does not refer
specifically to Christ. In the alternative system, CE.
body. According to Chinese philosophy, acupuncture
which stands for common era. replaces AD.; and B.CE
influences a life force that flows along 12 paired and 2
^ unpaired meridians, energy channels that run longitudi- before the common era' replaces B.C Mk had Dme
nally in the body. Specialists called acupuncturists insert
See also B.C
needles points along these meridians or at pamful
at
Ad Dawhah. See Doha
points on the body. Insertion of the needles is said
Adam was the famiK name of two brothers Robert
store balance between two principal forces of natui
Adam id James Adam "32-1 794)-\% ho
1

called yin and yang. Acupur* I

ieve imba! I
were famous Scottish architects. Robert Adam settled in
32 Adam and Eve

A Robert Adam design for

Kedleston Hall in Derbyshire
is a masterpiece of English

neoclassical architecture. The

state drawing room, shown
here, was completed in the
1 760s. It blends ceiling and

wall decorations with paint-

ings and furniture.

A Haslam Rova! Oak Foundation

London 1758 and formed a partnership with his broth-

in and which made them like God. But like animals,
evil,

er. in ancient Roman architecture formed

Their interest Some people also believe the account
they had to die.
the basis for the light and delicate neoclassical character emphasizes universal human fellowship by showing all
of their work. The brothers are especially noted for their humans as descendants of one couple. carol l Meyers

residential buildings, furniture, and interior design. See also Genesis; Abel; Cain.
Robert Adam's best-known buildings include Syon Adams, Abigail Smith (1744-1818), was the wife of
House and Osterley Park House (1763-1780),
(1762-1769) John Adams, the second president of the United States.
both London. The brothers collaborated on the Adel-
in She also was the mother of John Quincy Adams, the
phi (1772), a large row of residential and commercial sixth president Abigail Adams is known for many letters
buildings in London. Robert Adam's book Ruins of the containing her opinions of the society of her time.
Pa/ace of the Emperor Diocletian atSpalato in Dalmatia Abigail Smith was born in Weymouth, Massachusetts.
(1 764) was a significant archaeological publication of the She and Adams were married in 1764. They had four
period. I
William Rudd children besides John Quincy Adams. She managed the
See also Architecture (Neoclassical architecture; pic- family farm in Braintree (now Quincy), Massachusetts,
ture); Furniture (English neoclassical furniture; picture); while Adams served in the Continental Congress and as
Museum (picture: Museums). a diplomat in Europe during the 1770s and 1780s.
Adam and Eve, according to the Bible, were the first Abigail Adams supported women's rights and provid-
man and woman created by Cod. The account of Adam ed her daughter, Abigail, with a broad education. Writ-
and Eve is told in Genesis 2-3.
According to Genesis, ing to Adams in Philadelphia in 776, she urged him to
1

God created two human Adam and

beings, later called remember the ladies in the new nation s laws. She also
Eve, and placed them in the Garden of Eden (see Eden). opposed slavery.
Adam and Eve lived in Eden, tending the garden of God. During the Revolutionary War in America (1 775-1 783),
They were permitted to eat from any tree in the garden Abigail Adams s letters to her husband contained valu-
except from the tree of knowledge of good and evil. But able information about British troops and ships in the
a serpent persuaded Eve to eat fruit from this tree. Eve Boston area. In 1800, the Adamses became the first cou-
gave some to Adam, who also ate the fruit Thus, they ple to live in the White House Kathryn Kish skiar

became mortal and God exiled them from Eden. Outside See also Adams, John lAdams' family; picture).
the garden, Adam had to work hard to make a living, Adams, Ansel 11902-19841, was an American photog-
and Eve also had to work and to bear many children. rapher known for his dramatic photographs of the West
The story of Adam and Eve begins a long Biblical nar- He took large pictures of landscapes that include moun-
rative of human history. Their position at the beginning tains, forests, and rivers. Adams s interest in preserving
of the Bible makes them seem historical. But many Bibli- wilderness areas also led him to become active in the
cal them as models who reveal the es-
scholars consider conservation movement
sential qualities of human existence. Their names are Adams was a leading supporter of straight photogra-
normally not proper names in Biblical Hebrew. They are phy, a style featuring detailed, focused photos that por-
general terms for humanity and living being. tray subjects simply and directly. In 1932, he and six oth-
According to one interpretation, the account of Adam er photographers formed a group that promoted this
and Eve focuses especially on those characteristics that style of photography.
define human nature as God
opposed to the nature of In 1940, Adams helped found the Department of Pho-

and that of animals. Adam and Eve were made in Gods tography at the Museum of Modern Art in New York
image, and they gained wisdom, or knowledge of good Citv. In 1946, he established a photography department
 Adams, Henry Brooks 33

ly, Adams became leader of the Conscience Whigs, an

antislavery group. The group supported the Free Soil
Party in 1848, which nominated Martin Van Buren for
president and Adams for vice president. Zachary Taylor,
the Whig candidate for president, won the election.
Adams devoted most of his time during the 1850s to
editing the 10-volume Works of John Adams. He was
elected to the U.S. House of Representatives from Mass-
achusetts in 1858 and 1860. In 1861, President Abraham
Lincoln appointed Adams minister to Britain. There
Adams had to face strong sympathy for the Southern
States in the Civil War. As minister, Adams struggled to
prevent British recognition of Confederate independ-
ence and urged British officials not to equip Confeder-
ate ships. In 1871, President Ulysses S. Grant chose
Adams to represent the United States in the settlement
of claims involving the Confederate cruiser Alabama
(see Alabama (shipl). Elliott Robert Barkan
Adams, Gerry (1 948- ), became the president of
Nature's majestic beauty is portrayed in Ansel Adams's photo Sinn Fein (shihn fayn), an Irish nationalist political party,

Ml Williamson, Sierra Nevada, from Manzanai; California 1944. in 1983. Sinn Fein is the political wing of the Irish Repub-
lican Army (IRA), a group
sought to unite
that has long
the country of Ireland with Northern Ireland, which is
at the California School of Fine Arts (now the San Fran- part of the United Kingdom.
cisco Art Institute). This department was the first of its Adams defended the IRA's use of violence to achieve
kind at a college in the United States. Adams also wrote its goals. However, he also sought a peaceful settlement

a series of books on photography. He was born in San to the conflict. Adams participated in talks that led to a
FranciSCO. Charles Hagen 1998 agreement committing all sides to resolve their dif-

Adams, Brooks (1848-1927), was an American histori- ferences by peaceful means. He also participated in
an and a critic of capitalism. He believed that commer- hard-fought negotiations on implementation of the ac-
cial civilizations rise and fall in predictable cycles. First, cord. See Northern Ireland (Recent developments).
masses of people draw together in large population Gerard Adams was born in Belfast, Northern Ireland.
centers and engage in commercial activities. Then, as In 1964, while still in school, he joined Sinn Fein, where
their desire for wealth grows, greed replaces spiritual he worked for fair housing laws for Roman Catholics in
and creative values. Finally, the society crumbles. In The Belfast. Adams was imprisoned by authorities in North-

Law of Civilization and Decay[\ 895), Adams noted that as ern Ireland during most of the 1 970 s because they sus-
new population centers emerged in the West, centers of pected him of membership in the IRA. Adams denied
world trade shifted. They moved from Constantinople being a member of the IRA. PauiE.Cailis

(now Istanbul, Turkey) to Venice, Italy, and eventually to See also Irish Republican Army; Sinn Fein.
London. Adams predicted in America's Economic Su- Adams, Henry Brooks (1838-19181, was an important
premacy (1900) that Russia and the United States would American historian. His autobiography, The Education of
become the leading world powers by 1950. Henry Adams (privately printed in 1907, published in
Adams was born in Quincy, Massachusetts. He was 19181, won a Pulitzer Prize in 1919. In this book, Adams

the son of U.S. diplomat Charles Francis Adams, brother painted a vivid picture of the increasing sense of discon-
of historian Henry Brooks Adams, and a grandson of nectedness, terrifying diversity, and rapid change that
President John Quincy Adams. Joseph Martin Hemon, jr. many people began to experience in Western society
Adams, Charles Francis (1 807-1 886), was one of the during the 1800s.
most successful diplomats in United States history. He Adams s greatest contribution to American history
gained this reputation through his work as U.S. minister was the nine-volume History of the United States 889- ( 1

to Britain between 1861 and 1868. During these years, 1891). In it, he made extensive use of historical docu-

Adams helped keep Britain and France from recogniz- ments to establish sure facts with little personal com-
ing the independence of the Confederacy during the ment. He thus helped found the scientific method ot
American Civil War (1861-1865). history-writing thatdeveloped in the late 1800s. His
Adams was born in Boston. His father, John Quincy MontSaint-Michel and Chartres (1913) established him
Adams, later became the sixth president of the United as one of the best American writers of medieval history.

States. Charles spent his boyhood in Russia and Britain,

Adams was born in Boston, the son of American
where his father was U.S. minister. Charles graduated diplomat Charles Francis Adams. He was also the grand
from Harvard University in 1825. son of U.S. President John Quincy Adams and the great
In the mid-1 830s, Charles Adams became
involved in grandson of President |ohn Adams. Henry Adams grad-
the United States. He uated from Harvard University in 1858 and taught historv
the controversy over slavery in
there from 1870 to 1877. He edited the Xorth American
served in the Massachusetts legislature from 1841 to
1845 and helped persuade fellow house members to
Review trom 1870 to 1876. Adams also wrote two
novels Democrats 11880) and EstherttMA).
take an open stand against slavery. He also edited the
Boston Daily Whig, an antislavery party journal. Gradual-
•
34 Adams, John

<J$^oy&2zz?J
2nd President of
the United States 1797-1801

Washington ). Adams Jefferson

1stpresident 2nd president 3rd president
1789-1797 1797-1801 1801-1809
No political Federalist Democratic-
party Republican

OiJ painting on canvas 0793> by lohn Trumbull: Fogg Art Museum. Harvard Unr»ersiTv

Adams, John (17351 826), guided the young United of the Green and The Blue Bells of Scotland." People
States through somemost serious troubles. He
of its and Memorable Actions of
read and admired The Life
served under George Washington as the nation s first George Washington by Mason Locke Weems. On the
vice president and followed him as the second presi- johnny Appleseed began wandering through
frontier,
dent. The United States government moved from Ohio and Indiana, planting apple seeds and teaching the
Philadelphia to Washington, D.C, during Adams's ad- Bible.
ministration, and he became the first President to live in
Early life
the White House. Adams was the first chief executive
whose son also served as president. The second father Childhood. John Adams was born in Braintree Inow
and son to be elected president were George Herbert Quincy), Massachusetts, on Oct. 30, 1735. (The date was
Walker Bush, who held office from 1989 to 1993, and October 19 by the calendar then in use.) His father, John
George Walker Bush, who was elected in 2000. Adams, was a farmer, a deacon of the First Parish of
Adams played a leading role in the adoption of the Braintree, and a militia officer. His mother, Susanna
Declaration of Independence, and was a signer of the Boylston Adams, came from a leading family of Brook-
historic document. He had spoken out boldly for separa- line and Boston merchants and physicians.
tion from Britain at a time when most colonial leaders The Adams farm lay at the foot of Penn s Hill. The city
still hoped to settle their differences with the British. As of Quincy has preserved as a memorial the house in
president, Adams fought a split in his own party over his which John Adams was born. The house stands close to
determination to avoid war with France. He kept the the place where his great-great-grandfather, Henry
peace, but in the process he lost a second term as presi- Adams, settled before 1640. Henry Adams had sailed
dent He was succeeded by Thomas Jefferson. from Somerset, England, along with thousands of other
Adams seldom achieved popularity during his long Puritans, to escape the religious persecution found in
political career. Adams was anything but a cold man, his homeland.
and those who knew him well, loved him. But his blunt- Young John helped with the chores on the farm. He
ness, impatience, and vanity made more enemies than studied hard in the village school, but did not particular-
friends. On the great decisions of his public career, his- ly enjoy books.
tory has proved him right and his opponents wrong. But Education. Adams graduated from Harvard College
his clumsiness in human relations often caused him to in 1755, ranking 14th in a class of 24. In those days, the
be misunderstood. Few people knew about another part rank of a student indicated social position, not scholar-
of Adams s personality. His diary and personal letters ship,and Adams was one of the best scholars in his
show his genial, affectionate, and often playful nature. class.
During Adamss term, the United States took its first After teaching school for a short time, Adams studied
steps toward industrialization. The first woolen mills be- law the office of James Putnam in Worcester, Massa-
in
gan operating in Massachusetts, and Congress estab- chusetts. He began to practice law in Braintree in 1758.
lished the Department of the Navy and the Marine Ten years later he moved to Boston, where he became a
Corps. Americans enjoyed such songs as The Wearing leading attorney of the Massachusetts colony.
 Adams, John 35

The world of President John Adams

The rebirth of the United States Navy was symbolized by
the launching of the frigate United States in 1797. Two other
Pan of Mass.
ships launched that year, the Constitution and the Constella-
^ v—-^v> — Northwest tion, made up the core of the nation's first naval force since
1 (.
Vt J S
N H the Revolutionary War. Congress established a separate De-
C
STAK't^ ^A \ \ ir
> \\\W) <^Nyyf§/' ass partment of the Navy in 1798.
\\ C/^^---~sS»* '

The United States Marine Corps was established by Con-

\J O-M Pa OjXonn
) 1
\
/Indienal A !!—rC/ N J
/ Terr. /^^jBbel gress in 1798 as a separate military service. The nation's first
\ 180()k_/ Va ^Md marine corps had been dissolved after the Revolutionary
r'NC War.
7%
/ Tenri/, _. — /->
/^
The first organized strike in the United States took place
Terr South of \ \J C f in 1799. A group of Philadelphia shoemakers refused to
Ohio River \ Ga N/
Mississippi Terr. _} J work for nine days, until their demands for higher wages
1798 ' '<-*
x^x \ were met.
Napoleon became First Consul of France in 1799 and began
^J Existing state to rule as a dictator.

Existing territory j
New territory
The Library of Congress was established in 1800. Con-
gress appropriated $5,000 to buy books and to furnish a
room in the Capitol to house the library.
Two new territories were organized during Adams' presi- The federal government moved to Washington, D.C,
dency—the Mississippi Territory in 1798 and the Indiana Ter- from Philadelphia June 1800. Congress convened in the
in

ritory in 1800. No new states entered the Union. new capital first time in November of that year.
city for the
France secretly reacquired Louisiana from Spain in 1800.
The United States did not learn of the transaction until the
following year.

WORLD BOOK map

Adams' family. In 1764, Adams married Abigail Adams was a lively observer of people and events, and
Smith (Nov. 22, 1 the daughter of a
744-Oct. 28, 1 81 8), her letters provide colorful pictures of colonial life.
minister in Weymouth, Mass. Their eldest son, )ohn The Adams' eldest child, Abigail, became the wife of
Quincy Adams, became the sixth President the year be- Colonel William Stephens Smith, the secretary to the
fore his father died. United States legation in London. The third child, Su-
Like most women of her time, Abigail Adams had re- sanna, died in infancy. The fourth child, Charles, died
ceived little formal schooling. But she read widely, and while his father was President. Thomas, the youngest
became one of the best-informed women of the day. child, became a lawyer and a judge.

She wrote delightful letters to Adams during his ab-

Political and public career
sences from home. John Quincy Adams' son, Charles
Francis, published many of these letters in 1 840. Mrs. In New England. Adams took a leading part in op-
posing British colonial policies America. The year
in

1765, when the British Parliament passed the Stamp Act,

was a turning point in his life. This law taxed newspa-
pers, legal papers, and other items. It hit Adams hard as
a lawyer. He wrote: "This tax was set on foot for my ruin
as well as that of Americans in general."
Adams wrote resolutions against the tax which were
adopted by the Braintree town meeting. More than 40
other Massachusetts towns adopted these resolutions.
The Boston town meeting appointed a committee to

Important dates in Adams' life

1735 lOct. 301 Born in Braintree (now Quincyl, Mass.

1764 (Oct. 25) Married Abigail Smith.
1774 Chosen a delegate to the First Continental Congress.
1777 Elected commissioner to France to negotiate a treaty of
alliance.
1780-1782 Obtained recognition of American independence
from the Netherlands.
1782-1783 Served on the commission that negotiated peace
with Great Britain.
1785 Appointed minister to Great Britain
1789 iected \ Ice Presidenl ol the t nited States.
f

1792 Reelected \ h e Presidenl

Quincy Ithei 1796 let ted President ol the l ntted Mate-
John Adams' birthplace stands in f

Mass. Farmland surrounded the house at the time of

Adams 1826 l|uh 41 Died in Qimuv
birth. The house is now preserved as a
national hi-.'.
36 Adams, John

Continental Congress met in 1775. He began to insist

that the colonies should be independent, and opposed
all halfway measures. He persuaded Congress to organ-

ize the 16,000 militiamen of New England as the Conti-

nental Army. He also helped bring about the appoint-
ment of George Washington as commander in chief.
Beginning in 1776, Adams served as chairman of the
Continental Board of War and Ordnance. He also
worked on a committee appointed to draft a plan for
treaties with European powers, especially with France.
Adams later wrote: was incessantly employed through
"I

the whole fall, winter, and spring of 1775 and 1776, in

Congress during their sittings, and on committees in the
mornings and evenings, and unquestionably did more
business than any other member of the house."
On June 7, 1 776, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia pre-
sented a resolution to Congress declaring that these
United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and
independent States." Adams seconded the resolution.
Congress chose him a member of the committee to pre-
pare a declaration of independence. Adams urged
Thomas Jefferson to draft the document. Adams de-
fended the Declaration in the stormy debate that fol-
lowed in Congress. Jefferson later called Adams the "co-
lossus of that debate."
Mather Br<
Diplomat Early in 1 778, Congress sent Adams to
1785' bv
Stale Historical Association Cooperstown. NY

Abigail Smith Adams was an intelligent, well-read woman, Paris to help Benjamin Franklin and Arthur Lee
and a keen observer of colonial life. She and her husband car- strengthen American ties with France and other Euro-
ried on a lively correspondence when he was away from home. pean nations. Adams arrived in Paris to find that treaties
had already been signed with France. He noted that fric-
present a petition against the tax to the British governor, tion had developed among the American ministers, and
and Adams served as one of the three members. He ar- wrote to Congress proposing that one person take
gued that the tax was illegal because the people had not charge of affairs in France. Congress chose Franklin, and
consented to it. This amounted to saying that Parliament Adams sailed home in 1779.
could not tax the colonies at all. Britain repealed the Upon his return to Massachusetts, the people of
Stamp Act in 1 766. See Stamp Act. Braintree elected Adams to the convention that framed a
Adams rejoiced at every expression of popular oppo- state constitution. Adams wrote almost all the constitu-
sition to the British. But the treatment of British soldiers tion, which won acclaim for its detailed bill of rights.
who had taken part in the Boston Massacre distressed Many other states adopted features of this Massachu-
him (see Boston Massacre). His sense of justice led him setts Constitution of 1780.
to defend Captain Thomas Preston and the British sol- During the Massachusetts constitutional convention,
diers charged with manslaughter. He felt that the sol- Congress appointed Adams to negotiate treaties of
diers should be freed, because they had only obeyed peace and trade with Great Britain. He sailed for Paris,
orders. Adams feared his viewpoint would cost him and arrived in February 1780. The French, although allies
popularity. Instead, his prestige rose. In 1770, the people of America, gave Adams no independence in doing his
of Boston chose him as one of their representatives in work. The proposed negotiations never got started.
the colonial legislature. There, with the help of his Adams then went to the Netherlands to promote diplo-
cousin, Samuel Adams, he led the fight against British matic and commercial support for the American war ef-
colonial policies. fort. After two years of hard work, he obtained recogni-

The on tea enraged Adams and most of his

British tax tion of the United States as a sovereign power. He also
fellow colonists. When
a band of patriots dumped large obtained a loan of about $1 ,400,000 for the United
quantities of tea into Boston Harbor on Dec. 6, 773, 1 1 States. Adams' mission to the Netherlands ranks as his
Adams called this act "the most magnificent movement greatest diplomatic achievement.
of all." See Boston Tea Party. In the fall of 782, Adams joined John )ay and Benja-
1

National politics. In 1774, the British government min Franklin in Paris to meet British and French repre-
passed several laws that became known as the Intolera- sentatives and arrange a peace treaty. Adams and Jay
ble Acts (see Intolerable Acts). Several of the colonies distrusted the French foreign minister, Count de Ver-
promptly called for representatives from each colony to gennes. They feared he would sacrifice American inter-
meet in Philadelphia. Adams was one of the four Massa- ests to gain advantages for France and its ally, Spain. As
chusetts delegates at this meeting, later called the First a result, the Americans departed from their instructions
Continental Congress. He and a few other men wanted and negotiated with the British without informing Ver-
to seek independence from Britain, but he knew it was gennes of each step taken. Franklin smoothed over af-
too early to propose such drastic action. fairs with France after the British and Americans had
Adams' influence had grown by the time the Second agreed on peace terms.
 Adams, John 37

and American commissioners signed a prelim-

British ton's second term. Adams and Alexander Hamilton led a
inarypeace treaty on Nov. 30, 1782. The document was group that favored a strong federal government. This
signed again in Paris on Sept. 3, 1 783, as the final peace group, known as the Federalists, supported Washing-
treaty. Adams made sure that the United States kept fish- ton's policies. James Madison and Thomas Jefferson led
ing rights in North Atlantic waters. He also arranged the Democratic-Republicans (called Republicans at the
provisionsrecommending amnesty for Americans who time, though later to become the Democratic Party) in
had remained loyal to the British. During the next two fighting for strong states' rights. Jefferson resigned as
years, Adams
negotiated another Dutch loan and served secretary of state in 1793 because he disapproved of the
in Parison a commission to negotiate trade treaties with growing dominance of Hamilton in the Cabinet.
many European governments. He was proud when the When Washington refused in 796 to serve a third 1

French called him "the Washington of negotiations." term, the two parties had become well defined. The Fed-
In 1785, Congress named Adams the first U.S. minister eralists supported Adams for the presidency, and the
He hoped to negotiate treaties that
to Great Britain. Democratic-Republicans nominated Jefferson. Adams
would encourage trade with Britain. But the British received only three more votes than Jefferson did, and
proved to be uncordial, and made it clear that they political opponents thus became President and Vice
would not relax their harsh trade policies. Adams even- President.
tually asked to be recalled, and returned home in 1 788
Adams' Administration (1797-1801)
after almost 1 years abroad.
Vice President. Adams had been home only a few The Federalist split. During Adams four years as
months when he was named Vice President. At that President, the government faced many problems at
time, every elector voted for two men for the presi- home. Relations with European nations were also unset-
dency. The man who ran second became Vice President. tled. To make his task more difficult, Adams could not

Each of the 69 electors voted for George Washington, count on the support of his party or his Cabinet. Dis-
and 34 gave their second vote to Adams. agreement over foreign policy split the Federalist Party
Adams later wrote that the vice presidency was "the into two groups. Adams led the more moderate of these

most insignificant office that ever the invention of man groups. The other was led by Alexander Hamilton, who
contrived or his imagination conceived." But he pre- had left the Cabinet and returned to private life before
sided over the Senate with dignity, and tried to avoid Adams became President.
politicalarguments. When called upon to cast a tie- Difficultieswith France. The French Revolution
breaking vote in the Senate, he always sided with Wash- caused most of the problems that faced Adams. Presi-
ington, feeling that he should reflect the President's poli- dent Washington had insisted that neutrality was the
cies. Adams was reelected Vice President in 1792. best policy in case of a war in Europe. But, in the wars
During his first term as Vice President, Adams wrote following the French Revolution, European warships at-
and published Discourses on Davila, a series of newspa- tacked American ships. France and Great Britain claimed
per articles. Many readers thought these articles indi- the right to seize American vessels. The United States
cated that he had become much more conservative in was forced to protect itself, and the government
his political views. Old friends, such as Thomas Jeffer- launched several new warships, including the Constitu-
son, felt he had become too fond of kingly rule and too tion (Old Ironsides").

distrustful of popular government. The United States also became involved in the Euro-
Two political groups began to form during Washing- pean wars on philosophical grounds. Jefferson believed

insurgenle. engraving by an unknown 800 New York

A View ol the American frigate Con wIlMon Caplunng the French XMonal frtgale L artist 1 1

Historical Society. New York City

Naval battles between U.S.

and French ships occurred in
spite of President Adams ef-

forts tokeep the United States

neutral during the European
\\,ir- ot the late 1700"s.
38 Adams, John

I 111 j H-; ^ w «* «

M. : • k ml ~:mi "

_*_
Maryland Historical Society. Baltimore

John Adams was the first President to the White House. He and Mrs. Adams moved
live in
into the mansion in 1800, before it was completed, and suffered many inconveniences. The illustra-
tion above shows the original design for the White House by architect James Hoban.

that the French Revolution was a people's movement, Neither nation declared war, but American and French
like the Revolutionary War
America. His party sympa-
in ships fought many battles.
thized with the French people, and wanted to aid them. Adams was still determined to keep peace. He again
But Hamilton led many Federalists in demanding a war asked Talleyrand for a treaty. This time, Talleyrand was
against France. Adams was determined to keep the eager to negotiate, because he feared that the United
United States neutral, and deplored the policy of Hamil- States might join forces with Great Britain. Without con-
ton and his followers. The split in the Federalist Party be- suiting Congress, Adams sent a second commission to
came irreparable. France. This act was the boldest of his career as Presi-
One Adams' first acts as President was to call a spe-
of dent, and lost him support in his own party. But he be-
cial session of Congress to consider ways of keeping lieved that avoiding war was the most important
peace. He sent ministers to France to work out a treaty. achievement of his Administration.
Three French diplomats offered to negotiate a pact if the The Alien and Sedition Acts. The Federalists faced
United States would bribe Charles Maurice de Talley- bitter criticism because of their opposition to France.
rand-Perigord, the French foreign minister. This episode Most of the criticism came from American citizens, but
became known as the XYZ Affair, because the French some of the critics were French. In 1 798, the Federalists
diplomats were referred to by these initials instead of passed laws designed to limit this criticism. Two Alien
their names (see XYZ Affair). The Americans ended the Acts gave the President authority to banish or imprison
negotiations late in 1 797. foreigners by a simple order. The Sedition Act made it a
The XYZ Affair caused great anger in the United crime to criticize the government, the President, or Con-
States. People rallied to the cry of "Millions for defense, gress. Adams never used the Alien Acts, but a number
but not one cent for tribute!" Congress began preparing of journalists who supported Jefferson were arrested for
for war with France. It established the Department of the violation of the Sedition Act. See Alien and Sedition
Navy, ordered the construction of more warships, and Acts.
summoned George Washington to command the Army. These laws caused a storm of disapproval. Many peo-
ple claimed they violated the guarantees of freedom of
Vice President and Cabinet speech and of the press. Jefferson wrote the resolutions
Vice President '
Thomas Jefferson adopted by the Kentucky legislature declaring the Alien
Secretary of state " Timothy Pickering and Sedition Acts unconstitutional (see Kentucky and
' John Marshall (1800) Virginia Resolutions). Historians agree that the acts
Secretary of the treasury Oliver Wolcott, Jr.
were unwise
U
c„,.™.,„, mQ r ka^u^ Life in the White House. President Adams moved
Secretary ««
ot ..,,-
•
war >,
James McHenry
Samuel Dexter 118001 mt0 t " e White House just a few months before the end
Attorney general Charles Lee of his Administration. The unfinished Executive Mansion
Secretary of the Navy " Benjamin Stoddert stood in isolated splendor amid a dismal, swampy land-
•Has a separate biography m woHdBooi. scape. Abigail Adams wrote her sister "As expected to I
 Adams, John C 39

find it a new country, with houses scattered over a Adams renewed his friendship with Thomas Jefferson.
space of 10 miles, and trees and stumps in pienty with a These two great Americans from North and South had
castle of a house— so found it." Only half a dozen
I met in Congress in 1775. Their friendship cooled steadi-
rooms of the White House were finished. Mrs. Adams ly after about 1 790, because they differed on the mean-

had to dry the laundry in the East Room, because no ing of the French Revolution. But they forgot their politi-
drying yard had been provided. cal quarrels after retiring from public life.
The unfinished condition of the White House made it By a remarkable coincidence, both men died on July
hard to carry on official social functions. But Adams and 4, 1826. Adams's last words were: Thomas Jefferson still
his wife struggled to overcome their difficulties. As the survives." Adams died less than four months before his
first residents of the White House, they felt they should 91st birthday. He was buried in Quincy, Massachusetts.
set a social tone appropriate to the home of the Presi- James H. Hutson
dent Mrs. Adams admired the courtly entertainments of Related articles in World Book include:
Martha Washington and tried to follow her example. Adams, Abigail Smith
Adams, Charles Francis
Election of 1800. Hamilton strongly criticized Adams
Adams, Henry Brooks
for not fighting France. Thisargument influenced many Adams, John Quincy
Federalist voters. The Democratic-Republicans de- Adams, Samuel
nounced Adams for the Alien and Sedition Acts, and for Boston Massacre
hostilitytoward France. The Democratic-Republican Boston Tea Party
Declaration of Independence
presidential candidates, Thomas Jefferson and Aaron
Hamilton, Alexander
Burr, received 73 electoral votes each. Adams received
Jefferson, Thomas
65 electoral votes. The House of Representatives then Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions
chose Jefferson as President Logan Act
Late in 1800, the government had moved from Marshall, John
new capital in Washington, D.C President of the U.S.
Philadelphia to the
Talleyrand
Adams made appointments to government offices until Washington, George
his last day in office. One of his most important appoint- XYZ Affair
ments was that of John Marshall as chief justice of the
Outline
United States (see Marshall, John).
I. Early life
Later years A. Childhood C Adams' family
B. Education
John Adams was nearly 66 years old when he left the II. Political and public career
White House. His defeat grieved him so much that he A. In New England C Diplomat
refused to stay in Washington for Jefferson's inaugura- B. National politics D. Vice President

tion. He hurried off for his home in Quincy on the morn- III. Adams' Administration (1797-1801)
A. The Federalist split D. Life in the White House
ing of March 4, 1801. Adams devoted himself to study-
B. Difficulties with France E. Election of 1800
ing history, philosophy, and religion. C The Alien and
Sedition Acts
IV. Later years

Quotations from John Adams Questions

The following quotations come from some of )ohn Adams's
What did John Adams consider his most important achievement
speeches and writings.
as President?
Liberty cannot be preserved without a general knowl- How long did John Adams live in the White House?
edge among the people but besides this, they have a
.

What was the XYZ Affair?

right to that most dreaded and envied kind of knowl-
. .

What military measures did Adams help bring about during the
edge, mean of the characters and conduct of their
I
first year of the Second Continental Congress?
rulers. Who was one of President Adams s most important last-minute
A Dissertation on the Canon and Feudal iiiv 1 765
appointees?
Facts are stubborn things; and whatever may be our Why did Adams defend Thomas Preston?
wishes, our inclinations, or the dictates of our passions, What Adams play in the adoption of the Declara-
part did )ohn
they cannot alter the state of facts and evidence. tion of Independence?
Massacre
Argument in defense of the British soldit
<ki trials.
How did Adams disagree with Hamilton and Jefferson over rela-
December 1770
tions with France?
As the happiness of the people is the sole end of gov- What was Adams s greatest diplomatic success?
ernment, so the consent of the people is the only foun- Why was President Adams forced to expand the Naw?
dation of it
Proclamation, 1774 Additional resources
Education makes a greater difference between man Ellis Passionate Sage: The Character and Legacy of John
Joseph ).

and man than nature has between man and brute. Adams 1993. Reprint Norton, 2001.
Letter to Abigail Adams On
.'
Ferling, |ohn E. John Adams 1992. Reprint Henry Holt, 1996.
MrCullough David. John Adams Simon & Schuster, 2001.
When annual elections end, there slavery begins.
Thoughts on Coventmei St George. Judith. John and Abigail Adams Holiday Hse., 2001.
lounger readers.
The fundamental article of my political creed is that StefoftRebecca lohn Adams Garrett Educational, 1988.
despotism, or unlimited sovereignty, or absolute
pow-
assembly, an Younger readers.
er, is the same in a majority of a popular Weisberger. Bernard America Afire lefterson Adams and the
aristocratic council, an oligarchical junto, and
a single
utioOMf) Election of I80Q. Morrow, 2000.
emperor.
Letter to Thomas jsffi Adams, John C. See Neptune (Discovery).
40 Adams, John Quincy

Jscrf^sv* Jui^tcy «J»<«UWv4

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6th president of

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the United States 1825-1829
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[JLiKJ
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5th president
1817-1825
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6th president
1825-1829
Jackson
7th president
1829-1837
'
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Vice president
Democratic-
Republican
Democratic-Re-
publican
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1825-1829

Oil painting on canvas (18241 by Thomas Sully: National Gallery of Art. Washington, DC Andrew W Mellon Collection

Adams, John Quincy 11767-1848), was the first son of gress sent his father to France. John Quincy, although
a president of the United States who
became presi- also not yet 1 1 pleaded to go along on the dangerous voy-
,

dent The second father and son to be elected were age. His father proudly wrote in his diary. "Mr. Johnny's
George Herbert Walker Bush and George Walker Bush. behavior gave me a satisfaction I cannot express. Fully
Like his father, John Adams, he failed to win a second sensible of our danger, he was constantly endeavoring
term. But soon afterward, he was elected to the U.S. to bear it with a manly patience, very attentive to me,

House of Representatives. This pleased him more, he and his thoughts constantly running in a serious vein."
president
said, than his election as Education. Adams attended schools in Paris, Amster-
Before entering the presidency, Adams held several dam, and Leiden as his father moved from one diplo-
important diplomatic posts. He took part in the negotia- matic assignment to another. At 14, he went to St Peters-
tions that ended the War of 1 81 2. As secretary of state, burg as private secretary to Francis Dana, the first
he helped develop the Monroe Doctrine. Quarrels with- American minister to Russia. The boy rejoined his father
in his party hampered Adams as president, and he made in 1783 and served as his private secretary.
little progress with his ambitious legislative program. When the elder Adams became minister to Britain in

His years in theWhite House were perhaps the unhap- 1785, the boy returned home and entered Harvard Col-
piest period of Adams's life. lege. He said later "By remaining much longer in Europe
Adams was short and stout, and his shrill voice often Isaw the danger of an alienation from my own country."
broke when he became excited. Yet he spoke so well he His previous studies enabled him to join the junior class
was nicknamed "Old Man Eloquent He was affectionate at He graduated in 1787.
Harvard.
with close friends, but more reserved toward others. He Lawyer and writer. Adams read law for three years
once referred to himself as "an unsocial savage." and began his own practice in 1790. But he had few
During Adamss administration, Noah Webster clients and soon turned to political journalism.
brought out his two-volume American Dictionary of the
English Language, and James Fenimore Cooper pub-
Important dates in Adams's life
lished his famous novel The Last of the Mohicans. The
American labor movement began in Philadelphia. 1767 (July 11) Born in Braintree (now Quincy), Massachusetts.
1794 Became minister to the Netherlands.
Early life 1797 (July 26) Married Louisa Catherine Johnson.
1803 Elected to the United States Senate.
Childhood. John Quincy Adams was born on July 1 1 1809 Appointed minister to Russia.
1767, in the family home in Braintree (now Quincy), 1814-1815 Helped negotiate peace with the United Kingdom.
Massachusetts. He was the second child and eldest son 1815 Became minister to the United Kingdom.
of the second president of the United States. During the 1817 Appointed secretary of state.
1 770s, his father was away much of the time serving in
1825 Elected president of the United States.
1830 Elected to the U.S. House of Representatives.
the Continental Congresses. John Quincy had to help his
1848 (Feb. 23) Died in Washington, D.C
mother manage a large farm. In February 1778, Con-
 Adams, John Quincy 41

The world of President John Quincy Adams

The first women's labor union was organized in 1825. The
union was formed by women working in the garment indus-
try in New York City.
Czar Nicholas I of Russia crushed the Decembrist uprising,
a revolt of discontented nobles, in 1 825. As a result of wars
fought during the late 1 82(Ts, Russia expanded its borders to
include important territory on the Black Sea.
July 4, 1826, marked the 50th anniversary of the signing of
the Declaration of Independence. In a remarkable coinci-
dence, the deaths of two of the nation's Founding Fathers,
Thomas Jefferson and ]ohn Adams, occurred that same day.
The Last of the Mohicans, one of James Fenimore Coo-
per's most popular works, was published in 1826.
The first overland expedition from Utah to California
was led by trader and explorer Jedediah Smith in 1826.
Smith crossed Indian territories, the Mojave Desert, and the
High Sierras in search of trade routes to California and the
Northwest.
The Creek Indians signed treaties in 1826 and 1827 that
transferred land in western Georgia to the U.S. government
Artist and naturalist John James Audubon published the
first part of his masterpiece. Birds of America, in 1827. The

work, eventually completed in 1838, consisted of 435 life-

sized, color engravings of Audubon's water colors.
Noah Webster published An American Dictionary of the
The Erie Canal, completed in 1825, linked Lake Erie with English Language in 1828. The two-volume work included
the Hudson enabled freight to be shipped between
River. It about 1 2,000 words and 40,000 definitions that had never ap-
the Atlantic Ocean and the Great Lakes. peared in any other dictionary.

View on the Ene Canal a water color U832I by lohn William Hill. Stokes Collection, New York Public Library

In 1 791 Thomas Paine published the first part of U.S. senator. Thomas Jefferson became President in

Rights of Man. Adams considered Paine' s ideas too radi- 1801. John Quincy Adams soon returned home, and was
cal and replied with 1 1 articles that he signed with the elected to the Massachusetts Senate in 1802. He soon
name "Publicola." A second series, signed "Marcellus," displayed the independence that marked his entire ca-
defended President George Washington's policy of neu- reer. Fisher Ames, the Federalist leader in Massachu-

A third series, signed "Columbus," attacked

trality. setts, described him as "too unmanageable."

French minister Edmond Genet, who wanted America to In 1803, the Federalists chose Adams to fill a vacant

join France in a war against Britain. seat in the United States Senate. Although a Federalist,
he often voted with the Democratic-Republicans. He
Political and public career broke with his party completely in 1807, when Congress
Diplomat In 1794, Washington appointed Adams passed the Embargo Act. The Federalists in New Eng-
minister to the Netherlands. The French invaded the land wanted to trade with the British, but Adams sup-
country three days after Adams arrived and overthrew ported the embargo, believiny that it benefited the na-

the Dutch Republic. On a special assignment in London, tion as a whole.

Adams met his future wife, Louisa Catherine Johnson

(Feb. 1 2, 1 775-May 1 5, 1 852), the daughter of the Ameri-
can consul general.
Washington appointed Adams minister to
In 1796,
Portugal. Just before heleft for Lisbon, his father was

elected President. Both men felt it would be undesirable

son to hold such a post during his father's Ad
for the
Washington urged that the younger
ministration. But
Adams stay on, calling him the most valuable public
character now abroad. President Adams followed this

recommendation and named son minister to Prussia.

his

Adams' family. John Quincy married Miss Johnson in

1797, just before leaving for Berlin. He served there
more than four years. Adams and his wife had four chil-
dren. Their only daughter, Louisa Catherine, died in
in-

fancy. George Washington Adams, the eldest son,

died

the close of his fathers presidency. John,

in 1829, at
who
died five years later. The Adams m Quino Mass
was named for his grandfather, John Quincy birthplace stands His

youngest son, Charles Francis, served as minister to father lohn Adams »as luirn In a neari) Identical house next
War. dooi fhe two buildings are now hlstorK sites
Great Britain during the Civil
42 Adams, John Quincy
Minister George Canning asked the United States to join
in a declaration against any such move. But Adams in-

sisted that the United States should make its own policy.
He declared that America must not "come in as a cock-
boat (small rowboat) in the wake of the British man-of-
war."Monroe followed Adams' advice, and the Monroe
Doctrine became a part of U.S. foreign policy. See Mon-
roe Doctrine.
Election of 1824. Many Americans believed Adams
should follow Monroe as President. Both Madison and
Monroe became President after serving as secretary of
state. Adams felt he also should be elected but did little
to attract votes. Four Democratic-Republicans opposed
him: John C. Calhoun, Henry Clay, William H. Crawford,
and Andrew Jackson. Calhoun withdrew, and was
elected Vice President. Jackson received 99 electoral
votes; Adams, 84; Crawford, 41; and Clay, 37. For votes
by see Electoral College (table). None had a ma-
states,
jority, so the House of Representatives had to choose

one of the first three men. Clay then threw his support
Oil paintingon canvas 118211 bv Gilbert Smart, I White House Historical to Adams, who was elected in February 1825.
Association (National Geographic Society!

Louisa Johnson Adams was born in London, the daughter of Adams' Administration (1825-1829)
an American diplomat. She first came to the United States in
1801, four years after she married )ohn Quincy Adams.
Democratic-Republican Party split. Even before
the House elected Adams, followers of Jackson accused
Federalist leaders in Massachusetts felt that Adams Adams of promising Clay a Cabinet post in return for his
had betrayed them. They elected another man to his support. When Adams named Clay secretary of state,
Senate seat several months before the 1808 elections. Jackson's powerful supporters in Congress charged that
Adams resigned immediately and prepared for a career the two men had made a "corrupt bargain." This split the
as professor of rhetoric and oratory at Harvard. Democratic-Republican Party, and Adams' group be-
Again a diplomat, Adams intended to stay out of came known as the National Republicans. Jackson's
public life permanently. But in 1809, President James group fought Adams for the next four years.
Madison persuaded him to accept an appointment as Rebuff by Congress. Adams delivered his inaugural
minister to Russia. From mid-1814 to early 1815, Adams address in the Senate chamber of the unfinished Capitol.
served as one of the American commissioners who ne- In this address, and in his first message to Congress, he
gotiated the Treaty of Ghent with the British, ending the recommended an ambitious program of national im-
War of 1812. The negotiations gained respect for the provements. This program included the construction of
United States, as well as for Adams as a diplomat. highways, canals, weather stations, and a national uni-
Madison next appointed Adams as minister to Great versity. He argued that if Congress did not use the pow-
Britain, a post once held by his father. While in London, ers of government for the benefit of all the people, it
Adams began discussions that led to improved relations "would be treachery to the most sacred of trusts." But
along the U.S.-Canadian border. Great Britain and the the majority in Congress disagreed. Adams' hopes for a
United States agreed to stop using forts and warships in partnership of government and science were not to be
the Great Lakes region, leaving the frontiers of the two realized until after his lifetime.
countries unguarded and open. The "tariff of abominations." By 1828, manufactur-
Secretary of state. In 1817, President James Monroe ing had replaced farming as the chief activity in most
called Adams home to serve as secretary of state. New England states. These states favored high tariffs on
Adams made an agreement with Great Britain for joint imported goods. But high tariffs would make farmers in
occupation of the Oregon region. He negotiated a treaty the South pay more for imported products. Southern
that quieted Spanish claims to territory in the northwest leaders wanted a low tariff or free trade.
and also acquired Florida. But his most important Jackson's supporters in Congress wrote a tariff bill

achievement as secretary of state was to help develop that put high duties on manufactured goods. The bill
the Monroe Doctrine. Adams made the first declaration also raised duties on raw materials so high that even
of this policy in July 1 823, several months before Mon- New Englanders ould be expected to oppose it. To eve-
.

roe formally announced it. He told the Russian minister ryone's surprise, enough New Englanders voted for the
that "the American continents are no longer subjects for bill to pass it. The tariff of abominations," as it became

any new European colonial establishments." known, aroused bitter anger in the South.
and Russia had formed the Holy Alli-
Austria, Prussia, Life in the White House. Adams threw all his ener-
ance in 1815, after the fall of Napoleon. During and after gies into the presidency from the day he took office.
the Napoleonic Wars, the countries of Central and Each day, he conferred with a steady procession of con-
South America had revolted against Spanish rule. When gressmen and department heads in his upstairs study in
King Ferdinand VII regained the Spanish throne in 1823, the White House. The President wrote in his diary: can "I

many people feared that the Holy Alliance might help scarcely conceive a more harassing, wearying, teasing
Spain reconquer its former colonies. British Foreign condition of existence." He felt a lack of exercise, in spite
 Adams, John Quincy 43

Vice President and Cabinet

Quotations from John Quincy Adams
Vice President .*
John C Calhoun
Secretary of state *
Henry Clay
The following quotations come from some of John Quincy
Secretary of the treasury Richard Rush
Adams' speeches and writings.
Secretary of war James Barbour
.may our country be always successful, but whether suc-
. .

cessful or otherwise, always right

.Peter B.Porter 118281
Letter to John Adams. Aug. 1, 1816
Attorney general William Wirt
Secretary of the Navy
Internal improvements was at once my conscience and my
Samuel L Southard
treasure.
World Book. Letter to Henry day. Sept 30, 1842
"Has a separate biography in

. above all, let us never forget, in the most fervent heat of

. .

our party conflicts, that there is a cause, embracing and

of daily walks. In warm weather, Adams liked to swim in transcending all others— the cause of our country. . . .

the Potomac River. Lecture given at Providence. Rhode Island, Nov 25. 1842

Mrs. Adams suffered ill health during her husband's

term as President, but she overcame her sickness to
serve as White House hostess. She was responsible for United States. The rebels were black Africans who had
a brilliant series of parties during the visit of the Mar- been captured and enslaved by whites. In 1839, they at-
quis de Lafayette in 1825. tacked their captors while on a ship called La Amistad'in
Election of 1828. Adams had never been popular, the Caribbean Sea. They killed two whites and took con-
chiefly because of his aloof manner. He had not even trol of the vessel. They were later arrested in the United
tried to defend himself against the attacks of Jackson and mutiny. Their case ended up in
States for the killings
and his followers, feeling it was below the dignity of the the Supreme Court There, Adams
strongly defended
President to engage in political debate. At the same the rebels, arguing that every person has the right to
time, Jackson gained great popularity. In the election of freedom. The rebels were found not guilty. For more de-
1828, Jackson won a popular vote proportionately larger tails, see Amistad Rebellion.

than any other presidential candidate received during Death. On Feb. 21, 1848, he suffered a stroke at his
the rest of the 1800s. He and his running mate, Vice House desk. Too ill to be moved from the building, he
President Calhoun, won 178 electoral votes. Adams and was carried to the Speaker's room. He died there two
Secretary of the Treasury Richard Rush had 83. days later. Adams was buried in the churchyard of the
First Unitarian Church in Quincy, Massachusetts. His
Back to Congress
wife died on May 15, 1852, and was buried at his side.
Election to the House. Adams again planned to re- Their remains were later moved to the church crypt
tire, but the people of Quincy asked him to run for Con- Jack Shepherd

gress in 1830. He defeated two other candidates by Related articles in World Book include:
large majorities and wrote in his diary: "My election as Adams, Charles Calhoun, John C Jackson, Andrew
Francis Clay, Henry Monroe Doctrine
President of the United States was not so gratifying."
half
Adams, Henry Democratic-Re- President of the
He took his seat in the House of Representatives in 1831
Brooks publican Party U.S.
and served for 1 7 years. Adams, John Genet, Edmond Tariff

Adams served at times as chairman of the House For- Bank of the U.S. Ghent, Treaty of Whig Party

eign Affairs Committee and of the Committee on Manu- Outline

factures. But he remained independent of party politics.
I. Early life
He fought President Jackson's opposition to the second A Childhood C Lawyer and writer
Bank of the United States. He also opposed Jackson's B. Education
policy of recognizing the independence of Texas. But II. Political and public career
Adams supported Jackson's foreign policy and stern re- A. Diplomat D. Again a diplomat
B. Adams family Secretary of state E.
sistance to nullification (see Nullification).
may have C U.S. senator F. Election of 1824
The Gag Rules. Adams greatest public role III. Adams' Administration (1825-1829)
occurred during debates about slavery. Abolitionists A Democratic-Republican Part)' split

sent many petitions to Congress urging that slavery be B. Rebuff by Congress

abolished in the District of Columbia and in new territo- C The tariff of abominations"
D. Life in the White House
ries. These petitions took much of the lawmakers' time.
E. Election of 1828
In 1836, the House adopted the first of a series of resolu-
IV. Back to Congress
Gag RulesXo keep the petitions from be-
tions called the A Election to the House C The Amistad Rebellion
ing read on the floor. Adams believed these rules violat- B. The Gag Rules D. Death
ed the constitutional rights of free speech and petition. Questions
He was strongly criticized in the House for opposing the
having them Hon did Adams help develop the Monroe Doctrine?
Gag Rules, but he finally succeeded in
Why did Adams become President even though Andrew lack-
abolished in 1844. son received more electoral votes
Adams became the first congressman to assert the W h\did Adams oppose the Cag Rules?
right of the government to free slaves during time of What honor pleased Adams more than his election as President?
war. President Abraham Lincoln based the Emancipation How did Adams contribute to the Emancipation Proclamation?
Proclamation on Adams' arguments. Additional resources
The Amistad Rebellion. In 1841, Adams again publi- Adams John Quinrv Dian, ot /ohn Quinii Adams 2 vols Har
cally showed his opposition to slavery' when he
defend-
ed the Amistad rebels before the Supreme Court o

i
44 Adams, Samuel

Coelho, Tony. John Quincy Adams. Chelsea Hse., 1990. Younger American Colonies to boycott trade with Britain. Repre-
readers. sentatives of 12 colonies soon assembled in the First
Hargreaves, Mary W. M. The Presidency of John Quincy Adams. Continental Congress in 1774 (see Continental
Univ. Pr. of Kans., 1985.
Congress). The Massachusetts legislature sent Adams
Kent, Zachary. John Quincy Adams. Childrens Pr., 1987. Younger
readers. and four others to represent it at the congress. In 1 775,
Nagel, Paul C
John Quincy Adams. Knopf, 1997. Adams began serving in the Second Continental Con-
Parsons, Lynn H.John Quincy Adams. Madison Hse., 1998. gress, where he pleaded for independence and a con-
Adams, Samuel (1722-1803), was an American patriot federation (union) of the colonies. He narrowly escaped
and politician who stirred opposition to British rule in arrest by the British in Lexington while he was on his
the American Colonies. However, Adams attempted to way to Philadelphia. Congress approved the Declaration
make people work for their rights peacefully through of Independence in 1776.
committees and other meetings. He was willing to justify In office. Adams served in the Continental Congress
violent opposition to Britain only if all else failed. Adams until 1 781 when he returned to Boston. He at first op-
,

was a signer of the Declaration of Independence. posed the newly written Constitution of the United
Adams was born in Boston. He was the cousin of John States. In the end, however, he supported its ratification
Adams, who became the second president of the United (approval) in Massachusetts. Adams served as governor
States. Samuel graduated from Harvard College in 1740, of Massachusetts from 1 793 to 1 797. A statue of Adams
received an MA
degree from the college in 1743, and represents the state in the U.S. Capitol. Pauline Maier

then entered private business. However, Adams failed in See also Revere, Paul.
that career and by 1764 was deeply in debt
Additional resources
The patriot. Adams became increasingly involved in
He belonged and was
Farley, Karin C Samuel Adams. Raintree Steck-Vaughn, 1995.
politics. to several patriotic clubs
Younger readers.
a prominent figure in Boston town meetings. Adams op- Fowler, William M., Jr. Samuel Adams. Longman, Inc., 1997.
posed several laws passed by the British Parliament to Fradin, Dennis B. Samuel Adams. Clarion, 1998.
raise revenue in the American Colonies. Those laws in- Adams, Samuel Hopkins (1871-1958), was an Ameri-
cluded the Sugar Act of 1 764, the Stamp Act of 1 765, and can journalist and author. Early in his career, Adams
the Townshend Acts of 1767 (see Stamp Act). Adams wrote newspaper and magazine articles that exposed
served in the Massachusetts legislature from 1765 to dishonesty in business and government His articles col-
1774. As its clerk, he corresponded widely with other lected in The Great American Fraud11906) dealt with
colonial leaders. patent medicine frauds and contributed to the passage
Parliament repealed the Stamp Act in 1766. In 1770, it of the first federal food and drug act in 1 906.
canceled all the duties (import taxes) in the Townshend About 1910, Adams began concentrating on fiction
Acts except the tax on imported tea. Adams, however, and wrote novels and short stones for both children and
believed American freedom was still in danger. In 1768, adults. Adams often used people and events from Amer-
the British had sent soldiers to Boston. Adams thought ican history in his fiction. His most appealing historical
the use of soldiers against civilians was a sign of tyranny. works describe life along the Erie Canal in New York
He served as a spokesman for the town of Boston after during the 1800 s. His children s novel Chingo Smith of
British troops killed several colonists in the Boston Mas- the Erie Ca/7<3/(1958) is an example. Adams based his po-
sacre on March 5, 1770, and succeeded in getting the litical novel /?eye//yU926) on events in the administra-

British troops sent elsewhere. In 1772, the Boston town tion of President Warren G. Harding. Adams also wrote
meeting, spurred by Adams, set up a committee of cor- several biographies and a number of mystery stories
respondence. This committee published a declaration of about an amateur detective called Average Jones. Ad-
colonial rights, which Adams had written, and sent it to ams's Grandfather Stories (1955) is a collection of essays.
other towns. Adams was born in Dunkirk, New York. Bert Hitchcock

In 1 773, Adams led Boston s resistance to the Tea Act, Adams, Scott (1957- an American cartoonist,
),

which gave a British company a monopoly on all tea ex- created the comic strip 'Dilbert Dilbert is an engineer
ported to the colonies. The resistance reached its high who struggles daily with the often ridiculous policies of
point on the evening of Dec. 16, 1773, when a group of corporate management Other characters include fellow
Bostonians dumped a employees Alice and Wally; Catbert, a cat who is the hu-
cargo of British tea into man resources director; and Dogbert and Ratbert, a dog
the harbor (see Boston and a rat who serve as consultants. Adams bases many
Tea Party). of his cartoons on stories that readers send him about
The British Parliament actual experiences at their jobs.
responded in 1774 by pass- Adams was born in Windham, New York. He earned a
ing the so-called Intolera- graduate degree in business administration and held
ble Acts. Those laws in- numerous jobs in technology and finance. Dilbert' was
cluded measures that first syndicated—that is, distributed to a large number of

closed the port of Boston, newspapers— in 1989. Several collections of Dilbert car-
restricted town meetings, toons became best-selling books, including The Dilbert
and made it easier for Principle (1996) and Dogbert s Top Secret Management
Britain to use troops Handbook ( 1 996). Pamela |. Fehl

against American civilians Adams, Sherman (1899-1986), served as chief of staff

(see Intolerable Acts). Museum of Fine Arts Boston to United States President Dwight D. Eisenhower from
Adams then urged all the Samuel Adams 1953 to 1958. He resigned after Democratic and Republi-
 Adaptation 45

can leaders criticized him for taking gifts from a Boston

industrialist whose business affairs were under govern-
ment investigation. Adams served as a Republican rep-
resentative in Congress from 1945 to 1947, and as gover-
nor of New Hampshire from 1949 to 1953. He was born
in East Dover, Vermont Stephen e. Ambrose
Adam's apple. See Larynx.
Adamson, Joy (1910-19801, was a wildlife conserva-
and author who won wide recognition for her
tionist
observations on animal behavior in Africa. She is best
known for her books Born free (1 960), Living Free (1 961 ),

and Forever Free (1962), in which she describes the life

of the lioness Elsa. Elsa was raised in the Adamson
household. She was then trained to survive in the wild
by Adamson and her husband, George Adamson, a
wildlife conservationist and game warden. The movie
Born Free (1966), based on Joy Adamson s books, helped
spread her message of concern for wildlife.
Joy-Friederike Victoria Gessner was born in Troppau,
Silesia mow Opava, the Czech Republic). She went to
Kenya at the age of 27, where she married George
Adamson and lived for the rest of her life. They acquired
Elsa after George had shot a lioness, Elsa's mother, in
self-defense. They took Elsa and the lioness s two other
orphaned cubs into their home. The couple trained Elsa An adaptation of color enables the butterflyfish to escape
to develop her natural hunting skills so that she could predators. Themarkings make its tail look like a head. Con-
fish s
survive on her own. After her release into the wild, Elsa fused predators do not know which end to attack
found a mate and raised three cubs.
The Adamsons were among the first conservationists
to train a captive animal to establish its wild nature. They kinds of climates. Thus, human beings are generalized—
also worked to control poaching, the illegal killing of an- that is, the human body has adaptations that enable peo-
imals to obtain animal skins or the ivory of elephant ple to live in widely different environments. But such or-
tusks. Joy include Joy Adamsons
Adamsons books ganisms as mosquitoes and bamboo plants are more
Africa (1972) and an autobiography, The Searching Spirit specialized. Because of their physical makeup, they can
(1 978). Poachers shot her to death. George Adamson, live only in a rather warm, wet climate.
who worked for Kenya's wildlife department, was fatally Living things often diewhen they cannot adapt to a
shot by poachers in 1989. cj.Kenagy changing environment. Many kinds of plants and ani-
Adaptation is a characteristic of an organism that mals that once lived on the earth have become extinct
makes it better able to survive and reproduce in its envi- For example, millions of years ago, dinosaurs roamed
ronment No two organisms of the same species are ex- the earth. But the environment in which they lived
actly alike. Every trait, such as size, color, and personali- changed. The dinosaurs failed to adapt, and they died
ty, shows some variation. Additionally, in nature, out (see Dinosaur (Why dinosaurs died out]).
organisms produce more offspring than can survive. The word adaptation also refers to the ability of living
The offspring most likely to survive and reproduce are things to adjust to varying conditions in their environ-
those with adaptations best suited to the environment ment If people move to the mountains, their bodies
Offspring with variations less suited to the environment adapt to the lower oxygen supply at high altitudes by
do not compete as successfully for food, water, and oth- making more oxygen-carrying red blood cells. A dog
er necessities. This process of competition, by which adapts to warm weather by shedding its hair. Adapta-
those best adapted are most likely to survive and repro- tions that occur over a relatively short time, particularly

duce is called natural selection (see Evolution). because of changes in climate, are often called acclima-
Some forms of life are adapted to living in many dif- tizations. Lawrence CU it

ferent environments. For example, people live in all See also Animal; Ecology: Environment Insect
DILBERt reprinted b> pemn\uon of United Feature Syndicate Inc

WHAT COLOR DO VOU

odANT THAT DATABASE. 7 A Scott Adams comic strip
bureaucrac) and mis-
satirizes
I THINK management in business
(^AUVE HAS through the experiem es of an
THE i^OST engineer named Dilbert The
RAVA. i omic pokes fun
strip often at

J the Impact ot computers in

corporate activities
46 Addams, Charles

Plant; Races, Human (Climatic adaptions). She led in the fight to give women the vote, and was a
Additional resources pacifist, serving as president of the Women s Interna-
tional League for Peace and Freedom from 191 5 to 1929.
Quinn, John R. Wildlife Survivors: The Flora and Fauna of Tomor-
row. TAB, 1993. The width of her interest is reflected in her books,
Secrets of Animal Survival. National Geographic Soc, 1983. which include Democracy and Social Ethics (1902), The
Younger readers. Spirit of Youth and the City Streets (1 909), Twenty Years
Addams, Charles (1912-1988), an American cartoon- at Hull-House (1910), Women at The Hague (1915), Newer
ist, became famous for the morbid humor of his draw- Ideals of Peace (191 5), and Peace and Bread in Time of
ings. Addams enjoyed turning ordinary situations into War mil).
ghoulish comedy. His cartoons featured ghosts, mon- Addams was born Quaker parents on Sept 6, 1860,
of
sters, haunted houses, and cemeteries. Addams was in Cedarville, She graduated from Rockford Col-
Illinois.

best known for creating the comically grotesque charac- lege and began medical studies in Philadelphia Howev-
ters called the Addams family. The family inspired a er, she was forced to give up her studies because of her
popular television series (1964-1966) and two motion pic- health. Alan Keith-Lucas

tures, The Addams Family (1991) and Addams Family Val- See also Nobel Prizes (picture).
ues (1993).
Additional resources
Charles Samuel Addams was born and raised in
Addams, Jane. A Centennial Reader. Macmillan, 1960. The Sec-
Westfield, New jersey. He showed a fascination with the
ond Twenty Years at Hull-House. 1 930. Twenty Years at Hull-
morbid at an early age, frequently visiting the local House. 1910. Reprint. Lightyear, 1992.
cemetery. His neighborhood had many Victorian houses Davis, AllenF. American Heroine: The Life and Legend ofJane

like the spooky mansion he later drew for the Addams Addams. Oxford, 1973. A classic biography.
family. Addams achieved his greatest popularity as a car- Hovde, jane, lane Addams. Facts on File, 1989.
McPherson, Stephanie S. Peace and Bread: The Story of Jane Ad-
toonist with The New Yorker magazine. He began pub-
dams. Carolrhoda, 1993. Younger readers.
lishing in The New Yorker in the 1930 s and became one
of the magazine s most celebrated cartoonists. Collec- Addax, AD aks, is an antelope that lives in the deserts
tions of Addams s cartoons have been published in sev- of northern Africa. The addax resembles its close rela-
eral books. Pamela J. Fehl tive, the oryx (see Antelope (Kinds of antelope; picture]).
See also Cartoon (picture: A gag cartoon). The addax is well suited for desert life. It can With-
Addams, Jane 11860-1935), was an American social
worker and humanitarian. She and Ellen Gates Starr
founded Hull House in Chicago in 1889 (see Hull Housei.
Addams shared the 1931 Nobel Peace Prize with
Nicholas Murray Butler. Visiting Europe in 1883 and in
1888, she became interested in Toynbee Hall, a settle-
ment in London. On her return home, Addams created a
more democratic kind of settlement house, sometimes
called a neighborhood center, among the immigrants
in Chicago (see Settlement house). There she set up

many programs, from day nurseries to college courses,

designed for people of every nation and ethnic group.
Addams was not content with simple friendliness or
with the programs she established. She believed strong-
ly in the need for research into the causes of poverty

and crime, in the importance of trained social workers, in Gail Rubin Ptmto Researchers

and in social action to press for reforms. She organized The addax an antelope with spirally twisting horns. It lives
is in

civic groups to bring pressure on legislatures and offi- North African deserts and travels in herds of 5 to 30 animals.
cials. Among the reforms with which she was closely as-

sociated were the first eight-hour law for working stand hot temperatures, go without water for long peri-
women, the first state ods, and eat coarse desert plants. The addax stands
child-labor law, housing about 3 \ feet (107 centimeters) high at the shoulder. Its
reform, and the first juve- body and neck are grayish-brown in winter and sandy to
nile court. almost white in summer. There is a patch of chestnut-
Addams wrote and lec- colored hair on the forehead. The spirally twisting horns
tured on a wide variety of grow about 4 feet (1.2 meters) long. The addax usually
social problems, including runs in herds of from 5 to 30 animals. It is in danger of
child labor, public health, extinction due to overhunting. William l Franklin

unemployment relief, and Scientific classification. The addax belongs to the bovid
social insurance. In 1909, family, Bovidae. It is Addax nasomaculatus.
she became the first Adder is the name
given to several species of snakes in

woman president of the various parts of the world.Some of these snakes are
National Conference of poisonous. The European viper\s frequently called
Charities and Corrections, adder in the United Kingdom. This snake is the only
now the National Confer- SS&So*^ poisonous snake in Britain. The puff adder of Africa is a
ence on Social Welfare. , ane Addams large, deadly snake with distinct markings. It has a
 Addison, Joseph 47

e^iMM Ul mjj*

i^j"3
Kg
l

-^*r |/ ij^H^^^"^
'

WORLD BOOK illustration by Richard Lewington, The Garden Studio, London ii^B^^^^^^w^fc 9
Four by Five
An adder commonly known as the European viper, shown here,
is the only poisonous snake that is found in the United Kingdom. Addis Ababa, the capital of Ethiopia, lies in the central part of
the country on the southern slopes of the Entoto Mountains. It is

Ethiopia's largest city and a major commercial center.

thick body and long fangs. The death adder of Australia

is a dangerous snake related to cobras. The hognose aproblem in Addis Ababa.
snakes of the United States, whose bite is not deadly to Addis Ababa was founded in 1887 by Menelik II, who
human beings, are commonly called "blowing adders." was then king of Shawa Province. Menelik made Addis
They get theirname from their habit of hissing and flat- Ababa the capital of the province. He took the throne as
tening the front part of their bodies when they are dis- emperor of Ethiopia in 1889, and Addis Ababa became
turbed. Albert F. Bennett the nation's capital.
Scientific classification. Most adders are
the family Viper-in Until 1974, much of Addis Ababa's land was owned by
idae. The European viper is classified as Vipera berus. The puff the emperor's family, members of the nobility, and the
adder is Bitis arietans. The death adder belongs to the family Ethiopian Orthodox Church. That year, a revolution
Elapidae.It is classified as Acanthophis antarcticus. Hognose
headed by Ethiopian military leaders overthrew Emper-
snakes belong to the family Colubridae and the genus Het-
erodon. or Haile Selassie I. Most of the city's land then came un-
der government Control. Kenneth J. Perkins

See also Snake (pictures: The North American hog- See also Ethiopia (picture: Addis Ababa).
nose snake; In rectilinear movement). Addison, Joseph (1672-1719), was an English author
AdderVtongue. See Dogtooth violet and politician. He is best known for his collaboration
Addiction. See Drug abuse. with Sir Richard Steele in writing and publishing The
Addis Ababa, AD ihs AB uh buh (pop. 2,084,588), is Spectator, a series of 555 popular essays published in
the capital and largest city of Ethiopia. It is a leading city 1 71 1 and 1712. These essays were intended to improve

of Africaand the headquarters of important regional or- manners and morals, raise the cultural level of the mid-
ganizations. Addis Ababa lies in central Ethiopia. For lo- dle-class reader, and popularize serious ideas in science
cation, see Ethiopia (map). and philosophy. Most of the essays deal with social be-
Addis Ababa lies on the southern slopes of the Entoto havior, love and marriage, and literature. Addison wrote
Mountains. Deep ravines cut through the city. Many eu- with charm and polish, and Steele with liveliness and
calyptus trees grow in and near Addis Ababa. feeling. See Steele, Sir Richard.

Ethiopia's national government occupies the palace of The Spectator became popular because it expressed
a former emperor, Menelik II, in Addis Ababa. The Ju- in a natural but sophisticated manner the ideals admired

bilee Palace, the residence of former Emperor Haile Se- by its readers. The essays also gave middle-class readers
lassie I, is in the city. The African Union (AU) and the a pleasant sense of self-improvement in manners and
United Nations Economic Commission for Africa have taste. To add to the interest of the essays, Addison and

their headquarters in Addis Ababa. The National The- Steele introduced a set of representative English charac-
the University of Addis Ababa, and several muse-
ater, ters.The most famous of these characters was the sim-
ums are also in the city. ple but delightful country squire, Sir Roger de Coverley.
Homes of wealthy and poor people stand next to each Addison also contributed The 7"<3r/er(1 709-1 711), a
to

other throughout Addis Ababa. The city's housing periodical started by Steele. Addison s verse tragedy,

ranges from high-rise apartment buildings and Euro- Cato (1 71 3), ran for a month on the London stage and
pean-style homes to traditional African mud huts. was admired for its patriotic sentiments.
Addis Ababa is an important commercial center and Addison was born in Milston in Wiltshire on May 1,
has one of the largest open-air markets in Africa. This 1672. While attending Oxford University from 1687 to

market is called the Mercato. The city's products include 1699, he earned a reputation as a classical scholar. He

cement, sugar, textiles, and tobacco. Addis Ababa has an was rather reserved, but his personal charm and wit
international airport, and a railroad links the capital with won him powerful friends in London. He entered poli-
hieving sensational success with a patriotic
Djibouti, a city on the Gulf of Aden. A rapidly growing
tics aftei a<

population and other factors have made unemployment fhe Campaign il704i describing the English vii
48 Addison, Thomas

tory in the Battle of Blenheim. He served in Parliament Now put the sets together in a new set of 8 apples.
from 1708 until his death and also held several govern-
ment appointments. In 1717, Addison was appointed
secretary of state. Illness forced him to resign in 1718.
Gary A. Stringer

Addison, Thomas (1793-1860), was a British doctor

famous for his description of Addison's disease (see Ad-
dison's disease). Addison reported this condition, in

which bronzed skin is found together with diseased

adrenal glands, in a research paper in 1855. He also de-
scribed Addison s anemia, known today as pernicious You add when you put together two or more sets to
anemia (see AnemiaL find out how many there are all together.
During his lifetime, Addison s reputation rested
Learning to add
largely on his outstanding ability as a doctor and
teacher. His painstaking examinations of patients and his To how many things you have added to make
find out
uncanny diagnoses became a legend. a new you can countxhem or thinkxhem together.
set,
Addison was born near Newcastle, England. He ob- Addition by counting. Ralph has 3 red marbles and
tained his medical degree at the University of Edinburgh 4 blue marbles. He puts them together in one set.
in 1815 and started his practice in London. In 1824, Addi-
son was appointed assistant physician at Guys Hospital
in London. He began teaching and conducting clinical

medical studies there, and his work eventually made

Addison a leading figure in British medicine.
Dale C Smith How many marbles are there in the first set? Count
Addison's disease is a disorder that gradually de- them. There are 3 marbles. How many marbles are there
stroys the adrenal glands, causing them to produce in- in the second set? Count them. There are 4 marbles.
sufficient amounts hormones. The body has
of certain Now, put the marbles together and count them in the
two adrenal glands, one located on top of each kidney. third set. There are 7 marbles. We call this counting to-
The most common cause of Addison s disease is an au- gether. You counted to find how many 3 marbles and 4
toimmune disorder \n which the body's immune system marbles are together. You discovered that 3 and 4 are 7.
attacks and destroys the adrenal glands. Other causes of Suppose you have drawn 3 circles. Now draw 4 more
Addison s disease include cancer, infectious diseases circles next to the first 3.

such as tuberculosis, and such fungal diseases as histo-

plasmosis. Addison s disease is named after the British
doctor Thomas Addison, who first described the disor-
der in 1855.
Addison's disease develops gradually, and patients
are unable to say exactly when their symptoms began.
ooooooo
You know that there were already 3 circles. So you can
Almost all patients experience weakness and fatigue, think 3 and point to each of the 4 new circles, and
and most suffer weight loss. Many patients experience count 4. 5, 6, 7. This is called counting on. You can find
nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. The disease also is char- out how many 3 and 4 are together by thinking 3 for
acterized by abnormal skin pigmentation (coloration). In the first set, and counting on until you have counted the
most patients, the skin becomes darker than normal. Ab- 4 circles in the second set. Counting on serves as a

normal pigmentation may be especially evident in areas quicker way ot adding things than counting them to-
of the body exposed to light. gether.
Doctors treat Addison s disease by prescribing drugs Addition by thinking. Suppose there are 4 girls at
to replace the missing hormones. One of the most the blackboard and 5 girls at the reading table. You find
widely used drugs is hydrocortisone. The majority of pa- how many girls together by thinking. For
there are all

tients who receive treatment can live full, active lives. example, you could think: already know that 4 and 4
I

David L Reiss are 8, so 4 and 5 will be 1 more. That means that 4 and 5
Addition is a way of putting together two or more are 9. Or, you could think: 4 girls and 5 girls are 9 girls.
things to find out how many there are together. Only
all We call this thinking together. Thinking together is a
like things can be added. This is, you cannot add apples quicker way of adding than counting together or count-
and pencils together. ing on.
Suppose you have a set of 5 apples and a set of 3 ap-

m
ples on a table: Addition terms

Addend. In 4 - 9 = 13, the numbers which are added,

and 9. are both addends.
4
Addition fact is a basic statement in addition. For
example, 2*3 = 5 and 8*7 = 15 are addition facts.
Carry in addition means to transfer a number from
one place in the sum to the next A 10 in the 1 s place
must be carried to the 10 s place.
Sum. In 4 - 9 = 13 the total, 13, is the sum.
 Addition 49

Regrouping. Suppose you want to put together two Addition facts. By putting together sets, you have
sets in anew set and the new set will be more than 10. discovered that 5 + 3 = 8, 3 + 4 = 7, and 9 + 6=15.
For example, Nancy wanted to know how many 9 and 6 We call these addition facts. Each addition fact is made
are. To find out, she drew a number fine: up of two addends and a sum. You can discover all the
addition facts by putting together sets of things. Some
I
I I I I I I I I
1 I I I I I I I I
beginners practice with sets of pennies or bottle caps.

111111111
2 3 4 5 6 8 9 ,0 » 2 13 14 15 6 17
' ' '
<
The 81 addition facts
Then, she drew lines to

9
show 9 and 6 as

6
shown below:
122i^*Z§_?
23456789
1 I

1
I

2 3
I

4
I I

5
I

6 7
!

8
I

9
I I

10
I

11 12
I

13
I I

14
I

15 16
I I

17
222222222
i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
10

9y
Nancy found out
thing interesting and
that 9 and 6 are
drew two more
15. But she saw some-
lines:

5
333333333
„..«.-..-.»„«
3

I23456_2_8_9
910114 5 6 7 8

Ill
2 3 4 5 6 7
II
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
444444444
4

I
5

?
6

5 *
7 8

^ _6
9 10

_7 J}
11

_9
12

9 6
910111213
Nancy found
easier for beginners to
JL 1
„ J ,.
that 9 and 6 are the same as
add 10 and 5 than it is to add 9
and 6. We call changing the sets 9 and 6 to the sets 5
.

and 5. It is
555555555
5

1_
6

2
7

3
8

4 5 6 7 8 9
and 10 regrouping. Here are some examples: (, 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
8 and 4 are 12
7 and 8 are 15
9 and 4 are 13
(10 and
(10 and
(10 and
2)
5)
3)
123456789
6
- — — — — — —
6
-
6

-
6 6 6 6 6 6

Writing addition. You should writedown your addi-

tion problems, so you have a record of your counting or
23456789
You can make a record with pictures:

888888888
8

1_2_3_1_5_6_7_8_9
9 10 n 12 13 14 15 16

999999999
9 10

_[_2_3_4_5_6_7_8_9
11 12 13 14 15 16 17

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

It is best to learn the addition facts so you can use

Or you can make a record with numbers and words: them quickly and easily. You will be able to use them in
your daily life. You will also need them to add larger
2 and 4 are numbers and solve problems.
But it is easiest and best to make a record with num- Learning these addition facts looks like work at first,
bers and siqns & ut there are several ways to make learning the facts
2 easier. For instance, if you look at all the facts in which a
2 + 4 = 6 or 4 number and 1 are added, you will see that learning
6 them is something like ordinary counting. Also, many of

In the example, the plus sign + tells you to add.

first ( )
the pairs of addends are just the reverse of each other.
You can read 2 + 4 as "two and four." The equals sign For example, 4 + 5 adds up to the same thing as 5 + 4.
(= means that the sets on one side of the sign are equal
)
We call a fact like 3 + 3 = 6 a double. Knowing doubles
is useful. If you know that 4 + 4 = 8, then 4 + 3 is 1 less
to the set on the other side of the sign. You can read
than 8, and 4 + 5 is 1 more than 8. You should be able
2 + 4 = 6 as "two and four are six." The second example
to think of other ways to help you learn the addition
shows how you write an addition problem when you
want to work out the answer on paper. The two or more facts.

groups you want to put together, or add, are called ad Adding larger numbers
dends. The new group is called the sum.
... , You use the addition facts and the idea of r
place value
2 Addend
,0 aat * ar 9 er numbers
Addend
'

a
— Adding 10s. last week, Tom earned 2 dimes, or 20c
ium
6 This week lorn earned 3 dimes, or 30c. How much has
50 Addition

Tom earned all together? You can find the answer by Here is another example:
counting.
72
43
115
First, you add the 1's: 2 + 3 = 5. Next, you find that

seven 10s and four 10s are eleven 10s. Eleven 10s are
the same as ten 1 0s and one 1 0, or one 1 00 and one 1 0.
You find that Tom earned 5 dimes, or 50c. You can find So you must write the sum of the 1 0s in the 1 0s and
the answer by adding. 1 00s places in the answer.

When there are several addends, we often speak of

2 dimes 20jZf
the 1's, 10s, and 100s as columns. When you add col-
3 dimes 301 umns, you must learn to think the additions. At first it

5 dimes 50(Zi
may help to keep some kind of record.
If you know that 2 + 3 = 5, you know that 2dimes and
3 dimes are 5 dimes. A dime is 10c, so you can see that Think: 2+1 =3. 3 + 5 = 8.
20c + 30c = 50c. 1's
22 Write: 8 in the 1 's place.
Here is another example:
31
4 tens 40 45
2 tens 20
Think: 2 tens + 3 tens = 5 tens.
10's
6 tens 60
98 5 tens + 4 tens = 9 tens.

Write: 9 in the 10's place.

You can see that 4 + 2 = 6, 4 tens + 2 tens = 6 tens,
and 40 + 20 = 60. The 6 in the 60 shows six 1 0s be-
cause it is in the 1 0s place. You add 10's the same way With practice, adding two-place numbers and long col-
you add Is. But you must write the sum in the 10s place. umns will be easy.
And you must remember to write a zero in the Is place How to carry. When you add two-place numbers,
to show that the sum is 10s, not 1's. the sum of the 1's column is often 10 or more. To add
Here is a third example: such numbers, you must learn to carry.
Here is an example of carrying:
8 8 tens 80
_9 9 tens 90
45 Think: Five 1 's and seven 1 's are
17 7 tens 170
1
27 twelve 1 's: 5 7 + = 12.
s
Here the sum of the Seventeen
1 Os is seventeen 1 0s. 2
1
Twelve is one 1 and two 1 's.

1 0s is the same as ten 1 Os is

1 0s and seven 1 Os. But ten
Write: 2 in the 1 's place.
1 00. So you must write the sum in the 1 Os and 1 00s

places, and write in a zero to show that the answer is

one 1 00, seven 1 Os, and no 1 s. From the 1 's column, there is a
Adding 10's and Vs. Suppose there are 23 boys and 10 to be added to the 10's column.
24 girls in a school play. To find out how many children CARR Y Write a 1 for the one 10 at the
there are all together, you must add 23 and 24. top of the 10's column. This
is what carrying means.

2 tens and 3 ones 23

2 tens and 4 ones 24 I Think: One 10 + four 10's + two
4 tens and 7 ones 45
10's
10's = seven 10's. 1 +4+
27 2 = 7.
We call the numbers 23 and 24 two-place numbers. 72 Write: 7 in the 1 0's place.
When you add two-place numbers, you add the Is first.
In this example, three Vs and four 1's are 3 + 4 = 7. You
write the sum of the 1's in the Is place of the answer You add longer columns the same way.

23 24
24 52
7 ]7

Next,you add the Os. Two Os and two Os are added

1 1 1 First,add the 1's column: 4 + 2 = 6, and 6 + 7 = 13.
as 2 2 = 4. The 4 stands for four Os. You write the
+ 1 Thirteen is one 10 and three Vs. Write the 3 in the 1's

sum of the Os in the 1 Os place of the answer

1 place of the answer. Carry the one 1 to the 1 Os column
by writing a 1 at the top of the 1 0s column.
23 i

24 24
47 52
]7
So there are 47 children in the school play. 3
 Addition 51

Now add the Os column: +2 = 3, 34-5 = 8, and

1 1 Now add the 1 Os column: 2 + 3 + 2+1=8. This 8
8+ 1=9. This 9 means nine Os. Write the 9 in the 1 1 CTs means eight 1 Os. Write the 8 in the 1 Os place of the an-
place. swer.
l
2
24 37
52 29
V7 18
93 84

Adding three-place and four-place numbers is no The sum is 84. The numbers you carry may often be 20s
more difficult than the examples you have just done. You or 30s or 40s, and so on.
must always remember to keep the columns straight,
and to add Is, 10s, 100s, and so on, order. Here
Checking addition
in is an
example: Good workers always check their addition to see if

371 they have made any mistakes. There are several ways to
403 check addition.
139 Adding up. You have learned to add a column of fig-

ures by starting at the top and adding down. After you

First, add the Is column: 1 +3 + 9=13. Write 3 for have written the sum, you can check your answer by
three Is in the Is place of the answer. Carry the 10 by adding up. That is, starting at the bottom of the column
writing 1 for one 1 at the top of the 1 ffs column. and adding up to the top. Here is an example:

371 CHECK
403 21
139 34
3 42
l's 2 + 4 = 6. 6 + 1 = 7

= 97
Next, add the 1 Os column: 1 + 7 + + 3 1 1 . This is
10's 4 + 3 = 7. 7 + 2 = 9
nor eleven eleven 10s. Eleven 10s is one 100 and
Vs. It is

one 1 0. So write 1 for the one 1 in the 1 0s place of the

answer. Carry the 1 00 by writing 1 for one 1 00 at the top If you get the same answer adding up as you did adding

of the 100s column. down, your answer is probably right.

Subtraction can be used to check problems with
l I only two addends (see Subtraction!. Here is an example:
371
403 422
139 +736
13
1158
To check the addition, subtract one of the addends from
Now add the 10Os column: 1+3 + 4 + 1=9. This 9 is the sum. For example, subtract 736 from 1 58. The sub-
,1

nine 1 00s. Write 9 in the 1 0Os place of the answer. traction should leave 422 if the addition is correct

i i
1158
371 —736
403
139
422
913 Estimating is a good way of checking addition, but it

The sum is 91 3. You use the same method of carrying will not catch small mistakes. you estimate before you
If

for 1,00Os and larger numbers. work a problem, you will have an idea of your answer in
Here is an example in which the number you carry is advance. You should get into the habit of always estimat-
more than one 1ft
ing your answer first. Here is an example:

37
29 ESTIMATING
H
First, add the Is column: 7 + 9 + 8 = 24. Twenty-four
is
(Think)
32
two 10s and four Vs. Write the 4 in the Is place in the 32 is about 30.
46
answer. Carry the two 1 0s to the 1 0s column by writing 46 is about 50.
71
a 2 at the top of the 10s column. 30 and 50 are 80.
149
2 71 is about 70.
37 80 and 70 are 150.
29 The answer should be about 150.
18
4

I
52 Addition

There are other methods of checking used in arithmetic. Tick-tack-toe puzzle. Each player draws a tick-tack-
Some of them can be used for addition. toe figure on a piece of paper.

Addition rules to remember

Remember what addition means. You can find the
1

answers to addition problems by counting. But it is

quicker and easier to think the answers.
4 9 2
2. Learning the 81 addition facts will help you think

the answers to addition problems.

3. You can put the addends in any order without

changing the sum of the equation. For example,

3 + 2 + 7=12, 2 + 7 + 3=1 2. and 7 + 3 + 2=1 2.
3 5 7
4. You can add only quantities of the same kind. That

is, you must add Is to Is and Ids to Ids, and be careful

not to mix them up.

Fun with addition

8 1 6
Two winks. Make pack of 20 cards on which the
a Then, each tries to fill in the spaces with the numbers
numbers from been written. Make two
1 to 10 have from 1 to 9, so that if three numbers are added across,
cards for each number. Divide the pack of cards into up and down, or diagonally the sums will be 5. The 1

two piles, and put one pile face down in front of each player must use each number from 1 to 9. The first
player. The first player turns a card and holds it up for player with the correct answer wins. Sadine L \ erderber
both players to see. The second player does the same Related articles in World Book include:
thing from the other pile of cards. The player who first Abacus Division Numeration sys-
Algebra lAdditionl Fraction tems (Working
sees that the sum of the numbers on the two cards is 1
Arithmetic Mathematics with numeration
or more calls out Two winks!" Then, that player takes
Decimal system Multiplication systemsl
Subtraction

Outline
I. Learning to add
A. Addition by counting D U riting addition
B. Addition by thinking E. Addition facts
C Regrouping
II. Adding larger numbers
A. Adding 10s C How to carry
the two cards. two cards do not equal 1 or more,
If the B. Adding 10s and Is
the players put them back in the piles. The game contin-
III Checking addition
A Adding
up B. Subtraction C Estimating
ues, with two new players turning the cards. When all of
IV. Addition rules to remember
the cards have been turned, the player with the most V. Fun with addition
cards wins.
Practice addition examples

In each of the first six problems, what number should be used to repk ice the N?
1.5 + 2=7 2. 8 + 6=14 3. 5 + 9=14
4. 3 = N ; ,. 7 + <! 1 + 9 = N 6. 8 + N = 13
2 + N=7 N+8=14 9 5 = N + 6 C = N 9 + + N = 16 5 + 8 = N

7. 4 10. 34 13. 35 16. 7H 19. 10 22. 74^ 25. 14 28. 27<f,

2 _2 _6 80£ 70 64 56<f.

8. 14 11. 5 14. 45 17. 60^ 20. 37£ 23. 65 26. 65j* 29. 98
_2 6 _6 70J A2j 23 18^ 69

9. 24 12. 25 15. 40£ 18. 50 21. 56? 24. 43 27. 29£ 30. 75
_2 _6 30jZi 90 33£ 52 48£ 58

31. 3jz! 32. 6jz! 33. 6 34. 7 35. $2.49 37. $3.95 39 618 4 . 30 42. 43 43 402 44. 5627 45. 7269
94. H
6c
5
4
8
4
1.29 4.89 489 78
62
20
80
187
260
1872
9000
143
2425
At
H H 2. —
6 36. $7.65
1.82
38. 525 40
482
31
299
1
50 _7 517 4351 82

Answers to the practice examples

1. 5 6. 5, 13 11. 11 16. $1.00 21. 89f! 26. 83?f 31 22£ 36. $9.47 41. 220
2. 6 7. 6 12. 31 17. $1.30 22. $1.39 27. 77t 32 23£ 37. $8.84 42. 150
3. 14 8. 16 13. 41 18. 140 23. 88 28. 9H 33. 22 38. 1,007 43. 1,366
4. 9, 9 9. 26 14. 51 19. 80 24. 95 29. 167 34 25 39. 1,107 44. 20,850
5. 16,7 10. 36 15. 70i 20. 79t 25. 78 30. 133 35. $3.78 40. 610 45. 9,919
 Address, Forms of 53

Address, Forms of, are courteous, formal ways to in- Closing. Very truly yours,
troduce, speak to, write to, or send e-mail 10 other peo- (Although it is permissible to refer to a United States ambas-
ple. In most cases, you can address another person sador as "American Ambassador," it is best not to do so because
as
other Western Hemisphere ambassadors also consider them-
"Mr. Green" or "Ms. Green" or by using that person's title
selves Americans. Ministers, charges d'affaires, consuls, and
before his or her last name. In business correspond- secretaries all use their full title in place of "Ambassador" but are
ence, use "Miss" or "Mrs." only when you know that the addressed as "Dear Mr. orMs. Green:".)
recipient prefers such a form of address. Government Governor of a state
members of royalty, religious dignitaries, and
officials, The Honorable John orMary Green
members of certain professions merit special forms of Dear Sir orMadam: orDear Governor Green:
address. This article gives some of the most commonly State senator
The Honorable John orMary Green
used forms of address for people in such positions.
Dear Sir orMadam: orDear Senator Green:
'Yours truly" is a common closing for letters, though
State representative
there are many others. Certain situations require a more The Honorable John orMary Green
formal closing such as "Respectfully yours." Dear Sir orMadam: orDear Representative Green:
In the examples listed here, the first indentation under Mayor or city manager
each entry provides the formal way to introduce or refer The Honorable John orMary Green
Dear Sir orMadam: orDear Mayor Green:
to the person in each position. The second indentation
(City managers do not use "Honorable" except at ceremonies.
gives the proper salutation to use for communicating
They are addressed as "Mr. John Green" or "Ms, Mary Green"
with the person in writing or by e-mail. An acceptable and "Dear Mr. Green" or "Dear Ms. Green".)
closing is also included for positions in which "yours
truly" is considered insufficiently formal. Officials of the Commonwealth of Nations
King or queen
Officials of the United States His or Her Majesty
Your Majesty orMadam:
President
Closing: Respectfully, or Respectfully yours,
The President
Dear Mr. or Madam President Prince or princess
Closing: Respectfully, His Royal Highness, the Prince John orHer Royal Highness,
the Princess Mary
Vice president
Your Royal Highness:
The Vice President
Closing. Respectfully, or Respectfully yours,
Dear Mr. or Madam Vice President
Cabinet member (except attorney general)
Knight or dame
Sir John Green orDame Mary Green
The Honorable John or Mary Green, Secretary of (State or
Dear Sir John Green orDear Dame Mary Green:
Transportation, for example)
(A knight's or dame's name is followed by initials that designate
Dear Mr. or Madam Secretary: orDear Secretary Green:
the order of knighthood. For example, KCB or DCB stand for
(Deputy secretaries, assistant secretaries, and undersecretaries
Knight Commander of the Bath or Dame Commander of the
are addressed by their specific title, but the salutation is Dear
Bath: and KG or DC stand for Knight of the Garteror Dame of the
Mr. or Ms. Green:".)
Carter.)
Assistant to the president
Prime minister
The Honorable John orMary Green or Assistant to the Presi-
The Right Honourable John orMary Green, Prime Minister of
dent Green
(Canada or the United Kingdom, for example)
Dear Mr. orMs. Green:
Dear Sir orMadam: orDear Prime Minister
Attorney general Closing: Respectfully yours, or Very truly yours,
The Attorney General
Member of the House of Lords of the United Kingdom
Dear Mr. or Madam Attorney General:
The Right Honourable the (Duke or Earl or
Chief justice of the United States Viscount, for example) Green
The Chief Justice of the United States My Lord:
Dear Mr. orMadam Chief Justice:
Member of the House of Commons
Associate justice of the Supreme Court John orMary Green, M.P.
Justice Green Dear Sir orMadam:
Dear Mr. or Madam Justice: orDear Justice Green: Governor general
United States senator His or Her Excellency the Right Honourable John orMary
The Honorable John orMary Green Green, Governor General of (Canada, for example)
Dear Senator orDear Senator Green: Dear Sir orMadam: orSir orMadam:
United States representative Premier or prime minister of a province
The Honorable John orMary Green The Honourable John orMarv Green Prime Minister of (On-
Dear Mr. or Ms. Green: orDear Representative Green: or tario, for example)
Dear Congressman orCongresswoman Green: Dear Sir orMadam: or Sir orMadam:
Speaker of the House of Representatives Senator
The Honorable John orMary Green The Honourable |ohn or Mars Green
Dear Mr. or Madam Speaker Dear Sir orMadam:
Member of an agency, bureau, or commission Minister of a department
The Honorable John orMary Green John orMarx Green Minister of (Transport tor example)
Dear Mr. orMadam Chairman: orDear Mr. orMs. Green: Dear Sir orMadam:
(For a commissioner, the salutation is generally "Dear Commis
Judge
sioner Green:".) The Honourable Mr. Justice |ohn Green or The Honourable
Ambassador Ms. lustice Marx Green
The Honorable John orMary Green, Ambassador of the I nit-
Dear luMii -e Green
ed States of America H High Court judge Is addressed as Your Lordship or \u
Sir orMadam: orDear Mr. orMadam Ambassador only when the conn is \H English or Australian
54 Address, Forms of

peace on the bench is addressed in court as Your

justice of the Other forms
Worship." Canada, judges for county and district courts are
In
President or chancellor of a university or college
addressed as His orHer Honour Judge Green:")
President orChancellor John Green orPresident
Mayor or Chancellor Mary Green
Worship Mayor John Green or
His
Dear President orChancellor Green:
Her Worship Mayor Mary Green
Professor
Dear Sir orMadam: orDear Sir orMadam Mayor
Professor John orMary Green
President Dear Professor Green:
The Right Honourable John or Mary Green, President (Full professors, associate professors, and assistant professors
of the Republic
can be addressed as "Professor." Lecturers, instructors, and fel-
Dear Sir orMadam: orDear Sir orMadam President
lows are addressed as "Mr." or "Ms.1
Lawyer
Foreign officials in the United States John R. Green, Esq.
Ambassador to the United States Dear Mr. Green:
His orHer Excellency John or Mary Green, (Attorneys, especially in the United States, usually address each
Ambassador of (Australia, for example) other by "Esq." This abbreviation stands for "esquire. "In the United
Dear Mr. orMadam Green: orDear Mr. or Kingdom, Queen's Counsel add the initials Q.C after the name.)
Madam Ambassador Doctor of medicine or dentistry
Secretary-general of the United Nations Medicine: Dr. John orMary Green, or John orMary
His orHer Excellency John orMary Green, Green, M.D.
Secretary-General of the United Nations Dentistry: Dr. John or Mary Green, or John or Mary
Sir orMadam: orDear Mr. orMadam Secretary-General: Green, D.D.S.
(Ambassadors and representatives to the United Nations use the (In the United States, all medical doctors and dentists are ad-

form "Representative of Brazil to the United Nations.'! dressed as "Dr." In the United Kingdom, surgeons and specialists
are more often addressed as "Mr." Dentists are rarely addressed
Representative to the United Nations
You may use the forms of address for Ambassador as a general as "Dr."

guide for addressing United Nations representatives. However, Doctor of veterinary medicine:
each member nation awards its own titles to its individual repre- Dr. John orMary Green, or John orMary

sentatives to the United Nations. Whenever possible, the repre- Green, D.V.M.
sentatives should be addressed by the titles conferred by their Dear Dr. Green:
country. Doctor of an academic discipline
Dr. John orMary Green, orjohn orMary

Members of the clergy Green, Ph.D. or Ed.D.

Dear Dr. Green:
Roman Catholic archbishop or bishop (People outside the medical and health professions who hold a
Your excellency or Archbishop Green doctorate may choose whether or not to be addressed as "Dr.")
Your excellency or Bishop Green Military officer
Archbishop or Bishop of (Chicago, for example) Captain John orMary Green, U.S. Coast Guard
Dear Archbishop or Bishop Green: Dear Captain Green:
(Episcopal bishops often use The Right Reverend."
(All people who hold rank that has subgrades, such as vice admi-
Greek Orthodox bishops often use The Very Reverend.'!
ral, second lieutenant, or master sergeant, are addressed by their
Roman Catholic cardinal rank without qualification— as, for example, "Dear Admiral: ", "Dear
His Eminence John Cardinal Green Lieutenant," or "Dear Sergeant "J
Your Eminence: or My Dear Cardinal Green: Widow
Roman Catholic priest Mrs. John Green
The Reverend Father John Green Dear Mrs. Green:
Dear Father Green: orReverend Father (If a widow or a divorced woman signs her own name to a letter

Roman Catholic nun "Mrs. Betty Green," then the person writing to this woman should
Sister Mary Xavier, T.O.S.F. use the same form of address.) Deborah Dumaine
Dear Sister Xavier
See also Letter writing.
Church of England archbishop
The Most Reverend John Green, the Lord Archbishop
Ade, ayd, George (1866-1944), was an American hu-
of (Canterbury, for example) morist, playwright, and journalist. He won fame for his
Your Grace: orMy Dear Archbishop: comic stories written in the everyday speech and popu-
Church of England bishop lar slang of the rural Midwest, especially his home state
The Right Reverend John Green, the Lord Bishop of Indiana.
of (Bristol, for example)
Ade's best-known work is Fables in Slang tt 899), a col-
My Lord: orMy Lord Bishop:
lection of storiesmodeled on Aesop's Fables. The work
Church of England priest
The Reverend John Green consists of humorous tales of country life and of country
Dear Father Green: people living in the city. It also makes fun of show-offs
Church of England canon and bigots.
The Reverend Canon John Green Ade was also a noted comic playwright and author of
Dear Canon Green: musical comedies. His most successful works for the mu-
Protestant minister sical stage were Fhe Sultan of Sulu (1 902) and The Sho-
The Reverend John orMary Green
Gun (1904). His most significant plays were two comedies
Dear Reverend Green:
(If a minister has a doctor's degree from a university, it is often
of small-town life in the United States, The County Chair-
used in the salutation in place of "Reverend,"as "Dear Doctor man (1903) and The College Wc/ow(1904). Although
Green:".) Ade's theater works are rarely staged today, they provide
Rabbi a significant record of American life in the early years of
Rabbi Jacob orMiriam Green
the 1900s.
Dear Rabbi Green:
Ade was born in Kentland, Indiana. In the 1890s, he
 Adenoids 55

worked as a reporter for the Chicago Record. Many of European Economic Com-
his stories originally appeared in a column he wrote for munity. Adenauer allied
the newspaper. Samuel Chase Coale hiscountry with the West-
Adelaide, AD uh layd (pop. 1 ,045,854), is the state of ern powers. He acknowl-
South Australia's capital, largest city, economic center, edged Germany's respon-
and chief port. It lies on a plain on Australia's southern sibility for the crimes
coast and extends inland from the Gulf of St. Vincent, an committed against the
inlet off the Indian Ocean. For the location of Adelaide, Jews during World War II,

see Australia (political map). It was named for Queen and Germany paid war
Adelaide, whose husband, William IV, ruled Britain from reparations to the Jewish
1830 to 1837. state of Israel. Adenauer
The River Torrens flows through Adelaide. The city's and French President
Wide World
central business district is on both banks of the river, 6 Charles de Gaulle signed a
Konrad Adenauer
miles (10 kilometers) inland from the Gulf of St. Vincent Franco-German Treaty of
A belt of beautiful parkland surrounds the central busi- Cooperation in 1963. The
ness district. Adelaide's residential, commercial, and in- treaty was seen as a symbol of reconciliation between
dustrial areas spread north and south along the plain. France and Germany, which had traditionally been ene-
The Mount Lofty Ranges rise east of the city. mies.
Manufacturing is the area's chief economic activity. As chancellor, Adenauer exercised strong rule. He
Products manufactured include household appliances, treated his ministers as subordinates rather than as his
motor vehicles, electrical goods, and processed foods. colleagues. During his later years as chancellor, Ade-
Adelaide hosts an international Festival of the Arts every nauer's actionswere criticized both by his own Christian
two years. Democratic Union Party members and by his opponents.
Adelaide was first settled by Europeans in 1836. Adenauer was born on Jan. 5, 1 876, in Cologne, Ger-
Colonel William Light, the first surveyor general of many. He studied at the universities of Freiburg, Mu-
South Australia, completed a city plan for Adelaide in nich, and Bonn, and became a lawyer. He served as may-
1 837. The city quickly became an important center for or of Cologne from 1917 to 1933. During World War II,
nearby agricultural and mining activities. A large num- the Nazis imprisoned him several times.
ber of new industries were established in Adelaide after The Allies made Adenauer mayor of Cologne when
World War II ended in 1945. The city's population has they occupied Germany after World War However, II.

grown greatly since then and now accounts for more the British dismissed him, and Adenauer entered nation-
than 70 percent of South Australia's population. al 1947 as the leader of the Christian Demo-
politics in

Carry R. LeDuff cratic Party. He played an important role in drafting the

Aden, AHD uhn or A YD uhn (pop. 31 8,000), is the sec- West German which went into force in
constitution,
ond largest city of Yemen. Only Sanaa has more people. 1 949. That year,Adenauer won his first election as chan-
Aden lies on a small peninsula that extends into the Gulf cellor. After Adenauer retired in 1963, his vice chancel-

ofAden. For the location of Aden, see Yemen (map). lor, Ludwig Erhard, was elected chancellor.

Aden has served as an important port and trading cen- Otis C Mitchell

ter since ancient times. Adenine. See Cell (The code of life).
Aden has both broad streets lined by Western-style Adenoids, AD uh noydz, also known as pharyngeal
buildings and winding, narrow streets bordered by old, tonsils, are a mass of glandlike tissue normally present

thick-walled Arab buildings. The city serves as the trad- in the upper part of the throat, directly behind the nasal

ing center for its region and as a refueling place for passages. A small amount of this tissue is always found
ships. It has a iarge oil refinery. Manufactured products in the throats of newborn babies. Usually it shrinks grad-

include cooking oil and textiles. ually and disappears by the time the child is 10 years

Aden became an important Roman trading center old. But sometimes this shrinking process does not take

during ancient times. In 1839, British forces took over place. Instead, theadenoid tissue increases in varying
the city. In 1967, Yemen (Aden) became an independent degrees to form a large growth. It is this growth that
nation with Aden as its capital. In 1990, Yemen (Aden) people commonly call adenoids.
and Yemen (Sanaa) merged and became the country of The adenoid tissue may grow so extensively that it fills
Yemen, with Sanaa as the capital. Robert Geran under. the entire space behind the nose and interferes with
Adena Indians. See Mound builders. nasal breathing. The soft, spongy tissue harbors germs

Adenauer, AH duh now uhr, Konrad (1 876-1 967), and becomes infected easily. The infecting organisms
served as chancellor of the West German Republic from often cause additional swelling so that the whole upper

its formation in 1949 until he retired in 1963.

Under his part of the throat may become clogged. Then breathing

leadership, West Germany gained its sovereignty, made through the nose becomes almost impossible, and the
an extraordinary economic recovery, built its military
whole area is inflamed and sore.
power, and played a major role in Western European af- Enlarged adenoid tissue also may block the Eustachi-
fairs. Adenauer's accomplishments were all the
more re- an tube that connects the back of the throat and the mid-
dle i\ir. Fluid then forms in the middle ear, resulting in a
markable because he was 73 years old when he started
his 14 years as chancellor.
condition that is known as serous otitis media. This con-

Adenauer helped bring Germany North At- into the dition may lead to hearing loss and recurrent ear infec-
See Ear (Diseases
lantic Treaty Organization (NATO), the Council of Eu-
the other tonsils the adenoids consist ol Ivnv
rope, the European Coal and Steel Community, and the
I ikt-

!
56 Adhesion

paste, polyurethane, white glue, and cyanoacrylate (su-

per Adhesives are used in homes, offices, and
glue).

-Adenoids schools. They also play an important role in the manu-

facture of many products, including aircraft, automo-
biles, books, furniture, and toys. In addition, they are
used in the construction of buildings and roads. Many
people use adhesives to make simple household re-
pairs.
Since ancient times, people have made adhesives
from such natural materials as beeswax, egg yolks, tree
sap, and proteins from animal hides, hooves, and blood.
Today, most adhesives are made from plastics and other
synthetic materials.
Adhesives vary in the way they are applied and in the
manner in which they form a bond. For example, adhe-

sives made from the synthetic materials polyethylene

and polyvinyl acetate, called hot melt adhesives, are
heated to a liquid state before being applied. The bond
WORLD BOOK illustration by ( harles Wellefc
forms as the adhesive cools and hardens. Epoxy adhe-
The adenoids, or pharyngeal tonsils, are in the upper part of
sives are usually sold as two substances in separate
the pharynx (throat). They sometimes become enlarged and in-

flamed, causing difficulties in breathing through the nose. tubes. The two substances must be mixed before being
applied to the surfaces to be joined. The molecules of
epoxy adhesives crosslink (interconnect) to form a ther-
phoid tissue (see Lymphatic system). The adenoids and moset material, which cannot be deformed by heat or
other tonsils form a continuous ring of lymphoid tissue pressure. Cyanoacrylate reacts with water on the joined
around the back of the throat. If adenoid tissue causes surfaces to create a strong, but brittle, adhesive bond.
repeated infections, doctors may remove it in a surgical Daryl J. Doyle
operation called an adenoidectomy. Jerome c Goldstein See also Adhesion; Glue; Gum; Mucilage.
See also Tonsil. Adirondack Mountains, ad uh RAHN dak, are a
Adhesion, ad HEE zhuhn, is the property of two unlike group of mountains that cover about 12,000 square
substances that causes them to stick together. Adhesion miles (31,000 square kilometers) in northeastern New
occurs because of the attraction between all molecules York. Millions of tourists, hikers, and sports enthusiasts
and atoms. are drawn every year to the Adirondacks for its beautiful
Adhesive strength depending on the charac-
varies, scenery, wildlife, and recreational opportunities.
teristics of the substances coming together. The adhe- More than 40 of the Adirondack Mountains rise
sion between the surfaces of two solid substances tends above 4,000 feet (1 ,200 meters). Mount Marcy, at 5,344
to be low, even if they seem perfectly flat and clean. The feet (1,629 meters), is the highest point in New York. Lake
surfaces are actually rough when viewed through a mi- Champlain and Blue Mountain Lake are among the hun-
croscope, and touch each other at relatively few places. dreds of lakes that dot the region. Lake George and Lake
But if one of the substances is part or all liquid, contact Placid are famous resort areas.
between the surfaces is much greater. The mountains were formed when powerful geologic
The strongest adhesives are applied as thin layers of forces lifted the earth's crust more than a billion years
liquids. In many cases, these liquids are solutions of ago. Glaciers later created most of the region's lakes. Ad-
polymers (compounds of high molecular weight). As irondack Park has 6 million acres (2.4 million hectares) of
these solutions set, their molecules become immovable.. public and private lands. The 2 \ million acres (1 million
The adhesion can be so good that a strong force will hectares) of public land makes up the largest wilderness
cause the substance, but not the adhesive bond, to preserve in the eastern United States. The word Adiron-
break. James Nelson Rieck dack comes from the Iroquois Indian word for bark
See also Cohesion. eater. The Iroquois may have used this term to describe
Adhesion, ad HEE zhuhn, in the body, is a name for the neighboring Algonquin Indians. Michael k. Heiman
new tissue that sometimes binds together internal or- See also Lake Champlain; Lake Placid; New York (pic
gans that are normally separate. Such tissue usually ture).
grows as a result of inflammation or a surgical opera- Adjective is a part of speech that describes, qualifies,
tion. Adhesions are often painful and may interfere with or places limits on a noun or pronoun. Adjectives are
the normal work of the internal organs. Diseases of the said to modify nouns or pronouns.
heart or lungs may result in painful adhesions between As a part of speech, adjectives are single words. How-
those organs and the surrounding parts of the body. Af- ever, clauses and phrases may serve roughly the same
ter abdominal operations, adhesions sometimes cause function. For example, in the angry woman and the
portions of the intestine to grow together or to the lin- woman angered by his crude behavior, the phrase an-
ing of the abdomen. If the adhesions interfere with di- gered by his crude behavior modifies the noun
gestion, additional surgical operations may be neces- woman, just as the word angry does. Relative clauses
sary. See also Tissue. David t. woodiey generally function as adjectives. For example, in The

Adhesive is a substance that bonds surfaces together. man whose sister is arriving from France, the relative
Adhesives include such materials as cement, epoxy, clause whose sister is arriving from France modifies the
 Adjective 57

man. These clauses and phrases that serve as adjectives set rules. Here are some examples:
are called adjectival'clauses and phrases. Positive Comparative Superlative
A speaker or writer uses adjectives to add detail, to bad worse worst
make distinctions, and to be precise about what they are far farther, further farthest, furthest

saying. For example, various adjectives can make the

good better best
little littler, less, lesser littlest, least
noun tulip more and more specific. A red tulip adds a many, much more most
quality. A big, beautiful, red tulip adds even more detail.
Sometimes the effects are more dramatic. An alleged Although many adjectives show three degrees of
murdererls not necessarily a murderer. A false comparison, such adjectives as chief, main, and fore-
prophetis not a prophet at all. mostexist in only one degree and cannot be compared
The position of adjectives. Adjectives can occupy at all. There is a difference of opinion about whether ad-
three different positions in a sentence. An adjective can jectives such as round, perfect, and unique can be com-
come before a noun, as in wild animal. Or an adjective pared. Many persons consider them absolute adjectives
can follow a noun, as in the title Captains Courageous. that cannot show degree, except in phrases such as al-
When adjectives are themselves modified by a preposi- most round, more nearly perfect, and a/most completely
tional phrase, the adjective and prepositional phrase fol- unique. However, such comparisons as more round,
low the noun (The wet shirt versus The shirt wet with more perfect, and most unique have become increasing-
perspiration). ly common in informal usage.
Adjectives can also follow a linking verb. Linking Classifying adjectives. Adjectives are classified into
verbs include the verb to be and such verbs as seem, several types according to their meaning and function.
become, feel, or taste. In the sentence The furniture is Descriptive adjectives specify the kind, nature, or con-
durable, the adjective durable follows the linking verb dition of thewords they modify, as in When we saw the
/sand modifies the noun furniture. fierce dog, we grew cautious.
Adjectives that follow a linking verb are called predi- Proper adjectives come from a proper name and are
cate adjectives. Adjectives that follow nouns and repeat written with a capital letter. Some examples of proper
the meaning of the noun in different words are called adjectives are: American flag, Roman numerals, and
adjective appositives. For example, The boring lecture, Shakespearean sonnets.
long and dull, lasted until 9 p.m. Which
Interrogative adjectives ask a question, as in

Comparison of adjectives. Adjectives show differ- car do you mean? or What make?
difference does it

ences in amount or degree by the addition of function Determiners are adjectives that place limits on a noun
words or by changes in form. The function words less rather than add description. Several groups of words
and least show decreasing amounts or degrees. The serve as determiners. They include the articles a, an, and
function words more and most show increasing the;the demonstrative adjectives that, this, these, and
amounts or degrees. Adjectives have three degrees of those; and the indefinite adjectives all, each, no, some,
comparison, called the positive, the comparative, and other, and much; and such numbers as one boxand sec-
the superlative. Some adjectives, usually those of one or ond place. Some scholars consider determiners to be a
two syllables, add -erto form the comparative and -est separate part of speech.
to form the superlative, as shown in the following exam- Usage. The careful use of adjectives can clarify mean-
ples: ing, but too many adjectives in a sentence may confuse
Positive Comparative Superlative a reader or listener. One carefully chosen adjective of-
dry drier driest ten can express more information than two or three
free freer freest vague ones.
happy happier happiest
Sometimes a person may have difficulty in deciding
high higher highest
richest
whether to use an adjective or an adverb after certain
rich richer
slowest verbs. If the sentence requires a word to modify the
slow slower
warm warmer warmest verb, the choice should be an adverb— for example, He-
len sings well, not Helen sings good. If the sentence re-

The comparative and superlatives here show increas- quires a word following a linking verb to modify the

ing amounts or degrees. Adjectives of more than two subject, the choice should be an adjective— for example,
I feel bad, not I feel badly. In the sentence He looked
syllables use function words, as shown in the next exam-
ples:
calmly at the judge, the word calmly is an adverb that
Comparative Superlative modifies looked. It describes the manner in which the
Positive
accurate more accurate most accurate person acted. In the sentence He looked calm, the word
accurate less accurate least accurate calm is a predicate adjective that modifies he. It de-
beautiful more beautiful most beautiful
scribes the condition of the subject.
less beautiful least beautiful
beautiful Errors in agreement can be created when such words
interesting more interesting most interesting
least interesting
as kind, sort, and type are used with the demonstrative
interesting less interesting
adjectives this or that In such cases, both the adjective

including handsome, happy, lo\el\ and the noun should be either singular or plural. For ex-
Many adjectives,
method-for ex- ample, / like this kind of motion picture or / like these
and proud, may be compared by either
kinds of motion pictures but not I like these kind of mo-
ample, happy, happier, happiest; or happy, more happ)
rion pictu
most happy.
See also Adverb; Apposition; Article; Comparison;
A special group of adjectives show comparison b
Parts of speech.
regulariorms. That is, their changes in form follow no
58 Adjutant

Adjutant, A] uh tuhnt, is the name of two species of Adler was born near Vienna, Austria. He received his
large birds in the stork family. They are found in India M.D. degree from the University of Vienna in 1895. Adler
and Southeast Asia. The greater adjutant stands about 5 was an eye specialist and a neurologist before becom-
feet (1.5 meters) high, and the lesser adjutant measures ing a psychiatrist. From 1902 to 1911, he worked with the
up to 4 feet (1.2 meters) tall. Both birds have a white famous Austrian neurologist and psychoanalyst Sig-
body, and the back and wings are dark gray. The greater mund Freud. From 1921 to 1934, Adler established child
adjutant has a long bag of skin that hangs under its bare guidance clinics in Vienna. He trained teachers, worked
neck. The bird can puff out this skin and fill it with air. with parents, and supervised teachers' clinical activities
The Indian government protects adjutants because with disturbed children. Adler moved to New York City
these birds eat dead animals that would otherwise de- in 1934. Hannah S. Decker

cay and possibly spread diseases. Eric c. Boien Adler, Dankmar (1844-1900), was an American archi-
Scientific classification. Adjutants belong to the stork fami- tect noted primarily for his association with architect
ly, Ciconiidae. The greater adjutant is Leptoptilos dubius, and Louis H. Sullivan. The two formed the partnership of
the lesser adjutant is L javanicus. Adler & Sullivan in 1 883. Together they designed such
See also Marabou; Stork. important structures as the Auditorium Building (1889) in
Chicago and the Wainwright Building (1891) in St. Louis.
These buildings helped define the influential Chicago
School of architecture. The firm's other notable Chicago
structures include the Chicago Joint Board Building
(1 884), the Carrick Theater in the Schiller Building (1 892),

the Transportation Building (1893) at the World's

Columbian Exposition, and the Stock Exchange Building
(1894).
an architect, his respon-
In spite of Adler's training as
sibilities within the firm seem
have been limited to
to
structure, ventilation, and acoustics, in which he was an
expert. Adler was also an excellent business manager.
The partnership was dissolved in 1895 following the
construction of the Guaranty Building (1895) in Buffalo,
New York.
Adler was born near Eisenach, Germany, and immi-
grated with his family to the United States in 1854. He
moved to Chicago in 1861 and served as an engineer in
the Union army during the Civil War (1861-1865). Adler
returned to Chicago in 1866. Nicholas Adams
E. R. Degginger See also Sullivan, Louis Henri; Architecture (Early
The adjutant the largest member of the stork family. It has a
is modern architecture in America).
long beak and a white body with a gray back and wings. Administrator is a person who takes charge of the
property of a person who has died. Probate courts ap-
Adler, Alfred (1870-1937), an Austrian psychiatrist, de- point administrators to handle the property of a person
veloped important theories concerning the motivation who leaves no will, or who leaves a will but names no
of human behavior. According to Adler, the major force executor. An executory a person who is named in a will
of all human activity is a striving from a feeling of inferi- to handle property (see Executor). The administrator's
ority toward perfection. Adler at first referred to this duty is to collect the assets of the dead person's estate,
force as an aggressive drive. He later called the force a pay claims against the estate, and then distribute the bal-
striving for superiority. Adler termed his school of ance to the person s heirs and next of kin— or to the lega-
thought individual psychology. Today, it is often referred tees (beneficiaries) of the will
if there is one.

to as Adlerian psychology. Courts usually name a qualified close relative of the

Adler taught that everyone experiences feelings of in- deceased to serve as administrator. In many large cities,
feriority and each person strives to overcome such feel- officials called public administrators manage the estates-
ings according to a unique set of goals. Every individual, of dead people who have no relatives. When citizens of
he said, also has a unique way of attempting to achieve another country die while in the United States without
the goals. Adler used the term style of lifeTor the per- leaving a will, their country s consul is usually named to
son's goals and methods of pursuing them. He claimed administer the estate. William m McCovem
that the style of life becomes established by the age of 4 See also Probate; Will (document); Heir.
or 5. He also believed that an individual's self-image and Admiral is the highest rank in the navy of the United
opinion of the world reflect the person's style of life. States and of many other countries. Most admirals com-
Adler emphasized the importance of social forces in mand fleets or specially organized naval units called task
determining behavior. He believed everyone is born forces or task groups.
with a trait called social interest, which enables a person There are four basic grades of admiral in the U.S.
to relate to other people and to place the good of soci- Navy. They are— from the lowest to the highest grade-
ety above their own interests. Many of Adler's ideas rear admiral, vice admiral, admiral, and fleet admiral. A
have become part of the theory and practice of psychia- rear admiral wears the insignia of two and general-
stars
try. ly commands a task group. A vice admiral wears three
 Adobe 59

stars and commands a task torce. An admiral, with four the Dutch navigators Willem Schouten and Jakob le

stars, commands The rank of fleet admiral carries

a fleet. Maire. In 1616, they found the islands inhabited by Mel-
five stars. It was created in 1944 and was held by four anesians, a dark-skinned people with black, woolly hair.
heroes of World War II— William F. Halsey, Ernest J. Germany claimed the group in 1884. Australians cap-
King, William D. Leahy, and Chester W. Nimitz. tured the islands in World War (1914-1918), and Japan
I

The word admiral comes from the Arabic term amir- occupied thern in 1942, during World War II (1939-1945).
albahr, which means "commander of the sea." The title of In 1944, American and Australian troops recaptured the
admiral was introduced into Europe during the Cru- islands. A naval base was built at Manus and was used
sades (A.D. 1096-1 500's). In the United States, captains to launch the invasion of the Philippine island of Leyte in
were the highest-ranking Navy officers until 1862, when 1 The base was later abandoned.
944. David a. m. Lea

the rank of rear admiral was adopted. David C. Farragut See also Bismarck Archipelago; Pacific Islands.
became the first person to hold this rank. He also be- Admiralty law. See Maritime law.
came the Navy's first vice admiral in 1864 and its first ad- Adobe, uh DOH bee, is the Spanish name for sun-
miral in 1866. In 1899, Congress created the honorary dried bricks, or for a house built with such bricks. A less
rank of Admiral of the Navy for George Dewey, a hero of common type of adobe is made with dampened earth
the Spanish-American War. Ann Alexander Warren pressed downin building forms similar to those used
See also Flag officer; Rank, Military. for poured concrete walks.
Admiralty, AD muhr uhltee, is a department of a na- People have used adobe to build houses and other
tion's government that directs naval affairs. For example, structures in desert regions for thousands of years. The
the Admiralty Board in the United Kingdom controls the ancient Egyptians and Babylonians used adobe.
Royal Navy. Beginning in the 1 300s, the Lord High Admi- To make adobe, workers mix sandy clay or loam with
ral commanded the Royal Navy. In 1708, the Board of water and a small quantity of straw, grass, or similar ma-
Admiralty (now Admiralty Board) assumed control of The straw holds the mixture together, giving the
terial.

naval affairs. Its powers are about the same as those of The mixture is placed in wooden
bricks greater stability.
the Department of the Navy in the United States and of forms that shape it into bricks. Workers remove the
the Maritime Command in Canada. The term admiralty forms when the bricks are dry. Then they bake the
/awapplies to a body of laws relating to ships and ship- bricks in the sun from ten days to two weeks.
ping. It covers wrecks, collisions, and cargo damage. In Adobe houses are common in Mexico and the south-
the United States, district courts hear these cases. See western part of the United States. Traditional adobe
also Maritime law. Ann Alexander Warren houses are covered with mud. Modern adobe houses
Admiralty Islands, AD muhr uhl tee, a group of is- are covered with a plasterlike material called stucco.
lands in the South Pacific Ocean, are part of the nation Adobe houses are cooler than uninsulated homes made
of Papua New Guinea. The islands have a population of of wood or stone, but adobe is not suitable for use in
about 30,500 and cover 800 square miles (2,072 square cold or damp regions. The bricks will crumble if they
kilometers). The group includes one large island are exposed to rain or to periods of freezing tempera-
(Manus), several small, hilly volcanic islands, and about tures followed by thaws. Jack M. Landers
1 00 low reef islands (see New Guinea [map]). Lorengau,

the group's principal town, is on Manus Island.

The first Europeans to reach the island were probably

("In k ( hn .Kjii

Eric lindqren Adobe structures are made of sun-dried bricks. Since ancient

Manus Island, shown here, is the largest of the Admiralty Is- times people living in desert regions have built adobe houses.
lands. It is covered by a dense tropical forest Adobe consists mostly of clay, which stays cool in extreme heat.
60 Adolescent

© Lawrence Migd. WORLD BOOK photo by Steven Sppcer (lones Metropolitan High School
of Business and Commerce a Chicago Public High School!

During adolescence, relationships with peer.? (people of one's own age) take on great importance.
Teen-agers spend much time with their peers in such activities as eating together or chatting after
school. The students shown above right attend a high school with a strict dress code.

At school, they could be better educated for a rapidly

Adolescent changing workplace.
By the early 1900s, adolescence in some societies
Adolescent refers to a person who
experiencing is and some social and economic classes had become a
the period of development between childhood and lengthy period of preparation for adulthood. During this
adulthood. This period is often called adolescence. time, young people remained grouped with people
Many experts in human development believe adoles- their own age, often referred to as their peers, and were
cence begins at about the age of 10. They recognize economically dependent on adults. This role is still what
adolescence as a period of growth with many distinc- is expected of adolescents in most societies today.

tive features. These features involve changes in the indi- How society regards adolescence has a tremendous
vidual's body, thinking abilities, psychological concerns, impact on the psychological and social development of
and place in society. individuals. Before the 1 800s, the lives of adolescents
Human beings, like all mammals, go through a series did not revolve around socializing with their friends.
of physicaland biological changes, called puberty, that There was no such thing as a "teen culture." Young peo-
prepares them for sexual reproduction. As a biological ple seldom felt compelled to take a certain action, adopt
phenomenon, therefore, adolescence has always exist- certain values, or otherwise conform to be accepted by
ed as a period in human development. However, ado- the group. Today, social pressure from people their
lescence as a separate psychological and social stage is own age, known as peer pressure, is a major influence
a concept that was developed in industrialized nations on many adolescents.
during the mid-1 800 s. Before adolescence became defined as a distinct de-
velopmental stage, most young people did not struggle
The "invention" of adolescence
to develop a clear sense of self or to sort out what they
Before the 1800s, adults did not make important dis- would become in the future. Most young people had
tinctions among children of different ages. However, few real choices open to them. Today, psychological ex-
new patterns of work and family life came with industri- perts use the term identity crisis to refer to the psycho-
alization in the 1800s. Individuals from age 12 to 16 logical distress many adolescents feel as they seek a
were greatly affected by these changes. As work shifted sense of purpose and an acceptable role in the world.
away from farming and became less tied to the family, Peer pressure, popular culture, and identity crises may
young people needed a new kind of preparation for seem to make up the core of adolescence, but they are
adulthood. Children in working-class families often took actually consequences of how adolescence is defined
jobs in mines, factories, and mills. Others were appren- today.
ticed to craftworkers to learn a trade. Adolescents in
Physical development
middle-class families were expected to attend school,
where they were grouped with others of the same age. Puberty is the most obvious sign that an individual
has entered adolescence. Technically, puberty refers to
Laurence Steinberg, the contributor of this article, is Professor the period during which the individual becomes capa-
of Psychology at Temple University and co-author of You and More broadly, however, pu-
ble of sexual reproduction.
Your Adolescent A Parent's Guide for Ages 10 to 20.
berty is used as a collective term for all the physical
 Adolescent 61

chanyes that occur in a growing girl or boy as the indi-

vidual passes from childhood to adulthood.
The physical changes of adolescence are triggered by
hormones (chemical substances in the body) that act on
specific organs and tissues. In boys, a major change is
increased production of the hormone testosterone,
while girls experience increased production of the hor-
mones called estrogens. In both sexes, a rise in growth
hormone produces a growth spurt. During this spurt,
which lasts two or more years, an individual commonly
Mime
grows 2 to 4 inches (5 to 10 centimeters) taller per year.
Sexual development Many of the most dramatic
changes of puberty involve sexual development. Inter-
nally, adolescents become capable of sexual reproduc-
tion. Externally, as secondary sexual characteristics ap-
pear, girls and boys begin to look more like mature
women and men. The term secondary sexual character-
istics refers to a variety of physical traits, such as body
shape, voice, and facial hair.
Not everyone goes through puberty at the same time An adolescent of the past worked long hours in a factory,
or Western industrialized societies today, the
rate. In shown here. Before the 1800s, adolescence was not regarded as
adolescent growth spurt occurs, on average, between a separate psychological and social stage of development
the ages of 12 and 14 in boys, and 10 and 12 in girls. But
some young people start puberty when they are 8 or 9,
and others not until they are in their mid-teens. General- er ages. Part of the trend is due to improvements in nu-

ly, girls begin puberty about two years earlier than boys. trition and health care. The trend appears to be leveling
The duration of puberty also varies greatly, from 1 \ to 6 off, however.
years in girls and from 2 to 5 years in boys.
Intellectual development
Adolescent "awkwardness." Because different
parts of the body grow at different rates during puberty, Compared with children, adolescents begin to think
many adolescents temporarily look and feel awkward. in ways more like adults. Their thinking becomes more

For many years, psychologists believed that puberty was advanced, more efficient, and generally more effective.
stressful for young people. According to one theory, These improvements appear in five chief ways.
changes in hormones made young adolescents moody, (1) An adolescent's thinking isbound to concrete
less
irritable, and depressed. We now know that most emo- events than that of a child. Children's thinking focuses
tional disturbances in adolescence result from changes on things and events that they can observe directly in
in the teen-ager's roles and relationships. Adolescents the present. Adolescents can better compare what they
can minimize difficulties associated with adjusting to pu- observe with what they can imagine.
berty by knowing what changes to expect and having (2) During adolescence, individuals become better
healthy attitudes toward them. able to think about abstract things. Adolescents have an
The timing of puberty may affect an adolescent's so- increased interest in relationships, politics, religion, and
cial and emotional development in important ways. Be- morality. These topics involve such abstract concepts as
cause early-maturing boys and girls appear older physi- loyalty, faith,and fairness.
cally, people often treat them as if they were more ma- (3) Adolescents think more often about the process of

ture psychologically than they are. Early maturers will thinking itself. As a result, they can develop better ways
more likely engage in risky behavior during early ado- to remember things and to monitor their own thinking.
lescence, such as experimentation with drugs, sex, or (4) Adolescents have the ability to think about things in

delinquency. Many psychologists believe these risky ac- several ways at the same time. Adolescents can give
tions result from the influence of older teen-agers, who much more complicated answers than children to such
befriend early maturers more often than they befriend questions as "What caused the American Civil War?"
younger-looking adolescents. Adolescents have more sophisticated, complicated rela-
Because of the emphasis many boys place on athlet- tionships with others because they can better under-
ics, early-maturing boys may have temporary advan- stand other people's feelings. They also understand that
tages over their peers. As a result, during the first years social situations can have different interpretations, de-
of adolescence, early-maturing boys tend to be more pending on one's point of view.
popular, have higher self-esteem, and have more seif- (5) Children tend to see things in absolute terms. Ado-

confidence than average- or late-maturing boys. lescents often see things as relative. They are more likely
In contrast, the effects of early maturation on girls are to question statements and less likely to accept "facts" as
more mixed. Early-maturing girls tend to be more popu- unquestionably true. This change can be frustrating to
lar with their peers. But they are also more likely to feel parents, who may feel that their adolescent children
awkward and self-conscious, perhaps because they are question everything just for the sake of argument. How-
uncomfortable with the attention, both welcome and un- ever, such questioning is normal and helps teen-agers
welcome, their new appearance draws. develop individuality and personal convictions.
Over time, puberty has begun at younger and young- One by-product of these changing aspects of intellec-
62 Adolescent

tual development is the tendency for adolescents to be- individuals begin to act the way they think is right, rather
come self-conscious and self-absorbed. This tendency is than trying to impress their friends or please their par-
sometimes called adolescent egocentrism. Intense self- ents.
consciousness sometimes leads teen-agers mistakenly
Social development
to believe that others are constantly watching and evalu-
ating them. A related problem is an adolescent's incor- Relationships with peers change in four important
rect belief that his or her problems are unique. For ex- ways during the teen-age years: (1 There is a sharp in-
)

ample, a teen-ager who has just broken up with a girl- crease in the amount of time adolescents spend with
friend or boyfriend may say that nobody else could pos- their peers compared to the time they spend with adults
sibly understand what he or she is feeling, even though or their families. (2) Peer groups function much more
such breaking up is a common experience. often without adult supervision than they do during
childhood. (3) In most societies, there is much more con-
Psychological development
tact withpeers of the opposite sex. (4) Adolescents tend
Identity and self-esteem. As individuals mature, they to move in much larger peer groups than they did in
come to see themselves in more sophisticated, compli- childhood. Crowds tend to dominate the social world of
cated ways. Adolescents can provide complex, abstract the school.
psychological descriptions of themselves. As a result, The increased importance of peers during early ado-
they become more interested in understanding their lescence coincides with changes in an individual's need
own personalities and why they behave the way they do. for intimacy. As adolescents begin to share secrets with
Teen-agers feelings about themselves may fluctuate, es- new sense of loyalty and commitment
their friends, a
pecially during early adolescence. However, self-esteem grows between them. An adolescent's discovery that he
increases over the course of middle and late adoles- or she thinks and feels the same way as someone else
cence, as individuals gain more confidence. becomes an important basis of friendship and helps in
Some adolescents go through periods when they the development of a sense of identity.
genuinely wonder what their "real" personality is. Ado- Dating and sex. In industrialized societies, most
lescents who have gone through a prolonged identity young people begin dating sometime during early to
crisis may feel a stronger sense of identity as a result of mid-adolescence. Dating can mean a variety of activities,
taking the time to examine who they are and where they from gatherings that bring males and females together,
are headed. to group dates, in which a group of boys and girls go
Independence and responsibility. During adoles- out jointly. There can be casual dating in couples or seri-
cence, individuals gradually move from the dependency ous involvement with a boyfriend or girlfriend.
of childhood to the independence of adulthood. Older Most adolescents' first experience with sex does not
adolescents generally do not rush to their parents involve another person. Many boys and girls report hav-
whenever they are upset, worried, or need assistance. ing sexual fantasies about someone they know or wish
They solve many problems on their own. In addition, they knew. It is also fairly common for adolescents to
most adolescents have a great deal of emotional energy masturbate (handle or rub their sex organs).
wrapped up in relationships outside the family. They By the time many adolescents have reached high
may feel just as attached to their friends as to their par- school, they have had some experience with intimate
ents. By adolescence, children see their parents, and
late sexual contact, such as kissing, caressing, or sexual in-
interact with them, as people— not just as a mother and tercourse. During the 1970s and 1980s, more adoles-
father. Unlike younger children, adolescents do not typi- cents became sexually active than in the past and they
cally see their parents as all-knowing or all-powerful. became sexually active at an earlier age. Surveys in the
Being independent also means being able to make late 1990s, however, indicated that the trend toward be-
one's own decisions and behave responsibly. In general, coming sexually active at an early age might be leveling
decision-making abilities improve over the course of the off. Many individuals and religious groups consider

adolescent years, with gains in being able to handle sexual activity outside of marriage to be morally wrong.
responsibility continuing into the late years of high They also urge adolescents to avoid sexual activity for
school. health reasons.
During childhood, boys and girls are dependent upon Family relationships change most about the time of
and relate closely to their parents rather than their puberty. Conflict can increase between parents and ado-
peers. During early adolescence, conformity to parents lescents,and closeness between them diminishes
begins to decline, while peer pressure and conformity somewhat. Changing adolescent views on family rules
to peers increase. Peer pressure is particularly strong and regulations may contribute to increased disagree-
during junior high school and the early years of high ment between young people and their parents.
school. Although young people may distance themselves
Adolescents yield more often to peer pressure when from their parents as they enter adolescence, this period
it involves day-to-day social matters, such as styles of is not normally a time of family stress. Most conflicts
dress, tastes in music, and choices among leisure activi- take the form of minor arguments over day-to-day is-

ties.But teen-agers are mainly influenced by their par- sues. In many families, the decline in closeness between
ents and teachers when it comes to long-range ques- parents and children in early adolescence results from
tions concerning educational or occupational plans, or the adolescent increased desire for privacy. In addi-
s

decisions involving values, religious beliefs, or ethics. tion, teen-agers and parents may express affection for
Becoming independent involves learning how to each other less often. Generally, this distancing is tem-
cope with peer pressure. During middle adolescence, porary, and family relationships become closer and less
 Adolescent 63

conflict-ridden during middle and late adolescence.

Certain constants remain in family life. Among the
most important an adolescent's need for parents who
is

are both nurturing and demanding. This combination of

warmth and strictness is associated with healthy psycho-
logical development Children raised by loving parents
who maintain clear and constant personal and social
standards are more likely to have good feelings about
themselves than children brought up by harsh or lax
parents. Adolescents raised with both warmth and firm-
ness are more likely to excel in school, to have close and
satisfying relationships with others, and to avoid trouble
with drugs and delinquency.

Special problems and challenges

Adjusting to school life. A young person's move
from elementary school to middle school or junior high
school can be difficult. In elementary school, the child
had a single homeroom teacher who knew him or her
personally. In middle school or junior high, the child
usually has a different teacher for each subject In ele-
mentary school, children are rewarded for trying hard.
In middle or junior high school, grades are based more
on performance than on effort In elementary school,
children work under close supervision all day. In middle
school or junior high, young people must learn to work © Bob Higbee, Berg & Associates
more independently. Dating normally begins during adolescence. Learning to enjoy a
For such reasons, many students are temporarily dis- new kind of closeness with another person is a normal develop-
oriented during the transition between schools. Their mental task of this period of life, as well as learning to think of
oneself as a sexual being and to deal with sexual feelings.
self-esteem falters, and their grades may drop off slight-
ly. Their interest in school activities declines. They may
feel anonymous, isolated, and vulnerable. Parents can
help by talking to the child before school begins about self as a sexual being, to deal with sexual feelings, and to
the differences he or she will experience. enjoy a new
kind of closeness with another person. Part
Alcohol and drug abuse. Many adolescents in in- of this involves developing a sexual identity. Sexual iden-
dustrialized countries experiment with alcohol, tobacco, tity includes sexual orientation—that is, whether a per-
and marijuana. Adolescents may experiment with such son is sexually attracted to the opposite sex or the same
substances because of a desire to fit in with their sex. People who
are primarily attracted to members of
friends. Many adolescents see smoking, drinking, and their own sex are called homosexual, gay, or, if they are
using drugs as a key to popularity. Other reasons ado- women, lesbian. People who are attracted to the oppo-
lescents experiment with drugs and alcohol include site sex are called heterosexual or straight No one factor
boredom, and a desire to feel grown-up— that is, they determines sexual orientation.
see drugs as a way to prove they are adults and no long- At some time, almost all young adolescents worry that
er under ad-ilt control. they might be homosexual. At the age when children en-
Young people who abuse drugs and alcohol are more ter puberty, they still spend most of their time with
likely to experience problems at school, to suffer from members of the same sex. As a result, many adolescents
psychological distress and depression, to have unsafe begin to experience sexual feelings before they have
sex, and to become involved in dangerous activities. Al- much contact with the opposite sex. This does not mean
cohol and drugs often contribute to automobile acci- that all of these young adolescents have homosexual de-
dents, the leading cause of death among American teen- sires. Their sexual development is just ahead of their so-

agers. Adolescent substance abusers also expose them- cial development.

selves to long-term health risks that result from drug Unfavorable attitudes toward homosexuality may
addiction or dependency. cause significant psychological distress for adolescents
Pregnancy. Some young women become pregnant who experience gay and lesbian feelings, especially if
before the end of adolescence. Adults can help adoles- they encounter hostility from those around them. The
cents prevent unwanted pregnancies. For example, par- psychological tasks of adolescence, such as developing
ents and teachers can provide sex education to instruct a sense of identity, present great challenges for all teen-
young people in how to deal with their sexual feelings agers. These challenges may be intensified for those
before they become sexually active. Adults also can adolescents attracted to members of the same sex. They
make adolescents feel more comfortable about dis- may have to resolve these issues without the social sup-
cussing sexual matters so that young people will exam- port available to their heterosexual peers.
ine their own behavior seriously and thoughtfully. Eating disorders. Some adolescents, especially fe
Establishing a sexual identity. Normal developmen- males, become so concerned about weight control that
tal tasks of adolescence include learning to think of one- they take drastic and dangerous measures to remain
64 Adolescent

Risk taking. Many adolescent health problems result

from behaviors that can be prevented. These behaviors
include substance abuse, reckless driving, unprotected
sex, and violence. One particular concern is sexually
transmitted diseases, such as AIDS, among teen-agers.
Some people mistakenly consider AIDS a homosexual
disease, but the virus can be transmitted from male to
female or female to male. The virus is also transmitted
through needles and syringes that are used in taking
drugs. It may even be spread by tattooing or body pierc-
ing if the instruments were previously used on an infect-
ed person.
Suicide. The suicide rate among teen-agers has risen
dramatically since the mid-1900 Four factors in particu-
s.

lar place an adolescent at risk for a suicide attempt (1)

suffering from low self-esteem or an emotional prob-

lem, such as depression; (2) being under stress, espe-
cially in school or because of a romantic relationship; (3)
experiencing family disruption or family conflict; and (4)
having a history of suicide in the family or a friend who
has committed suicide.
Conflicts between adolescents and their parents can arise Any threat of suicide demands immediate profession-
because adolescents are more likely than children to question al attention. Anyone who suspects an adolescent is con-
what they are told and more likely to disagree with family rules. sidering suicide should immediately call a suicide hot
line or the emergency room of a local hospital.
thin. Some overeat and then force themselves to vomit
Planning for the future
to avoid gaining weight. This pattern is associated with

an eating disorder called bulimia. Young women with a Career planning is part of the identity development
disorder called anorexia nervosa actually starve them- process during adolescence. Occupational plans devel-
selves to keep their weight down. Adolescents with eat- op in stages. Prior to adolescence, children express ca-
ing disorders have an extremely disturbed body image. reer interests that are often little more than fantasies and
They see themselves as overweight when they are actu- have little bearing on the plans they eventually make. In
ally underweight Bulimia and anorexia nervosa are rare adolescence, individuals begin to develop self-concepts
before the age of 10. It was once believed that eating and ideas about work that will guide them in their edu-
disorders were more common in North America and cational and occupational decisions. Although adoles-
Western Europe than in other parts of the world, and cents may not settle on a particular career at this point,
were more common among the prosperous and well they do begin to narrow their choices according to their
educated. However, research in the late 1990 s found interests, values, and abilities.
these disorders to be common among all social and One problem all young people face in making career
economic levels, and in many countries throughout the plans is obtaining accurate information about the labor
world. market and the best ways of pursuing positions in vari-
Although the incidence of anorexia and bulimia is ous fields. One goal of career education is to help ado-
small, many adolescents, especially females, remain un- lescents make more informed choices about their ca-
happy with their body shape or weight Many girls reers and to free them from misinformation that inhibits
whose weight is normal by medical and health stand- their choices. For a discussion of how to choose and
ards believe they are overweight A majority of adoles- plan a career, see the Careers article.
cent girls report that they would like to be thinner. Most Education is essential today for any person who
believe that being thinner would make them happier, wants a well-paying job with a promising future. Young
more successful, and more popular. people need at least a high school education to com-
Delinquency. Violations of the law are far more com- pete in the job market Those who want to go into a craft
mon among adolescents and young adults than in any or trade usually need a two-year course of college
other age group. Violent crimes and crimes against study.
property peak during high school. Most of the better jobs go to individuals with at least
Violent crime is a serious concern to youths as well as some college education. However, getting a job is not
to adults. Adolescents are the age group most likely to the only reason for going to college. College plays a crit-

become victims of such crimes as theft, robbery, rape, ical role in a young personpsychological develop-
s
and assault However, adolescents may also commit ment College not only provides occupational advan-
such violent crimes. Delinquents who repeatedly com- tages but also affects where individuals will live, whom
mit serious crimes typically come from disrupted or they will marry, who their lifelong friends will be, and,
badly functioning families, and they frequently abuse al- most important, who they become. Uurence Steinberg
cohol or drugs. Hostile, neglectful, or unfit parents may Related articles in World Book include:
mistreat children and fail to instill in them proper stand- Acne Bulimia
Anorexia nervosa Child
ards of behavior or the psychological foundations of
Boys Town Developmental psychology
self-control.
 .

Adonis 65

Drug abuse Middle school Stepp, Laura S. Our Last Best Shot Guiding Our Children
Family Minor Through Early Adolescence. Riverhead Bks., 2001.
Gang Personality
Adolphus, Gustavus. See Gustavus Adolphus.
Growth Rite ofpassage
Guidance Sex education
Adonis, uh DAHN ihs, was a handsome youth in Greek
High school Sexuality mythology. Adonis's beauty attracted Aphrodite, the
Homosexuality Sexually transmitted disease goddess of love. According to one myth, Aphrodite
Junior high school Student government warned him of the dangers of hunting. But Adonis did
Juvenile delinquency Universities and colleges
Marriage Vandalism

Outline
I. The "invention" of adolescence
II. Physical development
A. Sexual development
B. Adolescent awkwardness"
G The timing of puberty
III. Intellectual development
IV. Psychological development
A. Identity and self-esteem
B. Independence and responsibility
V. Social development
A
Relationships with peers
Dating and sex
B.

G
Family relationships
VI. Special problems and challenges
A
Adjusting to school life
B. Alcohol and drug abuse
G Pregnancy
D. Establishing a sexual identity
E. Eating disorders
F. Delinquency
G. Risk taking
H. Suicide
VII. Planning for the future
A. Career planning
B. Education

Questions
What ispeer pressure?
How does puberty affect an adolescent's social and emotional
development?
What challenges does an adolescent face in moving into a mid-
dle or junior high school?
Why is education important for an adolescent?
What actions should individuals take if they suspect an adoles-

cent isconsidering suicide?

How do an adolescent s thinking patterns differ from those of a Marble sculpture lmid-1600sl by Oionisio Mazzuuh
Hermitage museum St Petersburg 'Bridgeman An LibMrs
child?
When did the term adolescent first emerge? Adonis was a handsome young man in Greek mythology. Ac-
How do family relationships change for an adolescent? cording to one myth, he was killed by a boar he was hunting.
What are the chief reasons why some adolescents experiment
with alcohol, drugs, and tobacco?
What are the two most important adolescent eating disorders? not heed her advice and was killed by a boar, or by He-
Additional resources phaestus, Aphrodite's jealous husband, disguised as a
boar. A flower called the anemone sprang either from
Fenwick, Elizabeth, and Smith, Tony. Adolescence: The Survival
Adonis's blood or from Aphrodite's tears at his death.
Guide for Parents and Teenagers. Dorling Kindersley, 1994.
Fox, Annie. Can You Relate? Real-World Advice for Teens on According to another myth. Aphrodite placed the in-
Guys, Girls, Growing Up and Getting Along. Free Spirit, 2000. fant Adonis in a chest and gave it to Persephone, the
Kagan, Jerome, and Gall, S. B., eds. The Gale Encyclopedia of queen of the underworld, for safekeeping. Persephone
Childhood and Adolescence. Gale Group, 1997. became enchanted with the youth and wanted to keep
Kutner, Lawrence. Making Sense of Your Teenager. 1997.
him. To settle the quarrel between the goddesses, Zeus,
Reprint Avon, 1998.
king of the gods, ruled that Adonis would spend part of
Lerner, Jacqueline V. and Richard M. Adolescence in America:
An Encyclopedia. 2 vols. ABC-CLIO, 2001 the year with Aphrodite and part of the year with Per-
Mosatche, Harriet, and Unger, Karen. Too Old for This, Too sephone. When Adonis stayed with Aphrodite on earth,
Young for That! Your Survival Guide for the Middle-School plants and crops flourished. During his time in the un-
Years. Free Spirit, 2000.
derworld, vegetation died. The Greeks used this myth to
Panzarine, Susan. A Parents Guide to the Teen Years. Checkmark
explain why the seasons changed. They honored Adonis
Bks., 2000.
Twentieth-Century Teen Culture by the Decades. in ceremonies and by cultivating plants that grew and
Rollin, Lucy.
Greenwood, 1999. died quickly. Nancy Febon
Schickedanz, Judith A and others, t Understanding Children and Adonis, uh DAHN ihs is the name of a group of 20
Adolescents. 4th ed. Allyn & Bacon, 2000. species ol plants thai grow wild in Europe and Asia.
66 Adoption

agency assigns them a caseworker. The caseworker ob-

tains information about the couple's health and emo-
tional maturity and answers their questions about the
physical and emotional development of the child they
want to adopt The caseworker also makes sure the cou-
ple has a stable relationship and can afford to support
the child. This process is often called the home study.
In some cases, a single person applies to an
agency
to adopt a child. Although most agencies choose cou-
ples over single applicants, agencies sometimes place
children who have special needs with single individuals
when two-parent homes cannot be found. Children with
special needs include older, disabled, or emotionally
disturbed children; minorities; and brothers and sisters
who need to be adopted together. In the United States,
adoptive parents have not been found for more than
100,000 children with special needs. Most of these chil-
dren live with foster parents [see Foster care).
WORLD BOOK illustration by Chrislabel King Some people adopt a child without the services of an
The autumn Adonis has bright red flowers. It grows wild in Eu- agency. many cases, physicians and lawyers put birth
In
rope and Asia but is sometimes cultivated in gardens.
parents touch with couples wishing to adopt These
in

adoptions are called private, or independent, adoptions.

They are sometimes gardens in North
cultivated in Many private adoptions do not involve a thorough
America. Some types
Adonis plants may grow foot
of 1 home study. Private adoptions are illegal in some states.
(30 centimeters) high. The autumn Adonis, also called In most states and provinces, adoptions do not be-

pheasants-eye, has flowers with bright red petals. The come legal until children have lived in the home of their
spring Adonis has flowers with gold petals. adoptive parents for 6 to 1 2 months. A lawyer then pre-
Kenneth A. Nicely pares a formal request for adoption. The adoptive par-
Scientific classification. Adonis plants are members of the ents submit the request to the proper court. If the court
crowfoot family, Ranunculaceae. The scientific name for the au- approves the request, the adoption becomes legal.
tumn Adonis is Adonis annua. The spring Adonis is vernalis. A International adoptions. Most adoptive parents
Adoption is a legal process by which people take as adopt children who were born in the country in which
their own son or daughter a person not born to them. the adoptive parents live. Since the 1960s, however, the
Most adoptees (adopted persons! are adopted when number of people waiting to adopt children in the Unit-
they are children. Adoptees are entitled to the same ed States has risen while the number of available infants
privileges as children born to a parent or parents, in- in the country has declined. Therefore, some people

cluding the right to inherit property. This article chiefly adopt children from other countries. In most U.S. states,
discusses the adoption of children. many of these international, or intercountry, adoptions
Many adoptions occur partly out of a need to find are handled by state agencies. Other states rely only on
permanent, loving families for babies who are the result independent, voluntary agencies to connect couples
of unwanted pregnancies. Numerous other adoptions with foreign babies needing adoption.
involve foster children who need permanent homes af- The United Nations has established guidelines con-
ter being legally separated from their birth parents. cerning the rights of foreign adoptees. These guidelines
Many adults adopt children because they are, for med- recommend using authorized adoption agencies that
ical reasons, unable to become birth parents, or be- can provide the same protection that children receive in
cause they choose not to become birth parents. Surveys national adoptions. According to the guidelines, the
show that most adoptions work out well and that most child should have an official name, nationality, and legal
adopted children develop normally. guardian at every stage of the adoption process.
In the United States, there are about 2 million adopt- Interracial adoptions are those in which a couple or
ed children under the age of 18. Each year, approxi- person considered to be of one race adopts someone
mately 150,000 children are adopted, two-thirds of them considered to belong to another race or to be of mixed
by their relatives. In Canada, about 1 5,000 children are race. Most international adoptions are also interracial
adopted every year. adoptions.
The adoption process is similar in the United States Black market adoptions. The scarcity of adoptable
and Canada. In the United States, licensed agencies infants has led, in some and selling
cases, to the buying
arrange more than half of all adoptions by nonrelatives. of babies. Such transactions, known as black market
These agencies are either privately funded or public adoptions, are against the law.
and tax-supported. In Canada, provincial agencies han- Rights of adoptive parents and adoptees. Most
dle most adoptions by nonrelatives. Agency adoptions states and provinces keep adoption records secret once
involve three steps: (1 ) the legal separation of a child a child is adopted. The state or province issues a new
from the birth parents, (2) the transfer of custody to a birth certificate showing only the names of the adoptive
qualified adoption agency, and (3) the transfer of paren- parents. However, many adopted persons want to know
tal rights and responsibilities to the adoptive parents. more about their backgrounds. Some organizations
When a couple applies to an adoption agency, the concerned about the rights of adopted persons have
 Adrian IV 67

proposed that nonidentifying information about the

child be given to the adoptive parents. Such information
would not reveal the identity of the birth parents but
might include their medical and ethnic histories. In a
small number of states, adopted adults have a legal right
to see their original birth certificates.
Adopted persons and birth parents may decide that Left adrenal
they want to contact one another. A number of states gland
and provinces maintain registries to aid these people.
However, adopted children may not register until they
reach adulthood. In addition, both the adopted person
and the birth parents must register before contact may
be established.
Some groups favor open adoptions. In an open adop-
tion, the birth parent or parents meet the adoptive par-
ents and participate in the adoption process. The birth Kidney
parents give up their basic parental rights but keep the
right to remain in contact with the child. The birth par-
ents also have the right to know where the child lives WORLD BOOK illustration by Leonard Morgan

and to keep informed about the child's well-being. The adrenal glands are important hormone-producing organs
that lie atop the kidneys. As shown in the circle, each gland con-
History. People have been adopting children for
sists of two parts, an outer cortex and an inner medulla.
thousands of years. In ancient times, a childless person
often adopted an individual in order to have a legal heir.
Adoptions were common among the ancient Greeks, important mineralocorticoid. Renin, a hormone secreted
Romans, Babylonians, and Assyrians. One of the first by the kidneys, controls the production of aldosterone.
written law codes, the Babylonian Code of Hammurabi Overproduction of aldosterone causes high blood pres-
(1 700s B.C), includes a lengthy section about adoption. sure in some people.
In the United States, the first adoption law was passed in The adrenal glands produce only small amounts of
Massachusetts in 1851. Sheila Macmanus sex hormones, chiefly the male sex hormones called an-
drogens. The adrenal androgens help regulate the de-
Additional resources
velopment of pubic hair and other early sexual charac-
Adamec, Christine, and Pierce, W. L The Encyclopedia of Adop- teristics in both males and females during the period
tion. 2nd ed. Facts on File, 2000.
jU St p ri O r tO p U be rty. Charlotte H. Greene
Harnack, Andrew. Adoption. Greenhaven, 1995.
Pertman, Adam. Adoption Nation. Basic Bks., 2000. Related articles in World Book include:
ACTH Gland (Endocrine glands)
Adrenal gland, uh DREE nuhl, is a small, pyramid- Addison's disease Hormone (Human hormones)
Cortisone Hypertension
shaped organ that secretes many important hormones.
Epinephrine Steroid
The body has two adrenal glands, one on top of each
kidney. The adrenals, also called suprarenals, measure Adrenalin. See Epinephrine.
about 2 inches (5 centimeters) each in diameter. Each Adrian, Roman emperor. See Hadrian.
adrenal gland consists of a medulla (inner core) and a Adrian IV (about 1110-1159) was the only English pope.
cortex (outer shell). He was elected pope in 1 54. The city of Rome was in
1

The adrenal medulla controlled by the nervous sys-

is papacy at the time of his election.
revolt against the
tem. Nerve signals stimulate the medulla to secrete epi- Adrian placed Rome under a religious ban. With the co-
nephrine (also called adrenalin) and norepinephrine operation of the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I, Adri-
(also called noradrenalinl into the blood. These hor- an regained control of the city. Adrian made great
mones help the body adjust to sudden stress. For exam- claims for papal authority, and his policies led to a split
ple, they increase the rate and strength of the heartbeat, between the empire and the papacy after his death.
raise the blood pressure, and speed up the body's At the imperial Diet of Besancon in 1 1 57, Adrian sent
energy-producing processes. a letter to Frederick in which he claimed that he had be-

The adrenal cortex secretes many hormones, some of stowed the empire on Frederick as a fief of the papacy.
which are essential to life. These hormones, called corti- The letter caused a great uproar because it implied that
costeroids, belong to three main groups— (1) glucocorti- the emperor was subordinate to the pope. Adrian ex-
coids,(2) mineralocorticoids, and (3) sex hormones.
plained that the translation of an ambiguous word led to
Glucocorticoids regulate the use of digested foods the misunderstanding, and that he had only meant that
and help the body adapt to stress. The most important the emperor had received "gifts" from the pope. The ex-
glucocorticoid is Cortisol, also called hydrocortisone. change destroyed the relationship between the pope
The secretion of the glucocorticoids is controlled by and the emperor. The next year, at the Diet of Roncaglia,
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). ACTH is pro- Frederick declared imperial authority over all of north-
duced by the organ near the
pituitary gland, a small ern Italy. Adrian threatened to excommunicate Frederick
if he did not withdraw his claims. But the pope died
base of the brain. Physicians use Cortisol, and synthetic
compounds that resemble it, to control inflammation. soon after the confrontation.
Mineralocorticoids regulate the excretion of sodium Adrian was born near St. Albans. His given and family
and potassium by the kidneys. Aldosterone is the most name was Nicholas Breakspear. Kennath Pennington
68 Adrianople

Adrianople. See Edirne. Men and women enroll in adult education activities
Adriatic Sea, ay dree AT ihk, an extension of the
is for a variety of reasons. Many take part to improve their
Mediterranean Sea. It lies east of Italy and separates job skills— to get new jobs or to advance in the ones
Italy from Croatia, Yugoslavia, and Albania. The Strait of they have. Some people want to learn such skills as pot-
Otranto joins the Adriatic to the Ionian Sea, another arm tery making or speed reading to use in their leisure
of the Mediterranean. time. Others participate simply for the joy of learning.
The Adriatic Sea is about 480 miles (772 kilometers) Many of these people study such subjects as art, litera-
long. It has an average width of 100 miles (160 kilome- ture, and philosophy. Still other adults attend classes to
ters) and an area of about 60,000 square miles (160,000 meet people and make new friends.
square kilometers). Adult education differs in several ways from the edu-
The Po and Adige rivers empty into the Adriatic. The cation of children. Adults have more experience and
Dalmatian coast, in Croatia, and the Albanian coast are knowledge than children do, and teachers plan the in-
struction accordingly. For example, a teacher might use
Adriatic Sea more group discussions with a class of adults. Most
children receive free schooling, but most adults pay for
much or all of their instruction. As a result, adult educa-
tion must provide programs that adults want to buy.

Sources of adult education

The chief sources of adult education are (1) public
Adna' schools, (2) colleges and universities, (3) proprietary
R avenna
Bologna* . schools, and (4) the government. Many businesses,
.Rimini
churches, libraries, museums, park systems, and other
s Sarajevo" Yugoslavia
organizations also provide adult education programs.
Ancona* Sprf % Two major testing programs enable adults to take ex-
Italy aminations to earn credit for the equivalent of a high
Pescara" ^v school or college education. These programs are the
General Educational Development Test (CED) and the
t Ttrane,
Macedonia College Level Examination Program (CLEP).
North

Albania
The CED is administered by the departments of edu-
.Naples Ban
cation of all the 50 states and of several Canadian prov-
Taranto* inces. Adults who pass the test receive a high school
equivalency certificate. Many employers, colleges, and
universities accept a GED certificate as the equivalent of
a high school diploma. The CLEP enables adults to earn
credits that can be applied toward a college degree.
Palermo The Educational Testing Service, a private agency, ad-
Sicily
100 Kilometers ministers this program.
WORLD BOOK map

rocky and dotted with islands. The Italian coast is low

and flat
Both the and Croatian coasts are popular
Italian
tourist regions. They are noted for their scenery and
mild climate. Major port and resort cities on the Adriatic
include Trieste, Venice, Ancona, Pescara, and Bari in
Italy; and Rijeka, Split, and Dubrovnik in Croatia. Ferry

services connect Italian ports on the western coast of

the Adriatic Sea with ports on the eastern coast
Industry and other factors have polluted many areas
of the Adriatic. Navigation in the Adriatic is hazardous in
winter due to sudden storms. The sea was named for
the city of Adria in Italy, once an important Roman port
Howell C Lloyd

Adsorption. See Absorption and adsorption.

Adult education is instruction for men and women
who no longer go to school full time. It is also called
continuing education or recurrent education. Adult edu-
cation includes classes, correspondence courses, dis-
cussion groups, lectures, reading programs, and other
organized learning activities. In the United States, about
\\ ORLD BOOK pholti b) Dan Miller
21 million men and women— more than an eighth of the
Adult education includes courses on a wide variety of subjects.
adult American population— take part in some form of
These students in a community college are listening to an in-
adult education. structor lecturing on the history of computers.
 Adult education 69

Public schools hold adult classes at night in the same

buildings used by children during the day. Some
schools also offer daytime classes for adults.
Colleges and universities have special programs for
adults bothon and off the campus. Extension courses
are provided for people who cannot attend college dur-
ing regular school hours.Many extension courses do
not lead toward a degree. Many are held evenings or
weekends, and others are offered by mail or on TV.
Proprietary schools operate like businesses— to
make a profit for the owners. Most proprietary schools
teach vocational skills for such positions as those of
beauty operator, computer programmer, dental assist-
ant, or secretary. Some offer correspondence courses.
The government sponsors a number of adult-educa-
tion programs. For example, the Department of Agricul-
ture provides training in farming and homemaking for
adults in rural areas. The Department of Defense oper-
ates a program called the Defense Activity for Non-Tra-
ditional Education Support IDANTES). This program fur-
nishes information on correspondence courses and
other educational services for men and women in the WORLD BOOK photo bv Dan Mil

armed forces. DANTES also enables these men and An automotive class for women teaches female car owners to
take care of cars and make minor repairs. Such courses help
women to receive high school and college credit by
people save money by servicing their cars themselves.
passing examinations, whether or not they take courses.
The Department of Education provides funds for instruc-
tion in reading, writing, and mathematics up to the lyceums continued to hold regular meetings.
eighth-grade level for undereducated adults under the Another important educational movement was the
Adult Education Act chautauqua (pronounced shuh TAW kwuh) movement
Other sources of adult education include libraries In 1874, John H. Vincent, a clergyman, and Lewis Miller,

and museums. These institutions offer both individual a businessman, established a summer school for Sun-
and group educational programs. Such organizations as day school teachers in Chautauqua, New York, near
the League of Women Voters, the Young Men's Chris- Jamestown. This school, which still exists, soon added
tian Association (YMCA), and the Young Women's Chris- other summer programs and a correspondence school.
tian Association IYWCA) offer many adult classes. Labor Related institutions, called chautauquas, were later
unions provide educational opportunities for their founded in word chau-
other parts of the country. The
members, and many business companies make school- tauqua also referred to traveling groups that went from
ing and on-the-job training available for employees. town to town presenting lectures and entertainment
In 1 891 the educator William Rainey Harper became
,

History
the first president of the University of Chicago. He estab-
The colonial period. Apprenticeship was one of the lished an extension division there, and many other uni-
earliest forms of adult education in the American versities soon started their own adult programs.
Colonies. Under this system, a person learned an art or In the 190Cs, the government began to take an in-
trade by working under a skilled master for a period of creasingly important role in adult education. The Smith-
time. Many apprenticeship agreements required the Lever Act of 1914 provided federal funds for instruction
master to teach the apprentice to read and write. in farming and home economics. The Smith-Hughes Act

In 1727, the American statesman Benjamin Franklin of 1917 financed vocational training.
founded one of the first adult-education organizations, a During the Great Depression of the 1930s, the gov-
group called the Junto. It met weekly to discuss philoso- ernment sponsored adult-education projects to create
phy, politics, and other topics. In 1731, Franklin organ- jobs for unemployed teachers. These programs were
ized another means of educating adults, the first sub- run by the Works Progress Administration (WPA), later
scription library in the colonies. Members of the library called theWork Projects Administration.
paid dues, which entitled them to borrow books. The li- After World War ended in 1945, the government
II

brary used the dues to buy books. provided funds for veterans to go to school. This pro-
During the 1800's, a wide variety of adult-education gram, called the CI Bill of Rights, contributed to the
institutions developed. of the most important of
Some growth of many colleges and universities. It also led to
these institutions were study groups called lyceums. The the development of many proprietary schools where
members of a lyceum attended debates and lectures veterans could get vocational training.
and held discussions. Josiah Holbrook, an educator, or- The Manpower Development and Training Act of
ganized the first lyceum in 1826 in Millbury, Massachu-
1962 and the Economic Opportunity Act of 1964 fur-
The lyceum movement grew rapidly, and by 1835,
setts. nished federal funds to train unemployed adults. The
more than 3,000 lyceums belonged to the National 1964 act also set up the Adult Basic Education program.
American Lyceum. This national organization was dis- Today, a number of professional associations pro-
solved in 1839. However, a large number of local mote education for adults. One, the Adult Education As-
70 Advent

sociation of the United States of America (AEA USA), in- culations, he announced in 1831 that the Second Advent
cludes adult-education directors, university professors, would occur in 1843 or 1844. Thousands of people be-
and others in adult education. The National Association lieved him, and some sold their possessions. His follow-
for Public Continuing and Adult Education is an organi- ers, called Millerites, waited for the coming of Christ
zation for adult educators in public schools. The Ameri- and the end of the world.
can Society for Training and Development has members When the world did not end in 1844, many of Miller's
who are adult educators in business and industry. The followers were bitterly disappointed. They abandoned
National University Continuing Education Association hismovement to form new ones. The largest one— the
(NUCEA) helps coordinate credit and noncredit adult ed- Seventh-day Adventist Church— emerged about the time
ucation programs at the university level. of the American Civil War. This group also stressed the
During the 1970s, many schools became community doctrine of the Second Coming. But it avoided Miller's

schools, which serve everyone in the community- inclination to predict the specific time of Jesus's return.
adults as well as children. Another trend involved recur- The Seventh-day Adventists believe the body is the
rent education to help adults keep up with the continual temple of the Holy Spirit. They abstain from anything
new developments in their fields. A high school or col- that might affect bodily health, including tobacco, alco-
lege diploma no longer meant the end of a person's ed- hol, tea, and coffee. The Adventists conduct an extensive
ucation. Five years after graduating from school, an en- missionary program because they believe the Second
gineer might find that half of what he or she had learned Coming cannot take place until all nations have heard
was out of date. Large numbers of men and women be- the Gospel. Charles H. Lippy

gan to regard learning as a lifelong activity. See Seventh-day Adventists.

also
Douglas Clifford Smith Adverb is a part of speech that adds meaning to a
Related articles in World Book include: verb, an adjective, or another adverb. Adverbs may be
Chautauqua Library (Services for adults) single words (quickly), phrases (in the morning), or claus-
Correspondence school Lyceum es (if the meeting continues).
Distance learning Vocational education
Extension programs
A speaker or writer uses adverbs to add detail by de-
scribing how, when, where, or why something happens.
Additional resources For example, My brother crawled becomes more specif-
Galbraith, Michael VV„ ed. Adult Learning Methods: A Cuide for ic adverbs are added: After the accident, my brother
if

2nd ed. Krieger, 1998.

Effective Instruction.
crawled painfully from the car. The adverbs modify the
Kett, Joseph F. The Pursuit of Knowledge Under Difficulties:
verb crawled. After the accident \s an adverbial phrase
From Self-Improvement to Adult Education in America, 1750-
1990. Stanford, 1994.
that tells when. The adverb painfully describes how, and
Siebert, Al, and Gilpin, Bernadine. Time for College: The Adult the adverbial phrase from the car shows where.
Students Cuide to Survival and Success. 3rd ed. Practical Psy-
chology, 1996.
Classifying adverbs
Advent, AD vehnt, is the season that marks the begin- Adverbs can be distinguished on the basis of their
ning of the Christian church year. For most Christians, it use or function as simple adverbs, sentence modifiers,
starts on the Sunday nearest St. Andrews Day (Novem- conjunctive adverbs, interrogative adverbs, intensifiers,
ber 30) and continues until Christmas Eve (December adverbial equivalents, or parts of verbs in verb-adverb
24). The term comes from the Latin word adventus, combinations.
which means coming or arrival. The season is thus one Simple adverbs are single words. Most of them end
of preparation for the celebration of the feast of the Na- in -ly, as in certainly and deeply. Some simple adverbs
tivity of Jesus Christ on Christmas Day. See Christmas do not have an -//ending. They include above, ahead,
(Religious practices; picture). down, too, and well.
Beginning in the 500s, the Advent season was marked A few simple adverbs may be used either as adverbs
by a spirit of penitence, and it lasted as long as six or as adjectives. They include better, early, fast, much,
weeks. Under the influence of the church in Rome, the more, and late. Another group of adverbs has two ac-
season was gradually reduced to four weeks. The sea- cepted forms: close, closely; cheap, cheaply; slow, slow-
son in modern times has taken on a spirit of somber yet ly; even, evenly; deep, deeply; tight, tightly; loud, loudly.

joyful preparation for the Advent of Christ, both in His The -lyiotm is preferred in formal usage.
birth in Bethlehem and on Judgment Day. During Ad- Not all words that end in 7vare adverbs. For example,
vent, many members of the clergy wear vestments of lovelyand jolly are adjectives.
royal purple or royal blue. Da\.dc Truemper Sentence modifiers are adverbs that modify the
Adventists, AD vehn tihsts, are members of religious whole action of a sentence or clause rather than a single
groups that stress the doctrine of the Second Coming. word in it They often appear at the beginning of a sen-
That is, they believe that Jesus Christ may return to the tence. For example:
earth at any moment. Usually we ha\ e dinner on the patio.

Such questions as when, where, and how Jesus As recall, nobody asked any questions.
I

Yesterday / went to a ball game.

would return have excited the curiosity of Christians. In-
terest was particularly high during the early 1800s. Conjunctive adverbs serve a double purpose. They
William Miller, a Baptist minister in Low Hampton, New modify, often as sentence modifiers, but they also serve
York, was one of many students of the Bible who tried to as structure words— words that connect one part of a
prophe-
find the answers. For years, Miller studied the sentence to another.
cies recorded in the Old Testament Book of Daniel and You have made a few payments; however, we must ask you
to send checks regularly.
the New Testament Book of Revelation. After many cal-
 Adverb 71

The adverb however connects the two clauses as a con- Consider the use of adverbs in the following three sen-
junction. It also modifies the final clause. Other words tences:
commonly used as conjunctive adverbs include there- He was surely (not sure) afraid of his mother.
fore, still, otherwise, also, moreover, nevertheless, and It was a really (not real) good game.
yet.Phrases that are frequently used as conjunctive ad- He did very well (not good) on his first test.

verbs include for example, that is, on the other hand, Confusion between adverb and adjective is common
and in conclusion. after linking verbs (some form of the verb to be or verbs
Interrogative adverbs introduce a question: When like feel, seem, hear, or smell). A linking verb should be
did he live? Where is the milk? How are you? The most followed by an adjective modifying the subject, not an
common interrogative adverbs are how, when, where, adverb. But the adverb form may be used to modify the
and why. verb. For example:
Intensifiers add emphasis to the words they modify. He felt bad (not badly) because he had played so poorly
Examples include very proud, extremely quiet, quite (not poor).

concerned, and too loud. The adjective bad, modifying he, appears after felt.
Adverbial equivalents are words that are not ad- But poorly, the adverb, is used to modify played.
verbs but function as adverbs in certain cases. In the The use of the adjective most in place of the adverb
sentence He went home, the noun home serves as an almost appears frequently in informal usage. However,
adverb. It modifies the verb went, and tells where. the substitution should be avoided in formal writing. For
Verb-adverb combinations are formed by verbs example:
plus such words as to, up, off, or on. These words often Almost all the elephants died, not Most all the elephants
serve as adverbs or as prepositions. The use of verb-ad- died.

verb combinations and other adverbial expressions may Unnecessary adverbs often clutter and confuse a
be seen in the following sentences: sentence. Usually a single specific verb can replace an
Mary looked up every new word. adverb and sharpen expression. Hurried is preferable to
Mary looked up. moved quickly, and grasped is better than took eagerly.
Mary looked up the old mine shaft. Such adverbs as hardly, barely, and scarcely carry a neg-
In the sentence, up combines with looked'to func-
first ativemeaning. Using the adverb not with these words is
tion as a single verb, looked up. The object of the verb is unnecessary and confusing:
every new word. In the second sentence, up is simply an The family had scarcely enough to eat, not The family
adverb modifying looked. In the third, the phrase up the did not have scarcely enough to eat.
I can hardly remember the incident, not / cannot hardly
old mine shaft modifies the verb looked.
remember the incident.
Position of adverbs Unnecessary adverbs also may merely repeat and con-
An adverb can occupy a number of positions in a sen- fuse the meaning of the words that they modify. For ex-

tence: ample:
Slowly she walked off the stage. The old man reverted (not reverted back) to the days of
She walked slowly off the stage. his childhood.
She walked off the stage slowly. He advanced (not advanced forward) to his position in
the line.
In these three sentences, the position of the adverb This (not this here) book has more pictures than that (not
changes the emphasis but not the overall meaning. that there) one.
However, the placement of certain adverbs can change
both the emphasis and the meaning of a sentence. The Adverbs that split an infinitive. An infinitive is the
following three sentences show how the meaning base part of a verb, such as go or see. It is often used
changes with the position of the adverb only: with the word to, as in to go or to see. Splitting an infini-
Only my brother asked to see the gift. tive means placing one or more words between to and
My brother only asked to see the gift. the verb form, as in to quickly go or to readily see.
My brother asked to see only the gift. Splitting an infinitive with an adverb is a matter of

Other adverbs whose placement can affect the emphasis style rather than correct grammar. It sometimes results

and meaning of a sentence include almost, ever, hardly, in an awkward expression:

just, merely, nearly, quite, and scarcely. He promised to faithfully and cheerfully work with his
teacher.
Usage In this example, the placement of the words faithfully

Adverb-adjective confusion. Through usage, cer- and cheerfully splits the infinitive to work. The sentence
tain words have been established as only adverbs and would be easier to understand if the adverbs did not
others as only adjectives. Confusion between some of split the infinitive:

these adjectives and adverbs is common because they He promised to work faithfully and cheerfully with his
teacher.
are similar in form. The following words often cause
trouble: In other cases, however, splitting the infinitive may be
Adjectives Adverbs the only way to get the special emphasis and meaning a
good (kind, agreeable, well (satisfactory), in a writer wants. For example:
(satisfactory) desirable way) I prefer to actually see a play, not just read it.
genuine) really (actually)
real (authentic, Placing actually in anv other position would alter the
sure (firm, secure) surely (certainly)
somewhat Ito a certain meaning of the sentence. William F irmscher
some (in an indefinite
extent) See also Adjective.
amount)
 jftai
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Advertising messages promote a wide variety of products, services, and ideas in nearly all the world's
countries. The streets of the Ginza district of Tokyo, shown here, are lined with brightly colored signs and
displays that advertise specific brands of automobiles, beverages, and other goods.

newspapers used cars, homes, or other property.

Advertising to sell
and candidates use advertising to try to
Political parties
win votes. Social organizations and special-interest
Advertising is a message designed to promote a groups often advertise to promote a cause or to influ-
product, a service, or an idea. In everyday life, people ence the way people think or act For example, the Part-
come into contact with many kinds of advertising. Print- nership for a Drug-Free America sponsors ads designed
ed advertisements make up a large part of newspapers to discourage people from using illegal drugs. The
and magazines. Poster ads appear in many buses, sub- United States government uses advertising chiefly to re-
ways, and trains. Neon signs along downtown streets cruit volunteers for the armed forces.
flash advertisements. Billboards dot the roadsides. Com- Advertising is a multibillion-dollar industry. More than
mercials interrupt TV and radio programs. Advertise- S200 billionspent on advertising and advertising-
is

ments appear on many sites on the World Wide Web. related activities in the United States each year. About
The purpose of most advertising is to sell products or S400 billion is spent on advertising in other countries.
services. Manufacturers advertise to try to persuade Advertising is common in almost all countries. In
people to buy their products. Large business firms also many countries, however, advertising is more restricted
use advertising to create a favorable image" of their than it is in most of the countries of
the United States. In
company. Local businesses use it to gain new customers Western Europe, for example, the governments limit the
and increase sales. Advertising thus plays a key role in amount of advertising that appears on television. In ad-
the competition among businesses for the consumer s dition, these governments make greater use of advertis-
dollar. Inmany businesses, the volume of sales depends ing for social political, and educational purposes.
largely on the amount of advertising done. in the United
This article deals chiefly with advertising
Advertising is also used by individuals, political par- States. mainly discusses advertising by business and
It

ties and candidates, social organizations, special-interest industrial organizations. But much of the material ap-
groups, and the government Many people advertise in plies to advertising by other groups as well.

Ways of advertising
Bonnie Reece. the contributor otthis article, is Associate
B.
Advertising reaches people through various forms of
Professor of Advertising at Michigan State Uni\ ersit\
mass communication. These media include newspapers,
 Advertising 73

© Reed Kaestner Corb

Television is the chief medium used by national advertisers. Store displays called point-of-purchase displays advertise prod-
Companies use TV commercials to reach large numbers of con- ucts within a store. These displays often involve colorful signs,
sumers who view programs, movies, and sports events on TV. banners, and the careful arrangement of items for sale.

AP Wide World

Outdoor advertising is ef-

fective incommunicating
brief messages to large num-
bers of people. Some compa-
nies place advertisements on
airships called blimps, which
then fly over highly populated

areas and popular events.

magazines, television, and radio. Advertisers buy space budgets— not includ-
of 65 percent of their advertising
innewspapers and magazines to publish their ads. They promotion— on television. Food
ing direct mail and sales
buy time on television and radio to broadcast their com- companies spend about 75 percent of their budgets on
mercials. National advertisers, such as automobile mak- television, and companies that make games and toys

ers and fast-food restaurants, use the media to reach spend about 90 percent
consumers throughout large parts of the country or all A main advantage of television to advertisers is that it

of Local advertisers, such as department stores and

it brings sight, sound, and action directly to consumers in

supermarkets, use the media to reach consumers within their homes. Advertisers can explain and demonstrate
a city or town. their products to viewers who are enjoying a TV pro-
The media in the United States are (1)
chief advertising gram and cannot easily avoid the
commercials. In addi-
television, (2) newspapers, (31 direct mail, (4) radio, (5) tion, network television reaches a vast, nationwide audi-

magazines, and (6) outdoor signs. Newspapers and tele- ence at a low cost per viewer. For example, a 30-second
vision each receive between 20 and 25 percent of the commercial on a TV network may cost SI million. But if
money spent on advertising. A chart in this article shows 50 million viewers watch the commercial, the advertiser
the percentage spent on each medium pays only 2 cents for each person who sees the ad.
Television is the chief medium used by national ad- The majority of TV commercials consist of short spot
vertisers. The 100 largest advertisers spend an average
announcements most of which last 30 seconds. The
74 Advertising

commercials are usually run in groups of three to six. Newspapers carry two main kinds of advertisements:
com-
Television networks and stations generally limit display ads and classified ads. Display ads range in size

mercial time to about 10 minutes per hour during prime from less thancolumn-inch (1 column wide by 1 inch
1

time and 16 minutes per hour during most other broad- [2.5 centimeters] deep) to a full page or more, and most

cast times. Prime time refers to the evening hours, when include illustrations. Advertisers can appeal to people
TV programs draw the largest audience. with special interests by placing their ads on certain
Advertisers can buy spot time from local TV stations pages, such as those devoted to travel, home life, or
or network time from one of the national TV networks. sports. Classified ads, which are also called want ads,
They can buy time on cable television. In addition,
also appear in a separate section of a newspaper. Most clas-
advertisers can either sponsor an entire TV program or sified ads consist of a few lines of print The ads list
buy scatter packages. In scatter packages, the commer- homes, used cars, furniture, and other property that in-
cials are aired at various times for several weeks. Most dividuals have for sale. Used-car dealers, real estate
advertisers buy scatter packages. But special entertain- companies, and firms with job openings also place clas-
ment programs, sports events, and certain motion pic- sified ads. Most newspapers will also accept preprinted
tures are often sponsored by one advertiser. In this way, ad sections called free-standing inserts, which are sever-
the advertiser hopes to gain added recognition by being alpages long.
identified with the program. Direct mail includes leaflets, brochures, catalogs,
Newspapers, on the average, devote almost half of and other printed advertisements that are delivered by a
their space to advertising. Local businesses and individ- postal service. Mail-order firms, which sell largely
uals place approximately 85 percent of this advertising. through the mail, are the main users of direct-mail ad-
National advertisers sometimes use newspapers to in- vertising.
form consumers of the names and locations of local The effectiveness of advertising by direct mail de-
stores where the advertiser's products are available. Na- pends mainly on the quality of the mailing list Some lists
tional advertisers also use newspapers when they want consist of all the addresses in a city and are simply sent
to concentrate their sales efforts in particular regions of to Occupant'' Other mailing lists consist of individual
the country. names with addresses. Some firms specialize in prepar-
Newspapers offer advertisers several advantages over ing lists people according to their occupation, age,
of
other media. Most adults read a daily newspaper, and income, interests, or other characteristics. For example,
many of them specifically check the ads for information a firm might assemble a list of 20,000 new mothers or
about products or services. Daily newspapers also offer 10,000 lawyers. These lists are sold to advertisers. Some
the advantage of timeliness. An advertiser can prepare advertisers assemble their own mailing lists.
and publish an advertisement within a day. Newspaper Direct-mail advertising costs more per person
ads can thus quickly reflect a sudden demand for cer- reached than do other ways of advertising. However, ad-
tain merchandise. For example, a department store can vertiserswho obtain special mailing lists know they are
advertise snow shovels in a newspaper the day after the reaching good prospects. In addition, advertisers can
city has its first snowfall of the season. choose from many different sizes and forms of adver-

How advertising money is spent

Direct mail 192%

^-» Yellow pages 5.9%

Consumer
magazines 53%

Business and trade

publications
2j0%

Internet 03%

AP Wide World

Direct-mail advertising involves the mailing of leaflets, cata- Billions of dollars are spent on advertising in the United States in
logs, brochures, and other printed materials. This man is gather- a year. This chart shows the percentage spent in each of the ma-

ing envelopes stuffed with ads to be sent to potential customers. jor advertising media.
 )

Advertising 75

Newspapers and maga-

zines devote large amounts
of their space to advertising.
The wide variety of publica-
tions allows advertisers to tar-
get readers of a certain age or
location, or with specific
areas of interest

© TH Foto from Alamy.com

tisements. Some products or services are too complicat- magazines are used by advertisers who sell agricultural
ed to be explained in any other medium. equipment and supplies. Drug firms advertise in med-
Radio. Local advertisers place about 70 percent of the ical journals to reach doctors and druggists.

advertising on radio stations. The rest is placed by na- Outdoor signs. Most advertising on outdoor signs is
tional advertisers, who buy time either from individual placed by national advertisers. One of the main advan-
stations in various cities and towns or from one of the tages of outdoor signs is that people pass by the signs
radio networks. repeatedly. In addition, large, colorful signs easily attract
One advantage of advertisingon radio is that people attention. However, the ads on outdoor signs must be
can listen to programs while doing other things. Anoth- short and simple because most passers-by see a sign for
er advantage is that radio audiences, in general, are only a few seconds.
more highly selected by the type of programming than The main kinds of outdoor signs are (1 ) posters, (2)

are television audiences. For example, stations that fea- painted bulletins, and (3) electric spectaculars. Posters,
ture country music attract different kinds of listeners commonly called billboards, are the most widely used
than do those that play rock. By selecting the station, ad- form of outdoor advertising. They consist of printed
vertisers can reach the people most likely to buy their sheets of paper that are pasted on large billboards. The
products. Radio commercials include direct sales an- billboards are owned by local companies, which rent
nouncements, dramatized stories, and songs. Most com- them by the month to advertisers. Painted bulletins are
mercials last 30 or 60 seconds. In general, radio stations signs painted on buildings or billboards. Electric spec-
have more commercial time per hour than television sta- taculars consist of large illuminated displays. Many fea-
tions. Thus, a major drawback of radio is that listeners ture changing messages and moving pictures. Electric
often hear so many commercials that it is difficult for any spectaculars are the most expensive kind of outdoor
one ad to make an impression. sign.

Magazines. Most magazines have a nationwide cir- Other ways of advertising include the use of (1

culation and so are used chiefly by national advertisers. transit signs, (2) displays, (3) telephone directories, (4)

Magazines have a number of advantages over newspa- novelties, and (5) the Internet
pers as an advertising medium. They are usually read in Transit signs Are small posters placed in or on local

a leisurely manner and are often kept for weeks or trains, subways, buses, and taxicabs. Posters placed in-
months before being discarded. In many cases, several side vehicles can carry a longer message than outside
members of a family read each copy of a magazine. An- ads because riders have more time to read it.
other advantage of magazines is that they offer better Displays Window displays are designed to draw cus-
printing and color reproduction than newspapers do. tomers into a store. Point-of-purchase displays are
Advertisers can thus show off their products to greater arrangements of signs, banners, and other items within
advantage magazines.
in a store. These displays highlight certain products and

Advertisers can choose from a wide variety of maga- are designed to encourage impulse buying—that is, buy-
zines. Some magazines, such as newsmagazines, appeal ing without previous thought or planning. Many stores
to a mass audience. Others are designed for specific have a promotion department, whose duties include
groups of people, such as teen-agers, homemakers, or preparing displays. Other stores hire display firms.
amateur photographers. Certain companies advertise in Many manufacturers supply display materials to retail-
trade publications, which are devoted to particular busi- ers that sell their products.

nesses, industries, or professions. For example, farm Telephone directories carry ads in a section called
76 Advertising

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© America Online. Inc Used with permission
Internet advertising allows companies to reach computer users around the world. Many companies
own Web sites, through signs displayed on other sites, or in electronic directories.
advertise through their

the yellow pages. Some

of the ads consist of a few print- banner ads, as well as listings in electronic directories.
ed name, address, and telephone
lines that give the Many companies maintain sites on a part of the Internet
number of local businesses. Others take up more space known as the World Wide Web. A company's Web site
and are like display ads in newspapers. may contain information about the company and its
Novelties are inexpensive items that many advertisers products, along with pictures or other artwork.
give away. Such items include calendars, matchbooks,
Advertising techniques
and key rings that carry an advertiser's name and mes-
sage. People are reminded of the advertiser as long as Advertising designed to inform, influence, or per-
is

they use the item. suade people. To be effective, an advertisement must

Internet advertising is the newest and fastest-growing first attract attention and gain a person's interest It may

type of advertising. Advertising on the Internet, a world- then provide reasons for buying a product and for be-
wide computer network, includes small signs called lieving the advertisers claims.
Advertisers use a variety of techniques to create effec-
tive advertisements. They start with a basic appeal,
which is the main selling point, or theme, of an adver-
tisement Advertisers then use certain specific tech-
niques. The most commonly used techniques include (II
attention-getting headlines, (2) slogans, (3) testimonials,
(4) product characters, (5) comparison of products, and
16) repetition.
Basic appeals. Advertisers rely on many kinds of ap-
peals to persuade people to buy. In general, appeals can
be classified as informational or transformational. Adver-
tisements that use an informational approach describe
the demonstrable characteristics of a product Such ads
tell what the product is, how it works, or how it is made.

Advertisements that use a transformational appeal stress

the ways in which a product will provide personal satis-
faction. Such an ad might suggest that the product will
satisfy the consumers need for love, security, or prestige.
Advertisers often use sexual themes that appeal to a
person s desire to be attractive. For example, an adver-
tisement for after-shave lotion might suggest that the
WORLD BOOK pholo by |efl Cuerranl product will help a man attract women.
Novelty items that carry an advertisers name and message are
To persuade the largest possible number of people,
often given away to potential customers. Such items include cal- many advertisements combine different types of ap-
endars, matchbooks, mugs, pens, and T-shirts. peals. Appeals may also be aimed at a large general au-
 Advertising 76a

dience or targeted at a limited group of people, such as jective may be to prove a product's superiority over
business executives or young married couples. competing brands, to change the image of the compa-
Attention-getting headlines are an important fea- ny, or to achieve some other goal. The agency must also
ture of printed advertisements. A successful headline determine the target market—that is, the people who are
leads a person into reading the rest of the ad. Some likely users of a product and at whom the advertising
headlines attract attention by promising the reader a will be aimed. Finally, the agency has to estimate how
personal benefit, such as a savings in money or an im- much money and time will be needed to carry out the
provement in physical appearance. Other headlines are campaign.
cleverly worded to arouse a person's curiosity. Still Large advertising agencies generally assign a team of
other headlines carry news, such as an announcement people from the various departments of the agency to
of a new product Headlines also attract attention by di- handle all the advertising for a specific advertiser, or
rectly addressing a specific group. For example, a head- client. The
typical agency includes a research depart-
line might read: "For the Young Single Woman." The ment, creative department, media department, and pro-
opening lines in a radio or TV commercial serve the duction department An account manager, or account
same purpose as headlines in printed ads. executive, has overall responsibility for planning and di-
Slogans are short phrases that are used over and recting a client's advertising. The following discussion
over. Good slogans are easy to remember. The majority describes in broad terms the way an agency creates ad-
of slogans are designed to help create a favorable im- vertisements. The main steps in the process include (1)
age of a company and its products. Most such slogans research, (2) media selection, (3) creative work, and (4)
do not relate to particular features of a product. Compa- production.
nies also use slogans in advertising inexpensive prod- Research. Information gathered from consumers
ucts, such as chewing gum or soft drinks. provides the basis for many advertising decisions. It
Testimonials are advertisements in which a person helps an agency determine the kinds of people at whom
endorses a product. The person may be someone who to aim advertisements, the types of appeals to use, and
looks like an average user of the product Advertisers in which media to place the ads. The chief kinds of re-
also pay movie and TV stars, popular athletes, and other search include (1) market research, (2) motivation re-
celebrities to endorse products. A celebrity helps attract search, and (3) media research.
attention to an advertisement Under United States gov- Market research seeks information about consumers
ernment regulations, endorsers must use the advertised and their buying habits. The information is obtained
product if they claim they do so.
Product characters are fictional people and cartoon
animals or characters that are used in advertisements
I here are a lot ol good reasons lor choosing the Uuiet (. ompany.
over a long period. Many advertisers use product char-
acters to deliver sales messages for a whole line of
products. The characters become highly familiar to peo-
ple and so provide lasting identification with a compa-
ny's products. Product characters are often used in ad- ome are more
vertising aimed at children because such characters important than others.
many young people.
delight
Comparison of products is used most frequently to

sellproducts that compete heavily with other brands.

Advertisers compare their product with similar brands
and point out the advantages of using their brand. A
competitor's product may be named, or it may be re-
ferred to as "Brand X" or "the leading brand."
Repetition is one of the most basic techniques adver-
tisersuse to get their message across. Advertisers may
broadcast their commercials several times a day for
weeks on TV or radio. Or they may publish their ads fre-
quently in printed media. Repetition can help build or
reinforce a company's reputation. Advertisers also be-
lieve that the more often people see or hear an adver-
tisement, the more likely they are to accept the message
and want the product.

Creating advertisements

Most business firms hire advertising agencies to cre-

ate their advertisements and place them in the various
media. most cases, individual advertisements form
In
part of an advertising campaign. A campaign is an or- CNonhwrsti-m Mutual Ufa Insurance! ampin) l\ Icttx Skrabne&U
ganized sales effort that may run for several months and An emotional appeal is used in manv ad\ertisements to attract
that usually involves more than one medium. attention so that people will learn about the product. This adver-
In planning an advertising campaign, the agency must tisement appeals to parents love and concern for their children

first determine the objective of the campaign.

The ob- and then gi\es reasons tor buying the product.
76b Advertising

Testimonials include adver-

tisementsin which a celebrity
endorses a product or serv-
ice. In amusing television
commercials, entertainer Bill
Cosby, shown here, urges
viewers to sample Jell-O
products.

Kraft General Foods

from a sample of consumers by means of surveys. The be approved by the client. The media planners then buy
information includes the age, sex, income, and occupa- time and space from the media and schedule the adver-
tion of potential consumers. Researchers may also learn tisements for specific dates.
how consumers rate various brands of a product, in- Creative work. An agency's creative department de-
cluding the advertiser's brand. Such information helps velops the central theme of an advertising campaign.
advertisers decide on the best way to present the fea- The department then designs individual advertisements.
tures of their products. The theme, and the ideas for carrying it out, must be ap-
Motivation research tries to find out why people buy proved by the account manager and the client.
certain products. Motivation researchers gather such in- For printed advertisements, a copywriter prepares the
formation in personal interviews, during which they use copy (written words) and an artist prepares a layoutoi
techniques developed by psychologists and sociolo- the advertisement. A layout is a sketch that shows the
gists. By discovering the motives for people's buying be- placement of the copy and illustrations. The illustrations
havior, advertisers hope to find the most effective ap- may consist of artwork or photographs or both. The
peal to use in their advertisements. For example, adver- copy, illustrations, and layout may be revised several
tisers may learn that many people buy certain kinds of times. The finished artwork may be prepared by an artist
automobiles chiefly to impress their friends. The motiva- in the agency or by a free-lance (independent) artist.

tions of consumers are complex, and the study of moti- Most photographs are taken by professional photogra-
vations is therefore more difficult than most other types phers who are hired by the agency.
of research. For radio commercials, a copywriter prepares the
Media research. Various research firms measure the script, which may consist simply of a sales message to
sizeand makeup of radio and TV audiences at different be read by a radio announcer. Some scripts are skits
times of the day. The Audit Bureau of Circulations— an that feature dialogue and perhaps sound effects or back-
organization of advertisers, advertising agencies, and ground music. Original music or songs are written by
publishers— measures the circulations of publications. composers commissioned by the agency.
Advertisers use information on audience size and make- For television commercials, a copywriter creates the
up in selecting media in which to place ads. script and an artist designs a storyboard, which is a se-
Media selection. The members of an agency's media ries of drawings of the planned action. The storyboard is
department compare the various media in terms of audi- combined with the script and includes directions for
ence and makeup. They decide which particular
size filming the commercial.
magazines, newspapers, and radio and television sta- Production. The production of printed advertise-
tions or networks to use to reach the target market They ments, radio commercials, and TV commercials is
then prepare a media plan that will give an effective arranged by the production department of an advertis-
combination of reach and frequencyw\th\n the limita- ing agency. The production department deals with ad-
tions of the budget. Reach is the number of people who vertising service and supply houses, which include
will see or hear the advertisement. Frequency is the graphic arts firms and producers of radio and TV com-
number of times that they will see or hear it. The media mercials. In each case, the client has to approve the final
planners may decide to reach a large number of people advertisements before they are printed or broadcast.
a few times or to reach fewer people more often. For printed advertisements, the production depart-
The recommendations of the media department must ment works with graphic arts firms, which set the copy
 Advertising 77

in type and prepare the film or other material for print- purchased from graphic arts firms and other companies,
ing the type and illustrations. This material then sent to
is and (3) from fees paid by clients. The standard commis-
the publications in which the ads will appear. Newspa- sion is 1 5 percent of the cost of the space or time that an
per advertisements are sometimes produced by the agency buys for a client The agency charges the client
newspaper printers themselves. the total cost of the space or time and deducts 5 per- 1

For radio commercials, the production department cent before paying the media.
may simply deliver the script to the radio station where Advertising departments. Most large business
it will be read by an announcer. If the script has dia- companies have an advertising department In some
logue, the commercial must be prerecorded, and so the companies, the department prepares all the company's
agency hires a radio producer. The producer selects advertising and so functions as an in-house agency.
performers to read the commercial and sets up rehears- Among those firms that employ an advertising agency,
als. If necessary, a musical director and an orchestra are the company's advertising department works closely
also hired. The commercial is then recorded on tape in a with the agency. The department might also prepare
studio and delivered for broadcasting. such materials as point-of-purchase displays and direct-
The agency producer for television com-
also uses a mail brochures, which are not usually considered part
mercials. If the commercial
is to be filmed or video- of an agency's duties.
taped, the producer may work with a director. These Some companies that manufacture a large number of
two individuals select performers and arrange rehears- products have brand managers. A brand manager su-
als. After the commercial is shot in the studio or on loca- pervises the advertising and promotion of one or a few
tion, the production department combines it with the products.
sound track and edits it After the producer has ap- Newspapers, magazines, and radio and television sta-
proved the finished commercial, the commercial is sent tions and networks also have advertising departments.
to the TV stations or network where it will be aired. These departments collect and publish information de-
Some TV commercials consist of stop-motion films or signed to persuade advertisers to use their particular
animated cartoons. Stop motion is a method of photo- media vehicle. They supply advertisers and advertising
graphing objects in different positions so that, when the agencies with reports on the vehicle's circulation, listen-
film is run, they appear to move. For example, bottles ing audience, or viewing audience. They may also pro-
may seem to dance across a table. vide production assistance.
Animated cartoons produced in the traditional way re- Advertising associations work to promote the in-

quire many individual drawings that must be filmed in dustry and to raise the standards of advertising. The
sequence. Modern computer-generated animation and leading national advertising organizations include the
special effects are much easier to produce. For example, American Association of Advertising Agencies, the
an electronic device called a scannercan convert the American Advertising Federation, and the Association of
colors and shades of illustrations or photos into digital National Advertisers.
(numerical) code, then feed this code to a computer. An Two other important advertising organizations are the
animator can then use the computer to manipulate the il- Advertising Council and the National Advertising Re-
lustrations. view Board. The Advertising Council prepares public
If the commercial isannouncement, the produc-
a live service ads, such as those that promote highway safety
er makes sure the script, product, and furniture or other and energy conservation. The National Advertising Re-
objects are supplied to the station. The producer also view Board fosters self-regulation of the advertising in-
supervises the rehearsals. Today, live announcements dustry. It evaluates complaints about deceptive (false or
are rare. misleading) advertisements. If the council judges an ad-
vertisement to be deceptive, it asks the advertiser to dis-
The advertising industry continue the ad.
The United States has the largest advertising industry Regulation of advertising. Both the U.S. government
in the world. The center of the U.S. advertising industry and the state governments have laws designed to pro-
is New York City, where many of the major agencies tect consumers from deceptive advertising. They also

have their headquarters. Numerous U.S. agencies have a have laws that prohibit certain kinds of advertising. For
large international business. example, a federal law bans cigarette advertising on ra-
Advertising agencies. The United States has about dio and television. But the Supreme Court of the United
6,000 advertising agencies. These agencies range in size States has ruled that advertising and the advertising in-
from one-person organizations to huge agencies with dustry have some protection under the First Amend-
several thousand employees and with offices in several ment to the U.S. Constitution. Thus, regulations concern-
U.S. and foreign cities. Among the largest United States ing advertising must be no more restrictive than neces-
advertising agencies are Leo Burnett Company Incorpo sary to accomplish the goals of state and federal
rated in Chicago and Walter Thompson Co. in New
).
governments.
York City. Federal laws against deceptive advertising are en-
An advertising agency's chief service is to create and forced chiefly by the Federal Trade Commission (FTC).
place advertising for clients. Some agencies also pro- The FTC monitors all advertising and may ask advertis-
vide information and advice on selling plans, packaging ers for proof of their claims. If the FTC decides that an

designs, and other marketing operations. advertisement is false or misleading, it may order an ad-
Advertising agencies receive income in three main vertiser to withdraw the ad. The FTC may further require
ways: (1) from commissions paid by the media, (2) from an advertiser to run "corrective" advertising to inform
service charges paid by clients for materials and work the public that former advertisements were deceptive
78 Advertising

However, the FTC rarely requires this. Advertisers may tisers has been to develop a single ad campaign for sev-
be fined for violating an FTC order. Some advertisers eral countries.
are also subject to regulation by the Federal Communi- Regulations on advertising differ in other parts of the

cations Commission (FCC), the Food and Drug Adminis- world. In Australia, for example, most ads must be pro-
tration (FDA), the Securities and Exchange Commission duced locally. China charges higher ad rates for foreign
(SEC), and certain other federal agencies. advertisers than for local companies or joint ventures.
Advertising in other countries. Many of the largest Agencies throughout the world support the Interna-
advertisers in the United States also spend significant tional Advertising Association, which has headquarters
amounts of money to advertise in other countries. These in New York City. This organization works for truth in ad-

companies may use local agencies or branch offices of vertising, the protection of commercial speech, and im-
U.S.-based agencies to create ad campaigns. Many large provements in the quality of media research.
U.S. agencies have acquired foreign-based local agen-
Effects of advertising
cies or developed a network of international offices to
handle the advertising of multinational corporations. Advertising greatly influences many aspects of life in
WPP Group, based in London, and Interpublic Croup the United States. This section deals with some of its
and Omnicom Group, both based in New York City, are economic, social, and political effects.
among the largest advertising agencies in the world. An- Economic effects. Advertising plays a major role in
other large agency is Dentsu, in Tokyo. the distribution of goods from manufacturers to con-
In Western Europe, government had regulated broad- sumers. It provides an effective way for sellers to inform
casting tightly until the 1980s. The state owned the buyers about products. Advertising thus helps manufac-
broadcast industry, each country had only one or two turers sell their products and benefits consumers by
television channels, and the amount of advertising time providing them with shopping information.
was severely restricted. In the 1980s, more channels Advertising also helps the economy grow by stimulat-
were added by the state and private companies, and ad- ing demand for new products. Manufacturers spend
vertising restrictions were loosened. In addition, satel- much money to develop new products. Through adver-
lites began to beam TV signals to rooftop antennas on tising, they can speed up the process of creating a market
individual homes. Most such signals reach consumers for a product and so recover their costs more quickly.
in more than one country. Because of increased access Fewer new products would be developed if manufact-
to consumers, the trend among major European adver- urers could not use advertising to help sell the products.
Some economists believe that a large amount of the
money spent on advertising is wasted. They argue that
much advertising simply leads consumers to switch
from one brand of a product to another brand. Brand-
switching may increase the profits of a particular firm
but has no positive effect on the overall economy.
Advertisers include the expense of advertising in the
sales price of a product. In some cases, advertising rais-
es the price of a product In other cases, advertising
helps lower prices by creating the mass demandxbat
supports mass production. Successful advertising
makes many people want a product By mass producing
a product and developing a large volume of sales, the
manufacturer can charge less per unit.
Social effects. Perhaps the most important social
contribution of advertising is that it supports the mass
communication media. Advertising pays all the costs of
commercial television and radio. It provides viewers
with free entertainment and news programs, though
viewers are often irritated by commercial interruptions.
Advertising also pays three-fourths of the costs of news-
papers and magazines. Without advertising, readers
would have to pay a higher price for newspapers and
magazines, and many of the publications would go out
of business.
Because the mass media depend on advertising to
stay in business, many people question whether adver-
tisers control the media. Generally, media do not allow
advertisers to influence their programming or editorial
content. However, many broadcasters and publishers do
not hesitate to run favorable information about their ad-
vertisers, and they sometimes refuse to run unfavorable
MVWkte World
information. Critics of commercial television maintain
International ad campaigns can spread an advertiser's mes-
sage to people throughout the world. This billboard for a U.S.- that dependence on advertising lowers the quality of TV
based computer company appeared in Yangon, Myanmar. programming. In order to sell advertising time at high
 Advertising 79

Political advertising has

played an important role in
election campaigns since the
mid-1 900's. President Dwight
D. Eisenhower, shown here
with his wife, Mamie, used
television to reach out to vot-
ers during the 1950's.

Corbis/Bettmann

prices, TV stations try to attract the largest possible audi- Iraq, used such signs to advertise their stores. The an-
ence. Critics argue that the stations therefore broadcast cient Greeks and Romans also hung signs outside their
toomany general entertainment programs and not shops. Few people could read, and so merchants used
enough informational and cultural programs. symbols carved in stone, clay, or wood for the signs. For
Many critics also charge that advertising persuades example, a bush indicated a wine shop, and a boot ad-
people to buy products they do not need or want vertised a shoemaker's shop.
through the use of psychological techniques. Advertis- In ancient Egypt, merchants hired criers to walk
ers reply that they do not have the means to make peo- through the streets and announce the arrivals of ships
ple buy unwanted products. They argue that adults and their cargo. By the A.D. 900s, town criers, who
freely choose what to buy or what not to buy. Most ex- called out the news, were common in European coun-
perts agree, however, that advertising is particularly per- tries. They also were hired by merchants to direct cus-

suasive to young children, who do not have the ability tomers to shops and to tell them about goods and
or experience to judge advertising critically. For this rea- prices in the marketplace.
son, the Federal Trade Commission has strict regula- The impact of printing. About 1440, Johannes Guten-
tions governing advertising aimed at children. berg of Germany invented movable type in Europe. His
Political effects. Little attention was paid to political invention led to the first forms of mass advertising-
advertising until 1952, when Dwight D. Eisenhower suc- printed posters, handbills, and newspaper ads. William
cessfully ran for the U.S. presidency. Advertising execu- Caxton, who introduced printing into England, pro-
tives, rather than politicians, directed Eisenhower's pres- duced the first printed advertisement in English in 1472.
idential campaign. Much of Eisenhower's campaign con- It was a poster announcing the sale of a book and was

sisted of a flood of spot announcements on television tacked on church doors.

stations. The first newspaper regularly printed in England, a
Since 1952, advertising executives have played an in- weekly newssheet, appeared in 1622. In the years that fol-
creasingly important role in political campaigns. In addi- lowed, more English newspapers were started, and ad-
tion, TV spot announcements have become a major fea- vertising soon became a standard feature of newspapers.
ture of campaigns for public offices at the national and The first newspaper advertisement in the American
state levels. The chief criticism of political advertising Colonies appeared in The Boston News-Letter in 1704.
concerns the use of such spot announcements, which Many of the early magazines in the United States either
may concentrate on creating an image of a candidate refused to print advertisements or carried only certain
and tend to oversimplify the issues. Critics object to can- kinds of ads. But in the mid-1 800s, more and more mag-
didates being "sold "through advertising methods like azines began to accept advertising, and magazine adver-
those used to sell products. Another complaint is that tising grew quickly. Some magazines were started chief-
candidates with the most money to spend on advertis- ly to earn advertising money.
ing have an unfair advantage over their opponents. Be- Many early ads in both the United States and England
cause of this complaint, Congress passed a law in 1974 paid little heed to the truth. Advertisers made wildly ex-
that limits the amount of money candidates may spend aggerated claims. Ads for nonprescription drugs, for ex-
in presidential campaigns. ample, boasted cures for all kinds of ailments.
The development of advertising agencies. The
History first advertising agencies acted as brokers—that is, they

Most outdoor signs above

historians believe that bought space at a discount from newspapers and resold
form of advertising. As early as it to advertisers. The ads were prepared by the advertis-
shop doors were the first

3000 B.C, the Babylonians, who lived in what is now ers themselves or by hired writers.
80 Advertising

advertisers. In time, the firm hired writers and artists and

carried out complete advertising campaigns for clients.
N. W. Ayer & Son thus became the
"modern" adver-
first

tising agency. By 1900, most agencies

the United in
ELECTWC BELTS.
States were writing copy for advertisers. By the 1920s,
Trv it nnci t>e Convinced. they had assumed responsibility for complete advertis-
DISCOUMT. OWE- THIRD.
ing campaigns.
The rise of radio and television provided advertis-
ers with new, powerful media. Commercial radio sta-
tions began operating in the United States in the 1920s.
Radio soon became a major medium for national adver-
tisers. It enabled them to reach the large, captive audi-
ences that tuned in to popular programs. Many of the
radio shows were produced by advertising agencies.
The popularity of radio soared for about 20 years, until
THIS BELT CURES television began to boom after World War II (1939-1945).
PARALYSIS
NEURALGIA,
LUMBAGO Radio then lost much of the business of national adver-
DYSPEPSIA LAKE BACK,
RHEUMATISM
SPTN AL 1RRIT ATIOH
FIVER AMD AGUE. LIVER COMPLAINT
SEMINAL WFAKNESS KXDSET DISEASES
tisers, though it continued to be an important medium
NERVOUS ESHAU8 TIOH FEMALE COMPLAINTS GEM EHAL DEBILITY for local advertisers. The rise of coast-to-coast TV broad-
casts in the1950s provided national advertisers with ac-
FAC-SIM1LE OF LABEL cess to mass audiences far larger than those reached by
radio. By 1955, advertisers were spending over $1 billion
COMMON SENSE ELECTRIC BELT,
THE BELT FOR THE MILLION. a year on television.
WirfiDial Equal to mJ Sold at a REASONABLE
«ny of lb* Hifh Friend Bella P- .
r
Recent developments. Advertising expenditures in
^ Manufactured by the-^x
Common Sense Electric Belt Co. the United States have increased tremendously since
ha. Sept-SCUSL CHICACO. ILL. World War II. In 1950, about S5.7 billion was spent on
Pooe, according to quality. $3.00, $4 JJO and SS.00 each. advertising. Advertising expenditures are now more
Sent b) mail on receipt of price. Address your orders to our agents
than $200 billion a year.
CHAS TRUAX <& CO
The growth of advertising since the 1950s has been
Historical Pictures Service
accompanied by criticism of advertising practices. Much
Exaggerated claims were made in many ads in the 1800s for
of the criticism has focused on the use of psychological,
medicines and such "medical aids" as electric belts, shown here.
techniques in advertising. Advertising has also been crit-
icized for its stereotypical portrayal of women, elderly
Volney B. Palmer started the first U.S. advertising people, and racial minorities. As a consequence, many
agency in Philadelphia in 1841. Palmer worked as an advertisers have broadened the variety of roles played
agent for newspaper publishers. He received 25 percent by members of these groups in ads. In addition, some
commission on the space that he sold to advertisers. advertisers have used people with physical disabilities
In 1875, N. W. Ayer & Son, another Philadelphia adver- in commercials for products and services not related to
tising agency, began to emphasize agency services to the disabilities.

The
pause that
refreshes

*»-•:
Coca-Cola Company
1929 1983 1994
Advertising over many years has helped establish the widespread popularity of Coca-Cola Dis-
and an emphasis on youth, enjoyment, and success have long characterized Coke
tinctive slogans
ads. The company regularly updates its ads to appeal to more consumers.
 Advertising 81

Total growth of U.S. advertising Growth of U.S. advertising by medium

This graph shows how U.S. advertising expenditures have risen This graph indicates how advertising expenditures in the United
since 1950. The rise has been especially marked since 1970. States have been distributed since 1940 among the chief media.

World
Billions of U. S. dollars United States
Billions of dollars
450
1999: 55
$431,500,000,000/

400 Television
5 50,440,000,000

350
Newspapers
S 46,643.000,000

300
Direct mail
$41,403,000,000
250
1999
$215,200,000,000

200

150
Radio
S 17,215,000,000
100
Yellow pages*
S 12,652,000,000
Consumer
50 magazines
S 11,433,000,000

/ Internet
/ S 1,940,000,000
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 1940 1955 1970 1985 2000 2015

Source. Universal McCann, Inc Excludes media on which comparatively little money is spent, such as outdoor signs and store
Figures are for 1999. displays. 'Information for yellow pages not counted separately prior to 1980.
Source Universal McCann, Inc Tigures are for 1999.

Since the 1980s, many new advertising media have education or special training. Approximately 30 colleges
appeared. For example, advertisements are now seen in and universities in the United States offer major pro-
motion-picture theaters and on videotapes prior to the grams in the field of advertising. People with education
featured movie. They appear in high school classroom in the liberal arts, journalism, behavioral sciences, busi-

news programming. Supermarket shoppers may be ex- ness, or commercial art may also find employment in
posed to in-store radio and grocery carts with miniature the advertising industry.
billboards or video screens advertising products. Information about careers in advertising may be ob-
Advertising on the Internet began after the creation of tained from the American Advertising Federation in
the World Wide Web in the early 1990s. Businesses Washington, D.C, and from the American Association of
spend only a small percentage of their advertising bud- Advertising Agencies in New York City. Bonnie b. Reece
gets on the Internet, but this medium is growing rapidly. Related articles in World Book include:
Advertisers also began to spend more money on pro- Commercial art Motivation research
Computer graphics (In Newspaper
motional campaigns. Promotions involving coupons, re-
advertising) Packaging
bates, premiums, or sweepstakes awards may provide a Consumerism (The right to in- Poster
short-term boost in sales. Butsome industry experts be- formation) Propaganda (Businesses)
lieve the increase in sales comes at the expense of the Magazine Public opinion poll
long-term image of the brand or product Mail-order business Public relations
Market research Radio
Careers Marketing Sales
Modeling Television
The field of advertising offers a wide variety of job op- Motion picture (Distribution)
portunities for people with creative, analytic, business,
Outline
or technical skills. The industry needs writers, artists, re-
searchers, media buyers, salespeople, production man-
Ways of advertising
A. Television E. Magazines
agers, and account executives. )obs can be found with
B. Newspapers F. Outdoor signs
advertisers, advertising agencies, the advertising media, C Direct mail C Other ways of advertising
or advertising service and supply houses. D. Radio
The majority of jobs in advertising require a college
82 AEC
II. Advertising techniques crafts. They decorated palaces and used sys-
built richly
A. Basic appeals tems The Aegean Bronze Age ranks as one of
of writing.
B. Attention-getting headlines
the greatest artistic and cultural ages in history. It lasted
C Slogans
from about 3000 to about 1 1 00 B.C
D. Testimonials
E. Product characters The Aegean civilization collapsed in the 1 100's B.C
F. Comparison of products The craftwork skills, the systems of writing, and the
G Repetition building knowledge were lost, and most trade ended.
III. Creating advertisements The region made little progress during the next 300
A. Research C Creative work
years.
B. Media selection D. Production
IV. The advertising industry The Aegean people left no written history. However,

A. Advertising agencies C Advertising associations their descendants told stories about gods, great kings
B. Advertising depart- D. Regulation of advertising and heroes, and bloody wars. Some of these stories may
ments have been based on actual people and events. The tales
V. Effects of advertising
formed the basis for the epics the Iliad and the Odyssey,
A. Economic effects C Political effects
attributed to the Greek poet Homer. The Aegean people
B. Social effects
\ I. History also kept some records written on clay tablets. These
V1L Careers records were written in characters that were not deci-
phered until A.D. 1953.
Questions
Archaeologists have uncovered most of the informa-
What are testimonials?
tion known about the Aegean civilization. In the 1870's,
With what kinds of information does market research provide
advertisers?
the German archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann began
What advantages do magazines have over newspapers as an ad- research on the civilization. He believed that many sto-
vertising medium? ries in classical Greek literature were based on real
How does advertising in other countries differ from that in the events, and he searched for the sites of legendary cities.
United States?
In 1870, using legends as a guide, Schliemann conduct-
What do most historians believe was the first form of advertis-
ing?
ed the first major excavation on the site of Troy. In 1 876,
What the chief criticism of political advertising?
is
he launched the study of the Mycenaean culture. Schlie-
How did the term hidden persuaders come into use? mann discovered royal graves in Mycenae on the Greek
What are some of the ways in which the headlines of advertise- mainland.
ments attract attention? In the 1880s, James T. Bent, a British scholar, explored
What work does the creative department of an advertising
the Cycladic culture. In 1900, Sir Arthur Evans, another
agency do?
What is the chief U.S. government agency that enforces federal
British scholar, began excavating the Palace of Minos in

laws against deceptive advertising? Knossos on the island of Crete. His research provided
most of the present-day knowledge of the Minoan cul-
Additional resources
ture.
Berger, Warren. Advertising Today. Phaidon, 2001.
The Cycladic culture flourished on a number of
Field, Shelly. Career Opportunities in Advertising and Public Re-
lations 3rd ed. Checkmark, 2002.
Aegean islands, including Kos, Milos, Siros, and Thira
Pricken, Mario. Creative Advertising: Ideas and Techniques from Many Cycladic people made their living by fishing.
the World's Best Campaigns. Thames & Hudson, 2002. Others worked as sailors and traders. Still others were
Sutherland, Max, and Sylvester, A. K. Advertising and the Mind
of the Consumer. 2nd ed. Allen & Unwin, 2000.
Wells, William, and others. Advertising: Principles and Practice.
6th ed. Prentice Hall, 2002.
Wilson, Lee. The Advertising Law Guide. Allworth, 2000.

AEC. See Atomic Energy Commission.

Aedes aegypti. See Finlay, Carlos J.; Yellow fever.
A.E.F. stands for the American Expeditionary Forces
sent to Europe during World War See Pershing, John I.

Joseph; World War (The United States enters the war);

I

American Legion.
Kefaiimia
Aegean civilization, ihJEE uhn, consisted of four »n\SS-
cultures that flourished on the islands and shores of the Zakinthos

Aegean Sea between 3000 and 1200 B.C These cultures

r«y«V 3 r> „a -p

are called the Cycladic, Minoan, Mycenaean, and Trojan °r> aPO"'"*
Cyclad.c ^
cultures. The Cycladic culture developed on a group of
islands called the Cyclades. The Minoan culture arose
on the island of Crete, and the Mycenaean culture flour- Mediterranean Sea
ished on the mainland of Greece. The Trojan culture
centered upon the ancient city of Troy in what is now
northwestern Turkey. 1 50 Kilometers

The Aegean civilization arose after the people of the WORLD BOOK map
area discovered how to make bronze. During this peri- Aegean on the islands and shores of the
civilization flourished
od, called the Aegean Bronze Age, the people became Aegean Sea between 3000 and 1200 B.C Four cultures— the Cy-
highly skilled in architecture, painting, and various cladic, Minoan, Mycenaean, and Trojan— developed there.
 Aegean civilization 83

The Aegean people were

highly skilled architects,
and craftworkers. The
artists,
Minoans on the island of
Crete produced such works
as the scene shown here. The
which dates from
painting,
between 1600 and 1400 B.C.,
shows people offering gifts to
a god.

Ronald Shendan

farmers, many of whom grew grapes for use in produc- Minoan architecture as a model for their palaces. Dur-
ing wine. Cycladic craftworkers made distinctively de- ing the 1300s B.C, they built palaces inMycenae and in
signed pottery and stone figurines. After 1900 B.C, the such places as Athens, Thebes, Pylos, and Tiryns. The
Cycladic culture declined and adopted many features of palace in Mycenae was surrounded by massive walls
the Minoan and Mycenaean cultures. with a huge gateway called the Lion Gate.
The Minoan culture, which arose on Crete, was About 1200 B.C. the Mycenaean civilization had col-
named for Minos, the legendary king of the island. Ac- lapsed, and its main centers had been destroyed. Schol-
cording to tradition, Minos ruled the Aegean Sea and ars do not know whether the civilization fell because of
kept the Minotaur, a monster that was half man and half internal disorder or under attack from invaders. Accord-
bull. See Minos; Minotaur. ing to one traditional account, the Mycenaeans were in-

The Minoans were skilled artists and architects and vaded by the Dorians, a people from northwestern
active traders. They built the Palace of Minos in Knossos, Greece. But many experts now believe the Dorians did
as well as palaces in Zakros, Mallia, and Phaistos. The not arrive until after the fall of the Mycenaeans.
Minoans established trading posts throughout the The Trojan culture, also called the Troadic culture,
Aegean region and in Egypt. Other people of the developed in and around Troy. Archaeologists have un-
Aegean area copied Minoan designs in pottery and oth- covered the remains of nine cities on the site of Troy.
er craftwork. The Minoans developed a decimal system Each successive city was built on the ruins of the one
and used a writing system in which complex symbols before Archaeologists believe the seventh city was
it.

represented syllables of words. The Mycenaeans on the the legendary Troy described in the Iliad and the Od-

mainland of Greece later adapted the Minoan writing yssey. This city was built during the early 1200s B.C It
system to their language. was set afire and destroyed in the mid-1 200s B.C, possi-
After about 1450 B.C, fire destroyed nearly all the bly by invaders from the mainland of Greece.
towns and palaces on Crete. But the palace in Knossos Norman A. Doenges
survived, and Mycenaeans gained control of it. The Related articles in World Book include:
palace was burned by other people from Greece in the Architecture IMinoan archi- Mycenae
tecture; Mycenaean archi- Painting lAegean painting)
early 1300s B.C The Minoan culture began to decline af-
tecture; picture: Greek ar- Schliemann, Heinrich
ter the palace was burned. The culture disappeared in chitecture) Sculpture (Aegean; pictures:
the mid-11 OO's B.C Clothing (Ancient times; pic- Cycladic marble figurine;
The Mycenaean culture, also called the Helladic cul- tures: The Cretans; Cretan Woman praying)
ture,centered on Mycenae, a powerful city on the main- women) Ship (Minoan and Mycenaean
Crete ships)
land of Greece. By about 2000 B.C, a group of people
Evans, Sir Arthur |ohn Trojan War
had moved to the Peloponnesus, the southern peninsula Greece, Ancient (History) Troy
of Greece, and had established Mycenae. Archaeolo- Knossos Ventris, Michael George Fran-
gists do not know where these people came from. The Labyrinth cis

people introduced new styles of pottery to the area and Additional resources
built houses that had a large central room. Scholars be-
Barber, R.LN. The Cvclades in the Bronze Age Univ. of la. Pr.,
lieve the Mycenaeans may have spoken a dialect that lat-
1987.
er developed into the Greek language. Castleden, Rodnev. Minoans: Lite in Bronze Age Crete 1990.
By the 1500 s B.C, the Mycenaeans had grown rich Reprint. Routledge. 1993.
and powerful, and they greatly influenced Greek culture Dickinson Oliver The Aegean Bronze -We. Cambridge. 1994
rayloui William The Mycenaeans. Rev. ed 983. Reprint.
For this reason, archaeologists call the late Bronze Age 1

Thames S. Hudson 1990.

in Greece the Mycenaean period. The Mycenaeans used
84 Aegean Sea
Aegean Sea, ee jEE uhn, is a gulf or arm of the Medi- Trojan survivors and sailed away to found a new home.
terranean Sea. between Greece on the west and
It lies They stopped at various places and had many adven-
north, Turkey on the east, and the island of Crete to the tures. In the city of Carthage in Africa, Aeneas met
south. Its southernmost part is called the Sea of Crete. Queen Dido. She fell in love with him and committed
The Aegean covers about 69,000 square miles (179,000 suicide when a sense of duty to his destined role as a
square kilometers!. It is about 400 miles (640 kilometers) founder of a new home for the Trojans compelled him
long and more than 200 miles (320 kilometers) wide at to leave her.
its widest point. The Dardanelles, a strait on the north- Aeneas finally arrived in Italy. He visited the lower
east shore, links the Aegean to the Sea of Marmara. world, where he learned about Rome's future glory. Ae-
Many known as the Grecian Archi-
islands, together neas then traveled to the Italian region of Latium, where
pelago, throughout the Aegean Sea. They form four
lie he became friends with King Latinus. The king offered
main groups— the Cyclades, the Dodecanese, the Spora- his daughter Lavinia in marriage. Aeneas married Lavinia
des, and a widely scattered group in the northern Ae- and founded the city of Lavinium.
Aeneas later disappeared from this world during a
Aegean Sea battle with a neighboring people called the Etruscans.
According to some versions of the myth, he was taken
20 '
East Longitude
to heaven and became the god Jupiter Indiges.
Daniel P. Harmon
See also Aeneid; Dido; Virgil.
Aeneid, ih NEE ihd, the national epic of ancient Rome,
is one of the world's greatest poems of heroic adven-
ture. It was written by the Roman poet Virgil between 30
and 9 B.C. This period was one of national pride for the
1

Romans. The emperor Augustus had just united the peo-

ple of the Italian peninsula to defeat Rome's enemies in
Athens the eastern provinces. Virgil chose the myth of the Tro-
jan hero Aeneas to express ancient Rome's moral and
Sea religious values and to honor Augustus, who was be-
lieved to be Aeneas' descendant.
T
North DODECANESE RHODES The Aeneid contains 1 2 books. The first six books imi-
ISLANDS
tate the Greek epic the Odyssey. They describe Aeneas'
I

CYTHERA

adventures at sea following the capture of Troy by the

Mediterranean Sea
Greeks during the Trojan War.
Distance Scale As the Aeneid begins, a storm shipwrecks Aeneas
100
1 I '
and his Trojan followers near Carthage in North Africa.
600 700 Kilometers
There, Aeneas falls in love with the queen, Dido. But the
WORLD BOOK r
gods order him to leave for Italy. In despair, Dido com-
gean Limnos and Thasos. The beautiful is-
that includes mits suicide. After Aeneas finally reaches Italy, he goes
lands of the Aegean achieved fame
in Greek history and down to the underworld and learns about his future de-
legend. Some are ancient volcanoes and are made of scendants, the Romans.
lava. Others are made of pure white marble. The impor- Virgil bases the last six books of the Aeneid on the
tant historic islands include Delos, Euboea, Samos, Les- Greek epic the Iliad. They begin as Aeneas arrives near
bos, Lemnos, Patmos, and Rhodes. All the islands of the the future site of Rome. There, the local king, Latinus, of-
Grecian Archipelago have an area of about 2,500 square fers him land for his people and marriage to his daugh-
miles (6,470 square kilometers). John Baxevanis j. ter, Lavinia. Turnus, Lavinia's jealous suitor, attacks the
See also Aegean civilization; Dardanelles; Lesbos; Trojans and kills the young soldier Pallas, whom Aeneas
Rhodes. has promised to protect. Aeneas later fights Turnus and
Aegis, EE jihs, was the name of the shield or breast- kills him in punishment for the death of Pallas.

plate made for Jupiter by Vulcan. Jupiter created thun- Aeneas' obedience to the gods costs him his personal
der with it. Minerva (Athena), Jupiter's daughter, carried happiness and the lives of those he loves. Yet he retains
it as a sign of authority when she went on missions for his sense of duty and commitment to creating a new na-
her father. In its center was the head of Medusa, which tion in an Unknown land. Elaine Fantham

is said to have had the power of turning men to stone. See also Virgil; Aeneas; Dido; Sibyl; Troy.
See also Medusa; Minerva. Mary r. Lefkowitz Aeolian harp, ee OH lee uhn, is an unusual ancient
Aeneas, ih NEE uhs, was a Trojan hero in Greek and musical instrument. It consists of a wooden box with
Roman mythology. The Romans believed he was an an- from 8 to 15 strings of various thickness stretched along
cestor of Romulus and Remus, the mythical founders of the top. The strings are raised slightly by low bridges
Rome. The Roman poet Virgil celebrated the adventures near each end of the box. The instrument produces soft,
of Aeneas in the Aeneid, Rome's national epic. exotic sounds when the wind blows on the strings, caus-
Aeneas was the son of the Trojan prince Anchises ing them to vibrate. The Aeolian harp is named for Aeo-
and the Greek goddess Aphrodite (called Venus by the lus, the ancient Greek god of the winds. Abram Loft
Romans). When Troy fell, Aeneas fled with his father and Aeolians, ee OH
lee uhnz, were a group of ancient
his son Ascanius from the burning city (see Trojan War). Greeks. They lived in a large part of east-central Greece
On nearby Mount Ida, Aeneas gathered the few other before 1 1 50 B.C Toward the end of the 1 1 0ffs, other
 Aerodynamics 85

Greeks called Dorians invaded Aeoiian territory, and Aerodynamics, oh dy NAM ihks, is the study of
air
many Aeolians moved to the western coast of Asia Mi- forces that act on an object as it moves through air or

nor (present-day Turkey) and the nearby islands of Les- some other fluid. Aerodynamic forces act on airplanes
bos and Tenedos. The coastal district was known as Ae- and all other objects that fly through the air. These
olis. The Aeolians organized themselves in a loose forces also act on automobiles and other objects that
confederacy. The island of Lesbos became a busy trad- move through the air and partly along a solid sur-
partly
ing center and the home of a famous school of poetry. aerodynamic forces act on ships, which
face. In addition,
Its most famous poets included Alcaeus and Sappho. move partly through the air and partly through water.
Norman A. Doenges Such forces even act on buildings due to the wind that
See also Achaeans; Dorians; Greece, Ancient (Histo- blows around them. Scientists, engineers, and architects
ry); lonians; Sappho. study aerodynamics to learn to design vehicles and
Aeolus, EE uh luhs, was the keeper of the winds in structures.
Greek mythology. Aeolus lived on a floating island,
Principles of aerodynamics
which scholars believe was one of the Aeolian Islands
near Sicily. These islands were named for him. Aeolus There are two basic aerodynamic forces— Mand
kept the winds confined in a cave on the island and re- drag. Both result from a transfer of force from a fluid to
leased them whenever he wished. the surface of a solid object. The force from the fluid
Aeolus plays an important part in two great epic po- creates a pressure and a shear stress on the surface.
ems, the Odyssey and the Aeneid. In the Odyssey, Aeo- Pressure is force per unit area, with the force applied
lus gives the Greek hero Odysseus (Ulysses in Latin) a perpendicular to the surface. Pressure can be measured
leather bag containing the winds that could prevent in pounds per square inch in the system of units custom-

Odysseus from sailing home. Odysseus's sailors open arily used in the United States. The pounds are a meas-

the bag because they mistakenly believe that it contains ure of the force, and the square inch is the unit of sur-
treasure. The winds escape from the open bag and blow face area. In the metric system, a common unit of
Odysseus's ship off its course. At the beginning of the pressure is the kilopascal. One kilopascal equals a force
Aeneid, the goddess Juno, an enemy of the Trojan hero of0.1 newton on an area of 1 square centimeter. One

Aeneas, persuades Aeolus to release winds that cause a pound per square inch equals about 6.9 kilopascals.
storm. The storm then scatters Aeneas's fleet Shear stress is also force per unit area, but this force
Nancy Felson is applied along the surface. Shear stress occurs in a flu-
Aerated water. See Mineral water. id due to the fluid's viscosity, its internal friction that re-

Aerial. See Antenna. sists motion. Friction occurs in a fluid whenever one lay-

Aerial photography. See Archaeology (Locating er of the fluid slides over another layer. Because of
sites; picture: Aerial photography); Photogrammetry. friction, the layers resist sliding.
Aerial surveying. See Photogrammetry; Surveying. The aerodynamic force transferred from the fluid
total

Aerobatics. See Airplane (Special-purpose planes; to the surface is a result of the pressure and the shear

picture: Aerobatic planes). stress acting over the entire surface. Lift and drag are
Aerobics, air OH bihks, is a system of exercises de- components (parts! of the total aerodynamic force. Lift is
signed to promote the supply and use of oxygen in the the component that perpendicular to the direction of
is

body. These exercises include bicycling, dancing, jog- motion of the object the case of an airplane that is fly-
In

ging, rowing, skating, swimming, and fast walking. ing horizontally, the lift is applied in the upward direc-
Many people participate in aerobics programs to in- tion. Drag is the component that pushes in the direction

crease their endurance and energy and to achieve and opposite that of the object's motion. Thus, drag opposes
maintain their proper weight Regular aerobic exercise the motion of the object
may also help lessen the risk of heart disease. Lift keeps an airplane in the air by balancing the

A regular, vigorous program of aerobic exercises weight of the plane. This aerodynamic force is created
helps the body process large amounts of oxygen effi- along a wing by the motion of the wing through the air.
ciently.The presence of oxygen in the muscle cells is Lift can be analyzed in terms of the motion of an airfoil

necessary for the formation of a compound called (cross section of a wing) through the air. The motion cre-

adenosine triphosphate (ATP). The breakdown of ATP ates lift by producing a difference in air pressure. The
produces the energy for all muscular activity. During air pressure on the lower surface of the airfoil becomes

vigorous activity, more oxygen is inhaled and passes greater than the air pressure on the upper surface.
from the lungs into the blood. More oxygen-rich blood The pressure difference is a result of a difference in
is delivered to the muscles, creating more ATP. This in- the speed of the air flowing along the two surfaces. Ac-
creased amount of ATP produces more energy for the cording to a principle discovered by Daniel Bernoulli, a
body. If the circulatory system cannot supply enough Swiss mathematician, the pressure of a fluid increases
oxygen to the muscles or if the muscles cannot use oxy- as the speed of the fluid decreases. The air pressure on
gen efficiently, the body produces a smaller amount of the lower surface of the airfoil is greater because the air
ATP. This results in early fatigue. flows more slowly along that surface.
For maximum effectiveness, individuals should per- Lift can occur when the airflows along the top and

form aerobic exercises continuously for 1 5 minutes to bottom surfaces are unsymmetrical (unbalanced).
an hour 3 to 5 times a week. Men and women over the Unsymmetrical flow is a result of one or both of the fol-
age of 35 should get a medical examination before be- lowing factors: (1) the camber (curved shape) of the air-
Herbweber toil and 12) the angle ot attack (the angle at which the air-
ginning an aerobics program.
See also Jogging; Running; Physical fitness. flow meets the airfoil). A typical airfoil has a rounded
86 Aerodynamics

How lift occurs the amount of lift

air also affect
Angle ofattackls the angle that a wing makes with the
air flowing past it A pilot can change this angle by
changing the plane's position in space. Increasing the
angle of attack increases the lift— but only up to a point
If the angle of attack becomes too large, the airflow will

separate from the upper surface of the wing. As a result,

lift will decrease sharply, producing a condition called

stall. An airplane at the point of stalling may crash unless

the angle of attack is quickly reduced. Airplanes fly at

angles of about 3 to 1 5 degrees. An airplane will stall if

WORLD BOOK diagram by Jonathan Simpson
the angle becomes larger than 1 5 or 20 degrees.
Lift can occur when the and bot-
airflows along the top
Speed. A wing's speed through the air helps deter-
tom surfaces of an airplane wing are unsymmetrical {un-
balanced). The air approaching the wing s rounded edge mine how much lift will occur. The faster the airplane is

smoothly along a line called a dividing streamline

splits flying, the greater will be the lift

and merges smoothly at the sharp edge. Wing area. An increase in wing area creates extra lift

by increasing the total forces due to air pressure and

Lift shear stress. If the air pressure and the shear stress are
held constant, the amount of force depends only on the
area: The greater the area, the greater the force.
Air density. Air that is relatively dense creates more
Upper surface lift than does relatively thin air. This happens because,

according to Bernoulli's principle, pressure increases

Drag
with density.
Creating extra lift During take-offs and landings, pi-
lots want to fly as slowly as possible. Special parts called
high-lift devices enable a plane to fly at minimum
speeds. These devices are extensions that fit smoothly
against the wing while the airplane is cruising. The pilot
Angle of attack can lower them when they are needed. The extension at

WORLD BOOK diagram by Jonathan Simpson the leading edge of the wing is called a slat The exten-
Factors that create lift in an airplane include II the )
sion at the trailing edge is a flap. When lowered, these
angle ofattackthat each wing makes with the airstream extensions increase the wing camber and area, furnish-
and (2) the shape of the mean camber line that represents ing extra lift
the average curvature of the wing s upper and lower sur-
Drag is a force that resists the forward motion of a
faces. At the leading edge of the wing, the mean camber
line curves upward from the straight chord line connecting
solid object in a fluid. The object's shape affects the
the leading and trailing edges. amount of drag. Objects shaped to produce little drag
are called streamlined or aerodynamically clean.
Two types of drag— friction drag and form drag—act
on all moving objects. A third type, induced drag, affects
leading (front) edge and a sharp trailing (rear) edge. As
the air approaches the leading edge, it splits to go

around the The air that travels along the top ac-
airfoil.

celerates as it goes around the highly curved leading Total

edge. As a result, the speed of the air on the upper sur- aerodynamic
force
face is greater.
In addition, the airflows along the top and bottom of ^—
—-\ \\
Heeling force
the merge smoothly as they leave the trailing
airfoil

edge. This condition is known as the Kutta condition— Lift

named for its discoverer, Martin W. Kutta, a German

mathematician. ]\V Sail

Another explanation for lift is related to an airfoils Course sailed y^\ - Drag^
ability to deflect (turn) air downward. An airfoil deflects
Driving
air by guiding the air along its cambered surface and by '
;

force ,

meeting the air at an angle. Deflection produces lift ac-

cording to a law of motion explained in 1687 by the Eng-
lish scientist and mathematician Isaac Newton. This law
Apparent
states that, for every action, there is an equal and oppo-
Wind
site reaction. Thus, as an airfoil deflects air downward,
WORLD BOOK diagram bv Jonathan Simpson
the reaction to the deflection produces an upward force
by the air on the airfoil.
A boat sails into the wind. When the wind blows past the sail,
it creates a total aerodynamic force that can be represented by a
The amount of lift created by the airflow along a wing driving force, which propels the boat, and a heeling force. This
depends mainly on the wing s angle of attack, speed, diagram also shows lift and drag forces for comparison with the
and camber. The area of the wing and the density of the corresponding forces on an airplane wing.
 Aerodynamics 87

only objects with lift Still another kind of drag, wave the air pressure on the wing's lower surface is greater
drag, results when an object moves faster than the than that on the upper surface. But this pressure differ-
speed of sound. Wave drag also occurs when a ship ence also makes air flow at the tip of the wing. The air at
generates waves on the surface of the water. This sec- the tipmoves from the lower surface to the upper sur-
tion discusses friction drag, form drag, and induced face. This flow creates vortices, swirling streams of air
drag. For a discussion of wave drag, see the section that fiow away from the tip and continue behind the
Shock waves later in this article. wing.
Friction drag is a component of the drag due to shear The creation of wing-tip vortices uses energy that
stress. Friction has its strongest effect in the boundary could otherwise be spent to provide lift and propel the
layer, a thin layer of fluid next to the surface. aircraft. In addition, the vortices threaten the safety of
The amount drag depends upon whether
of friction airplanes flying close behind. Aircraft designers lessen
the fluid flow is laminar or turbulent In laminar flow, the induced drag by giving airplanes long, narrow wings.
fluid molecules move in orderly paths essentially along Lift and drag in a sailboat The principles of aerody-
the direction of the surface. Turbulent flow occurs at namics also apply to objects that move through air but
higher speeds. In turbulent flow, the fluid's speed and do not fly. One can use these principles to explain, for
direction of flow vary randomly from an average value. example, how a sailboat sails into the wind.
This variation increases the shear stress. As a result, fric- When the wind puffs the sail out, the sail resembles a
tion drag is much higher when flow is turbulent than it cambered airplane wing. The apparent wind—the wind
is when flow is laminar. measured by an observer on the boat— thus generates a
Airflow is usually laminar near a wing's leading edge, total aerodynamic force that corresponds to the force
and it becomes turbulent farther along the surface. Air- on a wing. This force can be resolved into (represented
plane designers try to delay the change from laminar by) two components relative to the apparent wind: (1 lift, )

flow to turbulent flow. One way to do this is to make the which tends to push the sail in a direction perpendicular
surface as smooth as possible. to the apparent wind; and (2) drag, which resists the
Form drag\s a component of the drag due to pres- movement of the boat directly against the wind.
sure. The amount of form drag on an object depends on The aerodynamic force can also be resolved into
total

the object's form, or shape. If the object is not stream- another pair of components: (1) a driving force in the
lined, the drag force mostly form drag. If the object is
is sailing direction, and (2) a heeling force, which is per-
streamlined, the drag force is mostly friction drag. pendicular to the driving force. The driving force pro-
In form drag, the flowing fluid separates from the ob- pels the boat. As the boat moves, the water exerts an
ject. The pressure next to the rear surface of the object aerodynamic force on its hull and keel. The keel is the
therefore decreases. This decrease makes the pressure main timber that extends the entire length of the bottom
on the front surface larger than that on the rear surface. of the boat
The net result is a force that pushes against the front of The boat will sail at constant speed when the aerody-
the object This force is the form drag. Designers can re- namic force generated on the sail is both equal to and
duce form drag by streamlining the object opposite the corresponding aerodynamic force that the
Induced drag is a result of a phenomenon that is also water exerts on the hull and keel. This condition also has
responsible for lift. Airflow will lift an airplane wing if the effect of canceling the heeling force.

NASA Ames Research Center

Stringlike lines represent air-

flow in this illustration drawn
by a supercomputer. Engi-
neers typically use such com-
puter simulations to evaluate
proposed designs for an air-
plane. The engineers then se-
lect a design and build a
physical model for testing.
88 Aerodynamics

How a sonic boom is created build up into shock waves. The waves then attach them-
selves to the front and rear of the plane. An airplane fly-

speed of sound can also pro-

ing at slightly less than the
duce shock waves. These waves occur because the
airflow next to some surfaces of the plane is actually su-
personic.
Shock waves create wave drag, thereby increasing
the totalamount of drag on the plane. A plane designed
for transonic and supersonic flight therefore has fea-
tures that help reduce wave drag. For example, its nose
is sharply pointed, and its wings have sharp, thin edges

Shock wave that can knife through the air. The wings may also be an-
gled back from the body of the plane.
Sonic boom. After a supersonic airplane flies over-
Ground head, people on the ground may hear a sharp "bang."
This sound, called a sonic boom, is caused by shock
A sonic boom occurs when an airplane flying faster than waves from the plane. A plane flying at a supersonic
the speed of sound creates a shock wave. People on the
speed sends out at least two shock waves— one from its
ground hear the boom when the wave reaches them.
front and the other from its rear. But the two waves may
reach the ground so close together that people hear
WORLD BOOK diagram
only one boom. A sonic boom may be strong enough to
break windows or damage buildings.
Supersonic aerodynamics
Applying aerodynamic principles
supersonic aerodynamics occur when the
Effects of To design an airplane, engineers need to determine
airplane speeds greater than the speed of sound.
flies at how the airflow will interact with the surfaces of the
Supersonic means faster than the speed of sound. Two plane. They need to know in detail how strong the air
of the major effects of supersonic aerodynamics are pressure and shear stress will be at various places along
shock waves and sonic booms. Both are created by pres- the body, the wings, and other parts of the airplane. To
sure disturbances that a moving airplane produces in gather the information they need, the engineers must
the air. study more than the layers of air next to the surfaces.
These disturbances result from the flow of air around They must investigate the entire flow field, the large re-
the plane. The disturbances travel away from the plane gion of space in which the airflow and the plane will in-
just as ripples in a pond spread from the spot where a teract To study flow fields, aircraft design engineers al-
stone falls into the water. Pressure disturbances travel at most always use a combination of two techniques—
the speed of sound— about 760 miles per hour (mph), or wind-tunnel testing and computational fluid dynamics.
about 1 ,225 kilometers per hour (kph), at sea level. Wind-tunnel testing. A wind tunnel is a ground-
Sound itself is and so some of
a pressure disturbance, based facility in which a stream of air is blown at an ob-

the disturbances produced by the airplane can be ject at uniform speed. Some wind tunnels are so huge
heard. If the plane is flying at less than the speed of that they can be used to test full-sized experimental air-
sound, the sound of the plane travels ahead of the plane. planes. But most wind tunnels are relatively small facili-
Thus, people on the ground can hear the plane coming ties thatare used to test scaled-down models.
toward them. However, the sound of a plane flying Engineers can obtain much valuable information from
faster than the speed of sound cannot be heard on the wind-tunnel testing. However, the models are expensive
ground until the aircraft has passed. to build. Furthermore, as the design evolves, the engi-
Engineers and pilots use special numbers called neers often must test a large number of different air-
Mach numbersXo describe the speed of planes flying plane shapes.
near or above the speed of sound. A Mach number is Computational fluid dynamics employs supercom-
found by dividing the speed of an airplane by the speed puters, the fastest and largest computers. In this tech-
of sound at the plane s altitude. For example, the Mach nique, a supercomputer solves equations describing
number of a plane flying at ,520 mph at sea level would
1 physical laws that govern what happens at a large num-
be 2. Modern airliners cruise at an altitude of about ber of points in a flow field.The equations contain a
35,000 feet (9,000 meters) and a speed of about Mach huge number of factors that are related to one another
0.80 to Mach 0.85. in complex ways. Some factors pertain to features of the

Flight that is slightly faster or slower than Mach 1 is airplane, such as the sizes and shapes of various parts of
known as transonic flight Flight that is significantly slow- the plane. Other factors have to do with flying condi-
er thanMach is subsonic. Flight that is significantly
1 tions, including aircraft speed, wind speed, angle of at-
faster thanMach is supersonic, and flight at or faster
1 tack, and air density.
than about Mach 5 is hypersonic. Mach numbers are The engineers first enter the equations into the super-
named for Austrian physicist and psychologist Ernst computer. Next, they enter the numerical values that
Mach. apply to the plane they are designing and to the flying
Shock wavesare pressure disturbances produced conditions. The computer then calculates the corre-
by the an airplane at supersonic speed. Because
flight of sponding pressures, shear stresses, and other results.
disturbances cannot move ahead of the plane, they These calculations simulate (represent) how the airplane
 Aerospace medicine 89

would interact with the air. In many cases, the computer are suspended in a gaseous base.
creates a motion picture that shows a few moments of Chemicals used as propellants in manufactured
flightThe engineers evaluate the results and change the aerosols include hydrocarbons, carbon dioxide, and ni-
design as necessary. Alien piotkin trous oxide. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC's) were also once
Related articles in World Book include: used extensively as propellants (see Chlorofluorocar-
Air Glider Rocket bon). During the 1970s, however, many scientists be-
Airplane Helicopter Sonic boom
came concerned that CFC's were reacting with and di-
Bernoulli's princi- Jet propulsion Streamlining
Propeller Wind tunnel minishing the ozone layer'm the earth's upper
pie
atmosphere. This layer shields the earth's surface from
Additional resources dangerous ultraviolet radiation (see Ozone). In 1978, the
Anderson, John D. A History of Aerodynamics and Its Impact on U.S. government banned the use of CFC propellants. By
Flying Machines. Cambridge, 1997.
1996, most industrialized countries, including the United
Dalton, Stephen. The Miracle of Flight Firefly Bks., 1999.
States, had ended all production of CFC's.
Tennekes, Henk. The Simple Science of Flight MIT Pr., 1996.
Wegener, Peter P. What Makes Airplanes Fly?lnA ed. Springer- H. Stephen Stoker

Verlag, 1996. See also Air (Particles in the air); Ozone hole.
Aerospace industry. See Aviation.
Aeronautics. See Aviation. Aerospace medicine is the field of medical science
Aeronautics and Space Administration, Na- concerned with the effects of flight on human health. It

tional. See National Aeronautics and Space Adminis- deals with aviation medicine, the care of airplane crews
tration. and passengers; and space medicine, the care of astro-
Aeroplane. See Airplane. nauts. Doctors and scientists in this field try to increase
Aerosol, AIR uh sahl, is a mixture of extremely small the job performance and safety, as well as the health, of
particles and gas. The particles may be liquid droplets people who fly.
or tiny They are suspended^(dis-
bits of solid material. Aviation medicine. There are many common stress-
tributed) throughout the gas. Clouds and fog are es of air travel. They include motion sickness, noise, vi-
aerosols that occur naturally. Cans of deodorant and hair bration, changes in oxygen levels, and rapid changes in
spray produce aerosols when used. speed and atmospheric pressure.
Fine solid particles and moisture constantly enter the An important stress in fighter aircraft is a rapid up-
earth's atmosphere, producing atmospheric aerosols. ward acceleration. This movement can cause blood to
The solid particles include soil and coal dust, smoke, be pooled, or concentrated, in the lower parts of the
and pollen. Atmospheric aerosols contribute to air pol- body. The flow of blood to the heart may then be insuffi-
lution. They also reflect some solar radiation back into cient for the heart to maintain adequate circulation to
space, slightly lowering the earth's surface temperature. the brain, causing unconsciousness. As a result, fighter
Light scattered by atmospheric aerosols produces the pilots must wear special trousers called C suits that
sky's red glow at sunset squeeze blood out of the legs and back to the heart
Containers for manufactured aerosol products are Doctors who specialize in aviation medicine are
called aerosol cans. Within such cans, the product is dis- called flight surgeons. Flight surgeons help to design
solved in The con-
a propel/ant, usually a liquefied gas. equipment and develop crew selection and training
tents of the can are sealed under pressure, and the can programs. Other areas of aviation medicine include in-
is fitted with a release valve. When the valve is opened, vestigating accidents, training crews for survival after
the pressurized solution is ejected. The released propel- crashing, and transporting sick or injured people by air.
lant vaporizes with the product suspended in it, forming Space medicine. During space travel, weightlessness
an aerosol. Some products in pressurized cans, such as (freedom from the pull of gravity) can cause several dis-
shaving cream and whipped cream, are not aerosols. orders. These include motion sickness, disorientation
These foamlike substances consist of gases that are sus- (loss of a sense of direction), and a shift of blood and

pended in a liquid base rather than solids or liquids that other fluids from the feet and legs to the chest and head.
Weightlessness also can cause the loss of bone and
muscle tissue in the feet and legs. This condition proba-
An aerosol container sprays bly occurs because the bones and muscles no longer
out such products as deodor- need to work against the pull of gravity. Researchers are
izers and paints in the form of seeking a combination of exercises, drugs, and special
a fine mist The product is diets that will reduce bone and muscle loss.
mixed with a liquefied gas,
Another hazard of space flight is radiation from the
called a propellant, and is

held in the container under

sun and other objects in space. Being exposed to radia-
pressure. When the cap of the tion increases a person s chances of developing
container is pushed down, the leukemia and other cancers. Astronauts exposed to
inlet opens and the solution more than a certain amount of radiation would be
moves through the dip tube. grounded. Todays spacecraft have too little protection
As the solution reaches the
against radiation for long-duration manned flights into
opening in the cap, the pro-
peilant vaporizes and the par- deep space (space beyond the and the moon).
earth
ticles shoot into the air. Some scientists have suggested that the most serious
WORLD BOOK diagram problem for astronauts on long missions could be psy-
chological. Space travelers have found that after 30 days
of being confined together in a small space on a flight
90 Aeschylus

scheduled to last many months, they develop an intense a sheep and kills him for supper.
dislike for each other and a strong desire to go home. No one knows how many of the stories attributed to
K. E Money Aesop were actually composed by him. Some of the fa-
See also Anoxia; Bends; G (symbol); Space explo- bles originated from more ancient sources, and Aesop
ration. may have been responsible only for retelling them and
Aeschylus, EHS kuh luhs (525-456 B.C) was the earliest making them popular.
writer of Creek tragedy whose complete
plays exist in For many years, Aesop s fables were handed down
form. He wrote more than 80 plays, of which seven sur- orally from generation to generation. About 300 B.C, an
vive. These seven plays reveal a deeply patriotic and reli- Athenian politician named Demetrius of Phaleron gath-
gious artist who brought Creek tragedy to maturity. Be- ered about 200 of them into a collection called Assem-
fore Aeschylus, tragedies had a single actor who could blies ofAesopic Tales. This collection was translated into
only respond to the questions or suggestions of the Latin about 300 years later by Phaedrus, a freed Greek
chorus. Aeschylus increased the number of actors to slave. About AD. 230, the Greek writer Valerius Babrius
two, which created dialogue that permitted interaction combined Aesops fables with some from India and
between characters. translated all of them into Greek verse. Since then, other
Aeschylus s plots are simple. Most of them center on writers have retold the fables and expanded their mean-
a conflict between an individual's will and the divine ing, but the tales have never lost their original charm
powers that rule the world. Aeschylus wrote tragedy in and Simplicity. Cynthia W. Shelmerdine

the grand manner, with a richness of language and com- See also Allegory; Fable; La Fontaine, Jean de.
plexity of thought that only the English playwright
Additional resources
William Shakespeare has rivaled. Aeschylus's greatest
Barnes-Murphy, Frances, ed. The Fables of Aesop. Lothrop. 1994.
work is the Oresteia (458 B.C), which consists of three
Younger readers.
plays forming one drama. They are Agamemnon, The Li- Clark, Margaret, ed. The Best of Aesop s Fables. Little. Brown,
bation Bearers, and The Eumenides (The Furies). In these 1990. Younger readers.
plays, Aeschylus turned the violence after the return of Keller, )ohn E., and Keating, L C, eds. Aesop s Fables, with a Life

King Agamemnon fromTroy into a drama about the rec- of Aesop. Univ. Pr. of Ky., 1993.

onciliation of human suffering with divine power. Aesthetics, ehs THEHT ihks, also spelled esthetics, is

Aeschyluss other surviving plays are The Persians (472), the study of theories that apply to the arts in a broad and
Seven Against Thebes (467), The Suppliants (463?), and fundamental way. People think about aesthetics when
Prometheus Bound, which was probably written late in they askwhy some things are beautiful and some are
Aeschylus s life. Aeschylus was born into a prominent not, or whether there are basic rules for creating or in-
family in Eleusis, near Athens. iua Berkowitz terpreting good paintings, poems, and music.
See also Drama 'Creek drama). Aestheticians study the arts in general. They compare
Aesculapius. See Asclepius. arts from different cultures and from different periods of
Aesop's fables, EE sahps, are a collection of stories history, in order to organize our knowledge of them sys-
attributed to a Greek slave named Aesop, who died tematically. For many years, the study of beauty was re-
about 565 B.C Like all fables, each of these tales teaches garded as the central problem of aesthetics. Now the
a moral and offers useful advice. Most of the characters subject has broadened to include many other aspects of
in Aesop s fables are animals that talk and act like hu- art Aestheticians try to understand how art is related to
mans. They show the failings and virtues of human na.- what people feel, to what they learn, and to the cultures
ture in a simple, humorous way. Each fable ends with a in which they live. To gain this understanding, they col-

proverb that sums up the fable's moral and advice. lect, organize, and interpret information about the arts

The best-known of Aesop s fables is probably The and aesthetic experience. Aestheticians try to find
Tortoise and the Hare.' It tells about a race between a whether there are standards of art criticism. This helps
slow tortoise and a swift hare. Halfway through the race, people appreciate different kinds of art and judge them
the hare is so far ahead and so confident of victory that intelligently.
he takes a nap. The tortoise plods along steadily and In addition to studying theories about works of art,

eventually passes the hare, who awakens and sees his aestheticians want to understand artists and audiences.
slow opponent crossing the finish line. The proverb They can understand art better if they have learned how
"Slow and steady wins the race sums up the moral of artists imagine, create, and perform, and what makes
this story, teaching that persistence can be more impor- artists' activities different from the work of nonartists.

tant than speed. They also try to understand what happens to people's
Another The Ant and the Grasshopper,
favorite fable, feelings when they experience art. Aestheticians study
illustrates the value of hard work and preparation for the how art affects people's moods, beliefs, and values.
future. In this fable, the grasshopper frolics all summer, Aesthetics is the youngest branch of philosophy to be
while the ant stores food. When winter comes, the ant given its own name, which was first used in the late
has plenty to eat, but the grasshopper starves. 1 700s. But philosophers from the ancient Greeks to the

Aesop s fables have provided numerous popular ex- present day have discussed the philosophy of art Al-
pressions. For example, an enemy who pretends to be a most all of them have talked about whether art is good
friend is sometimes called a wolf in sheeps clothing." for people and for society. Some point out that art can
This expression comes from the fable in which a wolf have dangers as well as benefits, and a few argue that
disguises himself in a sheepskin. The wolf then moves art and artists are so disruptive that they threaten the so-
undetected among a herd of sheep and kills them for cial order. But most philosophers believe art is good be-
food. However, the shepherd also mistakes the wolf for cause it allows us to express our emotions, teaches us
 Afghan hound 91

about ourselves and the world, or communicates the Different affirmative-action programs have different
and cultures.
traditions of different times Some seek only to remove barriers so that all
features.
Aestheticians use art history to understand the art of people may compete equally. Others use numerical
previous times. They use the psychology of art to learn goals called quotasXo ensure that women or minorities
how our senses interact with our imagination and un- are included in preset proportions. Programs using quo-
derstanding when we experience art Art criticism tas may prefer members of certain groups.
serves as a guide to enjoy each individual work of art For federal contracts, the term affirmative action was
The social sciences, such as anthropology and sociolo- first used in an order issued by President John F.

gy, help aestheticians understand how creating and ap- Kennedy in 1 961 That and other early federal orders re-
.

preciating art relate to other human activities. The social quired businesses with U.S. government contracts to
sciences also indicate how art varies in relation to physi- treat their employees without regard to race, ethnic ori-
cal, social, and cultural environments. Anita Silvers gin, religion, or gender. Later, the government asked
See also Philosophy (Aesthetics); Art and the arts. these businesses to consider the race and gender of
their employees to ensure that the mix of people on
Additional resources
their staffs reflected the mix in the local work force.
Kelly, Michael, ed. Encyclopedia of Aesthetics. 4 vols. Oxford,
Also, a share of federal contracts were set aside for
1998.
Lyas, Colin. Aesthetics. McCill-Queens Univ. Pr., 1997. businesses owned by women or minorities. Many state
Manns, James W. Aesthetics. Sharpe, 1998. and local governments, as well as many businesses and
Paulson, Ronald. The Beautiful, Novel, and Strange: Aesthetics schools, created their own affirmative-action programs.
and Heterodoxy. Johns Hopkins, 1996. Since the 1970s, controversy over affirmative action
Aetna, Mount. See Mount Etna. has grown. People disagree about how to achieve the
Afarsand Issas. See Djibouti. goal of nondiscrimination. Some claim temporary pref-
Afer, Publius Terentius. See Terence. erences are necessary to achieve equality. Others be-
Aff enpinscher, AH fuhn pihn shuhr, is a small, shag- lieve quotas and other affirmative-action policies unfair-

gy, black dog. It weighs about 8 pounds (3.6 kilograms), ly affect the right of people to be treated according to

and stands only 10 inches (25 centimeters) high. It has their abilities. People also disagree about which groups
bushy eyebrows that hang down over its eyes. Tufts of are entitled to affirmative action and for how long.
hair stick out all over its face, and it has a mustache. The In 1995,the United States Supreme Court ruled that a
name affenpinscher comes from the German words federal program requiring preference based on a per-
meaning monkey terrier. The affenpinscher is bold, son's race is unconstitutional unless the preference is

quick on its feet, and playful. designed to make up for specific instances of past dis-
Critically reviewed by the American Kennel Club crimination. This meant that affirmative action could no
See also Dog (picture: Toy dogs). longer be used to counteract racial discrimination by so-
Affidavit, af uh DAYviht, in law, is a written or printed ciety as a whole, but must be aimed at eliminating spe-
statement of facts sworn to, or affirmed, before a court cific problems. In 1989, the court had made a similar de-

bailiff, a notary public, or any other person qualified to cision regarding state and local programs.
administer an oath. The person who swears to the truth In 1996, voters in California approved Proposition

of an affidavit usually must sign it 209, which banned the use of racial or gender prefer-
In the United States, affidavits can be introduced as ences in public hiring, contracting, and education. Vot-
evidence in a few stages of legal proceedings. But ers in Washington state approved a similar measure, Ini-
judges and lawyers generally consider affidavits less re- tiative 200, in 1998. At some universities where
liable evidence than oral testimony given by a witness in affirmative action has been abolished, new admissions
open court The reason is that an affidavit may be signed policies have been established
to ensure diversity.

and sworn to without the presence of an adversary to Some university systems now
use a percentage formula
contradict it if it misstates the facts. Oral testimony given based on high-school class ranking. Also during the
in open court may be questioned by the attorney for the 1990 s, federal courts ruled that affirmative action pro-
opposing party. grams in a number of states discriminated against non-
Affidavits are widely used in preliminary legal pro- minorities. George R. UNoue

ceedings. For example, when

the plaintiff files a written Additional resources
complaint to start a lawsuit, the law may require that the Guernsey, Joann B. Affirmative Action: A Problem or a Remedy?
plaintiff include an affidavit of the truth of the charges. Lerner, 1997.
Jack M Kress Mills, Nicolaus, ed. Debating Affirmative Action. Dell, 1994.

See also Deposition; Notary public.

Affirmative action refers to policies aimed at in- Afghan hound, AF guhn, is a dog known for its

creasing the numbers of people from certain social speed and agility. It has been used for hunting gazelles,
groups in employment, education, business, govern- hares, and snow leopards in Afghanistan for hundreds

ment, and other areas. In the United States, these of years. The Afghan hound has long ears, large feet,

groups are women and such minorities as African and a heavy coat of long, silky hair. It can be any of many
Americans, Asian Americans, Hispanic Americans, colors. It stands about 27 inches (69 centimeters) high at

American Indians, disabled people, and Vietnam veter- the shoulder and weighs about 50 to 60 pounds (23 to 27

ans. In general, affirmative action is intended to benefit kilograms). The Afghan hound moves with its head and
tail held high. No one knows just where or when the
groups that are thought to have suffered from discrimi-
nation. But critics argue that some groups benefit from Afghan originated. See also Dog (picture: Hounds'.
affirmative action as a result of their political influence. Critical!) revi ewed b\ the Afghan Hound Club of America
92 Afghanistan

AP Wide World
Kabul, Afghanistan's capital and largest city, has both traditional and modern buildings. Tradi-
tional mud-brick dwellings, such as those on the hillside, are found throughout Afghanistan. Some
modern buildings rise in downtown Kabul. Parts of the city are being rebuilt after decades of war.

Afghanistan
Afghanistan, a nation in southwestern Asia, has tow- continued to suffer foreign interference. The Soviet
ering mountains, scorching deserts, fertile valleys, and Union sought to occupy Afghanistan in a war that lasted
rolling plains. Afghanistan surrounded by six other
is from 1979 to 1989
countries and so does not have a seacoast. The country In the 1990s, a conservative Islamic group called the
is bordered by Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan Taliban came to power. The Taliban allowed internation-
on the north, China on the far northeast, Pakistan on the al terrorist organizations to run training camps in Af-
east and south, and Iran on the west. ghanistan. After terrorist attacks against the United
Afghanistan is one of the world's least developed States in 2001, the United States and anti-Taliban forces
countries. Most Afghan workers farm the land, and within Afghanistan drove the Taliban from power. A
many use old-fashioned farming tools and methods. transitional government was set up to rule the country.
Some of the people are nomads, who roam the country
with their herds of sheep or goats. Kabul is the capital Facts in brief
and largest city of Afghanistan.
Almost all the people of Afghanistan are Muslims. The Capital: Kabul.

religion of the Muslims, Islam, is the chief common link Official languages: Pashto (also called Pakhtol and Dari.
Official name: Da Afghanistan Dow/at (in Pashto) or Dowlati
among them. The population of Afghanistan consists of Afghanistan (in Dari), both meaning State of Afghanistan.
about 20 ethnic groups, most of which are divided into Area: 251,773 mi (652,090 knV). Greatest distances—east-west,
:

several tribes. Most of the ethnic groups have distinct 820 mi (1,320 km); north-south, 630 mi (1,012 km).
languages and cultures. The variety of ethnic groups has Elevation: Highest—Nowshak, 24,557 ft (7,485 m) above sea level.
made it difficult for Afghanistan to develop into a uni- Lowest-In Sistan Basin, 1 ,640 ft (500 m) above sea level.
Population: Estimated 2002 population -24,977 ,000; density, 99
fied, modern nation.
persons per mi 138 persons per km ! distribution, 80 percent
;
);

Afghanistan has a long and troubled history. In early rural, 20 percent urban. 1979 census—-1 3,051 ,358.
days, Persians, Greeks, Mongols, and other peoples Chief products: Agriculture—barley, corn, cotton, fruits, Karakul
conquered the region. In modern times, Afghanistan has skins, mutton, nuts, rice, vegetables, wheat, wool. Manufactur-
ing—jewelry, leather goods, rugs. Mining—coal, lapis lazuli,
The contributor of this Thomas £ Couttierre, is Direc-
article, natural gas.
tor of the Center for Afghanistan Studiesand Dean of Internation- Money: Basic unit—afghani. One hundred pule equal one
al Studies and Programs at the University of Nebraska, Omaha. afghani.
 Afghanistan 92a

speaking people from central Asia, Mongolians, and

people from the Xinjiang region of western China.
Ethnic groups and languages. Afghanistan has
about 20 ethnic groups, most of which have their own
language and culture. Most ethnic groups consist of
several tribes, many of which speak their own dialect of
the ethnic language. Many Afghans feel greater loyalty
to their ethnic group or tribe than to their country.
The largest ethnic groups are the Pashtuns (or
Pakhtuns) and the Tajiks. Pashtuns and Pakhtuns are also
spelled Pashtoons and Pakhtoons. The Pashtuns and
Tajiks make up more than 60 percent of the population.
Most Pashtuns live in the southeast, near the Pakistan
border. Their language, Pashto or Pakhto, is one of
Afghanistan's two official languages. Most Tajiks live in
northeastern Afghanistan and speak Dari, the other offi-
cial language. Dari is also known as Afghan Persian.

Most of the country's other ethnic groups speak Dari as

Noreen S. Ahmed LJIIah © Chicago Tribune either their first or second language.
A Jirga (council) is a traditionalAfghan community meeting. This Way of life. Most of Afghanistan's rural people live in
jirganear Khowst, in eastern Afghanistan, met in 2002 to choose
homes made of sun-dried mud bricks. City dwellers live
delegates to send to a national loya jirga (grand council) in Kabul.
in homes and apartment buildings made of baked brick,
Most of the country's nomadic and
concrete, or both.
Government seminomadic people live in tents made of goat hair.
Most Afghans wear traditional clothing. In winter, the
In the late 1990s, the Taliban controlled most of people wear a heavy coat made of sheepskin, quilted
Afghanistan, including Kabul. The Taliban imposed their
harsh interpretation of Islamic law on the country. How-
ever, few nations recognized the Taliban government as
the legalgovernment of Afghanistan.
The United States and its Afghan allies drove the Tal-
iban from power in 2001. The United Nations then
brought together the leaders of Afghanistan's main eth-
nic and regional groups, who organized a temporary
government. These leaders also developed a plan for
creating a permanent, more democratic government
Hamid Karzai, head of the Popalzai, an important clan of Symbols of Afghanistan. Afghanistan has black, red, and
s flag

the Pashtun ethnic group, became head of the tempo- green vertical stripes and the nation's coat of arms
in the center.

The coat of arms bears four Arabic inscriptions: at the top, There
rary government.
Is No God but Allah and Muhammad Is the Prophet of Allah; near
InJune 2002, Afghan leaders held a loya jirga (grand the top, God Is Great; near the bottom, the Islamic year 1380
council) to create a transitional government. Loya jirgas (2001-2002 in the Gregorian calendar); and at the bottom,
are held at times of crisis or when major political or so- Afghanistan.
cial changes need consideration. Loya jirgas attempt to

include representatives of all of Afghanistan's many re-

gional and ethnic groups. In 1964, Afghan women at-
tended a loya jirga for the first time. Afghan tribes and
communities often hold smaller jirgas (councils) to de-
cide matters of local importance. Local jirgas include all
of a single community's adult men or the leaders from
several neighboring communities.
In 2002, the loya jirga created a transitional govern-
ment to lead the country for up to two years. During that
time, it would work to establish a commission to create
a newconstitution and then hold democratic elections
for a permanent government. The loya jirga chose Karzai
as president of the transitional government To gain na-
tional support for the government, Karzai selected
Afghans from a variety of regions and ethnic groups to
serve in his cabinet.

People
Ancestry. Most Afghans are a blend of early peoples UORU) BOOk, imp
who came to the country as invaders or settlers. These Afghanistan is a landlocked country in southwestern Asia. It is

groups included Aryans, Persians, Arabs, Turkish- surrounded by six other countries.
92b Afghanistan

!Shakhri: TAJIKISTAN +e mmL

7.4.530 ft (7.495 tr,

Dushanbe

Afghanistan map index

Cities and towns
Ahangaran C 3 Dahaneb-ye Ka|aki D 3 Mazar-e Sarhadd B 7
Andkhvoy B 3 Kashan C 3 Kandahar 191 345 E 3 Sharrt 110 367 B 4 Sheberghan 19S69 B 3
Aqcheh B 3 Delaram D 2 Khanabad B 5 Mehtar Lam 4.191 C 5 Shindand D 2
Asadabad .2,196.. C 6 Oovvlat Var C 3 Kholm B 4 Meymaneh 40 212 B 3 Shir Khan B 5
Asm ar C 6 Oowlalabad B 3 Khovvsl D 5 Moqor D 4 Spin Buldak E 4
Aybak 5,191 . B 4 Eshkashem B 6 Kowt-e Orgun D 5 Taqab C 5
Baghlan 41.240..B 5 Farah 19.761 D 1 Ashrow C 5 Oruzgan D 4 TaToqan 20347 B 5
Bagram . .C 5 Farsi i) 1 Kuchnay Owtoeh C 2 Tarin Kowl 5534 D 3
Bala Morghab C 2 Feyzabad 3564 . .8 5 Oarvishan E 2 Panjab C 4 Teyvareh D 3
Balkh R 4 Cardez 10,040 D 5 Lash-e Alam
Pol-e C 5 rirgari C 5
Bamian .7.732 . .C 4 Gereshk E 3 Joveyn E 1 PoleKhomri 32 695 B 5 Tokzar 8 4
Baraki Barak ....1,164. .C 5 Chazni 31.985 D 4 Lashkar Cah 22 T07 E 2 Qalat G 251 D 4 Towraghondi C 2
Chaghcharan 3.126 . C 3 Cizab D 3 Mahmud-e Qalehve\ow 5 614 C 2 Zaranj 6J09 . .E 1

Chahar Herat 150.497 C 2 Eraqi 1 262 C 5 Qarqin B 3 Zareh

Borjak ..El lalalabad 57.824 C 5 Maruf ..£ 4 Qonduz 57 112 B 5 SharanV 1.469 D 5
Chakhansur E 1 Jorm B 5 Mashurav D 4 Sang-e Zaydabad C 5
Charikar 25,1 17. 5 Kabul 1,036,407 C 5 MaydanShahr 2.153..C 5 Masheh D 4 Zibak B 6

Physical features
Arghandab iRiverl .......D 3 Hindu Kush KhashlRrver) D 2 \amaksar Lake C 1 Rigestan Desert E 3
Arghandab Reservoir .E . . 3 Mountains] C 5 KhyberPass C 5 Pani IRiven A 5 SaberiLake El
Balkh Riven
i
B 4 Istadeh-ve Moqor Konar IRiverl . C 6 Panjshir Vallev ( S Safid Kuh (Mountains) C 2
FarahlRiver D 2 Uke D 4 KowkchehiRrver B 5 Paropamisus Range .C 2 Salang Tunnel C 5
Fuladi IMounlaini . . .C 4 Kafar |,ir Char LovvrahlRKeri ..E 3 Patargan Marsh D 1 Sislan Basin .£ 1

HanrudRiverl iMountainl E) 3 lurahlRiven D 4 PuzakUke E 1 Tora Bora Mountains A 5

Helmand River D 3 Kajaki Reservtjir D 3 Morqhab R.ver C 3 Qonduz iRiverl (4 Zereh Oepression .J 1

"Does '">t appear on map; key shows general location

Source: 1982 official eslimates.
 ,

Afghanistan 93

Islam greatly influences fami-

ly and community relation-

ships and almost all other as-

pects of Afghan life. This
beautiful blue mosque (Islam-
ichouse of worship) is in

Mazar-e Sharif.

©John Siceloff

fabric, or felt. Many rural men wear a turban, which may tempted to give women more
rights. In 1964, for exam-
be tied in a certain way to indicate their ethnic group. ple, a new Afghan women equal status
constitution gave
Most Pashtun women wear a burqa, also called a chadri, with men, and the social and economic position of
which is a full-length hooded garment that covers the some women improved. However, most women in rural
body from head to toe. The Pashtuns believe a woman areas never gained more rights.
must not be seen by any men outside of her family. In the 1990s and early 2000s, the Taliban greatly limit-
Some rural women in Afghanistan cover their heads ed the freedom of women. For example, the Taliban re-
with a shawl. quired all women to cover themselves completely when
Afghans serve flat loaves of whole-grain, sourdough in public. They also made it illegal for women to work
bread at every meal. They also enjoy vegetables, yogurt, outside their homes. Women who violated Taliban laws
chicken, beef, mutton, and rice. Popular desserts in- were punished severely.
clude nuts and fruits. Tea is the favorite drink. After the Taliban were driven from power in 2001
Women have traditionally played a secondary role in many Afghan women hoped to reclaim their lost rights.
Afghan society. Their opportunities for education and In 2002, several women played significant roles in the
careers have been limited, especially in rural areas. Men national council that created a transitional government
dominate women in many ways. For example, some and helped decide the country's future.
Afghan tribes do not allow women to leave their homes
without a male relative. \JJZ8EKISTAN L /~~\ TAJIKISTAN (

During the 1900s, several Afghan governments at-

TURKMENISTAN 7 1 1

y^S^^O .Feyiabad _T ^J5^>

^^S/ Mazar-e*
Shanf
Qonduz*
.Baghlan /
S
r"

J Mevmaneh

.„.,, }
S Herat. Chaghcharan.
o ° o Jalalabad £,
INDIA
.Ghazni \
) 4 k
/ PAKISTAN

.Kandahar

iranUZ 3 '"! 9 °° si~5 Iranian Turkic

1 1 Aimak 1 1 Kyrgyz /

&
* 4 I |
Baloch I Turkmen/

V<£_6_ A * t> 1 1 Harare 1 ] Uzbek

Pashtun
I 1
Other
200 Miles OO Qinlbash AA Brehui

1 Ta„k Nunstsm
200 Kilometers 1 1 1

/
U ORI n BOOK map

Afghanistan's major ethnic groups inhabit various parts of

APW.de Uc.rlcl
the country. The map key arranges the ethnic groups by their

The blue burqaior chadrihs a full-length hooded garment language types. For example the language spoken by the Pash-
worn by most Pashtun women in Afghanistan. Some Afghan tuns is an Iranian language, but that spoken by Uzbeks is Turkic
women drape a shawl over their heads Stripes indicate areas shared by more than one ethnic group.
94 Afghanistan

Temperatures in the Northern Plains of Afghanistan

average about 38 °F (3 °C) in January and approximately
90 °F (32 °C) in July. The average annual precipitation in
the region totals about 7 inches (18 centimeters).
The Central Highlands cover about two-thirds of
Afghanistan. They consist of the towering Hindu Kush
mountain range and its branches. Snow-capped peaks
rise about 25,000 feet (7,620 meters) along the Pakistani
border in the east The range gradually descends to a
rolling plain in the southwest. Most Afghans live in the
high, narrow valleys of the Hindu Kush.
The Central Highlands have an average temperature
of about 25 °F (-4 °C) in January and about 75 °F (24 °C)
in July. The region receives about 1 5 inches (38 centime-

ters) of precipitation yearly.

The Southwestern Lowlands lie in southwestern
© SuperStoi k Afghanistan and consist mainly of desert or semidesert
Goat herders lead their herd over an arid mountain path. land. The region is crossed by the Helmand River, which
Afghanistan's economy depends heavily on agriculture. Many of flows from the Hindu Kush to the Sistan Basin on the
the country's farmers practice sheep and goat herding. Iranian border. The basin has several slightly salty lakes
and marshes. Barley, corn, fruits, and wheat are grown
Religion. About 99 percent of all Afghans are Mus- in the Helmand Valley.
lims. Their religion strongly influences family and com- Temperatures in the lowlands of Afghanistan average
munity relationships and most other aspects of life. Al- about 35 °F (2 °C) in January and about 85 °F (29 °C) in
most every Afghan village or nomadic group has a July. The average annual precipitation ranges from 2 to 9
religious leader called a mullah. Mullahs lead prayer inches (5 to 23 centimeters).
services and educate the young. They sometimes have
Economy
great influence in their communities.
Education. Most of Afghanistan's people 1 5 years of Afghanistan's economy once benefited from the coun-
age or older cannot read and write. For the country's lit- try's location along the Silk Road and other ancient trade
eracy rate, see Literacy (table: Literacy rates for selected routes. As these routes died out, the country became
countries). Many children cannot attend school because isolated. In the mid-1 900s,Afghan governments attempt-
the country does not have enough schools or teachers. ed to develop the country's economy and to improve
This lack of educational facilities is due largely to the up- educational opportunities. But decades of war and inter-
heaval caused by decades of war. Afghanistan has two nal struggles at the end of the 1900s reversed most of
universities— Kabul University and Ningrahar University these advances. A severe drought in the late 1990s and
in Jalalabad. early 2000s further weakened Afghanistan's economy.
The arts. Because most of the people of Afghanistan However, economic aid flowed into the country follow-
cannot read and write, folklore, folk songs, and folk ing the defeat of the Taliban in 2001.
dances play an important part in Afghan life. They en- Agriculture. About 85 percent of all Afghan workers
able the people to pass their values and traditions on earn their living in agriculture. Wheat is the chief crop of
from one generation to the next The attan(a\so spelled Afghanistan. Other crops include barley, corn, cotton,
atan)\s an energetic folk dance. Pashtuns dance the attan fruits, nuts, rice, sugar beets, and vegetables. Production

at weddings and other community celebrations. is limited by a shortage of modern machinery, fertilizer,

Recreation. Afghans enjoy sports and games, such and high-quality seeds.
as soccer, volleyball, and basketball. Many men in During the late 1900s, Afghanistan became one of the
Afghanistan like to hunt, and some of them use the fa- world's leading producers of opium, which is used to
mous Afghan hounds as hunting dogs. Men of the make the illegal drug heroin. Many Afghan farmers
northern plains play a game called buzkashi. In the raised opium poppies because it was more profitable
game, dozens of horsemen try to grab a headless calf than growing wheat and other food crops. In 2000, the
and carry it across a goal. Taliban began enforcing a strict ban on poppy farming,
but the practice resumed after the Taliban were driven
The land and climate
from power in 2001. The governments that have ruled
Afghanistan is made up main land regions.
of three Afghanistan since then have also tried to stop farmers
These regions are, from north to south:
(1 the Northern
) from growing opium poppies.
Plains, (2) the Central Highlands, and (3) the Southwest- Afghanistan's nomadic and seminomadic people raise
ern Lowlands. most of the country's livestock. The chief livestock prod-
The Northern Plains stretch across northern Afghan- ucts are dairy items, mutton, wool, and animal hides.
istan and consist of mountain plateaus and rolling hills. The skins of Karakul sheep, a fat-tailed sheep known for
The soil is fertile in the Northern Plains but can be culti- its silky pelt, are especially valuable.
vated only where water is available. Large irrigation sys- Mining. Afghanistan is rich in minerals, but most of

tems have been built along the Harirud, Helmand, Qon- the deposits are largely undeveloped. In the 1960s,
duz, and other rivers. Nomadic and seminomadic large deposits of natural gas were discovered in Af-

people raise sheep and goats on the vast grasslands. ghanistan. Since then, the production of natural gas
 Afghanistan 95

has become an important part of the nation's economy.

Afghanistan also produces some coal, copper gold, and
salt. The country has huge deposits of iron ore, but be-

cause of Afghanistan's rugged terrain and frequent con-

flicts,they remain undeveloped.
Afghanistan has deposits of the world's finest lapis
lazuli, a valuable azure-blue stone. Other gemstones

mined in the country include amethysts and rubies.

Manufacturing. Afghanistan has little industry.
Skilled craftworkers in their homes or small shops make
gold and silver jewelry, leather goods, rugs, and other
handicraft items. A few mills produce textiles, and small
factories turn out such products as cement, matches,
and processed foods.
International trade. Afghanistan's leading exports © Hulton Getly Images

are cotton, fruits and nuts, natural gas, rugs, and Karakul The Anglo-Afghan wars of the 1 800s resulted largely from the
sheep skins. Imports include machinery, motor vehicles, United Kingdom's desire to protect its Indian empire. This photo-
petroleum products, and textiles. Afghanistan conducts graph shows British troops at a fort in Kabul in 1 879.
its international trade mainly over land, through the

neighboring countries of Iran and Pakistan. most local inhabitants became Muslims.
Transportation and communication. Afghanistan Turkic-speaking peoples from eastern Persia and cen-
has about 1,700 miles (18,800 kilometers) of roads.
1 tral Asia ruled Afghanistan from about 900 to 1 200.

However, decades of war heavily damaged most paved Afghanistan was conquered by Mongols led by Genghis
roads, making many of them unusable. The country has Khan in 200s and led by Timur, also called Tamer-
the 1

no railroads. lane, in the 1300s. Safavidsfrom Persia and Mughals

Afghanistan's most famous transportation route is the from India struggled for control of Afghanistan from the
Khyber Pass, which crosses the border between mid-1 500' s to the early 1700s.
Afghanistan and Pakistan. The pass cuts through the United Afghanistan. In 1 747, Ahmad Khan came to
Safid Kuh mountains, which are part of the Hindu Kush power. He took the title shah (king) and adopted the
range. Conquerors, such as Alexander the Great of name Durrani'(Pearl of the Age). Ahmad Shah Durrani
Macedonia, crossed the pass to invade South Asia. The united the many Afghan tribes for the first time, marking
Khyber Pass has been an important trade route for cen- the beginning of modern Afghanistan. He gained con-
turies. See Khyber Pass. trol of territory stretching far beyond the country's cur-
Several newspapers are published in Afghanistan. The rent borders.
country has one national television station and one na- Ahmad Shah was succeeded by his son Timur Shah.
tional radio station. Both stations broadcast from Kabul. Around Timur Shah moved the capital from Kan-
1775,
dahar to Kabul. Timur Shah and his successors strug-
History
gled to keep the Afghan tribes united and lost control of
Prehistoric hunting people lived in what is now most of the territory beyond the current borders of
Afghanistan as early as 100,000 years ago. After many Afghanistan.
thousands of years, the people learned how to farm and In 1819,war broke out among rival tribes that
civil

to herd animals. Agricultural villages then developed. By wanted The war lasted until 1826,
to rule the country.
about 4000 to 2000 B.C, a number of these villages had when Dost Muhammad Khan gained control. He took
grown into small cities. the title of a/7?/>"(prince). Dost Muhammad's descendants
Early invasions. About 1500 B.C, the Aryans, a cen- ruled the country for the next 1 50 years.
tral Asian people, invaded the region. They killed many The Anglo-Afghan wars. During the 1800 s, the Unit-
of the area's inhabitants and intermarried with others. In ed Kingdom and Russia competed for control of
the mid-500's B.C, Persians invaded northern Afghan- Afghanistan. Russia wanted an outlet to the Indian
istan, aregion then called Bactria. The Persians ruled Ocean and began to expand toward Afghanistan. The
Bactria untilabout 330 B.C, when Greeks and Macedo- United Kingdom wanted to protect its empire in India,
nians led by Alexander the Great conquered the region which was threatened by Russia s expansion. In 1839,
and much of the rest of Afghanistan. British troops invaded Afghanistan to reduce Russia s in-

About 246 B.C, the Bactrians revolted. They eventually fluence in the region. The invasion set off the First An-
conquered Bactria and other parts of Afghanistan. They glo-Afghan War, which lasted until the British withdrew
formed a kingdom that lasted about 150 years, until the in 1842. Russian influence near Afghanistan increased

Kushans of central Asia seized Afghanistan. Sasanians during the mid-1800 s.

from Persia invaded in the AD. 200 s, and White Huns In 1878, the United Kingdom invaded the country

from central Asia defeated the Kushans and Sasanians in again, starting the Second Anglo-Afghan War. The
the 400's. British found it difficult to establish control of Afghan-
The coming of Islam. Arab Muslim armies swept istan. In 1880, Abdur Rahman Khan became amir. The
into parts of what is now Afghanistan during the late British agreed to recognize his authorityover the coun-
600s. Three Muslim dynasties-the Tahirid, the try s internal affairs. In return, Abdur Rahman accepted

Samanid, and the Saffarid -controlled much of the re- the United Kingdom s control of Afghanistan s foreign
gion during the 800 s and 900 s. Under these dynasties. relations. During his reign, Abdur Rahman worked to
96 Afghanistan

strengthen the national government and to reduce the key issues. In addition, the Afghan people had little ex-
power of tribal leaders. After he died in 1901, his poli- perience with, or understanding of, democratic govern-
cies were continued by his son Habibullah Khan. ment. As a result, the new democratic system failed to
Independence. Early in 1919, Habibullah Khan was bring about the progress that the framers of the Consti-
assassinated. One of his sons, Amanullah Khan, then be- tution had hoped for.
came amir and attacked British troops in India, begin- In 1973, Daoud led a military revolt that overthrew Za-
ning the Third Anglo-Afghan War. The United Kingdom hir Shah. Afghanistan's military, aided by Afghan Com-
had just finished fighting in World War (1914-1918). It
I munists, took control of the government and estab-
decided to end its involvement in Afghanistan rather lished the Republic of Afghanistan with Daoud as
than fight another war. In August 1919, Afghanistan be- president and prime minister.
came fully independent. The Soviet invasion. In 1978, rival left-wing military
Amanullah began many reforms to modernize leaders and civilians in Afghanistan staged another re-
Afghanistan, rapidly sweeping away centuries-old tradi- volt, during which Daoud was killed. This group, which
tions and customs. The nation's first constitution was received much financial and military aid from the Soviet
adopted in 1923, and Amanullah changed his title from Union, took control of the government and established
amir to shah in 1926. But tribal and religious leaders re- policies that had some features of Communism.
sisted the reform movement and forced Amanullah Many in Afghanistan opposed the new government
Shah to give up the throne in 1929. They believed the government's policies conflicted with
Late in 1929, Muhammad Nadir Shah became king. In teachings of Islam. In addition, they resented Soviet in-
1931, Afghanistan adopted a new constitution. Under fluence on the government. Large numbers of Afghan
the new Constitution, Nadir Shah began a program of people joined in a rebellion against the government
gradual reform. But he was assassinated in 1933, before shortly after it came to power. Widespread fighting
many of the reforms were begun. Muhammad Zahir broke out between the rebels, who called themselves
Shah, Nadir Shah's son, then became king. mujahideen (holy warriors), and government forces.
The mid-1900's. By the early 1950s, Afghanistan had The Soviet Union became concerned that the rebels
developed good relations with the United States and might defeat the Afghan government forces. In 1979 and
many Western European nations. But the Afghans feared 1980, the Soviet Union sent thousands of troops to join
the intentions of the Soviet Union, their country's pow- the fight against the rebels. The Soviets had far better
erful Communist neighbor. In 1953, Muhammad Daoud equipment than their opponents. But the rebels, sup-
Khan, the king's cousin and brother-in-law, took control plied by countries opposed to the Soviet Union, used
of the government and made himself prime minister. guerrilla tactics to overcome the Soviet advantage. The
Under Daoud, Afghanistan took no side in the Cold Soviets and Afghan government forces bombed many
War, a period of hostility between Communist and non- villages.
Communist nations, and it received aid from both the In 1988, the Soviet Union began withdrawing its
United States and the Soviet Union. troops from Afghanistan. The withdrawal was complet-
Border disputes with Pakistan and other problems led ed in February 1989. But the fighting between the mu-
to pressures that forced Daoud to resign in 1963. In jahideen and government forces continued until 1992,
1964, under the leadership of Zahir Shah and Western- when the rebels overthrew the government
educated scholars and thinkers, Afghanistan adopted a Afghanistan under the Taliban. After 992, 1

constitution that provided for a democratic government. Afghanistan had several governments made up of vari-
But many problems arose. Zahir Shah and the legisla- ous combinations of mujahideen groups. Continued
ture could not agree on the role of political parties with- fighting among the groups prevented the establishment
in the reform program. Parliament often deadlocked on of a stable government. In the mid-1990s, a new group,

AP Wide World

Soviet troops retreated

from Afghanistan in 1989. The
Soviet Union invaded
Afghanistan in 1979 and 1980
to support the Communist
government there. Despite
their superior military
strength, the Soviets failed to
defeat the Afghan rebels,
known as mujahideen.
 Afghanistan 97

late 2001 Meanwhile, the United Nations brought to-

.

gether representatives of Afghanistan's leading groups

to discuss the formation of a new and stable national
government. The conference agreed on a plan that in-
cluded the appointment of a temporary government and
the eventual creation of a new constitution and a demo-
cratically elected government
An peacekeeping force arrived in Kabul
international
in late In the absence of a strong
2001 and early 2002.
central government, however, warlords and tribal
groups continued to compete for territory and power.
Also, small groups of Taliban and al-Qa'ida forces con-
tinued to battle U.S. and allied troops.
In April 2002, the former king of Afghanistan, Muham-
mad Zahir Shah, returned to the country. He did not re-
sume his role as king but attended a loya jirga (grand
AP Wide World council) of Afghan leaders. In June, the loya jirga met in

Hamid Karzai, left, led Afghanistan after the fall of the Taliban in Kabul and chose Hamid Karzai, leader of the Popalzai
2001 The former king of Afghanistan,
. Muhammad Zahir Shah, clan, as the country's transitional president
right, supported Karzai and helped unify the country. Thomas E. Gouttierre

Related articles in World SooArinclude:

a conservative Islamic organization known as the Tal- Asia Kushan Empire
Bin Laden, Osama Lapis lazuli
iban, rose to power.
Delhi Sultanate Muslims
Pashtun religious students who had fled to Pakistan Hindu Kush Pashtuns
during the Soviet invasion started the Taliban move- India (History) Persia, Ancient
ment. The Taliban were supported by Pakistan's military Iran (History) Qa ida, Al-

and by militant Arab Islamic groups. By the late 1990s, Kabul September 1 1 terrorist
Kandahar attacks
the Taliban gained control of most of Afghanistan. They
Karakul Taliban
established a Council of Ministers to rule the country.
Khan Turkestan
The Taliban imposed their strict interpretation of Is- Khyber Pass
lam on the nation. For example, they banned television,
Outline
popular music, and most other modern forms of enter-
tainment, and they established rules for dress and Government
II People
grooming. All women were forced to cover themselves
A. Ancestry E. Religion
completely when in public, and men were required to B. Ethnic groups and F. Education
grow beards. The Taliban also prohibited girls from at- languages C. The arts
tending school and forbade women from working out- C Way of life H. Recreation

side the home. D. Women

III. The land and climate
The Taliban destroyed many artifacts of the country's
A. The Northern Plains
heritage because they claimed they were anti-Islamic. B. The Central Highlands
For example, they demolished two ancient statues of C The Southwestern Lowlands
Buddha carved into a mountainside near Bamian, IV. Economy
Afghanistan. The Taliban also destroyed many works of A. Agriculture
B. Mining
art in the country's museums.
C Manufacturing
Through the decades of war in the late 1900s, millions D. International trade
of Afghans fled to neighboring Pakistan and Iran, and E. Transportation and communication
thousands more became refugees in their own country. V. History
Years of drought in the late 1990s and early 2000s left
Questions
many Afghans in danger of starvation.
What are the largest ethnic groups in Afghanistan?
Recent developments. In 2001 members of a terror-
,

What is a loya jirga!

istorganization called al-Qa'ida attacked the World What valuable stones are found in Afghanistan?
Trade Center in New York City and the Pentagon Build- What led to the Anglo-Afghan wars?
ing near Washington, D.C (see September 1 1 terrorist What is the Hindu Kush? The Sistan Basin?
attacks). The United States accused the Taliban of har- How do most Afghan workers earn their living?
What is a burqa?
boring and assisting al-Qa'ida, which was led by the
Who first united the Afghan tribes?
Saudi-born millionaire Osama bin Laden. The United What is the chief common link among Afghans?
States demanded that the Taliban arrest bin Laden and What country tried to occupy Afghanistan from 1979 to 1989?
the other terrorists and shut down their training camps.
Additional resources
The Taliban refused to do so, and the United States and
Ewans, Sir Martin. Atghanistan. HarperCollins, 2002.
its allies launched a military campaign against the
Tal-
Rashid, Ahmed. Taliban. Yale, 2000.
iban. Rubin, Barnett R. The Fragmentation of Afghanistan. 2nd ed. Yale,
The campaign included air strikes in support of 2002.
Afghan rebels who opposed the Taliban. This support Vogelsang, Willem. The Afghans. Blackwell, 2002.
enabled the rebels to drive the Taliban from power in
98 Africa

David Lomax. Robert Harding Picture Ubrary

Grassland wildlife at watering hole Nairobi, the capital of Kenya

The vast continent of Africa is a land of striking contrasts. Regions of untouched natural beauty

and modern cities are both part of the African landscape. Old and new ways of life exist throughout
Africa, and hundreds of ethnic groups have contributed to a rich cultural heritage.

thick green canopy. The world largest desert, the Sa-

Africa hara, stretches across northern Africa.
s

It covers an area

almost as large as the entire United States. Africa also

Africa is the second largest continent in area and in has the world s longest river— the Nile. It flows more
population. Only Asia covers a larger area and has more than 4,000 miles (6,400 kilometers) through northeastern
people. Africa covers about a fifth of the world's land Africa. Much of the continent is grassland. Elephants, gi-
area and has about an eighth of its people. and many other animals live in the
raffes, lions, zebras,
Africa is divided into 53 independent countries and grasslands located in eastern and southern Africa.
several other political units. The largest country, Sudan, The African people belong to several population
has an area of 967,500 square miles (2,505,81 3 square groups and have many cultural backgrounds. In the
kilometers). The smallest country, Seychelles, has a land north, for example, most of the people are Arabs. South
area of only 176 square miles (455 square kilometers). of the Sahara, where most Africans live, blacks form the
The most heavily populated African nation, Nigeria, has great majority of the population. But they are divided
more than 25 million people. However, about two-fifths
1 into over 800 ethnic groups, each with its own Ian-
of all African countries have fewer than 5 million people
each. Facts in brief
The African continent is an immense plateau, broken
Area: 1 1 .657,000 mi ; (30,190,000 km). Greatest distances-norlh-
by a few mountain ranges and bordered in some areas south, 5,000 mi (8,047 km); east-west, 4,700 mi (7,564 km).
by a narrow coastal plain. It is a land of striking contrasts Coastline-lZSZ\ mi (36,888 km)
and great natural wonders. In the tropical rain forests of Population: Estimated 2002 population-%5\ ,437 ,000; density, 71
western and central Africa, the towering treetops form a per mi (28 per km 2 ).

Elevation: Highest— Kilimanjaro in Tanzania, 19,331 ft (5,892 m)

above sea level. Lowest— Lake Assal in Djibouti, 509 ft (155 m)
below sea level.

The contributors of this article are Samuel Decalo, Professor Physical features: Chief mountain ranges— Ahaggar, Atlas,
of Political Science at the University of Florida at Gainesville; Ken- Drakensberg, Ruwenzori, Tibesti. Chief rivers— Congo,
nell A Jackson, Jr., Associate Professor of History at Stanford Uni- Limpopo, Niger, Nile, Orange, Zambezi. Chief lakes— Albert,
versity; Kenneth J. Perkins, Professor of History at the University Chad, Nyasa, Tanganyika, Turkana, Victoria. Largest deserts—
of South Carolina; and Hartmut S. Walter, Professor of Geogra- Kalahari, Namib, Sahara.
phy at the University of California at Los Angeles. Number of independent countries: 53.
 Africa 99

lohn Moss. Black Sla • Carl frank Pholn Re

A hunting party of the Masai people of Kenya A ceremonial dance of Berber women in Morocco

guage, religion, and way of life. The number of

large try's economy suffers. The majority of African nations
ethnic groups of uneven size has helped make it difficult rely heavily on aid from countries outside the continent.
for many African countries to develop into unified, mod- One of the world's first great civilizations— ancient
ern nations. In numerous cases, national boundaries cut Egypt— arose along the banks of the Nile River more
across ethnic homelands. As a result, people may feel than 5,000 years ago. Later, other powerful and culturally
closer ties to neighbors in another country than to other advanced kingdoms and empires developed in Africa.
groups in their own country. Ethnic differences have led Even so, for many years some non-Africans called Africa
to civil wars in several African countries. the "Dark Continent." They used this name because they
About two-thirds of all Africans live in rural areas, knew little about geography, and they
Africa's interior
where they make a living growing crops or raising live- mistakenly believed that the people of the interior had
stock. In many parts of rural Africa, thepeople live much not developed any important cultures.
as their ancestors did hundreds of years ago. Since the During the late 1400s and ISOffs, Europeans began to
mid-1 90ffs, however, millions of rural Africans have establish trading posts in Africa. Gold and slaves be-
flocked to the cities, where traditional life styles are came two of the continent's most valuable exports. By
being replaced by more modern ways. the late 1800s, the Europeans competed fiercely for con-
Africa has great mineral wealth, including huge de- trol of Africa's resources. By the early 1900s, they had

posits of copper, diamonds, gold, and petroleum. It also carved almost all of Africa into colonial empires.
has valuable forests. In addition, many African rivers and Many Africans resisted colonial rule from the begin-
waterfalls could be used to produce hydroelectric pow- ning. But the demands for independence did not be-
er. produces most of the world's cassava, cocoa
Africa come powerful mass movement until the mid-1 900s.
a
beans, and yams. But Africa has the least developed Between 1950 and 1980, 47 African colonies gained in-
economy of any continent except Antarctica. dependence. But leaders in many of the new nations
the leading economic activity in Africa,
Agriculture is could not handle the social and economic problems that
but most farmers use outdated tools and methods to remained after independence. Military officers over-
farm thin, poor soil. The development of manufacturing threw the governments of many nations. In a few coun-
has been handicapped by a lack of money to build facto- tries, military dictatorships emerged. In most other

ries, a shortage of skilled workers, and competition countries, a single political party became the ruling
from industries on other continents. Many African coun- power. Today, ethnic rivalries and territorial disputes
tries depend on only one or two farm or mineral prod- among nations continue to threaten the stability of Af-
ucts for more than half their export earnings. In case of rica. Such problems as overpopulation, poverty, famine,

crop failures or drops in world market prices, a coun- and disease remain challenges for African leaders.
 Q
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Independent countries of Africa*
Date
Map Population Capital of inde-
key In mi' InknV pendence

F 4 Algeria 919,595 2,381,741 32,813,000 Algiers 1962

L 6 Angola 481,354 1 ,246,700 13,684,000 Luanda 1975
1 4 Benin 43,484 112,622 6,422,000 Porto-Novo 1960
N 7 Botswana 224,607 581.730 1,661,000 Gaborone 1966
H 3 Burkina Faso 105,792 274,000 12,600,000 Ouagadougou 1960
K 8 Burundi 10,747 27,834 7,044,000 Bujumbura 1962
1 5 Cameroon 183,569 475,442 15,855,000 Yaounde 1960
t Cape Verde 1,557 4,033 447,000 Praia 1975
1 6 Central African Republic 240,535 622,984 3,746,000 Bangui 1960
H 6 Chad 495,755 1,284,000 8,081 ,000 N'Djamena 1960
L 10 Comoros 863 2,235 582,000 Moroni 1975
) 6 Congo (Brazzaville) 132,047 342,000 3,105.000 Brazzaville 1960
K 6 Congo (Kinshasa) 905.355 2,344,858 54,768,000 Kinshasa 1960
1 3 C6te d'lvoire 124,504 322,463 15,417,000 Yamoussoukro 1960
H 9 Djibouti 8,958 23,200 665,000 Djibouti 1977
F 7 Egypt (African) 363,220 940,735 70,464,000 Cairo 1922
] 5 Equatorial Guinea 10,831 28,051 475,000 Malabo 1968
H 8 Eritrea 45,406 1 1 7,600 4,044,000 Asmara 1993
1 9 Ethiopia 426,373 1,104,302 65,579,000 Addis Ababa t

) 5 Gabon 103,347 267,667 1,280,000 Libreville 1960

H 1 Gambia 4,361 11,295 1,372,000 Banjul 1965
1 3 Ghana 92,098 238,533 21,318,000 Accra 1957
H 2 Guinea 94,926 245,857 7,794,000 Conakry 1958
H 1 Guinea-Bissau 1 3,948 36,125 1,264,000 Bissau 1974
] 9 Kenya 224,081 580,367 31,069,000 Nairobi 1963
7 Lesotho 1 1 ,720 30,355 2,237,000 Maseru 1966
1 2 Liberia 43,000 111,369 3,385,000 Monrovia 1847
F 6 Libya 679,362 1 ,759,540 5,869,000 Tripoli 1951
M10 Madagascar 226,658 587,041 16,811,000 Antananarivo 1960
L 8 Malawi 45,747 118.484 1 1 ,449,000 Lilongwe 1964
G 3 Mali 478,841 1,240,192 11,810,000 Bamako 1960
C 2 Mauritania 395,956 1,025,520 2,814,000 Nouakchott 1960
N 11 Mauritius 788 2,040 1,177,000 Port Louis 1968
E 2 Morocco 172,414 446,550 29,248,000 Rabat 1956
M 8 Mozambique 309,496 801,590 20,367,000 Maputo 1975
N 6 Namibia 318,261 824,292 1,768,000 Windhoek 1990
H 5 Niger 489,191 1,267,000 1 1 395,000 Niamey 1960
1 5 Nigeria 356.669 923,768 128,886,000 Abuja 1960
] 8 Rwanda 10,169 26,338 8,063,000 Kigali 1962
J 4 Sao Tome and Principe 372 964 153,000 Sao Tome 1975
H 1 Senegal 75,955 196,722 9,969,000 Dakar 1960
K 11 Seychelles 176 455 79,000 Victoria 1976
I 1 Sierra Leone 27,699 71,740 5,067,000 Freetown 1961
1 10 Somalia 246,201 637,657 10,837,000 Mogadishu 1960
O 7 South Africa 471,445 1,221,037 40,952,000 Cape Town; Pretoria,"
Bloemfontein 1931
H 7 Sudan 967,500 2,505,813 30,742,000 Khartoum 1956
N 7 Swaziland 6,704 17,364 1,064,000 Mbabane 1968
K 8 Tanzania 341,247 883,749 35,090,000 Dares Salaam 1964§
1 3 Togo 21,925 56,786 4,865,000 Lome 1960
E 5 Tunisia 63,170 163,610 9,845,000 Tunis 1956
) 8 Uganda 93,065 241,038 23,199,000 Kampala 1962
L 7 Zambia 290,587 752.618 9,549,000 Lusaka 1964
N 7 Zimbabwe 150,872 390,757 1 1 ,896,000 Harare 1980

Dependencies in Africa'

Map Name Population Capital

key In km'

E 1 Madeira Islands 307 794 264,000 Funchal Autonomous region of

Portugal
1 10 Mayotte 144 373 149,000 Mamoudzou Territorial collectivity of
France
N 1 Reunion 970 2,512 743,000 Saint-Denis Department of France
# St Helena Island Group 158 410 7,000 Jamestown British overseas territory
F 1 Western Sahara 102,700 266,000 256,000 None Occupied by Morocco**
*Each country and dependency in Africa except to i irticJein World '

'
rtganylka and Zanzibar.
Ho<>k f Not shown on map Located southwest ol Ocean.
own on map Located in tl west ol "Claimed In Mora i o and b) ttw

Popul.it!.- nates for independent countries and 2002 and earlief estimates tor
lependeni foi about 2 000 years dependent id Nations sources.
 People Africa 103

Population. Africa has a population of about 830 mil- people is higher than the world average. But Africa's
lion. Over 600 million people live south of the Sahara. death rate— that is, the number of deaths in a given year
About two-thirds of all Africans live in rural villages. The per 1,000 people—is also higher than the world rate. The
rest live in cities and towns. rate in Africa is 14 deaths per 1,000 people.
If all the people of Africa were evenly distributed The average life expectancy—ihaX is, the average num-
throughout the continent, there would be only 71 peo- ber of years a group of people can expect to live—is
ple per square mile (28 per square kilometer). But Afri- about 52 years for Africans, compared with about 77
ca'spopulation is far from evenly distributed. Large ar- years for Americans. However, life expectancy is much
eas of the Sahara and other desert regions have no lower than the average in the poorer countries of Africa.
people at all. Some dry grasslands and tropical forests For example, life expectancy in Zambia is 37 years, and
are also very thinly settled. On the other hand, certain ar- in Mozambique, 40 years. In the more developed na-

eas are greatly overcrowded. The Nile River Valley in tions of Africa, life expectancy is higher than the average
Egypt is most heavily populated regions on
one of the for the continent For example, in Libya, life expectancy
the earth. It has an average of about 4,00C persons per is about 75 years, and in Tunisia, 69 years. For more in-

square mile (1,550 per square kilometer). Other heavily formation on life expectancy in African countries, see
populated areas include sections of the Mediterranean Life expectancy (table: Life expectancy at birth for select-
coast; parts of Nigeria and the west coast; the lakes re- ed countries).
gion of eastern Africa; and the southeast coast Several reasons account for Africa's high death rate.
Africa's population is increasing rapidly, partly be- People in many parts of the continent suffer from mal-
cause of improvements in medical care for children. An- nutrition. Over the years, terrible famines have killed
other reason for the rapid increase in population is a countless Africans, especially in the regions bordering
high birth rate—that is, the number of births in a given the Sahara. In addition, poor sanitation and inadequate
year per 1 ,000 people. Africa's rate of 38 births per 1 ,000 medical services contribute to widespread disease. The

Where the people of

Africa live
Africa ranks second in popula-
tion— after Asia— among the
world s continents. This map
shows where the people of
Africa live and the location of
its largest cities. Heavily popu-

lated areas are shown in dark-

er colors.

Major urban centers Conakry

• More than 5 million inhabitants

• 1 million to 5 million inhabitants

O Less than 1 million inhabitants

Brazzaville

Persons per Persons per

sq. mi. km 2 Luanda

More than 500 More than 200

100 500 40 200

!
to to

25 to 100 1

2 to 10
to 40
* IA
5 to 25

Less than 5 Less than 2

WORLD BOOK map

1 04 Africa

The peoples of Africa of northern Africa s people are Arabs. Other important
The peoples of Africa belong to a variety of ethnic, language, African populations include Berbers, Europeans, and
and religious groups. The pictures below give a general idea of Asians.
some of the continent's many peoples. Blacks were probably the original inhabitants of the
continent. There are many variations in the physical fea-
tures of black Africans. However, certain groups share
special characteristics.One such group is the tall, slen-
der Nilotes of eastern Africa. Some of the Nilotes are as
tall as 7 feet (21 centimeters).
Pygmies are an unusually short people with reddish-
brown skin. Most adult Pygmies are from 4 feet to 4 feet
8 inches (120 to 142 centimetersl tall. About 150,000 Pyg-
mies live in Africa, mainly in the tropical forests of the
Congo River Basin in central Africa.
Khoisan peoples include the San, or Bushmen, and
the Khoikhoi, or Hottentots. Both groups have yellowish-

I Robert Frs Natl. Tounsm

1
Office of Tunisia
brown skin and tightly coiled black hair.
various Khoikhoi groups once lived throughout
The San and
much of
Black African technician Tunisian Arab the southern and eastern parts of Africa. Today, only
about 50,000 San remain in Africa. They live in the Kala-
hari Desert of Botswana and Namibia. The only remain-
ing Khoikhoi are the approximately 40,000 Nama people
who live in Namibia.

Arabs. Africa has about 80 million Arabs. Most of

them live in Egypt, in northern Sudan, and along the
Mediterranean coast. The first Arabs settled in northern
Africa during the 600s.
Berbers. There are about 20 million Berbers in Africa.
They live mainly in Algeria and Morocco. The Berbers
have lived in the northwestern part of Africa since pre-
historic times.
Europeans. During the 160Os, Europeans began to
Edward S Ross Today, the continent has over 5
settle in parts of Africa.
Farmer of Dutch descent Congolese Pygmy million people of European ancestry. Most are of British,
Dutch, or French descent. The majority live along the
Mediterranean coast, in the Republic of South Africa,
and in Zimbabwe.
Asians. About a million people of Asian ancestry live
in southern and eastern Africa. Most of them are de-
scendants of people who came to Africa from India dur-
ing the 1800s. About 2} million people of Asian ances-
try also live in Madagascar, an island country southeast
of the African mainland. Their ancestors began to mi-
grate to Madagascar from Indonesia about 2,000 years
ago.
Languages. Most African ethnic groups have their
own language. some cases, members of different
In

'
Robert Frerck Edward S Ross
groups speak the same language. But in most instances,
Indian merchant Botswana San language helps identify Africans as members of a partic-
ular ethnic group. More than 800 languages are spoken
in Africa. As a result, communication among Africans is
most serious diseases include AIDS, malaria, schistoso- difficult at times.But certain languages, such as Arabic,
miasis, tuberculosis, sleeping sickness, and yellow Swahili, and Hausa, are widely spoken. In addition, mil-
fever. lions of Africans speak more than one language, which
Peoples of Africa. The peoples of Africa have rich they use when traveling or conducting business and
and varied cultures and ancestry. For example, there are government affairs. The languages spoken in Africa can
more than 800 ethnic groups of dark-skinned Africans be classified into three broad groups: (1 black African 1

frequently called blacks or black Africans. Each group languages, (21 Afro-Asian languages, and (3) Indo-
consists of people who have in common their history, European languages.
language, religion, artistic traditions, and way of life. Black African languages are spoken by about 290
Blacks account for almost 75 per cent of Africa s total million people, mainly thosewho live south of the Sa-
population. Most of them live south of the Sahara. Most hara and west of southern Sudan. The languages can be
 Africa 105

grouped into three major families: (1 ) Niger Kordofanian,

(2) Nilo-Saharan, and (3) Khoisan.
The Niger-Kordofanian family is by far the largest of
the black African language families. includes about It

300 Bantu languages spoken in central, eastern, and

southern Africa. The term Bantu refers to both the vari-
ous languages and the groups who speak them. Swahili
(also called Kiswahili) is the most widely spoken Bantu
language. Among other important Bantu languages are
Ganda (Luganda), Kikuyu (Kikikuyu), Kongo (Kikongo),
Rundi (Kirundi), Sesotho, and Zulu (IsiZulu). The Niger-
Kordofanian family also includes many non-Bantu lan-
guages that are spoken mainly in western Africa. These
languages include Akan; Igbo, or Ibo; and Yoruba.
Nilo-Saharan languages are used by about 35 million
people who live in parts of Chad, Kenya, Mali, Niger, Su-
dan, Tanzania, and Uganda. Major languages in this fam-
ily include Dinka, Kanuri, Maasai, and Nuer.

About 100,000 people, including the San and Khoikhoi

of southwestern Africa, speak Khoisan languages. Two
small groups in Tanzania also speak these languages.
Khoisan languages are sometimes called click languages
because many words are expressed with unusual click
sounds. The languages are unrelated to any other
African language.
Afro-Asian languages are spoken throughout the
northern half of Africa. The Afro-Asian language family
includes Arabic and Berber, the two major languages of
northernmost Africa. About 100 million Africans speak
Arabic, and nearly 20 million speak Berber. Other Afro-
Asian languages include Amharic, Orominga or Oromo,
Hausa, and Somali.
Indo-European languages. Two Indo-European lan-

Sarah Ernngton Porlock. Alan Hutchison Library

A Nigerian ethnic g: oup conducts a native religious ceremo-

ny, shown here. Each ethnic group in Africa has its own tradi-
tional religious beliefs and practices.

guages— Afrikaans and English— are widely spoken in

southern Africa. About 3 million people speak Afrikaans,
a language developed by early Dutch settlers, and near-
ly 3 million speak English.
A large number of educated Africans speak English,
French, or Portuguese in addition to their local lan-
guage. The use of these European languages remains as
a reflection of colonial rule in many African nations. Eng-
lish, French, or Portuguese serves as the official lan-

guage in many countries and helps unify the people. Eu-

ropean languages are also important for communication
Afro-Asian
in international business and government affairs.

Nilo-Saharan Other languages. The people of Madagascar speak

Malagasy Malagasy, a language of the Malayo-Polynesian family.
Niger-Kordofanian
The people of Asian descent who live in southern and
H Khoisan eastern Africa speak various Indian languages. Most of
Indo-European

Malayo-Polynesian
A
Alnkaans
English
^ them also know English.
Religions. Nearly 200 million Africans practice local
traditional religions.There are hundreds of local reli-
UOKII) HI" gions in because each ethnic group has its own
Africa
set of beliefs and practices. In general, however, local
The major languages spoken in Africa are shown by labels on
religions have many features in common. They explain
this map. The colors on the map indicate the language
families

to which the languages belong. how the universe was created and teach what is right
1 06 Africa

Islam is one of the leading re-

ligions in Africa. Most people
inthe north practice Islam.
But the religion is also prac-
ticed by many other Africans,
such as these Nigerians pray-
ing to Allah, left

Afnque Photo

and wrong. They define relationships between human

beings and nature and between the young and the old.
They give the reasons for human suffering and instruct
people in how to live a good life and in how to avoid or
lessen misfortune.
All African religions recognize the existence of a su-
preme god. However, most of the African religions em-
phasize that people should seek help by appealing to
lesser gods or to the spirits of dead ancestors. People
pray or offer sacrifices to the gods or the spirits to gain
such things as good health or fertile land. Many reli-
gions conduct ceremonies to celebrate a person's pas-
sage from childhood to adulthood.
The more complex African religions include those of
certain peoples of western Africa, such as the Dogon of
Mali, the Yoruba of Nigeria, and the Ashanti of Ghana.
The religions of these peoples include elaborate sets of
beliefs about a supreme being and many lesser gods.
Women as well as men hold important religious posi-
tions in western Africa. For additional information on
traditional African religions, see Mythology (African my-
thology).
Nearly 150 million Africans are Muslims. Their reli-
gion, Islam, is the state religion in the countries of

northern Africa. Islam is also a strong force in many

neighboring nations. In addition, large Muslim minori-
ties have great influence in such countries as Nigeria
and Tanzania.
About 130 million Africans are Christians. Most of
them belong to the Roman Catholic Church or to vari-
ous Protestant churches. The Ethiopian Orthodox
Church is the largest church of Ethiopia. In Egypt, a few
million people belong to the Coptic Orthodox Church. A Afnque Photo
number of Africans belong to independent African The Coptic Orthodox Church major Christian church in
is a
churches that combine Christian beliefs with traditional Egypt. In the picture above, an Ethiopian Orthodox priest reads
African practices. from the Bible.
 Ways of life in northern Africa Africa 1 07

H K. Brushe, Artslreet

Nomadic herding and village farming are traditional ways of life in northern Africa. In the Sa-
hara, left, nomads called Bedouins travel between regular grazing areas with their camels, goats,
and sheep. In the Nile Valley, right, farmers work irrigated fields using age-old methods.

The six countries of northern Africa— Mauritania, Mo- tant part of the present-day Arab world.
rocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and Egypt— have many In addition to the Arab Muslim majority, northern Af-
things in common. A large majority of the people speak rica has minority groups that differ in language or reli-

the same language— Arabic; practice the same religion- gion. For example, the Berbers of Algeria, Morocco, and
Islam; and share the same history— that of the Arab peo- Mauritania share the Islamic religion, but many maintain
ple. Many of the cultural features of the region extend theirown culture and speak various Berber dialects.
into parts of neighboring countries to the south. But in Black Africans form another important minority group.
general, the six northern nations form a distinct region Many of them speak Arabic as their native language and
from the rest of Africa south of the Sahara.
that differs practice Islam. An important religious minority group is
Northern Africa lies along the Mediterranean Sea, the Copts. They are Christians but speak Arabic and fol-

and so the region has been in close contact with Europe low many Arab ways of life.
and the Middle East throughout most of its history. The following discussion deals chiefly with the ways
France once controlled Algeria, Mauritania, Morocco, of life among the Arab Muslim majority in northern Af-
and Tunisia; Italy controlled Libya; and Great Britain rica. For more information, see the separate articles on

ruled Egypt. However, the Middle East has shaped much the countries that make up the region.
of northern Africa's history, and the region is an impor- Rural life. About half the people of northern Africa
live in rural areas. Most of them raise livestock or grow

crops on small rented or family-owned farms. They do

much of the work by hand. In some areas, farmers work
on government-owned land and use machinery and
modern techniques. Thousands of rural people have no
land to work.
In many rural parts of northern Africa, the people live
in flat-roofed houses with thick adobe walls that help
keep out the region's intense heat. In highland areas,
some houses are made of stucco or stone. Most rural
homes are simply furnished and lack such modern con-
veniences as telephones and running water.
Small groups of nomads called Bedouins tend cam-
els, goats, and sheep in the Sahara. Most of northern Af-

rica was once populated chiefly by Bedouins, and Arab

folklore is full of stories of their adventures. Today, less
than 10 per cent of northern Africa s people are Bedou-
ins. The Bedouins travel between regular summer and
winter grazing areas and live in tents woven of animal
hair.
The way of life in rural areas of northern Africa fol-
Brenl |onc s
lows traditional patterns. Husbands are the providers,
A rural village in Morocco has houses with flat roots ami and wives raise the children and take care of the house-
thick adobe walls. Many houses in northern Africa have thick
walls to help keep out the region's intense heat. hold. Children work on the farm or in the home. When
1 08 Africa

northern Africa with more than a million people are Al-

exandria, Egypt; Casablanca, Morocco; Giza, Egypt, and
Algiers, Algeria.
The architecture of most cities in the north reflects
European and Islamic styles. Many mosques (Islamic
houses of worship) and souks (outdoor markets) are typ-
ical features of the large cities. In older neighborhoods,

houses and shops are crowded along narrow, winding

streets. Broad boulevards, parks, and modern apartment
and office buildings occupy newer sections.
In many ways, city dwellers in northern Africa have a
higher standard of living than rural people. Such con-
veniences as automobiles, electricity, running water,
and telephones are more widespread in the cities. The
cities offer better medical facilities and schools, and
most city workers earn more than rural people.
The attractions of city life have led more and more
rural people to move to the cities. Many move in with
relatives or live in slum housing. Numerous cities are
overcrowded and often suffer breakdowns in the elec-
trical, telephone, and water supply systems.

A city square in Algiers, Algeria, is lined with small shops Marriage and the family. At one time, Islamic tradi-
and residences. The large building in the background with the tions governed marriage practices throughout northern
twin towers is a mosque (Islamic house of worshipl. Africa. These traditions included polygyny— the right of
a man to have more than one wife. They also required a
parents grow old, the children are expected to look bride's family to give a dowry of household goods or
after them. The concerns and interests of most rural money to the bridegroom. In addition, parents usually
people are limited to their families and villages. For selected a husband or wife for each of their children.
many of them, a weekly trip to the village market place Today, polygyny remains legal in every northern country
is their only experience outside the home and farm. except Tunisia, but few men practice it. Dowries and
City life. Cairo, the capital of Egypt, is the largest city marriages arranged by parents are less common than in
in all Africa. It has about 6 million people. Other cities of the past, especially among city dwellers.

Edward S Ros:

An Islamic wedding procession in Egypt leads the bride to the home of the groom The bride,
hidden from view in a tentlike covering, is riding the camel. Elaborate processions like this one are
chiefly a rural tradition of the Islamic wedding ceremony.
 Africa 1 09

modern times and do not wear it. Most men and women
in the cities dress in Western-style clothing.
Education. Traditionally, only religious scholars re-
ceived more than an elementary school education in
northern Africa. During the colonial period, European
settlers established schools, but they chiefly served chil-
dren of the well-to-do. Partly for these reasons, only
about a third of the people can read and write. The liter-
acy rate (the percentage of people who can read and
write) is much lower in rural areas than in the cities.
The national governments in northern Africa are try-
ing to improve education by building more schools and
offering schooling to a greater number of people, espe-
However, several major problems
cially in rural areas.
obstruct progress. The population is growing faster than
new schools can be built, and the costs of education are
constantly increasing. Many areas have a shortage of
qualified teachers. Numerous
students must drop out of
school to work and help support their families. In some
places, families must pay for their children's education,
which many families cannot afford to do.
In general, the countries of northern Africa have had
more success expanding education at the secondary
and college level than at the elementary level. More and
more students who finish elementary school are going
on to high school and college.

Woodfin Camp. Ini

A Berber shepherd family in Morocco ends their meal with

mint tea and pastries made of honey, fruit, and nuts. Mint tea is
served after meals and offered as refreshment to visitors.

In much of rural northern Africa, the typical house-

hold consists not only of parents and children but also
of grandparents, aunts, uncles,
tended families provide
and cousins. These ex-
and so-
security, financial help,
* *
the cities,
cial life. In the nuclear family, which consists
only of parents and their children, is more common.

The traditional role of women in northern Africa has

been to remain at home to care for their families. Most
women in the region still follow this tradition. However,
a growing number have taken advantage of educational
and career opportunities that were not available in the
past and now work outside the home.
Food and clothing. Flat breads and other products
made from grain are the basic foods in northern Africa.
Couscous is a common dish in much of the region. It

consists of coarse grains of wheat that are steamed and

served with a spicy stew, consisting of vegetables and
pieces of meat in a souplike sauce. The people also eat
fruitsand vegetables. Meat costs too much to be part of
the daily diet of most people. But occasionally, they
enjoy chicken, goat, or lamb.
Many rural people in northern Africa and some city
dwellers dress in traditional clothing. The men wear
long, loose robes or shirtlike garments. Many men also

wear The women wear long, sim-

a turban or skullcap.
ple dresses, sometimes with baggy trousers under- l«m HolUnd StocW Boston
neath. Many women wear a dark cloak or shawl in pub- Expansion of rural education has been a chief goal of govern-
lic. Some follow the Islamic tradition of
covering the ments in northern Africa. But a shortage of schools and teachers
face with a veil. Others consider the veil out of place in has hampered progress. The class above is in Libya.
110 Africa Ways of fife south of the Sahara

Alan Hutchison IJbrary

Cattle herding is a proud tradition south of the Sahara for such groups as the Dinka, Fulani, Maa-
sai, and Turkana. Cattle symbolize wealth for these people. Most groups use dairy products from

the cattle but seldom eat meat The people move with their herds to seasonal pastures.

The great majority of people who live south of the Sa- live in rural make a living by farming the land.
areas and
hara are black Africans. Kingdoms, empires, and city- Among groups in parts of eastern Africa, cattle
certain
states ruled much of the region until the early 1900s, herding is an old and proud tradition. For these people,
when European colonial powers gained control. France cattle are a measure of a person's wealth and social po-
governed a large portion of western Africa. Portugal sition as well as a major source of food and other neces-
controlled parts of southern Africa. Britain had colonies sities.

in the west, east, and south. Today, Africans rule almost Mineral wealth has brought greater economic devel-
all Africa south of the Sahara. However, most schools opment to parts of southern Africa than to any other
still conduct classes in English, French, or Portuguese, section of the continent. But much of the wealth from
and many educated Africans speak a European lan- mineral production is held by whites, who form a pow-
guage. But for the most part, European influences do erful minority in those parts of Africa.
not affect the everyday lives of most Africans who live This section mainly describes the ways of life among
south of the Sahara. black Africans south of the Sahara. For additional infor-
In general, Africans follow their traditional ways and mation, see the separate country articles.
observe the customs of their ancestors. Most Africans Rural I'rfe. About 70 percent of all Africans south of
the Sahara live in rural areas, chiefly in villages. Some
villages have only 40 to 50 people. But others have a
population of hundreds or even thousands. Whatever its
size, each village is a closely knit community of people
who belong to the same ethnic group. In most villages,
everyone is related through either birth or marriage.
Among some ethnic groups, kings and chiefs com-
mand great respect, though they may have limited politi-
cal power. In most cases, the position of king or chief is
inherited and serves as a means to link villages of the
same ethnic group. Among ethnic groups that are more
loosely organized, village elders may handle matters of
local concern.
Most villages are simply a cluster of houses, sur-
rounded by farmland. Larger settlements may have a
schoolhouse, a few shops, and perhaps such facilities as
a medical dispensary or a courthouse, where local dis-
putes can be settled and taxes collected. Most villages
also have a central square. The people gather in the cen-
tral square for visiting, entertainment, and ceremonies.

Rural housing varies from village to village, depend-

An outdoor market near Abidjan, Cote d'lvoire, features pro-
duce sold by wholesalers, cooperatives, and farm families. Mar- ing on climate, life style, and tradition. Many Africans
kets are also centers for hearing news and socializing. live in houses built of sun-dried mud with roofs of
 1

Africa 1 1

south of the Sahara use simple hand tools as their an-

cestors did.
The soil is thin and poor in much of Africa. The peo-
ple have thus traditionally practiced shifting cultivation.
A farm community clears the land of trees and bushes
and plants crops for several years, until the land wears
out The community then moves to a new location. The
abandoned land eventually returns to grass or forest
and can be farmed again. Shifting cultivation is still com-
mon in certain areas. But in some heavily populated re-
gions, resettlement is not possible. As a result, the farm-
ers continue to work land that becomes poorer and
poorer.
Most farm families grow food crops for their own use.
In the grasslands of eastern and southern Africa, food
crops include peanuts and such grains as corn, millet,
>S~«-
and sorghum. In wetter areas, food crops include ba-
nanas, rice, and such roots as yams and cassava.
Farmers also grow various cash crops, including cof-
fee; cacao, or cocoa beans; cotton; coconuts; and fruits.
D Agence Hoa-Qui

Modem farm machinery used on large estates south of the

is
The farmers sell their cash crops for money to buy such
Sahara that produce export crops. But most African farmers items as bicycles, canned goods, clothing, kerosene,
work their own small plots and use simple hand tools. lamps, and matches. The farmers may also use the mon-
ey from their cash crops to pay taxes as well as medical
straw, grass, or leaves. As villagers become wealthy, expenses and school fees.
they may construct houses of concrete blocks with In addition to growing crops, almost all farmers raise
sheet-metal roofs. Almost all villages have several chickens. Many keep goats and sheep. Farmers may also
dwellings of this type. In parts of western Africa, some sell livestock or food crops for needed money.

houses are covered with clay and decorated with sculp- The typical farm family has several widely scattered
tured designs. The houses of African Muslims may be plots outside the village. Each plot is planted with a dif-

built around a large courtyard so that the women can go ferent crop. Families may also rent their land or farm on
about their tasks without being seen by people outside land that is owned by village elders and chiefs. Some
the family. This custom follows the traditions of Islam. farmers also work part-time on large estates or planta-
In many villages, the way of has changed little
life tions thatproduce cash crops. Both men and women
over the years. Most of the people farm the land and work long hours at farming to make a living.
raise some livestock. Modern methods of agriculture Rural women also spend much time doing such
are used in and Zimbabwe
parts of South Africa, Kenya, chores as collecting firewood, grinding grain, and ob-
and in some countries of western Africa, such as Cote taining water. In many villages, however, the introduc-
d'lvoire. However, the majority of farmers who live tion of such simple machines as water pumps and small

© Agence Hoa-Qui

A modem store in Dakar,

Senegal, contrasts sharply
with the traditional open-air
markets of Africa. Traditional
ways of lite are changing as
more and more rural Africans
move to urban areas.
1 1 2 Africa

the highland regions of eastern Africa. Such nomadic

peoples as the Dinka, the Fulani, the Maasai, the
Toubou, the Tuareg, and the Turkana follow well-estab-
lished routes to find grazing land for their herds of cat-
tle, sheep, goats, or in some cases camels.
The nomadic herders depend mainly on their live-
stock for food. The men and boys tend the herds, and
the women care for the household. Some nomadic
groups, such as the Maasai of eastern Africa, build huge
corrals for their livestock. Within the corrals, the people
construct igloo-shaped houses of brush, mud, and dried
manure. Other nomads live in tents made of animal
skins or hair.
City life. City dwellers make up only about 30 percent
of Africa's total population south of the Sahara. But the
percentage is much higher in some countries, such as
Victor Englebert Black Star Congo (Brazzaville), Djibouti, Equatorial Guinea, Mauri-
Soccer games draw large crowds in Soccer, also
African cities. and South Africa. Throughout Africa, more and
tius,

called association football, is popular throughout the continent more rural people are moving to the cities to seek work.
The game above is being played in Accra, Ghana. Cities south of the Sahara with populations of more than
a million include Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; Cape Town,
hand- or machine-driven flour mills has given women South Africa; Johannesburg, South Africa; Kinshasa,
more time to do other things. In most villages, everyone Congo (Kinshasa); and Lagos, Nigeria.
takes part in such major tasks as clearing new land and Some towns and cities south of the Sahara have exist-
building houses. The people work together on such ed for centuries. The Ethiopian town of Aksum may have
tasks, while sharing food and drink and socializing. been founded more than 2,000 years ago. When the first
Some African farmers— for example, those who live Europeans reached western Africa during the 1400s,
along the Nile River— irrigate their crops. But most farm- such cities as Timbuktu in Mali and Ibadan and Kano in
ers depend on seasonal rains. Work and other activities Nigeria were thriving economic and cultural centers. Eu-
therefore follow a seasonal schedule. During the rainy ropeans established many other cities in Africa, starting
season, farm families work long, hard days planting and in 1652 with the Dutch settlement at Cape Town in what
tending their crops. Food may be in short supply at that is now the Republic of South Africa.

time of year. In the dry season, after the crops have been In most
cities south of the Sahara, the architecture re-
harvested, food is more plentiful. The people also have flectsboth traditional and modern styles. The newer
more leisure time. They spend the extra hours repairing sections of the cities have parks, hotels, tall office and
tools and houses, visiting with friends and relatives, and apartment buildings, and large stores. Many older
trading their crops for other goods. In western Africa,
women have traditionally controlled trade activities.
Some women have become wealthy as a result of their
trading skill. In other areas of Africa, trade matters are
handled either by men or women.
I
Community ceremonies, which are often held in the
village square, are an important part of rural African life.
They mark such occasions as the first rains of the grow-
ing season, the planting of crops, and harvesttime. Some
groups have annual ceremonies in which secret soci-
eties of elders dance to rid the community of evil forces
and witches. Entire communities, as well as people from
neighboring villages, may gather for ceremonies related
to births, marriages, funerals, the curing of the sick, and
the passage of children into adulthood. These communi-
ty gatherings strengthen family ties and religious beliefs.
In many young men leave their
parts of rural Africa,
villages and work few years as migrant labor-
at least a
ers. cities and towns in hope of earning
They travel to
enough money to get married, to set up a small busi-
ness, or to go to school. In parts of central and southern
Africa, many men get temporary jobs as miners. The
women left behind in the villages must do much of the
farm work themselves. Rural housing varies according to climate, tradition, and avail-

Nomadic herding is a way of life for people in parts of able materials. Houses of the Ndebele of South Africa, shown
Africa, particularly in dry areas near the Sahara and in here, are made of dried mud and colorfully painted.
 Africa 1 1 3

neighborhoods have houses and shops crowded along

narrow streets. Open-air markets, where people buy
food, clothing, and a variety of other goods, are com-
mon in many cities.

Like city people in northern Africa, most city dwellers

south of the Sahara have a higher standard of living than
rural people. The cities provide better schools and bet-
ter medical facilities than the countryside. For people
with the necessary skills, the cities may offer well-paying
job opportunities in government, business, industry,
and other fields.
City life styles vary widely. Some people are wealthy
and live in luxury apartments or large, modern houses.
Most of the people, however, live in unplanned neigh-
borhoods of small, one-story houses. Many houses are
built of wood or concrete blocks and have corrugated
iron roofs.
most African cities south of
Like cities in the north,
the Sahara face serious problems. The sharp increase in
city populations has made it difficult for governments to
provide enough housing and efficient public transporta-
tion. The water supply, sewerage, and electrical systems
are overloaded. Many cities also have a large number of
unemployed workers.
Marriage and the family. Strong feelings of loyalty
and cooperation bind African families closely together.
Such feelings are shared among all family members, not
only parents and children but also grandparents, aunts,
uncles, and cousins. The family helps its members with
business concerns, employment, legal matters, and vari-
ous other affairs. The family also cares for members
who are sick or elderly. Most Africans still seek the ad-
vice and approval of their relatives before making any
important decision. < Robert Frerck
According to traditional African beliefs, marriage is
Community feasts like this one in Ghana celebrate such events
more than an agreement between a man and a woman as marriages and births. The gatherings help strengthen the
to live together. Marriage is also a way to acquire more common beliefs and kinship ties that unite African communities.
relatives, both by gaining in-laws and by having chil-
dren. In general, the families of the bride and groom
must consent to a marriage before it may take place.
Among most African peoples, a man or his father or un-
cles must give a bridewealth in money, livestock, or
other valuables to a woman's family before the man may
marry her. Africans do not consider this traditional
bridewealth as a payment for the bride but as a way to
show her importance and the value they place upon the
new ties with her relatives.
Most African ethnic groups permit polygyny. Many
men follow this custom and so have more than one wife.
The husband is expected to divide and pos-
his attention
sessions equally among his various families. Each wife
expects to have her own house, livestock, and other
goods. Some Africans and foreign missionaries have
tried to end the bridewealth and polygyny. But the tradi-
tions remain important among most ethnic groups
south of the Sahara.
Africans trace their family ties in several ways. A few
groups trace their ancestry through both the mother
and the father. But most ethnic groups are organized as
( Aqr n. e Mo* Qui
patn/ineages—Xhat is, relatives are linked by their de-
Women in Mali grind grain into flour, above. Both sexes share scent through the male members of the family. Property
the farm work in Africa, but certain chores are assigned to ei-
women. inherited only through the male side of the family, and
or women. Food preparation is the work of
is
ther men
1 1 4 Africa

themselves to be descended from the same ancestor.

Many clans observe certain rules. For example, mem-
bers of the same clan may
not be allowed to marry. Like
the family, the clan offers protection and security for its
members.
For some Africans, the strength of family ties has de-
creased as more and more rural people have moved to
the cities. But even in the cities, relatives may live in the
same neighborhood, and most city dwellers keep in
close touch with relatives in the country.
Food and drink. South of the Sahara, most Africans
in both the cities and the countryside eat one large meal

daily, usually in the evening. They have only light snacks

at other times of the day. The main meal is a time for so-
cializing with relatives and neighbors. The men and
boys generally eat separately from the women and girls.
In many households, the people gather around a large

© Bernard Pierre Wolff Photo Researchers bowl of food set on the ground and scoop up the food
Western-style clothing is worn bv many Africans in urban with their fingers or with pieces of bread.
areas. The scene above is in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Some city The typical African meal consists of a starchy food,
people and most villagers, however, wear traditional clothing.
such as rice, flour cooked into a porridge, or yams. The
food is served with a sauce containing vegetables or
fathers have legal control over their children. Matriline- bits of meat A common food in tropical areas is the
ages are common among some groups, particularly in plantain, a large kind of banana. Plantains may be fried
central Africa, Congo (Kinshasa), and the forests of west- or cooked into a porridge. They may also be dried and
ern Africa. In these groups, family members are linked ground into flour.
through the women. Property is inherited through the Most African families eat meat only on special occa-
female side of the family, and the brothers of a mother sions. At such times, the men and the elderly receive
have legal control over her children. bigger portions of meat than the women and children.
Each kinship system has its own names for relatives. The people eat chicken, goat, lamb, or beef. Fish are im-
These names classify family members into groups that portant in the diet of people who live along seacoasts,
differ from those commonly used in Western countries. rivers, and lakes. Africans who keep cattle live largely
In the United States, for example, a brother of a person's on milk, cheese, and a thick sour milk product that re-
father and a brother of a person s mother are both sembles yogurt Some of them also draw blood from
called uncle. But many Africans use a different name for their cattle, mainly for ceremonial occasions. They drink
a brother of one s ones mother.
father and a brother of the blood raw or eat it boiled or mixed with the yogurt
In a similar manner, most Africans do not group all their Many Africans make beer from honey or from such
cousins together under one term but refer to them by grains as maize and millet They also make wine from
different terms according to the specific family ties in- the sap of certain kinds of palm trees.
volved. In some parts of Africa, the people suffer from malnu-
Among some African peoples, families form larger trition because of periodic food shortages or the lack of
groups called clans. All the members of a clan consider a balanced diet Long droughts, particularly in regions
i Hutchison Ljbrap

Traditional clothing styles

in Africa often feature bright
colors and bold patterns.
Elaborate costumes and jew-
elry may be worn for special
occasions. At the left, a village
chief arrives at an Islamic fes-
Chad. He and his at-
tival in

tendants wear long, flowing

robes and turbans.
 5

Africa 1 1

near the Sahara, sometimes lead to terrible tannines and

thousands of people may die of starvation.
Clothing. Clothing styles vary throughout Africa
south of the Sahara according to climate and custom.
City dwellers often wear Western-style clothes. But
other city people and most villagers prefer to wear Afri-
can clothing, which often features bright colors and
bold patterns.
In western Africa and regions near the Sahara, many
men wear a long flowing robe or baggy trousers and a
loose shirt or tunic. A small cap or turban is also cus-
tomary among many African men. Many African women
take a length of cloth and wrap it around themselves
into a dress. They may also wrap a cloth around the
head in the style of a turban or scarf. Some Muslim
women follow Islamic tradition and cover the face with
a veil when they go out in public. Many rural men and Leon V Kotod

women tie a piece of fabric around the waist or at the Traditional education in Africa provides children with the
shoulder to form a cloak. Some African herders wear special skills they need to become productive members of their
community. These boys are learning how to make a spearhead.
simple garments made of leather. Rural people gener-
ally go barefoot or wear sandals. Colorful necklaces,
bracelets, anklets, and earrings are part of the everyday
clothing of some Africans. Among the Ashanti of Ghana
and certain other ethnic groups, kings and their courts
dress in gorgeous robes on special occasions. See
Clothing (pictures: Traditional costumes).
Education. Hundreds of years ago, Muslim scholars
established near the edges of the Sahara some of the
first schools in Africa. These schools taught Islam, the

Arabic language, and science. But for most Africans, ed-

ucation did not involve going to school. Parents taught
their children what they needed to know to get along in
society and to make a living. Some young people, espe-
cially in areas of western Africa, served as apprentices
in craft associations, where they were trained in such
skills as metalworking, woodcarving, pottery making, or
weaving.
Christian missionaries taught some Africans south of < Bervl Goldberg

the Sahara how to

read and write as early as the 1 500s. Mission schools were founded in European mission-
Africa by

But large advances in education did not begin until the aries during the colonial period. Such schools remain important
because of shortages of schools and qualified teachers.
1900s, when the European colonial powers decided
they needed more Africans to fill jobs in government
and industry. Britain, France, and other colonial powers
established schools in Africa.

Today, many African governments south of the Sahara

strive to buildschools and to extend education to as
many people as possible. A greater number of Africans
than ever are attending elementary school and going on
to highschool and college.
the progress in education, serious prob-
In spite of
lems remain. Most African adults who live south of the
Sahara cannot read and write. However, the literacy rate
varies greatlyfrom country to country. In Gabon and
Zimbabwe, for example, the literacy rate is higher than
60 percent, and in Tanzania, about 90 percent. But in
such countries as Benin, Burkina Faso, and Mali, the lit-
eracy rate is only about 20 percent. In many places, es-
pecially rural areas, there is a shortage of schools, edu-

cational materials, and qualified teachers. A large m < Hoi Oh

number of children do not attend school at all, and College education is available in most African countries. Be-
many others leave after only a few years to help their fore the 1940*s. most Africans had to go abroad to get a college
families earn a living. education these students attend Dakar University in Senegal
1 1 6 Africa The arts

Various arts have been highly developed in parts of

Africa for thousands of years. The oldest known African
artworks are prehistoric paintings that have been found
in Namibia, in the Sahara, and in other areas on rocks

and on the walls of caves and rock shelters. The archi-

tecture, painting, and sculpture of ancient Egypt are
world famous. Today, many African peoples create fine
examples of beadwork, basketry, pottery, leatherwork,
metalwork, weaving, and textile dyeing. Excellent craft-
work can be seen in tools and household items as well
as in decorative ornaments and ceremonial objects.
The art of northern Africa differs from that of the rest
of the continent In the north, artists create beautiful Detail of statue (AD 1100-14001. Nigerian Museum, Lagos I© Agence Hoa-Quil
works in a distinct style called Islamic art Outstanding A metal sculpture from Nigeria is an image of a priest-king of
examples of this style are the many magnificent a civilization once centered at Ife. The people used sculptures of
mosques located throughout northern Africa. The artists former kings in ceremonies honoring the dead.
of northern Africa are also known for their superb tex-
tiles, metalwork, glassware, and other craftwork.
PBpSggS
Sculpture. African sculpture includes figures, masks,
decorated boxes, and other objects for religious, cere-
monial, and everyday use. Many early African sculptures
were made of wood. Because wood is perishable, few
'P^H
of these works remain. Some excellent examples of early
African sculpture are made of brass, ivory, and a kind of
earthenware called terracotta. The oldest known African
KP ill
sculptures from south of the Sahara are terracotta fig- 1 K^iisA
ures created about 500 B.C by the Nok culture of central
and northern Nigeria. Superb brass and terracotta
heads were made in what is now Ife, Nigeria, especially
from about the 1100s to the 1400s. Artists in the former
kingdom of Benin, in western Africa, made high-quality
HwVl il'"W^A\\\|\\\\|

ivory ornaments as well as brass figures, heads, and

plaques from the 1400s to about the 1700s. E-Jl* Hi HI
^B ^ft rH*5
Few people outside Africa knew about African sculp-
ture until the 1900s. But it became a major influence on
Western art The imaginative designs and simple, dra-
matic forms of African sculpture influenced such fa-
mous artists as Georges Braque of France, Henry Moore
8" ^^ >

M .,

of Britain, and Pablo Picasso of Spain.

Today, African sculptors work in wood or various Hi fwBU
metals and follow the traditional styles of their ethnic ml • ! 3x3
group. Ethnic groups known for their sculpture include
Carved wooden mask; Nelson A- Rockefeller Collection I© Lee Boltinl
the Yoruba of Nigeria; the Dogon and Bambara of Mali;
A ceremonial mask reflects the artistry of the Songe of Congo
the Senufo, Baule, and Dan of Cote d'lvoire; the Fang of
(Kinshasa). Dancers wear such masks for certain royal events.
Nelson A Rockefeller Collection I© Lee Boltinl

A wooden stool supported An ivory bracelet from the A wooden spoon like this The royal emblem of the
by an ancestor figure symbol- former Kingdom of Benin is one is used by the Dan of Li- Ashanti Empire was a lion
izes Songe royal authority. from the 1600s or 1700s. beria to portion rice at feasts. made of gold, shown here.
 Africa 1 1 7

Gabon; and the Kongo, Kuba, Luba, and Lega of Congo Literature. Africa has a rich tradition of oral litera-

(Kinshasa). For additional information, see Sculpture ture, which has been passed from one generation to an-
(African sculpture). other. The literature includes histories of ethnic and kin-
Music. African music has a wide range of styles. In ship groups, legends of cultural heroes, stories of
northern Africa, music follows Arab traditions. Arab reli- tricksters, animal fables, proverbs, riddles, and songs of
gious chants and the use of various northern instru- praise for chiefs and kings. Oral literature has a role in

ments have also spread southward and influenced the religious ceremonies and serves to record the past, to
music of peoples in parts of Chad, Ghana, Mali, Niger, teach morals and traditions to young people, and to glo-
Nigeria, Senegal, and Sudan. Ethiopian music devel- rify political leaders. It is often recited to music before

oped from ancient Coptic music. Traditional black Afri- family groups or larger audiences. Today, scholars are
can music includes choral singing, music performed for recording African oral literature to preserve it
entertainment at royal courts, and songs and dances for In the past, only a few areas of Africa had a written lit-
religious events. Black African musicians use a variety of erature. Scholars in the north produced works in Arabic
drums as well as such instruments as harps, horns, or in Swahili and Hausa using Arabic script. A small ed-

flutes, pipes, lyres, zithers, and xylophones. ucated minority in Ethiopia wrote in Coptic script Since
The complicated rhythms, responsive choral singing, the 1900s, African writers have produced works in vari-
and flattened, or blue, notes found in black American ous African languages, including Hausa, Somali, Swa-
work songs and church music reflect African traditions. hili, Yoruba, and Zulu. But most present-day written lit-

African music has also influenced Western popular mu- erature is in English, French, or Portuguese, the
sic and jazz, West Indian calypso, and Latin American languages of former colonial powers. African written lit-

dance music. See Music (African music). erature today includes plays, novels, and poetry.

African architecture ranges from magnificent mosques to simple village houses. The
mosque above was built in Al Qayrawan, Tunisia, in 1860. At a Dogon village in Mali,
right, the houses and granaries with cone-shaped roofs are built of mud and stone.
: Bervl Goldberg

-• * i>>» I I

6 Hamilton Wright photo K< (hst* n Iranken Mix ti Boston

Traditional African dancing marks important events in ever) Royal music of the Ashanti of Ghana, abcue honors a new
hiei Horns and trumpets are common musical instruments in
day life, such as births, deaths, and harvesttime. The dancers t

Africa The\ ma\ be made of wood ivory or animal horns.

above are Zulu people of South Africa. ,
Physical features Congo River £ 4 Kalahari Desert G 4 Libyan Desert B 3 Qattara Depression B 5
Cunene Rrver _F 4 Kariba Lake F 5 Limpopo Rrver G 5 Ras Dashen
Ahaggar Mountains C 3 Orakensberg Kilimanjaro E 6 Lo%* Arrica C 3 (mountain i
D 6
'
Air Massif mountains H 5 Lake Albert E 5 Madagascar G Red Sea C 6
'mountains . .C 3 Emi Koussi Lake Assal D 6 Madeira islands B 1 Rimenzori
Atlas Mountains B mountain C 4 Lake Chad D 4 Margherrta Peak E 5 Range E 3
Black V otta River D 2 Ethiopian Lake Edward Mediterranean Sea -A 4 Sahara Desert B 3
Blue Sile River D 6 HighUnds 6 Lake Mweru F 5 Mozambique Channel G 6 Senegal Rrver C 1

Cameroon Mountain O 3
'
Great Rift Valley D 6 Lake Nasser C 5 Mount Kenya E 6 Suez Canal B 5
Canary Islands B Cult of Aden D 7 Lake Nyasa F 6 Namib Desert G 4 Tibesti Mountains C 4
Cape Aquinas H 4 Cult of Guinea E 3 Lake Tana D 6 Niger River D 2 Ubangi River E 4
Capeof Good Hope H 4 High Africa F 5 Lake Tanganyika E Nile Defta B 5 Vaal River C 5
Champagne Castle Indian Ocean H 6 Lake Turkana E 6 Nile River B 5 Victoria Falls C 5
mountain H 5 Jebel Toubkal Lake Victoria E 5 Nubian Desert C 5 White Nile River D 5
Congo Basin E 4 i
mountain' B 1 Lake Voha D 2 Orange River H 4 Zambezi River F 5
 The land Africa 119

Africa covers approximately 11, 657,000 square miles The Congo Basin, in west-central Africa, includes most
(30,1 90,000 square kilometers), about a fifth of the earth's of the land drained by the Congo River and its tribu-
total land area. The continent is an enormous plateau, taries. Tropical rain forests cover much of the Congo
most of which is covered by deserts, forests, and grass- Basin.
lands. High Africa consists of eastern and southern Africa.
Land regions. Africa can be divided into two major Most of the region is more than 3,000 feet (910 meters)
land regions: (1) Low Africa and (21 High Africa. above sea High Africa can be subdivided into five
level.
Low Africa consists and central
of northern, western, smaller land regions. They are (1 the Rift System, (2) the
)

Africa. Except for a few coastal plains and mountain Eastern Highlands, (3) the Southern Plateau, (4) the
ranges, most of the region lies from 500 to 2,000 feet Coastal Lowlands, and (5) Madagascar.
(1 50 to 61 meters) above sea level. Low Africa can be The Rift System extends from Eritrea to Mozambique.
subdivided into six smaller land regions. They are (Dthe The region consists of the Great Rift Valley, which is a
Coastal Lowlands, (2) the Northern Highlands, (3) the Sa- series of parallel cracks in the earth that form deep,
haran Plateau, (4) the Western Plateau, (5) the Nile Basin, steep-sided valleys. Lakes and mountains add to the re-
and (6) the Congo Basin. gion's beauty. The region also has some of Africa's best
The Coastal Lowlands form a narrow border along farmland because of its rich volcanic soil.
most of northern Africa and the bulge of western Africa. The Eastern Highlands are grassy plains that provide
The area has fertile farmland, forests, sandy beaches, grazing land for livestock and many kinds of wild ani-
deserts, and swamps. mals. The Rift System cuts through the Eastern High-
The Northern Highlands are a mountainous region lands.
that stretches across parts of Algeria, Morocco, and The Southern Plateau covers most of southern Africa.
Tunisia. The Atlas Mountains in this region have de- Much of itor rolling grassland used for crops and
is flat

posits of phosphate rock, iron ore, and manganese. pasture. The region also has deserts, swamps, and
The Saharan Plateau covers most of northern Africa. forests. Rugged mountains and cliffs rim the plateau in
The Sahara, in turn, occupies most of the plateau. Isolat- the south and west Deposits of diamonds and gold lie in
ed clusters of mountains rise up from the plateau in the Southern Plateau.
places. Valuable deposits of petroleum and other miner- The Coastal Lowlands border the high plateaus of
als lie beneath the Sahara. The desert merges with a dry eastern and southern Africa.The lowlands include pro-
grassland called the Sahel at the southern boundary of ductive farmland, sandy beaches, and swamplands.
the Saharan Plateau. Madagascar, the world's fourth largest island, lies
The Western Plateau lies south of the Saharan Plateau. about 240 miles (390 kilometers) southeast of the main-
It consists of forests and grasslands. The Niger and other land in the Indian Ocean. Although the island is part of
rivers flow through the region. High Africa, it can be divided into two chief land regions.
The Nile Basin is a flat, dry region that borders the The Coastal Lowlands form a narrow band along the east
Nile River and its tributaries in northeastern Africa. In ad- coast and broaden to a wide fertile plain on the west
dition to fertile farmland along the Nile, the region has The Central Highlands, which run almost the full length
deserts in the north and a huge swamp called the Sudd of the island, have some peaks over 9,000 feet (2,700 me-
in the south. ters) above sea level.

In-il I'h.iln Ki'M

Deserts cover about two-fifths of Africa. The oasis above is in The Congo River is Africa's second longest river. Only the Nile

the Sahara, the world s largest desert. The Sahara stretches Kiwi is longer The Congo rises in southern Congo (Kinshasal
across northern Africa from the Atlantic Ocean to the Red Sea. and flows 2,716 miles 14,371 kilometers) lo the Atlantic Ocean.
120 Africa

©M Philip Kahl. |r . Photo Researchers Norman Meyers, Bruce Coleman Ltd.

Africa's spectacular sights include Victoria and Kilimanjaro, right, a towering dormant
Falls, left,
volcano. Victoria Falls is on the Zambezi River, between Zambia and Zimbabwe. Kilimanjaro rises
19,331 feet (5,892 meters) in Tanzania. It is Africa's highest point

Deserts, grasslands, and forests. Deserts cover Rapids and waterfalls make navigation difficult on
about two-fifths of Africa. The Sahara, the world's many African rivers. But they provide the continent with
largest desert, stretches across northern Africa from the about 1 5 percent of the world's potential water power.
Atlantic Ocean to the Red Sea. It covers about 3 \ mil- Hydroelectric power projects have been built on a num-
lion square miles (9 million square kilometers). The Sa- ber of rivers. Some projects also provide irrigation wa-
hara is a region of bare rock, boulders, gravel, and sand ter and flood control. Several waterfalls, including spec-
dunes, broken only by a few oases and the fertile Nile tacular Victoria Falls on the Zambezi, are popular tourist
Valley. The Namib Desert borders the Atlantic coast of attractions.
southwestern Africa. The Kalahari Desert lies inland Lakes. Most of Africa's large lakes lie in the east,
from the Namib. where chains of long, deep lakes have formed in the
Grasslands called savannas occupy more than two- bottoms of the rift valleys. One of these lakes, Tanganyi-
fifths of Africa. They form a broad curve that extends ka, is the longest freshwater lake in the world. It is 420
from the Atlantic coast just south of the Sahara, across miles (680 kilometers) long and more than 4,700 feet
eastern Africa, and back westward to the Atlantic south (1,430 meters) deep. Other large rift lakes include Nyasa,
of the Congo Basin. Tall grasses, thorny bushes, and Albert, and Turkana. Africas largest lake, Victoria, lies in
scattered trees grow in this area. Thicker woodlands a shallow basin between two chains of rift valleys. It
cover areas with more rainfall. But closer to the deserts, covers 26,828 square miles (69,484 square kilometers)
there are fewer trees and shorter grasses. and is second in size only to Lake Superior among the
Forests cover less than a fifth of Africa. Many people world's freshwater lakes.
outside the continent think that much of Africa is a jun- Mountains. Volcanic activity created most of Africa's
gle, which must be hacked through with an ax or knife. highest mountains. The two tallest peaks— 19,331 -foot
But true jungle is rare in Africa. Most of the forests are (5,892-meter) Kilimanjaro and 17,058-foot (5,199-meter)
tropical rain forests.These forests, with their many Mount Kenya— were formed in this way. Although they

kinds of broadleaf evergreen trees, grow in the Congo rise near the equator in eastern Africa, both mountains
Basin and in parts of western Africa and Madagascar. have glaciers and are covered with snow much of the
The floors of the forests tend to be fairly open and clear. year. Volcanic activity also produced the Ethiopian
Pockets of dense and tangled mangrove swamps fringe Highlands; the isolated Tibesti Massif in the Sahara; and
some coastal areas in the west and east and in Mada- Mount Cameroon, the highest peak in western Africa.
gascar. Other forests grow in the highlands of eastern Volcanic rock covers the Drakensberg, a mountainous
Africa, in the mountains of the northwest, and in parts of region where the plateau of southeastern Africa drops
the south. sharply to the sea.
Rivers and waterfalls. The Nile River, the world's Two major nonvolcanic mountain ranges of Africa are
longest river, flows 4,160 miles (6,695 kilometers) north- the Ruwenzori Range and the Atlas Mountains. The
ward from east-central Africa to the Mediterranean Sea. Ruwenzori Range rises on the border of Uganda and
Most of Africa's other major rivers, including the Congo Congo (Kinshasa). The Atlas Mountains extend from Mo-
and the Niger, empty into the Atlantic. Rivers that flow rocco to Tunisia and form Africa's longest mountain
into the Indian Ocean include the Limpopo and the chain. The Mountains are part
Atlas of the same moun-
Zambezi. tain system as the European Alps.
 Climate Africa 121

Most of Africa has a warm or hot climate, but the hu- on Sept. 13, 1922. At l-n-Salah, Algeria,
Aziziyah, Libya,
midity and amount of rainfall vary dramatically from area and along the north coast of Somalia, July temperatures
to area. The map below illustrates Africa's climate pat- soar to 115° F. (46° C) or higher almost every day. Night-
terns. The maps on the next page indicate the average time temperatures, however, may drop sharply. The Sa-
January and July temperatures and the average yearly hara also has the greatest seasonal range of tempera-
precipitation (rain, melted snow, and other forms of tures in Africa. Winter temperatures in the Sahara
moisture). average from 50° to 60° F. (10° to 16° C). Near the equator,
Africa has the largest tropical area of any continent. temperatures may average 75° F. (24° C) or more the year
The equator runs through the middle of Africa, and around. But temperatures of more than 100° F. (38° C) are
about 90 per cent of the continent lies within the tropics. rare.
In countries south of the equator, the seasons are oppo- The coolest regions in Africa are the northwest, the
sitethose of countries that lie north of the equator. But highland areas of the east, and parts of the south. In Jo-
temperatures are high the year around almost every- hannesburg, South Africa, for example, the average tem-
where in Africa. The variations between summer and perature in January, the warmest month, is 68° F. (20° C).
winter temperatures are slight. In fact, the difference be- Frost and snowfall are common in the mountains of Af-
tween daytime and nighttime temperatures in most rica.

parts of the continent is greater than the difference in Rainfall is distributed very unevenly in Africa. Most
the average temperatures between the coldest and areas receive either too much rain or too little. In parts

warmest months. For this reason, some people say that of the west coast, for example, annual rainfall averages
nighttime is the "winter" of the tropics. more than 100 inches (250 centimeters). In Monrovia, Li-
Africa's highest temperatures occur in the Sahara and beria, an average of more than 40 inches (1 00 centime-
in parts of Somalia. The highest temperature ever re- ters) of rain falls during the month of June alone. In con-

corded in the world was 1 36° F. (58° C) in the shade at Al trast, more than half of Africa receives less than 20

What Africa's
climate is like

Much of Africa has a tropical

or desert climate. The map
and legend show what the cli-
mate is like throughout the
continent.

Tropical Weti Always

hot, always wet. Heavy
precipitation well distrib-
uted throughout the year.

Tropical Wet and Dry:

Always hot. Both wet and
dry seasons. Heavy pre-
cipitation in wet season.

Semiaridi Hot to cold.

Great changes in daily
temperature except near
coast. Light precipitation.

Desert! Hot to cool. Great

changes in daily tempera-
ture except near coast.
Very little precipitation.

Subtropical Dry Sum-

mer: Hot, dry summers
and mild winters. Moder-
ate precipitation in winter.

Subtropical Moist:
Warm to hot summers and
mild winters. Moderate
precipitation in oil seasons.

Highland: Because of
altitude, highlands are
generally cooler ond wet-
ter than adjacent areas.

WORLD BOOK map

1 22 Africa

inches (50 centimeters) of rainfall yearly. The Sahara and

the Namib Desert receive an average of less than 10
inches (25 centimeters) a year. In parts of the deserts,
may not fall for six or seven years in a row. Then
rain
when it does rain, many children are startled because
they have never seen rain before.
Rain falls the year around in the forests of the Congo
Basin and the coastal regions of western Africa. But al-

most all the rest of Africa has one or two seasons of

heavy separated by dry periods. In some regions
rainfall
of Africa, the amount
of rainfall varies sharply from year
to year rather than from season to season. Since the late
1960s, droughts have caused much suffering in Africa.
Millions of Africans have died of starvation and related
causes. The hardest-hit areas include Ethiopia and the
Sahel region on the southern edge of the Sahara.
Africa's climate has made agricultural improvement
difficult. In areas with limited and unreliable rainfall,

farmers may be uncertain of what crops to plant. Some

farmers grow a number of crops with different moisture
needs in the hope of having at least one successful har-
vest. Other farmers may grow only one or two kinds of
crops and risk starvation if not enough rain falls. In areas
with too much rainfall, heavy downpours wash away
nourishing substances in the soil. The hot, humid cli- WORLD BOOH nap
mate in much of Africa encourages the spread of insects Rainfall unevenly distributed in Africa. Equatorial regions re-
is

that destroy livestock and cause various diseases in peo- ceive 60 inches (1 50 centimetersl or more annually. The Sahara
receives less than 2 inches (5 centimetersl.
ple.

Average January
temperatures

Degrees
Fahrenheit

Over 80

70 to 80
60 to 70
50 to 60
oelow SO

WORLD BOOH map WORLD BOOK nap

Temperatures are high all year throughout most of Africa. The maps above show the average Janu-
ary and |uly temperatures across the continent. January is a winter month in the north and a sum-
mer month in the south. But in July, the north has summer, and the south has winter.
 Animals and plants Africa 123

e George Holton. Photo Researchers M. D England, Ardea London Peter Davey, Bruce Coleman Ltd.

Gorilla Gnus Leopard

African animal life consists of thousands of species of mammals, birds, insects, and other ani-
mals. The pictures above show three kinds of Africa's most famous mammals.

W*^i

Bamboo Baobab tree Welwitschia

African plant according to climate. For example, bamboo grows
life varies in tropical forests, the
baobab tree in savannas, and the Welwitschia in southwestern desert areas.

Native animals. Africa's wild animals are world fa- African countries have taken steps to save their rich
mous. The continent has thousands of species of mam- wildlife heritage. The killing of certain animals is prohib-
mals, reptiles, amphibians, fishes, birds, and insects. In many areas. A number of African countries have
ited in
the east and south, huge herds of antelope, buffaloes, established game reserves and national parks. Hunting
giraffes, and zebras roam the grasslands. They are is forbidden in these areas, and modern methods of

preyed on by such animals as cheetahs, hyenas, jackals, wildlife conservation are practiced to protect the ani-
leopards, and lions. A few remaining large herds of ele- mals. Somehunters go on carefully regulated safaris
phants live in the east and the southeast. Baboons are (hunting expeditions). Many people today go on photo-
common in many parts of Africa. Crocodiles and hippo- graphic safaris to take pictures of the animals in their
potamuses live in tropical rivers and swamps, and chim- natural environments. However, poaching (illegal hunt-
panzees and monkeys dwell in the forests. Such large ing) continues to be a problem.
water birds as flamingos, pelicans, and storks can be Many rural Africans have opposed wildlife conserva-
found in eastern and southern Africa. Ostriches live in tion efforts. In some areas, for example, wild animals
the south and east parts of Africa and in the western Sa- compete with farmers and herders for scarce land. Wild
hara. Lemurs live in Madagascar. animals can destroy an entire crop or threaten the lives
Africa once had many more wild animals than it has of villagers and their farm animals. Wild animal meat is
today, and they were much more widespread. Ancient important in the diet of some Africans, and people ac-
paintings on rocks show that hippopotamuses and gi- cused of illegal hunting may actually be struggling to
raffesonce lived in regions that are now deserts. Grad- feed their families.
ual changes in climate partly caused the reduced num- Native plants. Africa's plant life varies according to
ber and smaller range of Africa's animals. But the most climate and altitude. The spectacular rain forests of
important cause has been people, who have overhunted western and central Africa have hundreds of kinds of
the animals and destroyed much of their natural envi- trees. They include oil palms; fruit trees; ebony, mahog-

ronment to make room for farms and cities. Such ani- any, and other hardwood trees; and softwood okoume
mals as the black rhinoceros, the gorilla, and the ele- trees, which are used to make furniture, plywood, and

phant will eventually die out completely unless they are veneers. Mangrove trees stand on stiltlike roots in
protected from human interference. swampy areas along tropical coasts. Olive and oak trees
124 Africa

and such evergreen bushes as myrtle grow in the north- (dry riverbedsl, there are date palms, doum palms, tama-
western parts of Africa and at the southern tip of the risks,and some kinds of acacias. Certain kinds of
continent. grasses and shrubs may appear briefly in the deserts
Plants that withstand drought and fire cover the grass- after a rare rain.
lands. In addition to various grasses, grassland plants in- In the mountainous highlands of Africa, bamboo
clude thick-trunked baobab trees, acacia trees, and podocarpus trees, tree ferns, and cedar trees
thickets,
thorny euphorbia bushes. Steppes, the very dry grass- grow on the lower slopes. On the upper slopes, mead-
lands near the deserts, have shorter grasses and fewer ows are covered with grasses, buttercups, and violets.
varieties of other plants. In the desert oases and wadis Mosses and lichens grow near the mountaintops.

Animals of Africa Thismap shows some of the mammals, birds, and reptiles of Africa. Wild animals were once much
more numerous and widespread there than today. Hunting and expanding settlement have greatly
reduced the animal population and have put some species in danger of extinction.

M Barbary Ape

Rock Python

Cape Seal t Jackass Penguin

WORLD BOOk mjp

 Africa 1 25

People have destroyed much of Africa's natural plant These food crops include bananas, cassava, and corn, as
Farmers have cleared forests for cropland. Hunters
life. well as such cash crops as cocoa beans and tea. Euca-
have burned grasslands to drive out game animals. The lyptus trees, which originated in Australia, now grow in
overgrazing of livestock has turned some steppes al- many parts of Africa and are widely used for firewood
most into deserts. and building construction. European settlers introduced
Introduced species. Numerous plants and animals most African farm animals. Such animals include cattle,
that are common in Africa were introduced from other goats, and sheep. Camels, which provide food and other
parts of the world by traders and colonists. They necessities in much of northern Africa, originated in
brought many of Africa's most important food crops. Asia.

Plants of Africa Some of Africa's trees, shrubs, and other plants are pictured on this map. Much of Africa has a
tropical climate. However, the land regions of the continent vary dramatically, ranging from
deserts to tropical rain forests. As a result, Africa has a wide variety of plant life.

Mangrove

Welwitschia
.<•

^.
^ f

ilver Tree

Podocorpus

WORLD BOOK map

1 26 Africa Economy

The Republic of South Africa is the only African na-

tion generally classified as economically developed. All
other African countries have a developing economy.
These countries have an especially low gross national
product (GNP). GNP is the value of all goods and serv-
ices produced in a country yearly. A country's per capita
(per person) GNP is determined by dividing the GNP by
the population. Among most African countries, the per
capita GNP is less than $400, compared with about
$21,900 in the United States.
Agriculture employs more workers and contributes
more to the total value of production in Africa than does
any other economic activity. Africa leads the world in
the production of cacao, or cocoa beans; cassava; cash-
ews; cloves; palm kernels; vanilla beans; and yams. It is
also a major producer of bananas, coffee, cotton, pea-
nuts, rubber, sugar, and tea. Africans raise more than
two-thirds of the world's camels, nearly a third of its

goats, and about seventh of its cattle and sheep.

a
For their own use, African farmers grow a variety of
r 'ieorg Gerster, Photo Researchers
food crops. In the wet tropical areas of western and cen-
Cotton is raised in the Nile River Valley, a fertile farming region
tral Africa, the chief food crops include bananas, plan-
in northeastern Africa. High-quality, long-fiber cotton is an im-
tains, rice, and such roots as yams and cassava. In
portant crop in Egypt and Sudan.

Agriculture and fishing

in Africa
This map shows the major
uses of land in Africa. It lo-
cates the chief agricultural
products and shows the most
important crops in large type.
The map also shows the
major fishing areas and kinds
of fish caught.

Intensive or commercial
cropland

Chiefly subsistence
cropland

Grazing land

Chiefly forestland

Generally unproductive land

Fishing

WORLD BOOK map

 Africa 1 27

the grasslands of the east and south, farmers grow corn,

millet, and sorghum. In northern Africa, farmers raise
barley and wheat and use irrigation to grow fruits and
vegetables. Farmersin the oases of the Sahara grow
dates and small crops of barley and wheat.
About three-fifths of Africa's cultivated land is used
mainly for subsistence agriculture— that is, for growing
food crops for a farmer's own use. However, subsis-
tence agriculture has been decreasing as more and
more African farmers produce only cash crops, which
are grown mainly for export. In addition, most subsis-
tence farmers use at least some of their land to raise
cash crops. The shift from subsistence agriculture to the
growing of cash crops is causing problems. For exam-
ple, food shortages occur in some areas because fewer
farmers are growing food crops. In addition, some for-
mer farmers have moved to cities to find work. Another
problem is that farmers who grow only cash crops can-
not depend on a steady income because of frequent
changes in prices on the world market.
In the past, almost all African farmland was owned co-
operatively by members of the various ethnic groups.
Today, individual land ownership is widespread. But the
cooperative tradition remains strong. Many farmers
combine their lands, buy equipment and seed as a < Georg Cersler. Pholo Researchers

group, and join cooperatives to sell their crops. Petroleum production important in several African coun-
is

In northern Africa, many farmers rent their land. Af- tries. Algeria, Libya, and Nigeria are the leading producers.
rica also has numerous large estates and plantations that These men are drilling for oil in Nigeria.

produce such cash crops as coconuts, palm products,

rubber, sisal, sugar, and tea. Thousands of laborers
work full time or part time on these farms. cattle in North America and Europe.
Overall, agricultural productivity in Africa is low for Mining accounts for more than half the total value of
several reasons. Most African farmers work small plots Africa's exports, but it employs fewer than \ million
1

and use inefficient methods. Most of Africa's soil is thin workers. Africa's mineral wealth is unevenly distributed.
and poor. Heavy rains in parts of western and central Af- Five countries— Soutn Africa, Libya, Nigeria, Algeria, and
ricawash away precious topsoil. In some areas, periodic Zambia— produce about four-fifths of all the minerals Af-
droughts, floods, or insect invasions destroy crops or rica exports.The government controls the mining indus-
sharply reduce crop yields. Cattle cannot be raised in try in several African nationsand uses the income to
many parts of Africa because of the unfavorable climate help finance various government projects.
and tropical diseases. In addition, the types of cattle that South Africa is the world's largest producer of gold.
can be raised in Africa produce less meat and milk than Libya and Nigeria both rank among the leading produc-

Alan Hutchison Librars

Industrial development has

been most Afri-
a chief goal of
can countries since winning
independence from European
colonial powers. This automo-
bile assembly plant is in Nai-
robi, Kenya.
128 Africa

ers of petroleum in the world. In addition, Algeria is an South Africa is the most highly industrialized country
important producer. Africa also produces about
oil in Africa. It produces nearly two-fifths of the continent's

three-fourths of the world s cobalt and platinum, more manufactured goods. South Africas factories turn out a
than two-fifths of its vanadium, and about a third of its wide range of products, including automobiles, chemi-
chromite. In addition, Africa is a leading source of cop- cals, clothing, processed foods, and iron and steel. The
per, diamonds, phosphates, and uranium. Other impor- next most important industrial countries of Africa are
tant mineral products of Africa include antimony, iron Egypt, Algeria, Morocco, and Nigeria.
ore, manganese, natural gas, and tin. Forestry and fishing. Africa has about a fourth of the
Manufacturing has a small role in Africa's economy. world's forests. However, less than 15 percent of the
In the past, colonial rulers emphasized agricultural and forests are used to provide timber and other products.
mineral production to obtain raw materials for indus- The most valuable trees include such hardwoods as
home countries. Today, therefore, even
tries in their African walnut and mahogany and such softwoods as
new nations with abundant raw materials have few ma- eucalyptus and okoume. The forest industry is especially
jor industries. Many African countries cannot afford to important in Cameroon, Congo (Brazzaville!, Congo (Kin-
build costly factories and have a shortage of skilled shasa), Cote d Ivoire, Gabon, Ghana, and Nigeria.
workers, managers, and technicians. In addition, compe- Fishing fleets along Africa's seacoasts bring in large
titionfrom American and European industries has dis- quantities of anchovies, mackerel, sardines, tuna, and
couraged major industrial growth in Africa. other fishes. Africa exports much of this catch in the
Since the mid-1 900s, large cities and towns in most of form of and fish meal. Rivers and lakes provide
fish oil
Africa have developed small industries that produce plentifulfreshwater fish, which are important in the pro-
such consumer goods as beer, cigarettes, furniture, tein-poor diet of many Africans. Major freshwater fish-
shoes, soap, and soft drinks. Some African factories also ing grounds include the lakes of eastern Africa and the
make such products as automobile parts and textiles. swamps around Lake Chad and the upper Nile River.

Mining and
manufacturing in
Africa Algiers \
9*
Mercury.^
a
N
Casablanca , Natural ii
This map shows the location
Phosphate.• *Laads Gas«J
1

of Africa's chief mineral re- AJexandii a

« „Ca,r\
sources and manufacturing
Petroleum*
centers. Major mineral-pro-
ducing areas are shown in
large type, and lesser ones in
small type. Manufacturing
centers are in red.

Bauxite

Bau«.te. -Diamonds I Phosphate

„ ,

Iron Ore j

Petroleum.
-»i
C^~>
Manganese
?*
I
,
Tungsten*
"" Pa \
Nairobi
y-'Tuncjsten Tin.

^v™ nsnasa
7 '"'amcndsx
Petroieum.-f Diamonds
V •
A-/3-1 £.T.n
Diamonds * *£, r-
Copper.1
9 Gold Major mineral deposit Coba

• Lead Other mineral deposit .Iron Ore

Lead
^•Copper"
Zmc.

Copper
l_

N/-Nlc
Chromite
| IeV'
A
.Chromite
• Manufacturing center "Gold* Harare

T
'"«.Ur.n,um£l»"«>"*.
popper N.cjMl^
\ /
Graphite

rr
JohinnesrJtirg^»» ;
lii

old
#jf> c hromite vanadium
UJraniumejSc-Coal Diamonds
_J # Gold* Coal
TfJ
Coppere Zinc
iper**-*' Diamonds. •-
."
Manganese
Iron Ore
Cape town*

WORLD BOOK map

 Africa 129

Transportation. Africa has more than 800,000 miles development of transportation and communication sys-
(1,300,000 kilometers) of roads, but only about 60,000 tems, the location and expansion of cities, and the
miles (97,000 kilometers) are paved. In many areas, roads growth of cash crop agriculture.
become impassable during the rainy seasons. Less than Africa trades chiefly with Europe, Japan, and North
2 per cent ofall Africans own an automobile, and almost America. Very little trade occurs between African coun-
these people live in cities. In much of Africa, buses
all tries. Africa'smajor imports include food, iron and steel,
and trucks follow regular routes to transport people and machinery, and motor vehicles.
goods between villages and towns. Many people simply Petroleum accounts for more than half the total value
walk or ride a bicycle. In many parts of the continent, of African exports. Other leading exports include cocoa,
donkeys or other animals are used to carry goods and coffee, gold, and natural gas. A number of African coun-
people. Camels are the most reliable means of transpor- tries rely on only one product for most of their export
tation in the Sahara. income. Libya and Nigeria, for example, depend chiefly
Africa has about 59,000 miles (95,000 kilometers) of on petroleum; Botswana on diamonds; Gambia on pea-
railroad track. South Africa has the continent's best rail- nuts; Ghana on cocoa; Guinea on bauxite; Uganda on
way system, and a good network of track links parts of coffee; and Zambia on copper.
northern Africa. In other areas, the rail lines are mainly The importance of foreign trade and the dependence
single-track routes used to carry minerals and farm on a small number of export products have made Afri-
products to seaports that handle foreign trade. Most of can economies highly sensitive to changes in world
Africa's railroads were built in colonial times. market prices. Rapid changes in prices make economic
The African coasts have few good natural harbors, planning difficult. As a result, Africa has been active in
but engineers have built harbors with modern shipping international efforts to control price changes and im-
almost every coastal country. Inland water-
facilities in prove trade terms. Algeria, Gabon, Libya, and Nigeria
ways serve as transportation routes in relatively few belong to the Organization of Petroleum Exporting
parts of Africa. Rapids and waterfalls block navigation Countries (OPEC), an association of oil-producing na-
on many rivers. In addition, rivers and lakes in areas of tions that has a great deal of influence over the world
limited seasonal rainfall often become too shallow to market for oil. Other African countries that depend
travel on for part of the year. In tropical rain forests, heavily on a single product for export income are join-
many villagers use dugouts or other small craft for ing similar exporting organizations.
transportation on the rivers. Railroads and roads link Foreign aid. Almost every African country depends
navigable sections of the Congo, Niger, and Nile rivers to some extent on foreign aid. Such aid consists of
with ocean ports. grants of money; loans; and technical assistance in such
Most African countries have their own airline, which areas as agriculture, education, and health.
provides domestic and international service. The major Individual nations and various international organiza-
African cities are also served by foreign airlines. tions provide Africa with aid. France, Britain, and the
Communication. The cities of Africa have far better United States, in that order, are the leading individual
communication services than the rural areas. Newspa- contributors. The United Nations (UN), through various
pers and magazines from Europe and the United States affiliates, provides huge amounts of aid. Other major

are available in most large cities, and cities throughout contributors include the World Bank and its affiliate, the
Africa also publish local newspapers. Most African International Development Association; the Economic
countries provide television service. But there is an aver- Development Fund and other funds of the European
age of only about 1 television set for every 25 people in Union; and the African Development Bank and its affili-
Africa. Few rural people ever see TV. Radio is the chief ate, the African Development Fund.

means of mass communication. Radio stations broadcast Egypt receives more foreign aid than any other coun-
inevery African country. Africa has about 1 radio for try in Africa. Other African countries that receive large
every 5 people. Even in remote areas, there is at least amounts of foreign aid include Ethiopia, Kenya, Mo-
one radio in most villages. Villagers often gather before rocco, Mozambique, Sudan, and Tanzania.
the radio to listen to news programs and other broad- Foreign aid has helped African countries establish in-

casts. dustries,improve agricultural productivity, and build

Telephone service in Africa is limited mainly to the houses, roads, and schools. Foreign aid also has pro-
cities and larger towns. The continent has about 7 mil- vided African countries with food and supplies in times
lion telephones, compared with about 180 million in the of drought and other natural disasters.

United States. South Africa has more than half of all the However, foreign aid has not always been wholly
telephones in Africa. In most African countries, tele- beneficial. Many loans call for high interest payments.
phone service was originally installed by colonial rulers As a result, several countries receiving aid are finding it

to assist in colonial administration. As a result, even

extremely difficult to repay the loans. Some loans re-
quire that the country receiving aid buy materials from
today telephone service between Africa and Europe is

between or within African countries. the donor country. In many cases, the donor countries
often better than
International trade. Africa accounts for only about 4 thus end up with more financial benefits than the receiv-

per cent of the total value of imports and exports in in- ing countries. In addition, large amounts of aid some-
ternational trade. But trade plays a major role in the con-
times are used to build impressive government struc-
produc- tures such as dams, superhighways, or other projects
tinent's economy. About a fourth of Africa s total
that do not help most of the people.
tion is exported. Foreign trade has influenced the
1 30 Africa History

people may have experimented with native wild grasses

and eventually figured out how to grow the grasses as
cultivated grains. Many experts believe that farming be-
gan in the Middle East and then spread westward into
northern Africa. By about 5000 B.C., people in the north
knew how to tame and raise animals and how to grow
such crops as barley and wheat Some experts believe
that Africans in other areas, including what are now
Ethiopia and Kenya, may have developed agriculture on
their own even earlier.
Scientists believe that various groups of people were
living in many parts of Africa when agriculture was de-
veloping there. Light-skinned peoples lived in the north.
Pygmies roamed the central forests, and yellowish-
skinned Khoisan peoples lived in much of the south.
Black Africans lived in the Sahara and neighboring
grasslands. The Sahara was not a desert at that time. It
was a grassland, where hunters tracked game, fishing
communities lived on the catch from many lakes and
rivers, and farmers grew grain and raised livestock.
About 4000 B.C, Africa's climate gradually became
drier and drier. Many farmers of the Sahara moved
Reproduction of a rock painting 3500-3000 B.O; southward and began to grow such crops as rice and
Musee de fHomme. Pans ^> Erich Lessmg. Magnum
yams. By about 1500 B.C, the Sahara had become a vast
Rock paintings on the walls of caves and rock shelters were
desert and a barrier to the easy movement of people be-
made thousands of years ago by peoples who lived in Africa.
This painting was found in the Tassili-n-Ajjer region of Algeria. tween northern Africa and the rest of the continent
However, trade routes that eventually crossed the desert
kept some links open for communication between the
Africa has been called the "birthplace of the human north and the south.
race. "The oldest evidence of humanlike creatures and Early civilizations. The fertile soils of the Nile Valley
people found anywhere in the world is bones and other supported some of the earliestand richest farming com-
fossils discovered at many sites in eastern and southern munities in Africa. In time, some of these communities
Africa. From this evidence, most scientists have conclud- developed into small states. Cities within the states
ed that the earliest human beings lived about 2 million served as centers of government and trade. About 3400
years ago in eastern Africa. The crude stone tools made B.C, the small states combined into two large states-
by these people gave the Stone Age its name. In time, Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt Menes, king of Upper
the Stone Age culture spread to other continents. For Egypt, united the two states about 3100 B.C This united
detailed information on the earliest people and the kingdom was to become the first great African civiliza-
Stone Age, see the article Prehistoric people. tionand one of the greatest civilizations in history. Egypt
This section discusses the broad outlines of African reached the height of its power about 1400 B.C Later, it
history. For the history of a particular country, see the became part of the Persian Empire and the empire of
World Book article on that country. See also the articles Alexander the Great Roman armies conquered Egypt in
listed under 'History" and "People in the Related articles 30 B.C and made a province of the Roman Empire. By
it

at the end of this article. that time, Rome controlled the north coast of Africa.
The coming of agriculture was a revolutionary de- South of Egypt, a kingdom called Kush arose after
velopment in early Africa. In time, it led to great eco- 1000 B.C It lasted until about A.D. 350. Kush was strongly
nomic, social, and political changes. Most Stone Age influenced by Egypt and became a major center of art,
Africans had lived by hunting wild animals and by gath- learning, and trade.
ering such plant foods as berries, seeds, and roots. Peo- Trade between Africans and other peoples and be-
ple who lived near lakes and rivers ate chiefly fish. tween Africans themselves helped spread the use of
The hunters and gatherers lived in small groups. As metals. The Egyptians were probably the first Africans to
the seasons changed, the groups could thus move easily use bronze tools instead of stone tools. The use of
from place to place to follow the migrations of animals bronze spread to Egypt from the Middle East about 3000
and to search for plant foods. But after people learned B.C By about 1000 B.C, people in northern Africa were
how to grow crops and how to tame and raise animals, using iron. Kush became one of the continent's first im-
they no longer had to move about to get food. They portant centers of iron mining and iron manufacturing.
could then establish permanent settlements. Southward migrations. About the time of Christ,
The spread of agriculture in Africa occurred over black peoples who spoke Bantu languages began one
thousands of years. No one knows for certain when or of the great migrations in all history. They moved south-
where it began on the continent In parts of Africa, agri- ward from what is now the Nigeria-Cameroon border
culture probably was introduced by people who had region into the forests of central Africa. From there, the
migrated from other places. In some other areas, the migrations continued for more than 1 ,000 years. Bantu-
 Africa 1 31

speaking peoples eventually settled throughout central, linked Africa with Europe and Asia. Aksum declined af-
eastern, and southern Africa. Their way of life was based ter the 500s, but its Christian traditions survived and
on farming and the use of iron tools. formed the basis for the Ethiopian Christian Church.
Historians believe that the migrations began— and After the of Kush, a number of small kingdoms
fall

continued— because of the constant need for more land grew up in the Nile Valley region of Nubia. These king-
to support a growing population. The migrations had doms were prosperous agricultural states that kept in
major effects on the vast region they covered. As the close contact with Christian Egypt through trade. Egyp-
peoples migrated, they spread their knowledge of farm- tian missionaries converted the Nubians to Christianity
ing and ironworking. In time, Bantu languages became during the 500s. Christianity flourished in Nubia for hun-
the chief language group south of the Sahara. dreds of years, and Nubian religious influence extended
Historians believe the migrations were peaceful. As westward over much of the neighboring territory.
the Bantu-speaking peoples moved south, they met The rise of Islam became one of the most important
such hunting peoples as the Pygmies of the central developments in African history. Islam emerged in Ara-
forests and the Khoisan peoples of the east and south. bia during the early 600s. Within 100 years, Arab Mus-
Some hunters married Bantu-speakers and adopted lims had built a huge empire that stretched from the
their way of life. Others retreated into the forests or Middle East, across northern Africa, and into Spain. The
deserts of central and southern Africa. Muslims invaded Egypt in 639 and completed the con-
The influence of Christianity. During the AD. 300's, quest of all northern Africa by 710. The empire later
Christianity became the state religion of the Roman Em- broke up into smaller states, butties of religion and
pire, which included Egypt and the rest of the north trade continued to link the Muslims.
coast of Africa. A Germanic tribe called the Vandals in- At most people under Muslim rule in northern
first,

vaded the empire during the 400s. The tribe followed an Africa did not accept Islam. The conversion of northern
outlawed Christian belief called Arianism. The Vandals Africans from Christianity or local religions to Islam took
ended Roman rule along most of the north coast In the hundreds of years. South of the Sahara, Islam was
500's, the area fell under orthodox Christian influence spread mainly by Muslim merchants and traveling
again, when it became part of the Byzantine Empire. scholars. Camel caravans that crossed the Sahara
Two areas just south of Egypt— Aksum (or Axum) and brought the northern Muslims into contact with western
Nubia— were strongly influenced by the Roman Empire Africa. Muslim traders who sailed the Indian Ocean con-

and early Christianity. The kingdom of Aksum had been verted the peoples living along the coasts of what are
founded before the time of Christ in what is now Eritrea now Somalia, Kenya, and Tanzania.
and northern Ethiopia. It prospered as the crossroads The Muslims had far-reaching influence in Africa
for trade between the Roman Empire and India and be- aside from the teaching of Islam. They honored learning
came a Christian state during the 300s. By the mid-300's, and had collected and preserved much of the world's
Aksum controlled the major land and sea routes that accumulated knowledge in such fields as science, phi-

Timothv Kendall

The civilization of Kush de-

veloped after 1000 B.C and
lasted until about A.D. 350
along the Nile River in what is
now northern Sudan. Kush
was an important trade cen-
ter. It also served as a center
for the exchange of ideas
among peoples from the
north and south and peoples
from southwestern Asia. The
Kush temple at the left shows
the influence of Roman and
Egyptian architecture.
1 32 Africa

losophy, geography, and history. The Muslims intro- rica, had probably been founded during the 300"s. The
duced into Africa their distinctive art forms. They taught kingdom reached its height about 1000, when it covered
reading and writing in Arabic to many Africans who parts of what are now Mali and Mauritania. During the
could not read or write. Arabic became a common lan- 1 ZOO'S, the Mali Empire replaced Ghana as the most

guage shared by Africans of various ethnic groups. powerful state in the west. It included parts of what are
Muslim scholars established religious schools that at- now Gambia, Guinea, Senegal, Mali, and Mauritania. By
tracted students from many parts of Africa. 1 most of Mali came under the control of the
500,
Kingdoms in western Africa began to flourish Songhai Empire, a vast state that stretched from the At-
about 1 000, largely because of the growth of trade lantic Ocean to what is now central Nigeria. East of Mali
across the Sahara. Traders brought gold and kola nuts and Songhai lay Kanem. It had been founded during the
from western Africa to northern kingdoms such as those 700" s and lasted more than 1,000 years.
of the Hafsid, Marinid, and Ziyanid rulers. The traders Eastern, central, and southern kingdoms. About
exchanged the gold and kola nuts for salt and copper 1 00, a growing number of Arab Muslim traders began
1

from Saharan mines, dried fruits from northern Africa, to settle on the Indian Ocean coast of what are now
textiles from Europe, and finely crafted objects from the Kenya, Mozambique, Somalia, and Tanzania. They
Middle East. Kingdoms at the southern edge of the Sa- helped develop a thriving sea trade that linked eastern
hara gained power and wealth through the control of Africa with China, India, and Indonesia, and with coun-
the Saharan trade. Such cities as Gao and Timbuktu be- tries bordering the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. East
came busy commercial centers. As the trade routes ex- coast ports exported gold, ivory, and other products in
tended farther south, such kingdoms and states as exchange for such goods as silk, cotton cloth, and por-
Ashanti, Benin, Mossi, Oyo, and the Hausa city-states celain. The east coast settlements eventually developed
also became trade centers. into a string of prosperous city-states, including Kilwa,
Ghana, one of the first great kingdoms of western Af- Mogadiscio, Mombasa, and Sofala. The peoples of

Africa in the 1400s

Many highly organized states
existed in Africa long before
the European colonial period.
This map shows the main
states and trade routes of the
MARINID
,*. U H " s '°
•
Itpnh

$ Aieiandna'
MOO'S.

h I a/ r a o

Bilma

TimbuJtju -
B Sac
Agadez, J 4 KANEM
SONGHAI BORNU
rnin /
Je
™
MOSSI
HAUSfl
CITYSTATES

^^ Kana

ASHANT, °*>
kmn" m He*"
C.t v BENIN
Original
Bantu Homeland
Islamic state A„m* State ^^.

West African stole

Bantu state

Christian state

Berbers Major ethnic group

GOLD Important trading product h A 1 1

Land trade route

Sea trade route

1 000 Miles

WORID BOOK map

 Africa 1 33

these city-states spoke Swahili. Their culture became a western Africa, they began to ship black Africans to Eu-
blend of local black African and Islamic traditions. rope as slaves. In 1497 and 1498, Vasco da Gama led a
Many kingdoms grew up in the forests and grass- Portuguese expedition that sailed around the Cape of
lands of central and southern Africa. Some of the most Good Hope, along the east coast of Africa, and on to In-
powerful kingdoms established elaborate systems of dia. The Portuguese won control of the city-states of
government and rich traditions in sculpture, music, and eastern Africa during the 1500s. During the 1600s, the
oral poetry. One kingdoms, the Kongo,
of the largest Dutch took over many of Portugals west coast trading
began from the mouth of the Congo River
to spread out posts. They also established Cape Town at the southern
during the 1400s. The Kongo lasted until the early tip of Africa in 1652.
1700s. Another major kingdom that arose in the 1400s Africa had shipped slaves to Asia and Europe long
was Luba, in what is now southern Congo (Kinshasa). before the Portuguese arrived. But the establishment of
Also during the 1400s, the Karanga people established European plantations in North and South America dur-
the Mwanamutapa Empire in what are now Mozam- ing the 1500s led to a much greater demand for slaves.
bique and Zimbabwe. The Changamire Empire con- By the 1800s, Europeans had brought as many as 10 mil-
quered the Mwanamutapa during the late 1400s. The lion slaves from western Africa to the Americas. About
Zimbabwe served as the capital of both empires.
city of 500,000 of the slaves were shipped to what is now the
The beginnings of European control. During the United States. Arab and African traders on Africa's east
1400s, the Portuguese began to explore the west coast coast shipped slaves to Zanzibar and countries border-
They were interested in Africa's gold trade and
of Africa. ing the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. See African
so established trading posts in Gambia, the Gold Coast Americans (Beginning of the slave trade); Slavery.
(now Ghana), and other west coast lands. They also tried The trade in gold and slaves brought more wealth
to convert the rulers of the Kongo and other kingdoms and power to some African forest kingdoms, such as
to Christianity. Soon after the Portuguese arrived in Ashanti in what is now Ghana. European traders intro-

European exploration
of Africa

Sea Explorers

Dias (Portuguese) 1487-88

Do Gama (Portuguese)
1497-98

Land Explorers

Bruce (Scottish) 1768-73

Park (Scottish) 1805-06

Clapperton (Scottish)
1822-24

Laing (Scottish) 1825-26

Caillie (French) 1827-28

Livingstone (Scottish)
1841-56. 1866-71
_ Burton and Speke (English)
1857-59
Nachtigof (German)
1869-74
_ Stanley (Welsh) 1871,
1874-77

1 000 Kilometer

WORM) BOOK nup

1 34 Africa

duced cassava and corn into Africa. These foods be- Many Africans look upon the period of colonial rule
came important crops. The traders also introduced Afri- as a humiliating experience in their history. But some Af-
cans to guns, which the Africans eventually used in wars ricans believe that the period brought improvements.
against one another or against the Europeans. For example, Europeans provided additional medical
During the late 1700s, Europeans began to explore services and helped control certain diseases. Colonial
the African interior. They wanted to spread Christianity schools taught millions of Africans how to read and
and to develop new trade ties based on minerals, palm writein European languages.

oil, and other raw materials for industry. Europeans who The movement to independence. Many Africans
opposed slavery hoped that the new trade products resisted colonial rule from the beginning. During the
would help end the slave trade. Great Britain outlawed early 1900s, organizedgroups in some African colonies
the slave trade in 1807. In 1808, the United States began had already begun to demand self-government. But not
prohibiting the import of slaves from Africa. World War II (1939-1945) did the demands for
until after
European influence and control in Africa also grew independence become a powerful mass movement.
through military means. Much of northern Africa had In many colonies, Africans who had been educated in
been part of the Turkish Ottoman Empire since the Europe led the organizations that called for self-govern-
1 500s. But as Turkish power declined, European powers ment. Supported by the masses, these organizations
fought for control of the region. During the 1 800s, staged strikes, boycotts, and rallies. In some cases, the
France gained Algeria and Tunisia, and Britain won anticolonial feelings erupted in riots, terrorist attacks,
Egypt. In southern Africa, the Dutch began to move in- and armed rebellions. A revolt against the French in Al-
land from their settlement at Cape Town after 1700. As geria broke out in 1954. But because of the large num-
the Dutch spread out, they fought and conquered the ber of French settlers there, the revolt lasted eight years
local black Africans. before the country won independence. In 1957, the Gold
In spite of the growing European presence, large Coast became the first black African colony to gain its
parts of Africa had little or no contact with Europe until freedom. It won independence from Britain and took the
the mid-1 800" s or the late 1800s. Many major events in name Ghana. By the mid-1960s, Britain, Belgium, and
African history did not involve Europeans. During the France had freed most of their African colonies.
1700s and 1800s, Muslim religious reformers led a se- Southern Africa presented the most serious obstacles
ries of "holywars" in western Africa to strengthen the in- to the independence movement. Portugal fought costly
fluence of Islam. By 1860, new Muslim empires ruled wars in Angola and Mozambique before granting them
most of the western grasslands. In southern Africa, well- freedom in 1975. In Rhodesia, blacks fought for years
trained Zulu armies won a series of wars against neigh- against white-minority rule. A government with a major-
boring peoples during the early 1800s. ity of blacks was finally elected in 1979. The following

Colonial rule. As Europeans became increasingly in- year, Britain recognized Rhodesia's independence, and
volved in African economic affairs, mainly through
trade, they gained more and more political control over
parts of the continent. By the 1 880s, there were intense
rivalries among the European powers as they staked out
claims to profitable parts of Africa. By 1914, Belgium,
France, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, Portugal, and Spain
had divided almost all Africa among themselves. Only
Ethiopia and Liberia remained independent.
In some parts of Africa, colonial rule was established
peacefully by treaties between the Europeans and Afri-
can chiefs. But other Africans resisted European control.
For example, they staged violent uprisings against the
British in Nigeria and what is now Ghana, against the
French in western and northern Africa, and against the
Germans in what are now Tanzania and Namibia. By the
mid-1920s, however, Europeans strongly controlled
most of Africa.
Colonial rule lasted a relatively short time— only until
the 1960s in most of Africa. However, it brought major
changes to Africa. Colonial rule created new political Madagascar
units with boundaries that cut across ethnic homelands
in some cases. It gave foreigners control over African
government affairs. The Christian missionaries that ac- Union of
South
"Swaziland

Atnca Basutoland
companied colonial rule challenged religious and social
Independent
traditions that had long been part of African life. Colo-
nial rule tied Africa to an economic system based on
WORLD BOOH map
world needs rather than on local needs. African farmers
Africa in 1914 had only two independent countries Ethiopia
and miners had to produce goods for world markets and Liberia. The rest of the continent was under colonial rule by
and raw materials for European industries. European powers.
 Africa 1 35

the country was renamed Zimbabwe. South Africa's con- of its remaining apartheid laws. In April 1994, South
trol over the territory of Namibia (called South West Africa held elections in which black Africans were al-
Africa until 1968) became an international issue during lowed to vote. In the elections, black Africans gained
the mid-1 900s. Most nations considered South Africa's government
control of the
control of Namibia to be illegal. In March 1990, Namibia Africans who won independence rejoiced, but they
became an independent country. soon found that freedom did not solve all their prob-
South Africa itself had become fully independent of lems. Leaders in many of the new nations could not han-
the United Kingdom in 1 931 Black Africans formed a
. dle crises that arose in political, social, and economic af-

large majority of the population of South Africa. Howev- fairs. Military officers overthrew civilian governments in
er, white people controlled the country's government many countries and set up military governments. New
and excluded black Africans from government affairs. civiliangovernments often followed these military gov-
The white government also developed a rigid system of ernments. In a few countries, military dictatorships
racial separation called apartheid. Most of the black emerged. Civil wars broke out in Congo (Kinshasa), Ni-
Africans believed that they still suffered from a form of geria, Chad, and other countries.
colonialism. Africa today continues to face serious problems, in-
The South African government's apartheid policies of cluding poverty, illiteracy, disease, and food shortages.
discrimination and segregation enraged black African Severe droughts contribute greatly to the food shortage.
nations and drew from most other countries in
criticism One of the worst droughts in history struck Africa in the
the world. Beginning in the 1970s, the South African early 1980s. Many Africans died of starvation and relat-
government gradually ended the social segregation and ed causes. The drought was particularly devastating in
legal aspects of apartheid. But black Africans remained Ethiopia. Another drought in the early 2000s led to
politically excluded and were not even allowed to vote. widespread food shortages in southern Africa.
In the early 1990s, however, South Africa repealed most In the 1990s and early 2000s, the AIDS epidemic
reached disastrous levels in Africa, especially in areas
south of the Sahara. The disease has become the conti-
Important dates in Africa nent's leading cause of death. By the early 2000s, more

c. 2,000,000 B.C The earliest human beings may have lived in than 17 million AIDS-related deaths had occurred in
eastern Africa Africa, and more than 26 million Africans were living

5000 B.C People in northern Africa practiced farming.

AIDS virus.
with the
c.
many African countries, economic and social devel-
In
c 4000 B.C The Sahara began to turn into a desert.
opment is handicapped by a dependence on one or two
c. 3100 B.C Upper and Lower Egypt became one country. products as sources of national income. Inflation in in-
c. 2000 B.C The Kingdom of Kush arose south of Egypt dustrialized nations has caused Africa to pay more for
the manufactured goods it imports than it receives for
30 B.C The Roman Empire controlled northern Africa.
the raw materials it exports. Ethnic rivalries continue to
c. A.D. 1 Bantu-speaking peoples began southward migrations. divide many countries. Territorial disputes have led to
30Cs The Kingdom of Aksum became a Christian state. frequent wars between nations.
SOO^ The Nubian kingdoms were converted to Christianity. Many people see signs of hope in Africa in spite of all
its problems. More Africans than ever are attending
639-710 Arab Muslims conquered northern Africa.
school and developing skills needed to improve their
10OO-15O0 Large kingdoms were established in Africa south of standard of living. Valuable mineral resources in Ango-
the Sahara la, Gabon, Nigeria, and other countries may lead to

1400s The Portuguese began to explore Africa's west coast greater economic strength.
1652 The Dutch founded Cape Town. African nations are also trying to work together to
solve common problems. Cooperation
is the ideal be-
Late 1700's Europeans began to explore the African interior.
hind the movement of pan-Africanism, which promotes
1880 s European governments began to claim parts of Africa.
the unity of African countries. The Organization of
1920s European colonial rule was firmly established in Africa African Unity (OAU), an association of African states,

1950V1960S Most European colonies in Africa became inde- worked to build ties among African peoples and helped
pendent end colonial and white minority rule. It existed from
1963 to 2002, when it was replaced by the African Union
1975 Portugal, the last European country with large African
(AU). The AU, which includes almost all African coun-
holdings, gave up its remaining colonies.
tries, works to achieve greater political, social, and eco-
1979 Black Africans in Rhodesia (now known as Zimbabwe)
nomic cooperation among African countries and peo-
gained control of the country s government, ending whiie-
ples. Africans have also formed several regional groups,
minority rule there.
including the Southern African Development Communi-
WBtts One of the worst droughts in history struck Africa Ethio-
ty and the Economic Community of West African States,
pia was especially hard-hit.
to promote cooperation in economic affairs. In addition,
1990 Namibia gained independence, ending its white-minority
in the early 2000s, African leaders began implementing
rule by South Africa.
an economic development plan called the New Partner-
1994 Blacks in South Africa gained control of the country s gov- ship for Africa s Development. Although these various
ernment, ending white-minority rule there. efforts cannot solve all of Africas problems, they offer
1 36 Africa

ffl&W9W*

APU.de World
South Africa's elections open to all races, held in 1994, drew long lines of voters to the
first
polls. In the elections, blacks gained control of the government from the white minority. Previ-
ously, blacks, who make up a majority of the nation's population, could not vote.

hope and greater

that cooperation will lead to progress Physical features
throughout the continent After independence,
stability See Desert; Island; Lake; Mountain; Riven and Waterfall and
one-party political systems were established in many their lists of Related articles. See also:
in the early 1990s, a number of
African countries. But Aswan High Dam Great Rift Valley Red Sea
these countries adopted multiparty systems. Samuel Cape of Good Mediterranean Suez Canal
Hope Sea
Decalo; Kennell A. Jackson, Jr.; Kenneth |. Perkins; and Hartmut S Walter
Other related articles

Study aids Bank (Africa! Races, Human

Bemba Sculpture (African sculpture)
Conservation (Africa) Television (In Africa)
Related articles in World Book include: Flag (pictures: Flags of Africa Third World
Music (African music) United Nations (Working for
Countries and other political units Mythology (African mythology) self-government)
See the separate articles on African countries and other politi-
Outline
cal units listed in the table with this article.
People
History A. Population C Languages
African Americans Exploration Nubia B.Peoples of Africa D. Religions

(The African French West Numidia II Ways of life in northern Africa

background) Africa Organization of A. Rural life D. Food and clothing
African Union Funj Sultanate African Unity B. City life E. Education
Aksum Ghana Empire Park, Mungo C Marriage and the family
Barbary States Guinea Rhodes, Cecil J. III Ways of life south of the Sahara
Benin Ife Shaka A Rural life D. Food and drink
Berlin Conference Jenne Songhai Empire B. City life E. Clothing
Burton, Sir Rich- Kanem Stanley and Living- C Marriage and the family F. Education
ard F. Kongo stone IV The arts
Carthage Kush Utica A Sculpture B. Music C Literature
Dias, Bartolomeu Mali Empire Walata V. The land
Egypt, Ancient Nok World War II A. Land regions C Rivers and waterfalls
B. Deserts, grasslands, D. Lakes
People and forests E. Mountains
Afrikaners Dinka Khoikhoi Moors Tuareg VI. Climate
Arabs Fulani Kikuyu Nuer Tutsi VII. Animals and plants
Ashanti Canda Luba Pygmies Xhosa A Native animals C Introduced species
Bantu Hamites Lunda San Yoruba B. Native plants
Berbers Hausa Maasai Semites Zulu VIII. Economy
Copts Hutu Mandingo Swahili A Agriculture
 African American literature 1 36a

B. Mining F. Communication ing in the North. Blake (1861-1 862), by Martin Robinson
C Manufacturing G. International trade Delany, is a novel about a free black man who organizes
D. Forestry and fishing H. Foreign aid
a slave rebellion.
E. Transportation
IX. History After slavery was abolished in 1 865, African American
authors wrote many literary forms to protest race dis-
in
Questions crimination. In the 1890s and early 1900s, Paul Laurence
What functions does oral literature serve in Africa? Dunbar was acclaimed for his romantic poems in black
Who are the Bedouins and how do they live? dialect. However, some of his verses imply bitter social
How has Africa s climate made agricultural progress difficult?
criticism. Charles Waddell Chesnutt sought to revise the
What majoi changes did colonial rule bring to Africa?
What are click languages 7 Where in Africa are they spoken?
.
negative images of former slaves by portraying them as
What are some problems caused by the shift from subsistence intelligent and resourceful in his realistic short stories
agriculture to the growing of cash crops in Africa? and novels. Chesnutt is considered to be the first major
Which African country is the most highly industrialized? African American writer of fiction. Such black women
Why is Africas death rate so high?
writers as Frances Harper and Pauline Hopkins chal-
What are some problems African countries face today?
lenged both racism and sexism in their novels.
Additional resources The 1900's. African American ethnic pride and cre-
Level I ativity flourished during the 1920s. The period's excep-
Africa Stryker-Post, published annually. tional outpouring of black literature came to be called
Diagram Croup. Peoples of Africa 6 vols. Facts on File, 1997. the Harlem Renaissance because it began in Harlem, a
Haskins, James, and Benson, Kathleen. African Beginnings
district of New York City. The movement was also called
Lothrop, 1998.
the New Negro, after the title of a book by educator and
Knight, Virginia C, ed. African Biography. 3 vols. UXL, 1999.
sayre, April P. Africa. 21st Century Bks., 1999. writer Alain Locke. Important African American writers
of the time include Sterling A. Brown, James Weldon
Level II
Johnson, Countee Cullen, Langston Hughes, Claude
Beckwith, Carol, and Fisher, Angela. African Ceremonies. 2 vols.
McKay, Jean Toomer, Jesse Redmon Fauset, and Zora
Abrams, 1999.
Suzanne P. The Royal Arts of Africa. Abrams, 1998.
Blier,
Neale Hurston.
Diagram Group. Encyclopedia of African Peoples Facts on File, In the mid-1 900s, much African American literature
2000. exposed the bleak conditions of black life and con-
Gates, Henry L, Jr. Wonders of the African World Knopf, 1999. demned discrimination against the poor of all races.
Reader, John. Africa: A Biography of the Continent Knopf, 1998.
Richard Wright's Native Son (19401 and Ralph Ellison's In-
African American literature is literature written by visible Man (1952) both describe a black man's quest for
black Americans of African descent Its themes include identity in a hostile world. James Baldwin explored the
the exploration of black identity, the condemnation of same theme in novels, essays, and dramas set primarily
racism, and the celebration of the unique aspects of in the urban North.
African American culture. In 1 950, Gwendolyn Brooks became the first African
Early works. The earliest surviving works of African American tobe awarded a Pulitzer Prize for poetry. Like
American literature date from the mid-1 700's and were many black writers of the time, Brooks examined the im-
written by Africans brought to America as slaves. The pact of race and poverty on the African American's pur-
oldest example is considered to be "Bars Fight," a poem suit of the American dream.
about an Indian raid on a Massachusetts town. Lucy Ter- During the 1960s and 1970s, many blacks gave up
ry a young New England slave, composed the poem, hopes of an integrated society and began to call for a
which was handed down orally, in 1746. In the late separate black culture. A number of poets and drama-
1700s Phillis Wheatley a Boston slave, became the first tists rejected traditional literary techniques and themes

important black poet. Her Poems on Various Subjects, and developed their own forms of self-expression.
Religious and Moral (1773) was the first book by an These writers include LeRoi Jones (now Amiri Baraka),
African American to be published. Don L Lee (now Haki Madhubuti), Nikki Giovanni, Sonia
The 1800's. Before the American Civil War (1 861 -
Sanchez, Etheridge Knight, Douglas Turner Ward, and
1865), many black writers were fugitive slaves. They de- Ed Bullins.
scribed their experiences on plantations in an attempt to Recent developments. In the late 1900's, many black
convince readers that slavery was immoral and to show novelists produced works of myth, ritual, and magic re-
the courage, humanity and intelligence of the slaves. alism to reflect on the legacies of slavery and racial prej-
The most important slave autobiography of the period is udice. In 1983, Alice Walker won the Pulitzer Prize for

the Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass (1845). The Color Purple, a novel about an unwed mother
Douglass became the leading spokesman for American forcibly separated from her children. August Wilson

blacks in the 1800 s. Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl emerged as a leading playwright. His major plays trace
11861 ), by Harriet Ann Jacobs, is the only autobiography the black experience in the United States in the 1900's. In
about the unique hardships suffered by women slaves. 1993, Toni Morrison became the first African American

The first published African American fiction appeared to be awarded the Nobel Prize for literature. Yusef Ko-

in the mid-1 800s. This fiction included such novels as munyakaa won the 1994 Pulitzer Prize for poetry for
Clotel, or The Presidents Daughtertt855\, by William Neon Vernacular. From 1993 to 1995, Rita Dove served
Wells Brown; and Our Nig (1859), by Harriet E. Wilson. as the first African American poet laureate.

They were similar in content to slave autobiographies. to\t elyn K Mood)

The Caries and Their Friends (1857), by Frank Webb, is J.

See also African Americans with its list of Related ar-
a novel that describes the problems of a free family liv- ticles including those on African American writers.
136b African Americans

The Contribution ot the \egro to American Democracy 1W3 a tempera painting stitute Hampton Va.

The history of African Americans is largely the story of their struggle for equality and freedom.
This mural of black Americans includes slave leader Nat Turner, upper left, Revolutionary War sol-
dier Peter Salem ibelow Turner, bearded abolitionist Frederick Douglass, agricultural researcher
George Washington Carver iwith testtubei, and singer Marian Anderson, far right center.

western Africa that was controlled by three

African Americans an area in

great and wealthy black empires from about the AD.

300 s These empires— Ghana, Mali, and
to the late 1 500 s.

African Americans are Americans mostly or partly of Songhai— thrived on trade and developed efficient gov-
African descent Approximately 35 million African Amer- ernments. During the early 1500 s, European nations be-
icans live in the United States. They make up 12 percent gan a slave trade in which blacks from western Africa
of the nation s total population and, in number, trail only were brought to European colonies in the Americas. For
Hispanic Americans among minority groups. About half about the next 300 years, millions of enslaved black
of all black Americans live in the Southern States. Most Africans were shipped across the Atlantic Ocean to
of the rest live in large cities in the East, Midwest, and North and South America. About 500,000 of the Africans
West were brought to what is now the United States.
Most African Americans have used five terms to refer The history of African Americans is largely the story of
to themselves.The terms Negro (which means black in their struggle for freedom and equality. From the 1600 s
Spanish and Portuguese) and colored were commonly until the American Qvil War (1861 -1865), most black
used until the mid-1960 s. These terms referred to the Americans worked as slaves throughout the South. They
dark brown skin color of many black Americans. Since did much to help Southern agriculture expand. At the
then, most black Americans have chosen to express same time, free blacks helped develop industry in the
deep pride in their color or origin by calling themselves North. After 1865, when slavery was finally abolished in
blacks, Afro-Americans, or African Americans. the nation, black Americans briefly gained their civil

The majority of American blacks trace their origin to rights during a period called Reconstruction. But after
Reconstruction, they again lost those rights and suffered
from widespread segregation and poverty. The deter-
Alton Homsby, Jr., the contributor of this article, is Fuller E. mined efforts of African Americans to achieve equality
Callaway Professor of History at Morehouse College and editor
and justice led to the start of a strong civil rights move-
o/The Journal of Negro History.
ment in the United States in the 1950s.
 African Americans 1 36c

The Americans have improved since

lives of African arrows, swords, and other weapons of iron, which
the 1950s. But many
suffer from segregation and
still helped them conquer nearby nations.
poverty, discrimination in jobs and housing, and other In 1235, the Malinke people of Mali began to develop
problems. At the same time, however, more black Amer- the second great black African empire of the Western
icans are making important contributions in all areas of Sudan. By 17.40, they controlled all Ghana. The Mali Em-
American life. pire's most famous ruler was Mansa Musa, who reigned
This article describes the African background of black from 1312 to about 1337. Mansa Musa encouraged the
Americans and traces their history since their arrival in practice of Islam, the religion of the Muslims. Under his
North America. The section at the end of the article lists rule, Mali reached its height of wealth, political power,
the many related articles in World Book. and cultural achievement.
Beginning in the MOO'S, the Songhai Empire gained
The African background
control of most of northwestern Africa south of the Sa-
The cultural heritage. The ancestors of most Ameri- hara, including much of Mali. Under Askia Muhammad,
can blacks came from an area of Africa known as the who ruled Songhai from 1493 to 1528, the empire had a
Western Sudan. This area was about as large as the well-organized central government and excellent uni-
United States, not including Hawaii and Alaska. It ex- versities in such cities as Timbuktu and Jenne. Like
tended from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to Lake Chad Mansa Musa, Askia encouraged his people to practice
in the east and from the Sahara in the north to the Gulf the Islamic faith. Invaders from Morocco conquered
of Guinea in the south. Songhai in 1591.
From about the A.D. 300s to 1 591 three highly devel-
, Some ancestors of black Americans lived in smaller
oped black empires, in turn, controlled all or most of nations in the Western Sudan. These nations included
the Western Sudan. They were Ghana, Mali, and Oyo, Benin, Dahomey, and Ashanti. Their economies
Songhai. Their economy was based on farming, on min- alsodepended on farming, trade, and gold mining. For
ing gold, and on trade with Arabs of northern Africa. more details on the major black African empires, see
Ghana ruled much of the Western Sudan from the Ghana Empire; Mali Empire; Songhai Empire.
300s to the mid-1 OOCs. The Ghanaians became the first Beginning of the slave trade. Africans had prac-
people in western Africa to smelt iron ore. They made ticed slavery since ancient times. In most cases, the

The North American slave trade

The map at the right shows
the route ships used to carry
slavesfrom western Africa to
North America. On the map
below, the red type indicates
the groups from which most
slaves were taken. The groups
that captured the most Afri-
cans for European and Ameri-
can slave traders are shown in
Granger Collection
bold black type.
Africans marched captured enemies, above, to coastal slave
markets. The cutaway drawing below shows the tight packing
system used on ships delivering the slaves to North America.
WORLD BOOK maps Schomburg Collection, New York Public Librarv

Atlantic
Ocean

1 000 Kitometri
1 36d African Americans

slaves had been captured in warfare and sold to Arab day and all night except for brief periods of exercise.
traders of northern Africa. Portugal and Spain became Their crowded conditions led to the chief horrors of the
increasingly involved in the African slave trade during Middle Passage— filth, stench, disease, and death.
the early 1 500's, after they had established colonies in The Atlantic slave trade operated from the 1 500s to
the Americas. Portugal acquired African slaves to work the mid-1 800s. No one knows how many Africans were
on sugar plantations that its colonists developed in enslaved during this period. The most reliable estimates
Brazil. Spain used slaves on its sugar plantations in the suggest about 10 million blacks. Of this total, what is
West Indies. During the early 1600s, the Netherlands, now the United States received about 5 percent
France, and England also began to use African slaves in
The years of slavery
their American colonies.
The Europeans obtained slaves from black Africans Some scholars believe that the first blacks in America
who continued to sell their war captives or trade them came with the expeditions led by Christopher Colum-
for rum, cloth, and other items, especially guns. The Af- bus, starting in 1492. Black slaves traveled to North and
ricans needed the guns for use in their constant warfare South America with French, Portuguese, and Spanish
with neighboring peoples. explorers throughout the 1 500s.
The slave trade took several triangular routes. Over The best-known black to take part in the early explo-
one route, ships from Europe transported manufactured rations of North America was a slave named Estevanico.
goods to the west coast of Africa. There, traders ex- In 1539, he crossed what are now Arizona and New
changed the goods for slaves. Next, the slaves were car- Mexico on an expedition sent by Antonio de Mendoza,
ried across the Atlantic Ocean to the West Indies and ruler of Spain's colony in America.
sold for huge profits. This part of the route was called Colonial times. The first blacks in the American Col-
the Middle Passage. The traders used much of their onies were brought in, like many lower-class whites, as
earnings to buy sugar, coffee, and tobacco in the West indentured servants. Most indentured servants had a
Indies. The ships then took these products to Europe. contract towork without wages for a master for four to
another triangular route, ships from the New Eng-
On seven years, after which they became free. Blacks
land Colonies carried rum and other products to Africa, brought in as slaves, however, had no right to eventual
where they were exchanged for slaves. The ships then freedom. The first black indentured servants arrived in
transported the slaves to the West Indies to be sold. The Jamestown in the colony of Virginia in 1619. They had
slave traders used some of their profits to buy sugar been captured in Africa and were sold at auction in
and molasses, which they took back to New England Jamestown. After completing their service, some black
and sold to rum producers. indentured servants bought property. But racial preju-
The slave trade was conducted for profit. The cap- dice among white colonists forced most free blacks to
tains of slave ships therefore tried to deliver as many remain in the lowest level of colonial society.
healthy slaves for as little cost as possible. Some cap- The first black African slaves in the American Colo-
tains used a system called loose packing to deliver nies also arrived during the early 1600s. The slave pop-
slaves. Under that system, captains transported fewer ulation increased rapidly during the 1 700s as newly es-
slaves than their ships could carry in the hope of reduc- tablished colonies in the South created a great demand
ing sickness and death among them. Other captains pre- for plantation workers.
ferred tight packing. They believed that many blacks By 1750, about 200,000 slaves lived in the colonies.
would die on the voyages anyway and so carried as The majority lived in the South, where the warm climate
many slaves as their ships could hold. and fertile soil encouraged the development of planta-
Most slave ship voyages across the Atlantic took sev- tions that grew rice, tobacco, sugar cane, and later cot-
eral months. The slaves were chained below deck all ton. Most plantation slaves worked in the fields. Oth-

Granger Collectic anger Collection

Slave trading became increasingly profitable throughout the Crispus Attucks, center, was a leader of the patriot mob that
South from the time the first slaves arrived in the early 1600s. was fired upon by British troops in the Boston Massacre of 1770.
Buyers often paid more than $1,000 for a skilled, healthy slave. Attucks and many other free blacks who lived in the North op-
Many slaves were sold at auctions like this one in Virginia. posed British rule in the American Colonies.
 African Americans 1 36e

ers were craftworkers, messengers, and servants. The growth of slavery. By the early 1800"s, more
Only 12 percent of slaveowners operated plantations than 700,000 slaves lived in the South. They accounted
that had 20 or more slaves. But more than half of all the for about a third of the region's people. Slaves outnum-
country's slaves worked on these plantations. Most of bered whites in South Carolina and made up over half
the other slaveowners had small farms and only a few the population in both Maryland and Virginia.
slaves each. Under arrangements with their masters, Slavery began to develop even deeper roots in the
some slaves could hire themselves out to work for other South after Eli Whitney of Massachusetts invented his
whites on farms or in city jobs. Such arrangements cotton gin in 1 793. This machine removed the seeds
brought income to both the slaves and the masters. from cotton as fast as 50 people working by hand and
The cooler climate and rocky soil of the Northern and probably contributed more to the growth of slavery than
Middle colonies made it hard for most farmers there to any other development. Whitney's gin enabled farmers
earn large profits. Many slaves in those colonies worked to meet the rapidly rising demand for cotton. As a result,
as skilled and unskilled laborers in factories, homes, and the Southern cotton industry expanded, and cotton be-
shipyards and on fishing and trading ships. came the chief crop in the region. The planters needed
During the mid-160Crs, the colonies began to pass more and more workers to pick and bale the cotton,
laws called slave codes. In general, these codes prohib- which led to large increases in the slave population. The
ited slaves from owning weapons, receiving an educa- thriving sugar cane plantations of Louisiana also used
tion, meeting one another or moving about without the many slaves during the first half of the 1 SOffs. By 1 860,
permission of their masters, and testifying against white about 4 million slaves lived in the South.
people in court. Slaves received harsher punishments Numerous slaves protested against their condition.
for some crimes than white people. A master usually re- They used such day-to-day forms of rebellion as de-
ceived less punishment for killing a slave than for killing stroying property, running away, pretending illness, and
a free person for the same reason. Slaves on small farms disobeying orders. Major slave protests included armed
probably had more freedom than plantation slaves, and revolts and mutinies. The most famous of about 200
slaves in urban areas had fewer restrictions in many such revolts was led by Nat Turner, a slave and preach-
cases than slaves in rural areas. er. The revolt broke out in 1831 in Southampton County

By 1770, there may have been 40,000 or more free in Virginia. The rebels killed about 60 white people be-

blacks the American Colonies. They included runaway

in fore being captured. The best-known slave mutiny oc-
slaves,descendants of early indentured servants, and curred in 1839 aboard the Amistad, off the coast of
black immigrants from the West Indies. Many free Cuba. A group of Africans, led by Cinque, brought the
blacks opposed British rule. One of the best-known Afri- vessel to Long Island in New York. The slaves were
can American patriots was Crispus Attucks, who died in given their freedom soon afterward.
the Boston Massacre of 1770 while mocking the pres- Slaves received beatings or other physical punish-
ence of British soldiers. ment for refusing to work, attempting to run away, or
During the Revolutionary War in America (1775-1783), participating in plots or rebellions against their owners.
most blacks probably favored the British. They believed Some slaves were executed for rebelling.
that a British victory would offer them their earliest or Free blacks. The Revolutionary War helped lead to
best chance for freedom. But about 5,000 blacks fought new attitudes about slavery, especially among whites in
on the side of the colonists. Most of them were free the North. The war inspired a spirit of liberty and an ap-
blacks or slaves from the Northern and Middle colonies. preciation for the service of the black soldiers. Partly for
Black heroes of the war included Peter Salem and Salem this reason,some Northern legislatures adopted laws
Poor of Massachusetts, who distinguished themselves during the late 1 700s that provided for the immediate or
in the Battle of Bunker Hill in 1775. gradual end of slavery. Another reason for such laws

l.ranqo* I ollr<tion

The production of cotton increased rapidly in the South after Eli Whitney invented a faster wa)
of cleaning cotton in 1793. Whitnevs cotton gin. left,
could clean as mm
h < Otton in a da) as could
otton More workers were
50 people working by hand and helped meet the growing demand for
i

needed on which led to a huge growth in the slave population

plantations, right
136f African Americans

was simply that slaves had no essential role in the main Tom Molineaux became known for his boxing skills.
economic activities of the North. By 1860, the nation had about 490,000 free blacks. But
The census of 1790 revealed that the nation had about most of them faced such severe discrimination that they
59,000 free blacks, including about 27,000 in the North. were little better off than the slaves.
By the early 1800s, most Northern states had taken steps The antislavery movement Many white Americans,
to end slavery. Besides former slaves freed by law, free was wicked
particularly Northerners, felt that slavery
blacks included those who had been freed by their mas- and violated the ideals of democratic government. How-
ters, who had bought their freedom, or who had been ever, plantation owners and other supporters of slavery
born of free parents. regarded it as natural to the Southern way of life. They
After the Revolutionary War, numerous free blacks also argued that Southern culture introduced the slaves
found jobs in tobacco plants, textile mills, and other fac- to Christianity and helped them become civilized.'' Most
tories. Some worked in shipyards, on ships, and later in white Southerners held such beliefs by 1860, though
railroad construction. Many free blacks became skilled less than 5 percent of them owned slaves and only
in carpentry and other trades. Some became merchants about half the slaveowners had more than five slaves. In
and The best-known editors were Samuel Cor-
editors. addition, Southern farmers insisted that they could not
nish and John Russwurm, who helped start the first make money growing cotton without cheap slave labor.
black newspaper, Freedom's Journal, in 1827. The Southern States hoped to expand slavery as new
Most whites treated free blacks as inferiors. Many ho- states were admitted to the Union. However, the North-
tels, and other public places
restaurants, theaters, ern States feared they would lose power in Congress
barred them. Few states gave free blacks the right to permanently if more states that permitted slavery were
vote. The children of most free blacks had to attend sep- admitted. The North and the South thereby became in-
arate schools. Some colleges and universities, such as creasingly divided over the spread of slavery.
Bowdoin and Oberlin, admitted black students. But the The slavery issue created heated debate in Congress
limited number of admissions led to the opening of after the Territory of Missouri applied for statehood in

black colleges, including Lincoln University in Pennsyl- 1818. At the time, there were 1 1 slave states, inwhich
vania in 1854 and Wilberforce University in Ohio in 1856. was allowed, and 1 1 free states, in
slavery which it was
both the North and the South, churches either
In Most Missourians supported slavery, but
prohibited.
banned blacks or required them to sit apart from white many Northern members of Congress did not want Mis-
people. As a result, some blacks set up their own souri to become a slave state. In 1820, Congress reached
churches. In 1816, Richard Allen, a black Philadelphia a settlement known as the Missouri Compromise. This
minister, helped set up the African Methodist Episcopal measure admitted Missouri as a slave state, but it also
Church, the first black denomination in the country. called for Maine to enter the Union as a free state. Con-
The rising number of free blacks alarmed many gress thus preserved the balance between free and
whites and led to further restrictions on their activities. slave states at 12 each.
In parts of New England, free blacks could not visit any New, aggressive opponents of slavery began to
town without a pass. They also needed permission to spring up in the North during the 1830s. Their leaders
entertain slaves in their homes. In the South, free blacks included William Lloyd Garrison, Lucretia Mott, Lewis
could be enslaved if caught without proof that they Tappan, and Theodore Dwight Weld. During the 1 830s
were free. Fears that free blacks would lead slave revolts and 1840s, these white abolitionists were joined by
encouraged almost all states to pass laws severely limit- many free blacks, including such former slaves as Fred-
ing the right of free blacks to own weapons. erick Douglass, Henry Highland Garnet, Harriet Tubman,
Increasing concern over the large number of free and Sojourner Truth.
blacks led to the founding of the American Colonization Most of the abolitionist leaders attacked slavery in
Society in 1816. The society was sponsored by well- writings and public speeches. Garrison began to publish
known supporters of slavery, including U.S. Representa- an antislavery newspaper, The Liberator, in 1831. Doug-
tives John C Calhoun and Henry Clay
of South Carolina lass, the most influential black leader of the time, started

of Kentucky. Their plan was to lessen "the race problem" an abolitionist newspaper called the North Star in 1847.
by transporting free blacks on a voluntary basis to Af- Tubman and many other abolitionists helped Southern
rica. In 1822, the society established the black American slaves escape to the free states and Canada. Tubman re-
colony of Liberia on the continent's west coast. In 1847, turned to the South 19 times and personally led about
Liberia became the first self-governing black republic in 300 slaves to freedom. She and others used a network of
Africa. Although free blacks suffered from discrimina- routes and housing to assist the fleeing blacks. This net-
tion, most felt that the United States was their home. As work became known as the underground railroad.
a result, only about 1 2,000 of them had volunteered to The deepening division over slavery. After 1848,
settle in Liberia by 1850. Congress had to deal with the question of whether to
In spite of their inferior position, a number of free permit slavery in the territories that the United States
blacks won wide recognition during the late 1700s and gained from Mexico as a result of the Mexican War
early 1800s. For example, Jupiter Hammon and Phillis (1846-18481. The territories covered what are now Cali-
Wheatley gained fame for their poetry. Newport Gard- fornia, Nevada, Utah, and parts of four other states. Fol-
ner distinguished himself in music. Benjamin Banneker, lowing angry debates among the members of Congress,
a mathematician, published outstanding almanacs. Nota- Senators Henry Clay of Kentucky and Daniel Webster of
ble black ministers included Absalom Jones in the North Massachusetts helped work out a series of measures
and George Liele and Andrew Bryan in the South. Paul became known as the Compromise of 1850. The
that
Cuffe and James Forten gained great wealth in business. Compromise allowed slavery to continue but prohibited
 African Americans 1 36g

the slave trade in Washington, D.C. A key measure in the convince many Southerners that the slavery issue would
Compromise admitted California to the Union, as a free lead to fighting between the North and the South.
state.Another agreement gave the residents in the other
newly acquired areas the right to decide for themselves
The end of slavery

whether to allow slavery. The Compromise included a Slavery becamemajor issue in the U.S. presidential
a
federal fugitive slave law that was designed to help election of 1860. Many Democrats in the North opposed
slaveowners get back runaway slaves. the spread of slavery, but Democrats in the South fa-
The Compromise of 1850 briefly ended the heated ar- vored it. Each group nominated its own candidate for
guments in Congress over the slavery issue. However, President, thereby splitting their party. Most Republi-
the abolitionist movement and the hostility between the cans opposed the expansion of slavery. They chose
North and the South continued. The publication of Har- Abraham Lincoln of Illinois as their presidential candi-
riet Beecher Stowe's antislavery novel Uncle Tom's date. In November 1860, he was elected President.
Cabin (1851-1852) greatly increased the tensions be- The Civil War. Southerners feared that Lincoln
tween Northerners and Southerners. In addition, at- would limit or end slavery. On Dec. 20, 1860, South Car-
tempts by Northerners to stop enforcement of the fugi- olina seceded (withdrew) from the Union. Early in 1861,
tive slave law further angered Southerners. six other Southern states seceded. The seceded states

The quarrel over slavery flared again in Congress in took the name Confederate States of America. On April
1854, when it passed the Kansas-Nebraska Act. This law 12, 1861, Confederate troops attacked Fort Sumter, a
created two federal territories, Kansas and Nebraska, United States military base in South Carolina, and the
and provided that the people of each territory could de- American Civil War began. Four more slave states
cide whether to permit slavery. Most Nebraskans op- joined the Confederacy soon afterward. Four other slave
posed slavery. However, bitter, bloody conflicts broke states— Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland, and Delaware-
out between supporters and opponents of slavery in remained loyal to the Union.
Kansas. In 1856, for example, the militant abolitionist At the start of the Civil War, Lincoln's chief concern
)ohn Brown led a raid against supporters of slavery in a was to preserve the Union, not to end slavery. He there-
small settlement on Pottawatomie Creek in Kansas. fore refused requests of African Americans to join the
Brown's group killed five men and focused the nation's Union Army. He felt that their participation in the war
attention on the conflict in the territory, which became could lead more slave states to secede. Lincoln also
known as "Bleeding Kansas." In the end, Kansas joined knew that many Northerners were hostile toward blacks
the Union as a free state in 1861. and so might oppose the use of black troops.
Supporters of slavery won a major victory in 1 857, A number of developments gradually persuaded Lin-
when Supreme Court issued its ruling in the
the U.S. coln to make the war a fight against slavery. For exam-
case of Dred Scott v. Sandford. In the Dred Scott Deci- ple, some Union military commanders, without the Pres-

sion, the court denied the claim of Scott, a slave, that his ident's consent, had freed the slaves in areas they had

residence in a free state and territory for a time made conquered. Furthermore, abolitionists and black leaders
him free. The court also declared that no black— free or urged that the war be fought to end slavery, and they
slave-could be a U.S. citizen. In addition, it stated that demanded the use of black troops. Most importantly,
Congress had no power to ban the spread of slavery. the war was going badly for the Union. By fighting
Tension in the South increased again in 1859, when against slavery, Lincoln hoped to strengthen the war ef-
John Brown led another abolitionist group in seizing the fort in the North and weaken it in the South.

United States arsenal at Harpers Ferry in Virginia (now In March 1862, Lincoln gave Congress a plan for the

West Virginia). Federal troops quickly captured Brown, gradual freedom of slaves. The plan included payment
and he was executed later that year. But his raid helped for the slaveowners. In April, Lincoln approved legis-

i PI Betmwii Schombuig CoUedton NcwYoritFliMh hbr*r\

was the most influential black Bloody conflicts broke out during the 1850s between support-
Frederick Douglass, right,
leader in the United States during much of the 180<Js. He started ers and opponents of a proposal to allow slavery in the Territory
Kansas Because of shootings like this one, which occurred in
an abolitionist newspaper, the North Stai in 1847 and advised ol

government leaders on the problems of free blacks in the North. 1858, the territory became known as Bleeding Kansas'
1 36h African Americans

lation that ended slavery in the District of Columbia and desperately poor, and could not read and write.
provided funds for any freed slaves who wished to To help the freed slaves and homeless whites, Con-
move to Haiti or Liberia. In June, Lincoln signed a bill gress established the Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen,
that ended slavery in all federal territories. and Abandoned Lands. The agency, better known as the
By July 1862, Lincoln was ready to accept African Freedmen's Bureau, operated from 1865 until 1872. It is-
Americans in the Union Army. In September, he issued sued food and supplies to blacks; set up more than 100
a preliminary order to emancipate Ifree) the slaves. It de- hospitals; resettled more than 30,000 people; and
clared that all slaves in areas or states in rebellion founded over 4,300 schools. Some of the schools devel-
against the United States on Jan. 1 , 1 863, would be for- oped into outstanding black institutions, such as Atlanta
ever free. The order excluded areas still loyal to the University (now Clark Atlanta University), Fisk University,
Union, meaning that they might retain slaves. The order Hampton Institute, and Howard University.
had no immediate effect in the Southern-controlled In spite of its achievements, the Freedmen's Bureau

areas, but it meant that each Union victory brought the did not solve the serious economic problems of African
end of slavery closer. The final order was issued on Jan. Americans. Most of them continued to live in poverty.
1 , 1 863, as the Emancipation Proclamation. African They also suffered from racist threats and violence and
Americans referred to that day as the Day of Jubilee. from laws restricting their civil rights. All these prob-
Bells rang from the spires of most Northern black lems cast a deep shadow over their new freedom.
churches to celebrate the day. The legal restrictions on black civil rights arose in
Over 200,000 African Americans fought on the side of 1865 and 1866, when many Southern state governments
the Union. They were discriminated against in pay, as- passed laws that became known as the black codes.
signments, and rank. Nevertneless, many of them con- These laws were like the earlier slave codes. Some black
tributed greatly to the war effort. Robert Smalls of South codes prohibited blacks from owning land. Others es-
Carolina, a harbor pilot, was one of the first black he- tablished a nightly curfew for blacks. Some permitted
roes. In 1862, he sailed a Confederate ship, the Planter, states to jail blacks for being jobless.
out of Charleston Harbor and turned it over to the The black codes shocked a powerful group of North-
Union. Smalls then joined the Union Navy. In 1863, black ern congressmen called Radical Republicans. These
regiments played an important role in the attack on Port senators and representatives won congressional ap-
Hudson, La. The fall of Port Hudson helped the Union proval of the Civil Rights Act of 1866. The act gave Afri-
gain control of the Mississippi River. Altogether, 23 can Americans the rights and privileges of full citizen-
blacks won the Medal of Honor, the nation s highest mil- ship. The 14th Amendment to the Constitution, adopted
itary award, for heroism during the Civil War. in 1868, further guaranteed the citizenship of blacks.

The Confederate States did not decide to use blacks However, most Southern whites resented the new status
as soldiers until 1 865, the last year of the war. About of blacks. The whites simply could not accept the idea of
40,000 black troops— nearly all of them Union troops- former slaves voting and holding office. As a result, at-
died during the war. In April 1865, the main Southern tempts by Southern blacks to vote, run for public office,
army surrendered. In December 1865, the adoption of or enjoy other civil rights were met by increasing vio-
the 1 3th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution officially lence from whites in the South. In 1865 and 1866, about
ended slavery throughout the nation. 5,000 Southern blacks were murdered. Forty-six blacks
The first years of freedom. The period of rebuild- were killed when their schools and churches were
ing that followed the Civil War became known as Re- burned in Memphis in May 1866. In July, 34 blacks were
construction. A major concern during Reconstruction killedduring a race riot in New Orleans.
was the condition of theapproximately 4 million freed- Some law enforcement officers encouraged or partic-
men (freed slavesl. Most of them had no homes, were ipated in assaults on blacks. But lawless groups carried

. ^k^
'
V**f 71
•1
1

Schombucq Collection MPl Chicago Historical Socieh

Harriet Tubman, left, was The Emancipation Proclamation, is- African American troops made important contri-
the most famous leader of the sued on Jan. 1, 1863, freed the slaves in butions to the Union victory in the Civil War. Over
underground railroad, which Confederate areas. Advancing Union 200,000 blacks served in segregated Northern units,
helped slaves flee to freedom troops told slaves they were free. such as the 2nd U.S. Colored Artillery, above.
 African Americans 136i

out most attacks. One of the largest the Ku Klux Klan, By the early 1870's, Northern whites had lost interest
was organized in 1865 or 1866 in Pulaski, Term Bands of in the Reconstruction policies of the Radical Republi-
hooded Klansmen rode at night and beat and murdered cans. They grew tired of hearing about the continual
many blacks and their white sympathizers. The Klan did conflict between Southern blacks and whites. Most
much to deny blacks their civil and human rights Northern whites wanted to put Reconstruction behind
throughout Reconstruction. them and turn to other things. Federal troops sent to the
The federal government tried to maintain the rights of South to protect blacks were gradually withdrawn.
African Americans. In 1870 and 1871, Congress passed Southern whites who had stayed away from elections to
laws authorizing the use of federal troops to enforce the protest black participation started voting again. White
voting rights of blacks. These laws were known as the Democrats then began to regain control of the state
Enforcement Acts or the Ku Klux Klan Acts. In addition, governments from the blacks and their white Republi-
President Ulysses S.Grant signed a proclamation de- can associates. In 1877, the last federal troops were
manding respect for thecivil rights of all Americans. withdrawn. By the end of that year, the Democrats held
Temporary gains. The policies of the Radical Re- power in all the Southern state governments. For more
publicans enabled African Americans to participate details on the Reconstruction era, see Reconstruction.
widely in the nation's political system for the first time.
Congress provided for black men to become voters in
The growth of discrimination

the South and called for constitutional conventions to During the in the South increas-
late 1800's, blacks
be held in the defeated states. Many blacks attended the ingly suffered from segregation, the loss of voting
conventions held in 1867 and 1868. They helped rewrite rights, and other forms of discrimination. Their condi-
Southern state constitutions and other basic laws to re- tion reflected beliefs held by most Southern whites that
place the black codes drawn up by whites in 1865 and whites were born superior to blacks with respect to in-
1866. In the legislatures elected under the new constitu- telligence, talents, and moral standards. In 1881, the
tions, however, blacks had a majority of seats only in the Tennessee legislature passed a law that required rail-
lower house in South Carolina. Most of the chief legisla- road passengers to be separated by race. In 1890, Mis-
tive and executive positions were held by Northern sissippi adopted several measures that in effect ended
white Republicans who had moved to the South and by voting by African Americans. These measures included
their white Southern allies. Angry white Southerners the passing of reading and writing tests and the pay-
called the Northerners carpetbaggers to suggest that ment of a poll tax before a person could vote.
they could carry everything they owned when they Several decisions of the U.S. Supreme Court enabled
came South in a carpetbag, or suitcase. the Southern States to establish "legal'' segregation prac-
African Americans elected to important posts during tices. In 1883, for example, the court declared the Civil

Reconstruction included U.S. Senators Hiram R. Revels Rights Act of 1875 to be unconstitutional. That act had
and Blanche K. Bruce of Mississippi and U.S. Represent- guaranteed blacks the right to be admitted to any public
atives Joseph H. Rainey of South Carolina and Jefferson place. In addition, the Civil Rights Act of 1866 and the
Long of Georgia. Others were Oscar Dunn, lieutenant
J.
14th Amendment to the Constitution, ratified in 1868,
governor of Louisiana; Richard Gleaves and Alonzo J. had forbidden the states to deny equal rights to any per-
Ransier, lieutenant governors of South Carolina; P. B. S. son. But in 1896, the Supreme Court ruled in the case of
Pinchback, acting governor of Louisiana; Francis L. Car- Plessy v. Ferguson that a Louisiana law requiring the
dozo, secretary of state and state treasurer of South Car- separation of black and white railroad passengers was
olina;and Jonathan Jasper Wright, an associate justice of constitutional. The court argued that segregation in it-

the South Carolina Supreme Court. Most of them had self did not represent inequality and that separate pub-
college educations. lic facilities could be provided for the races as long as

Schools for blacks were established by the Freed Ku Klux Klan members African American voters helped the
mens Bureau during Reconstruction, the period ot re- were unite terrorists who Republican Partv win control of all the
tried to den\ blacks their state governments in the South during
building after the Civil War. Some of the schools the
bureau opened became outstanding black colleges.
rights after the Civil U ar the Reconstruction period.
1 36j African Americans

the facilities were equal. This ruling, known as the "sepa- from teaching and from entering certain other business-
rate but equal doctrine," became the basis of Southern es and professions. Large numbers of blacks had to take
race relations. In practice, however, nearly all of the sep- low-paying jobs as farm hands or servants for white em-
arate public facilities provided for blacks were far inferi- ployers. Many other blacks became sharecroppers or
or to those provided for whites. tenant farmers. They rented a small plot of land and paid
In spite of the increasing difficulties for African Ameri- the rent with money earned from the crops. They had to
cans, a number of them won distinction during the late struggle to survive, and many ran up huge debts to their
1800s. For example, Samuel Lowery started a school for white landlords or the town merchants.
blacks 1875 and won prizes at inter-
in Huntsville, Ala., in The rise of new black leaders. By the early 1 900 s,
national fairs for silk made
the school. In 1883, Jan E.
at educator Booker T. Washington had become the most
Matzeliger invented a revolutionary shoe-lasting ma- American leader. Washington, a for-
influential African
chine that shaped the upper part of a shoe and fastened mer had been principal of Tuskegee Institute (now
slave,
it to the sole. In 1 887, Joe Clark and a group of other Tuskegee University) since 1881. He urged blacks to stop
blacks founded Eatonville, Florida. It was the first African demanding political power and social equality and to
American settlement in the United States to be incorpo- concentrate on economic advancement. Washington es-
rated. Mary Church helped found the National
Terrell pecially encouraged blacks to practice thrift and respect
Association of Colored Women
in 1896 and advised hard labor. He asked whites to help blacks gain an edu-
government leaders on racial problems. Charles Wad- cation and make a decent living. Washington believed
dell Chesnutt wrote The Conjure Woman, published in his program would lead to progress for blacks and
1 899. He became the first major African American novel- would keep peace between the races.
ist and short-story writer. Many African Americans agreed with Washington's
During the early 1900's, discrimination against ideas. But many others strongly rejected them. The chief
Southern blacks became even more widespread. By opposition came from W. E. B. Du Bois, a sociologist and
1907, every Southern state required racial segregation historian at Atlanta University. Du Bois' reputation rested
on and in churches, schools, hotels, restaurants,
trains on such works as The Suppression of the African Slave-
theaters, and other public places. The Southern States Trade to the United States of America, 1638-1870(1896)
also adopted an election practice known as the white and The Souls of Black Folk (1 903).
primary. The states banned blacks from voting in the Du Bois argued that Washington's approach would
Democratic Party's primary elections by calling them not achieve economic security for African Americans. In-
"private affairs." But the winners of the primary elections stead, Du Bois felt Washington's acceptance of segrega-
were certain of victory in the general elections because tion and the rest of his program would strengthen the
Republican and independent candidates got little sup- beliefs that blacks were inferior and could be treated
port from whites and rarely ran for office. By 1910, every unequally. As evidence for their position, Du Bois and
Southern state had taken away or begun to take away his supporters pointed to the continuing lynching of
the right of African Americans to vote. blacks and to the passage of additional segregation laws
The Ku KIux Klan also attempted to keep blacks from in the South. In 1905, Du Bois and other critics of Wash-
voting through an increased use of threats, beatings, ington met in Niagara Falls, Canada, and organized a
and killings. More than 3,000 blacks had been lynched campaign to protest racial discrimination. Their cam-
during the late 1800s, and the Klan and members of sim- paign became known as the Niagara Movement.
ilar groups lynched hundreds more throughout the Bitter hostility toward blacks erupted into several race
South during the early 1900's. riots during the early 1900's. Major riots broke out in
African Americans had little opportunity to better Brownsville, Tex., and Atlanta, Ga., in 1906 and in Spring-
themselves economically. Some laws prohibited them field, III., in 1908. The riots alarmed many white North-

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Library of Congress Historical hi lures Sersu e From A Pictorial History of the Negro in America,
by Langston Hughes and Milton Meltzer

George Washington Carver, cen- Booker T. Washington, princi- W. E. B. Du

Bois, second from right, a sociologist and
ter, won worldwide fame for agri- pal of Tuskegee Institute, was the historian,helped lead the black struggle for equality
cultural research. He taught at most influential African American during the early 1900 s. He directed the publications of
Tuskegee (Alabama) Institute. leader of the early 1900's. the NAACPfrom 1909 until 1934.
 African Americans 136k

erners as well as many blacks. In 1909, a number of Chester and Philadelphia, Pa. A series of riots erupted in
white Northerners joined some of the blacks in the Ni- the summer of 1919. By the end of the year, 25 race riots
agara Movement to form the National Association for had broken out across the country. At least 100 people
the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). The died and many more were injured in the riots.
NAACP vowed to fight for racial equality. The organiza- The Garvey movement offered new hope for many
tion relied mainly on legal action, education, protests, African Americans deeply disturbed by the race riots of
and voter participation to pursue its goals. 1918 and 1919 and the economic and social injustice
The black migration to the North. The efforts of they encountered. The movement had begun when
new black leaders and of the NAACP did little to end the Marcus Garvey founded the Universal Negro Improve-
discrimination, police brutality, and lynchings suffered ment Association in Jamaica in 1914. In 1917, Garvey
by Southern blacks during the early 19005. In addition, brought the movement to Harlem, a black community in
Southern farmers had great crop losses because of New York City. By the mid-1 920s, he had established
floods and insect pests. All these problems persuaded more than 700 branches of the association in 38 states.
many Southern blacks to move to the North. Garvey tried to develop racial pride among blacks.
During World War (1914-1918), hundreds of thou-
I But he doubted that their life in the United States would
sands of Southern blacks migrated to the North to seek ever be much improved. As a result, Garvey urged the
jobs in defense plants and other factories. The National establishment of a new homeland in Africa for dissatis-
Urban League, founded in New York City in 1910, fied blackAmericans. His plans collapsed, however,
helped the newcomers adjust to city life. Over 360,000 when he was sent to prison in 1 925 after having been
African Americans served in the armed forces during convicted of using the mails to commit fraud.
World War They were put in all-black military units.
I. The Harlem Renaissance and other achieve-
Between 1910and 1930, about 1 million Southern ments. The Harlem Renaissance was an outpouring of
blacks moved to the North. Most of them quickly discov- African American literature chiefly in Harlem in the early
ered that the North did not offer solutions to their prob- 190ffs, particularly in the 1920s. It demonstrated that
lems. They lacked the skills and education needed for some blacks had acquired talents within American soci-
the jobs they sought. Many of them had to become la- ety which whites as well as blacks could appreciate. The
borers or servants and thus do the same kinds of work writers drew their themes from the experiences of
they had done in the South. Others could find no work blacks in the Northern cities and the rural South. The
at all. Numerous blacks were forced to live crowded to- best-known writers included james Weldon |ohnson,
gether in cheap, unsanitary, run-down housing. Large Langston Hughes, Nella Larsen, Claude McKay, Countee
all-black slums developed in big cities throughout the Cullen, Jessie Redmon Fauset, and Jean Toomer.
North. The segregated housing promoted segregated African American musicians also gained fame among
schooling. Poverty, crime, and despair plagued the whites as well as blacks during the early 1920s. A black
black communities, which became known as ghettos. bandleader named W. C. Handy, who had composed "St.
After World War I, race relations grew increasingly Louis Blues" in 1914, became known as the father of the
tense in the Northern cities. The hostility partly reflected blues. Jazz grew out of black folk blues and ballads. Afri-

the growing competition for jobs and housing between can American bandleaders Louis Armstrong and Duke
blacks and whites. In addition, many African American Ellington became the country's leading jazz musicians.
veterans, after fighting for democracy, returned home Another noted black of the early 1900s was the great

with expectations of justice and equality. The mounting agricultural researcher George Washington Carver. Car-
tension helped the Ku Klux Klan recruit thousands of ver created hundreds of products from peanuts, sweet
members in the North. In the summer of 1918, 10 people potatoes, and other plants and revolutionized Southern
were killed and 60 were injured in racial disturbances in agriculture. Other famous African Americans of the early

IP! R.-Tmann Vrhivp

Marcus Garvey founded the Universal Negro Im- Langston Hughes contrib- Duke Ellington, plasma, the piano in

provement Association, which worked to create a uted to the Harlem Renai^ ne from the movie Cabin in the
sance. an outpouring of black Sk) 1943i. became one of the greatest
new homeland in Africa for black Americans. He
literature in the earl\ 1900s. \au musicians
wore a plumed hat for this parade in 19.14
1 36 / African Americans

1900s included labor leader Randolph, journal-

A. Philip African Americans deeply admired President Roose-
ist Robeson, dancer Bill
Ida Wells-Barnett, singer Paul velt's wife, Eleanor, for her stand in an incident in 1939
Robinson, U.S. Representative Oscar DePriest of Illinois, involving the great concert singer Marian Anderson.
runner Jesse Owens, and heavyweight boxing champi- The Daughters of the American Revolution (DAR), a pa-
ons Jack Johnson and Joe Louis. triotic organization, denied the singer permission to
The Great Depression. In October 1929, a sudden, perform at Constitution Hall in Washington, DC, be-
sharp drop in the value of stocks in the United States cause she was black. Eleanor Roosevelt then resigned
marked the beginning of a worldwide business slump from the DAR and helped arrange for Anderson to sing,
known as the Great Depression. The depression instead, at the Lincoln Memorial on Easter Sunday. Over
brought hard times for most Americans, but especially 75,000 blacks and whites attended the concert.
for blacks. Blacks became the chief victims of job dis- During the early 1940s, the NAACP began to step up
crimination. They adopted the slogan
"Last Hired and its legal campaign against racial discrimination. The

express their situation.

First Fired" to campaign achieved a number of important victories, in-

To help ease the poverty in the ghettos, African cluding several favorable rulings by the U.S. Supreme
Americans organized cooperative groups. These groups Court. In 1941, for example, the court ruled that separate
included the Colored Merchants Association in New facilities for white and black railroad passengers must
York City and Jobs for Negroes" organizations in St. be significantly equal. In 1944, the court declared that
Louis, Chicago, Cleveland, and New York City. The the white primary, which excluded blacks from voting in

groups bought food and other goods in large volume to the only meaningful elections in the South, was uncon-
get the lowest prices. They boycotted stores that had stitutional.
mostly black customers but few, if any, black workers. Besides taking legal action, African Americans used
Most African Americans felt that President Herbert new tactics to attack segregation in public places. In
Hoover, a Republican, had done little to try to end the 1943, for example, the Congress of Racial Equality
Depression. In the elections of 1932, some black voters (CORE) launched a sit-in at a Chicago restaurant. In this
deserted their traditional loyalty to the Republican Party. protest, blacks sat in places reserved for white people.
They no longer saw it as the party of Abraham Lincoln World War II (1939-1945) opened up new economic
the emancipator but of Hoover and the Depression. In opportunities for African Americans. Like World War I,

1936, for the first time, most African Americans sup- it expanding defense-related industries and en-
led to
ported the Democratic Party candidate for President, couraged many rural Southern blacks to seek jobs in
Franklin D. Roosevelt, and helped him win reelection. Northern industrial cities. During the 1940s, about a mil-
Roosevelt called his program the New Deal. It in- lion Southern blacks moved to the North. Discrimination
cluded measures of reform, relief, and recovery and again prevented many of them from getting work. In
benefited many blacks. A group of blacks advised Roo- 1941, blacks led by A. Philip Randolph of the Brother-
sevelt on the problems of African Americans. This hood of Sleeping Car Porters threatened to march in
group, called the Black Cabinet, included William H. Washington, D.C, to protest job discrimination. Presi-
Hastie and Mary McLeod Bethune. Hastie served as as- dent Roosevelt then issued an executive order forbid-
sistant solicitor in the Department of the Interior, as a ding racial discrimination in defense industries.
U.S. district court judge in the Virgin Islands, and as a ci- Nearly 1 million African Americans served in the U.S.
vilian aide to the secretary of war. Bethune, founder of armed services during World War II, mostly in segre-
Bethune-Cookman College, directed the black affairs di- gated units. In 1940, Benjamin 0. Davis became the first
vision of a federal agency called the National Youth Ad- black brigadier general in the U.S. Army. His son, Benja-
ministration. As a result of the New Deal, African Ameri- min O. Davis, Jr., later became the first black lieutenant
cans developed a strong loyalty to the Democratic Party. general in the Air Force. Desegregation of the armed

UP1 Bertmdnn Arc hi Signal Corps Ptioio UP! BelTmann Archrv*

Marian Anderson sang at During World War II, nearly 1 million Afri- Jackie Robinson of the Brooklyn Dodgers be-
the Lincoln Memorial in 1939 can Americans served in the U.S. armed came the first black player in modern major
after the DAR would not let forces. Most were in such segregated units league baseball in 1947. He helped break down
her sing in Constitution Hall. as the 92nd Division, above. racial barriers in professional sports.
 African Americans 1 36m

forces began on a trial basis during the war. It became a gomery's blacks protested her arrest by refusing to ride
permanent policy in 1948. the buses. Their protest lasted 382 days, ending when
the city abolished the bus law. The boycott became the
The civil rights movement
firstorganized mass protest by blacks in Southern his-
The beginning. After World War II, three major fac- tory. It also focused national attention on its leader, Mar-

torsencouraged the beginning of a new movement for tin Luther King, ]r., a Montgomery Baptist minister.
many African Americans had served
civil rights. First, Many Southern communities acted slowly in desegre-
with honor in the war. Black leaders pointed to the rec- gating their public schools. Governor Orval E. Faubus of
ords of these veterans to show the injustice of racial dis- Arkansas symbolized Southern resistance. In 1957, he
crimination against patriots. Second, African Americans defied a federal court order to integrate Little Rock Cen-
in the urban North had made economic gains, increased tral High School. Faubus sent the Arkansas National

their education, and registered to vote. Third, the Guard to prevent black students from entering the
NAACP had attracted many new members and received school, but President Dwight D. Eisenhower used fed-
increased financial support from whites and blacks. It eral troops to enforce the court order.
also included a new group of bright young lawyers. The growing movement. In 1957, King and other
Rulings by the U.S. Supreme Court during the 19405 black Southern clergymen formed the Southern Chris-
and 1950"s brought major victories for African Ameri- tian Leadership Conference (SCLO to coordinate the
cans. In several decisions between 1948 and 1951, the work of civil rights groups. King urged African Ameri-
court ruled that separate higher education facilities for cans to use peaceful means to achieve their goals. In
blacks must be equal to those for whites. Largely be- 1960, a group of black and white college students or-
cause of federal court rulings, laws permitting racial dis- ganized the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Commit-
crimination in housing and recreation also began to be tee (SNCC) to help in the civil rights movement. They
struck down. Many of these rulings came in cases joined with young people from the SCLC, CORE, and the
brought by the NAACP. An increasing number of blacks NAACP in staging sit-ins, boycotts, marches, and free-
began to move into all-white areas of Northern cities. dom rides (bus rides to test the enforcement of desegre-
Many whites then moved out of the cities to suburbs. gation in interstate transportation). During the early
The NAACP and the NAACP Legal Defense and Educa- 1960s, the combined efforts of the civil rights groups
tional Fund won a historic victory in 1954. That year, the ended discrimination in many public places, including
U.S. Supreme Court ruled in the case of Brown v. Board restaurants, hotels, theaters, and cemeteries.
of Education of Topeka that segregation in the public Numerous cities and towns remained unaffected by
schools was in itself unequal and thus unconstitutional. the civil rights movement. African American leaders
The suit had been filed because the school board had therefore felt the United States needed a clear, strong
not allowed a black student named Linda Brown to at- federal policy that would erase all remaining discrimina-
tend an all-white school near her home. The court's de- tion in public places. To attract national attention to that
cision rejected the separate but equal ruling of 1896 and need, King and such other leaders as A. Philip Randolph,
inspired African Americans to strike out against other Roy Wilkins of the NAACP, James L Farmer of CORE,
discrimination, particularly in public places. and Whitney M. Young, )r., of the Urban League organ-
Rosa Parks, a seamstress and civil rights activist in ized a march in Washington, D.C, in August 1963. More
Montgomery, Alabama, became a symbol of African than 200,000 people, including many whites, took part in

Americans' bold new action to attain their civil rights. In what was called the March on Washington.
1955, she was arrested for disobeying a city law that re- A high point of the March on Washington was a stir-
quired blacks to give up their seats when white people ring speech by King. King told the crowd that he had a

wished to sit in their seats or in the same row. Mont- dream that one day all Americans would enjoy equality

Linda Brown was the focus of Rosa Parks was arrested in 1955 when United States troops enforced
a which the U.S.
1954 case in she refused to give up her seat on a a federal court order to inte-

bus in Montgomery, Alabama, to ac- grate Little Rock Central High

Supreme Court outlawed segre-
commodate a white person. School in Arkansas in 1957.
gation in public schools.
1 36n African Americans

and justice. Afterward, President John F. Kennedy pro- The act gave the vote to thousands of Southern blacks
posed strong laws to protect the civil rights of all U.S. who had never voted and led to a huge increase in the
citizens. But many people, particularly Southerners, op- number of black elected officials.
posed such legislation. African Americans began to take an increasingly im-
Kennedy was assassinated in November 1963, and portant role in government during the mid-
the national
Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson became President. 1900s. In 1950, U.S. diplomat Ralph Bunche became
J.

Johnson persuaded Congress to pass Kennedy's pro- the first black person to win the Nobel Peace Prize. In
posed laws in the Civil Rights Act of 1964. This act pro- 1966, Robert C Weaver became the first black Cabinet
hibited racial discrimination in public places and called member as secretary of housing and urban develop-
for equal opportunity in employment and education. ment. In 1967, Thurgood Marshall became the first black
King won the 1964 Nobel Peace Prize for leading nonvio- on the Supreme Court. In 1969, Shirley Chisholm
justice
lent demonstrations for civil rights. of New York became the first black woman to serve in
African American celebrities not directly involved the U.S. House of Representatives.
with civil groups also contributed to the growing
rights Economic and social progress. In 1965, President
civil rights movement. Author James Baldwin criticized Johnson declared that it was not enough simply to end
white Americans for their prejudice against blacks. de jure segregation— that is, separation of the races by
Other noted African Americans who promoted civil law. It was also necessary to eliminate de facto

rights causes included gospel singer Mahalia Jackson, segregation— that is, racial separation in fact and based
dancer Katherine Dunham, artist Charles White, singer largely on custom. Johnson called for programs of af-
Harry Belafonte, and comedian Dick Gregory. firmative action" that would offer blacks equal opportu-
Political gains. In the South, many elected officials nity with whites in areas where discrimination had a
and police officers refused to enforce court rulings and long history and still existed. Many businesses and
federal laws that gave blacks equality. In some cases, schools then began to adopt affirmative action pro-
this opposition extended to the right to vote. grams. These programs, some of which were ordered
major dispute over voting rights broke out
In 1965, a by the federal government, gave hundreds of thousands
in Selma, Alabama. King had gone there in January to as- of blacks new economic and educational opportunities.
sist African Americans seeking the right to vote. He was The new economic opportunities enabled many Afri-
joined by many blacks and whites from throughout the can Americans to increase their incomes significantly
country. In the next two months, at least three people during the mid-1900s. This development, in turn, greatly
were killed and hundreds were beaten as opposition to expanded the black middle class.
King's efforts increased. But authorities continued to Racial barriers fell in several professional sports and
deny blacks their voting rights. In late March, King led in the arts during the mid-1900's. In 1947, Jackie Robin-

about 30,000 people, guarded by federal troops, from son of the Brooklyn Dodgers became the first black
Selma to the State Capitol in Montgomery. There, he de- player in modern major league baseball. He had an out-
manded that African Americans be given the right to standing career and became a national hero. Other
vote without unjust restrictions. black sports heroes of the mid-1900's included Willie
Largely as a result of the activities in Selma, Congress Mays, Henry Aaron, and Frank Robinson in baseball; Jim
passed the Voting Rights Act of 1965. The act banned Brown and Gale Sayers in football; and Oscar Robert-
the use of a poll tax as a requirement to vote and for- son, Bill Russell, and Wilt Chamberlain in basketball. In
bade major changes in Southern voting laws without ap- 1966, Russell became the first black head coach in major
proval of the Department of Justice. In addition, it pro- league professional sports. He was named coach of the
vided for federal officials to supervise voter registration Boston Celtics of the National Basketball Association.
wherever the right to vote had been unjustly denied. In the arts, Gwendolyn Brooks became the first Afri-

AP Wide World

Martin Luther King, Jr., spoke to over 200,000 civil Author James Baldwin became Black Muslim leaders of the
rights demonstrators after a march in Washington, a leading critic of racial discrimi- 1950s and the 1960s included
D.C, in 1963. His appeal for racial equality won wide nation in the United States in the Malcolm X, left, and Elijah Mu-
support for the civil rights movement. mid-1900s. hammad, right.
 African Americans 1 36 o

can American to win a Pulitzer Prize. She received the gress to approve the Civil Rights Act of 1968. This law,
award in 1 950 for a collection of poems titled Annie also known in part as the Fair Housing Act of 1968, pro-
Allen. In 1955, Marian Anderson became the first black hibited racial discrimination in the saleand rental of
to sing a leading role with the MetropolitanOpera in most of the housing in the nation.
New York City. In 1958, Alvin Ailey formed one of the Black militancy. During the height of the civil rights
finest dance companies in the United States. Sidney Poi- movement, some blacks had charged it was almost im-
tierwon the 1 963 Academy Award for best actor for his possible to change white racial attitudes. They saw the
work in Lilies of the Field. movement as meaningless and urged blacks to live
Unrest in the cities. Since the start of the civil rights apart from whites and, in some cases, to use violence to
movement, various court decisions, laws, and protests preserve their rights. Groups promoting these ideas in-
had clearly removed the great legal injustices long suf- cluded the Black Muslims, the Black Panthers, and mem-
fered by African Americans. But many blacks continued bers of the Black Power Movement.
to be discriminated against in jobs, law enforcement, The Black Muslims had been led since 1934 by Elijah
and housing. They saw little change in the long-held rac- Muhammad, who called whites "devils." He also criti-

ist attitudes of numerous white Americans. cized racial integration and urged formation of an all-

During the 1960"s, unrest among ghetto blacks ex- black nation within the United States. But the most elo-
ploded into a series of riots that shook the nation. The quent spokesman for the Black Muslims during the
first riot occurred in Harlem in the summer of 1964. In 195fJs and 1960s was Malcolm X. Malcolm wanted to
August 1 965, 34 people died and almost 900 were in- unite black people throughout the world. He was assas-
jured in an outburst in the black ghetto of Watts in Los sinated in 1965 after forming a new organization to pur-
Angeles. During the next two summers, major riots sue his goal. Three black men, at least two of whom
erupted in numerous cities across the nation. were Black Muslims, were convicted of the murder.
The race riots puzzled many people because they The Black Panther Party was founded in 1966. Its two
came at a time when African Americans had made tre- main founders, Huey P. Newton and Bobby Seale, had
mendous gains in the campaign for full freedom. In been inspired by Malcolm X. At first, the party favored
1967, President Johnson established a commission violent revolution as the only way to end police actions
headed by Governor Otto Kerner of Illinois to study the that many blacks considered brutal and to provide op-
causes of the outbreaks. In its March 1 968 report, the portunities for blacks in jobs and other areas. The Pan-
Kerner Commission put much of the blame on racial thers had many clashes with police and others. Later, the
prejudice of whites. It stated that the average black party became less militant and worked to achieve full
American was still poorly housed, clothed, paid, and ed- employment for blacks and other peaceful goals.
ucated and still often suffered from segregation, police The Black Power Movement developed in 1966 after
abuse, and other forms of discrimination. The commis- James H. Meredith, the first African American to attend
sion recommended vast programs to improve ghetto the University of Mississippi, was shot during a march.
conditions and called for greater changes in the racial The shooting and other racial violence made Stokely
attitudes of white Americans. Carmichael, H. Rap Brown, and other members of the
Less than a month after the Kerner Commission re- Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee doubt the
port was issued, race riots broke out in at least 1 00 black sincerity of white support for black rights.
communities across the nation. The rioting followed the Carmichael and other African Americans called for a
assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr., on April 4 in campaign to achieve "Black Power." They urged blacks
Memphis, Tenn. James Earl Ray, a white drifter, was con- to gain political and economic control of their own com-

victed of the crime and sentenced to 99 years in prison. munities and to reject the values of whites and form
King's murder helped President Johnson persuade Con- their own standards. They also stressed that "black is

1'nncd Pre " In!

A Watts, a black neighborhood in Los Ange-

riot in
Thurgood Marshall became the Jesse lackson ran for the Demo-
black associate justice of the cratic presidential nomination in
les, shocked the nation in 1965. The California Na- first

tional Guard, above, helped curb the outburst, which

Supreme Court of the United States 1984 and 1988, diawing attention
to minority issues.
led to 34 deaths and about S40 million in damage. in 1967
1 36p African Americans

beautiful" and suggested that black Americans no an to win election to the United States Senate.
longer refer to themselves as Negroes or colored peo- African Americans gained considerable influence in
ple but as blacks, African Americans, or Afro-Americans. the Administration of Jimmy Carter, who was president
of the United States from 1977 to 1981. Under him, An-
Developments since 1970
drew Young became the first black U.S. ambassador to
Achievements since the 1970s include great the United Nations (UN). Carter named Patricia Roberts
progress education and politics. Many blacks have
in Harris secretary of housing and urban development She
won recognition in such fields as sports and the arts. was the first black woman to hold a Cabinet post
Education gains have been significant From 1970 to Sports. Many African Americans have become fa-
the early 1990s, college enrollments among African mous sports figures. Black sports heroes include foot-
Americans rose from about 600,000 to about 1,300,000. ball players Walter Payton and Jerry Rice; basketball
in part from affirmative action pro-
This gain resulted players Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, Magic Johnson, Julius
grams by predominantly white colleges and universities. Erving, and Michael Jordan; baseball stars Reggie Jack-
By the early 1 990s, about 1 3 percent of all blacks 25 son, Tony Gwynn, and Frank Thomas; boxing champion
years of age or older had completed college. About Muhammad Ali, and track stars Carl Lewis, Florence
three-fourths of that group had finished high school. Griffith Joyner, and Jackie Joyner-Kersee. Frank Robinson
A black studies movement emerged on college cam- became the first black manager of a major league base-
puses throughout the nation during the 1970s and drew ball team when he was named manager of the Cleve-
increasing attention to the heritage of African Ameri- land Indians in 1974. In 1989, Bill White became the first
cans. In addition, black musical and theater groups and black to head a major U.S. sports league when he was
African American museums were established in almost named president of baseball's National League. In 1995,
every U.S. city with a fairly large black population. Lenny Wilkens, head coach of the Atlanta Hawks, set a
Business. The number of black-owned businesses in National Basketball Association record for career
the United States increased from about 190,000 to about regular-season coaching victories with 939. In 1997,
620,000 between 1970 and the mid-1990s. About 95 per- TigerWoods became the first golfer with African Ameri-
cent of these companies were small, one-owner firms. can ancestry to win the Masters Tournament
Politics. The Voting Rights Act of 1965 led to the re- The arts. African Americans won recognition in all
moval of restrictions on voting in most places. As a re- major art forms during the late 1 900s and early 2000's.
sult, African Americans were able to help elect a greater Leading writers included Maya Angelou, who received
number of blacks to public offices. In 1973, Thomas praise for her autobiography and her poetry. Alice
Bradley was elected the first black mayor of Los Ange- Walker won a Pulitzer Prize in 1983 for her novel The
les. That same year, Maynard H. Jackson was elected the Color Purple. Rita Dove served as poet laureate of the
first black mayor of a major Southern city, Atlanta, Geor- United States from 1993 to 1995. Toni Morrison, whose
gia. In 1983, Harold Washington became the first black novel Beloved earned a Pulitzer Prize in 1988, received
mayor of Chicago. David N. Dinkins was elected the first the Nobel Prize for literature in 1993. Plays by August
black mayor of New York City in 1989. That same year, Wilson won the Pulitzer Prize in 1987 and 1990. George
L Douglas Wilder became the first black to be elected C Wolfe emerged as an outstanding director of plays.
governor of a U.S. state when he was elected governor motion pictures, African American stars included
In
of Virginia. In 1 991 Sharon Pratt Dixon became the first
, Halle Berry, Morgan Freeman, Whoopi Goldberg, Eddie
black woman mayor of a large American city. She was Murphy, and Denzel Washington. Filmmaker Spike Lee
elected mayor of Washington, D.C Later that year, she won praise for Do the Right Thing (1989) and Malcolm X
married and changed her name to Sharon Pratt Kelly. In (1992), as did filmmaker John Singleton for BoyzNthe
1992, Carol Moseley-Braun became the first black wom- Hood (1 991 Many blacks starred on television. The
).

© Tnppett. Sipa Press '.

R.ilt I inn H.-untt SABA Ian Collsioo Pressens Bild

Colin Powell became the first black Carol Moseley-Braun, center, of Illinois, Toni Morrison received the Nobel Prize
chairman for the Joint Chiefs of Staff in became the first black woman elected to for literature in Stockholm, Sweden, in
1989. In 2001, he became the first African the U.S. Senate when she won a seat in 1993. A novelist, she had won a Pulitzer
American secretary of state. 1992. Prize for her novel Beloved \n 1988.
 African Americans 1 36q

Cosby Show, featuring Bill Cosby, was a top-rated TV below the government's official poverty line, and the
program in the United States from 1984 to 1992. jobless rate for blackswas 2 J times that for whites.
In music, opera singers Kathleen Battle and Jessye In 991 Rodney G. King, a black motorist, was
1 ,

Norman became internationally recognized. Celebrated stopped after a pursuit and beaten by four white police
jazz musicians included Geri Allen, Roy Hargrove, Chris- officers in Los Angeles. As a result of the incident, the
tianMcBride, and Wynton Marsalis. Singer Michael officers faced criminal charges, including assault Al-
Jackson became a superstar in popular music. His album though the beating was recorded on videotape, a jury
Thriller i~\982) sold over 45 million copies— more than declared three officers not guilty of all charges in 1992.
any other album in history. African American performers One officer was acquitted of all charges except one, on
used musical essays in verse called rap musicto de- which the jury was indecisive. This charge was later
scribe inner-city life. Leading "rappers' included Ice-T, dropped. Many blacks felt the trial proved the U.S. court
Public Enemy, Run-DMC, and Queen Latifah. In 1996, system treated blacks unfairly. The verdict sparked riot-
George Walker became the first African American com- ing in Los Angeles and other U.S. cities. Fifty-three peo-
poser to win the Pulitzer Prize for music. He won for a ple died and about 2,400 were injured in the Los Ange-
work he wrote for voice and orchestra. les riots. Later that year, all four officers were indicted
Other achievements. In 1983, Guion S. Bluford, Jr., be- under federal laws for violating King's civil rights. Two
came the first black U.S. astronaut to go into space. Mae of the officers were convicted in 1993.
C Jemison became the first African American woman Developments in education. In the 1980 s and
astronaut to do so in 1992. United States Army General 1990s, courses of study based on an approach called
Colin L Powell was named the first black chairman of Afrocentrism gained popularity. These programs aim to
the Joint Chiefs of Staff in 1989. In 2001, Powell became encourage awareness of African culture and history and
the first African American secretary of state. pride in the richness of African heritage. Most of the
Disappointments and controversy. Several devel- programs also emphasize past and present accomplish-
opments that began in the late 1970s have lessened the ments of black people. Supporters of Afrocentrism be-
hopes of many African Americans for continued eco- lieve the approach builds the self-esteem of African
nomic and social progress. For example, Supreme Court American children and improves their success in
decisions from the 1970 s to the 1990s sharply limited school. Opponents say that some Afrocentric teaching
the scope of affirmative action programs. In 1978, the materials are based on faulty scholarship.
court ruled that racial quotas could not be used in ad- Another trend is the use of a variation of English
mitting students to colleges and universities. In 1995, it known as black English, Ebonics, or African American
ruled that federal programs requiring preferences for vernacular English. Characteristics of black English in-
certain individuals based on their race are unconstitu- clude extensive use of the verb to be and omissions of
tional unless preferences are designed to make up for verbs. Some language experts think that some patterns
specific instances of past discrimination. This meant that of Ebonics are based on west African languages.
affirmative action could no longer be used to counteract The use of black English in schools gained national at-
racial discrimination by society as a whole. In 1989, the tention in 1996 and 1997 when the Oakland, California,
court had made a similar decision regarding state and school district adopted and later dropped a plan to rec-
local affirmative action programs. ognize it as a language. Some schools employ it as an
The 1995 ruling was supported by Supreme Court Jus- aid in the teaching of standard English. Proponents of

ticeClarence Thomas, an African American who re- black English say that African American students learn
placed Thurgood Marshall on the court when Marshall better when it is used in this manner. Opponents of
retired in 1991. Thomas had long been an outspoken op- black English claim that it could discourage students
ponent of affirmative action. He based his opposition on from learning standard English.
the principle that the government may not treat individ- Black politics today. Many African American leaders
based on their race. Many other blacks,
uals differently today stress the use of political means to solve the prob-
however, continued to believe that broad affirmative ac- lems of blacks. They urge more African Americans to
tion programs were needed to help minorities over- vote and to run for public office.
come past discrimination and eventually compete on an In 1984, Jesse L Jackson, a black civil rights leader and

equal basis with whites. Baptist minister, waged a strong campaign to register

In 1989, a study by the National Research Council indi- new black voters and win the Democratic presidential
cated that the standard of living for blacks continued to nomination. Jackson s bid failed, but he became a hero
lag far behind that for whites. The study showed that in to most African Americans. He made an even stronger

1984, the average income for blacks was only 57 percent run for the nomination in 1988. Although his bid again
failed, Jackson gained the support of more convention
of the average for whites. This percentage was the same
as in 1971. The study also indicated that the difference in delegates than any other candidate except Michael S.
unemployment rates for blacks and whites had widened Dukakis, who won the nomination.

since the early 1970s. Inthe late 1980 s, the rate for In the early 2000 s, blacks held about 8,900 of some
blacks was about 2 \ times that for whites. The study 500,000 elective offices the nation. Thirty-eight served
in

also showed that since the 1960 s, there had been al-
in the U.S. House of Representatives, including two non-

most no progress in housing integration. voting delegates. None ser\ed in the Senate.

By 2000, the income gap between blacks and whites Many African Americans feared that Supreme Court
had narrowed somewhat The average income for rulings would reduce the number of blacks serving in

blacks in 2000 was 64 percent of that for whites. Howev-

the House. In these rulings, the court declared that race
had incomes could not be used as the main factor in drawing the
er, about 22 percent of black families still
1 36r African Americans

boundaries of congressional districts. An increasing Frazier, Edward F. Mays, Benjamin E. Washington,

number of states had created black-majority districts by Hope, John Moton, Robert R. Booker T.
redrawing such boundaries. Many of the new districts Johnson, Charles S. Nabrit, James M., Jr Woodson, Carter
Locke, Alain L Quarles, Benjamin C.
had elected blacks to the House.
In the 1990s, many African Americans focused on Jazz musicians and singers
building up black communities, particularly in cities. Armstrong, Louis Hancock, Herbie Wynton
Marsalis,
Many reformers supported self-help programs to deal Basie, Count Handy, W. C Monk, Thelonious
with crime, drug abuse, poverty, and substandard edu- Bechet, Sidney Hawkins, Coleman Morton, Jelly Roll
Coltrane, John W. Henderson, Parker, Charlie
cation. In 1995, hundreds of thousands of black men
Davis, Miles Fletcher Smith, Bessie
marched in Washington, D.C, to declare their determi- Ellington, Duke Hines, Earl Tatum, Art
nation to improve conditions in black communities. The Fitzgerald, Ella Holiday, Billie Vaughan, Sarah
event, called the Million Man March, was organized Gillespie, Dizzy Joplin, Scott Waller, Fats
chiefly by Louis Farrakhan, leader of the Nation of Islam, Hampton, Lionel Lewis, John A. Young, Lester W.
a Black Muslim group. The Million Woman March, a Other singers and entertainers
similar event, drew several hundred thousand black
Ailey, Alvin Dunham, Kath- Sidney
Poitier,
women to Philadelphia in 1 997. It was organized chiefly Aldridge, Ira erine Price,Leontyne
by Phile Chionesu and Asia Coney. In 2000, Farrakhan Anderson, Marian Franklin, Aretha Robeson, Paul
led another march in Washington, the Million Family Baker, Josephine Gaye, Marvin Robinson, Bill
March, with a focus on family unity. Alton Homsby, jr.
Belafonte, Harry Hayes, Roland Turner, Tina
Berry, Chuck Home, Lena Washington,
Related articles in World Book include:
Berry, Halle Jackson, Mahalia Denzel
Political figures Brown, James Jackson, Michael Waters, Ethel
Burleigh, Harry T. King, B. B. Waters, Muddy
Bond, Julian Hatcher, Richard Price, Hugh
Charles, Ray Lee, Spike Williams, Bert
Bradley, Thomas Cordon Bernard
Cole, Nat "King" Maynor, Dorothy Winfrey, Oprah
Brooke, Edward Jordan, Barbara C Revels,Hiram R.
Cosby, Bill Mitchell, Arthur Wonder, Stevie
William Kelly, Sharon P. Stokes, Carl B.

Brown, Jesse Mfume, Kweisi Sullivan, Louis W. Military figures

Brown, Ronald H. Moseley-Braun, Washington,
Attucks, Crispus Delany, Martin R. Miller, Dorie
Bruce, Blanche K. Carol Harold
Christophe, Henri Dessalines, Jean- Salem, Peter
Chisholm, Shirley O'Leary, Hazel R. Watts, J. C, Jr.
Davis, Benjamin Jacques Toussaint
Coleman, William Pierce, Samuel Weaver, Robert C.
O, Jr. James, Daniel, Jr. LOuverture
Thaddeus, Jr. Riley, Jr. Wilder, L Douglas
Dinkins, David Pinchback, P. B. S. Young, Andrew J., Scientists
Espy, Mike Powell, Adam C, Jr.
Banneker, Benjamin Julian, Percy L
Harris, Patricia R. Jr. Young, Coleman
Carver, George W. Lawless, Theodore K.
Hastie, William H. Powell, Colin L A.
Drew, Charles R. Williams, Daniel Hale
Athletes and sports leaders
Writers
Aaron, Henry Johnson, Jack Rice, Jerry
Angelou, Maya Dunbar, Paul L Hurston, Zora N.
Abdul-Jabbar, Johnson, Magic Robertson, Oscar
Baldwin, James Ellison, Ralph Johnson, James
Kareem Joyner-Kersee, Robinson, Eddie
Baraka, Amiri Giovanni, Nikki Weldon
AM, Muhammad Jackie Robinson, Frank
Bontemps, Arna Haley, Alex McKay, Claude
Ashe, Arthur Jordan, Michael Robinson, Jackie
W. Hamilton, Virginia Morrison, Toni
Barkley, Charles Leonard, Sugar Robinson, Sugar
Brooks, Gwendo- Hansberry, Taylor, Mildred D.
Baylor, Elgin Ray Ray
lyn Lorraine Toomer, Jean
Brown, Jim Lewis, Carl Rudolph, Wilma
Chesnutt, Charles Harper, Frances Walker, Alice
Bryant, Kobe Louis, Joe Russell, Bill
Waddell E.W. Wheatley, Phillis
Chamberlain, Wilt Mays, Willie Sanders, Deion
Cleaver, Eldridge Himes, Chester Wilson, August
Erving, Julius Olajuwon, Ha- Simpson, O. J.
Cullen, Countee Hughes, Langston Wright, Richard
Gibson, Althea keem Tyson, Mike
Dove, Rita
Gibson, Josh O'Neal, Shaquille White, Bill
Griffey, Ken, Jr. Owens, Jesse Williams, Serena Other biographies
Henderson, Rickey Paige, Satchel Williams, Venus
Abbott, Robert S. Garvey, Marcus Pippin, Horace
Iverson, Allen Payton, Walter Woods, Tiger
Allen, Richard Hall, Prince Rillieux, Norbert
Civil rights leaders Bearden, Romare Healy, James A. Rowan, Carl T.
Beckwourth, Henson, Matthew Russwurm, John B.
Abernathy, Ralph Hamer, Fannie Lou Meredith, James
James A. Smalls, Robert
D. Hooks, Benjamin H.
Carmichael, L Parks,Rosa Louise
Bland, James A. Jemison, Mae G Still, William Grant
Bluford, Guion Johnson, John H. Sullivan, Leon H.
Stokely Jackson, Jesse L Randolph, A.
Stewart, Jr. Jones, Absalom Tanner, Henry O.
Chavis, Benjamin Jacob, John E. Philip
Bunche, Ralph J.
Latimer, Lewis H. Thomas, Clarence
Franklin, Jr. Jordan, Vernon E. Rustin, Bayard
Cuffe, Paul Lawrence, Jacob Truth, Sojourner
Du Bois, W. E. B. King, Coretta Scott Terrell, Mary C Divine, Father Love, Nat Tubman, Harriet
Evers, Medgar King, Martin Wells-Barnett, Ida
Douglass, Freder- Marino, Eugene A. Turner, Nat
Evers-Williams, Luther, Jr. White, Walter F.
ick Marshall, Thur- Vesey, Denmark
Myrlie Malcolm X Wilkins,Roy
Du Sable, Jean good Walker, David
Farmer, James L McKissick, Floyd Young, Whitney
Baptiste Point Matzeliger, Jan E. Walker, Madam
Gregory, Dick B. Moore, Jr.
Estevanico McCoy, Elijah CJ.
Educators and scholars Farrakhan, Louis Morgan, Garrett A. Woods, Granville
Forten, James Muhammad, Elijah T.
Bethune, Mary McLeod Clark, Kenneth B.
Gabriel Pickett, Bill
Cary, Mary Ann S. Franklin, John Hope
 African hunting dog 1 36s

History A. Achievements
Abolition Civil War (Blacks Missouri B. Disappointments and controversy
movement and the war) Compromise C Developments in education
Amistad Rebellion Dred Scott Niagara D. Black politics today
Black codes Decision Movement Questions
Black Seminole Emancipation Proslavery
Brown v. Board of Proclamation movement When did the first in the American
black African slaves arrive

Education of Freedmen's Colonies?

Reconstruction
Topeka Bureau Scalawags
What were the achievements of Harriet Tubman, George Wash-
Grandfather clause ington Carver, and Thurgood Marshall?
Buffalo Soldiers Scottsboro Case
Carpetbaggers Jim Crow Slavery
How did the Voting Rights Act of 1965 help African Americans?
Civil Rights Act of Ku Klux Klan Underground What was the Emancipation Proclamation?
1964 Lynching railroad
When was slavery abolished in the United States?
Why did African American leaders organize the March on
Organizations Washington in 1963?
On slave ships, what was loose packing? Tight packing?
Association for the Study of National Medical Association How did the cotton gin contribute to the growth of slavery in
African-American Life and Southern Christian Leader- the United States?
History ship Conference
How did the United States government help the freed slaves af-
Black Caucus, Congressional Student Nonviolent Coordi- ter the Civil War?
Black Panther Party nating Committee What was the separate but equal doctrine?"
Congress of Racial Equality United Negro College Fund What was the Harlem Renaissance?
National Association for the Ad- Urban League
vancement of Colored People Additional resources

Religion Level I
Altman, Susan. Encyclopedia of African-American Heritage. 2nd
African Methodist Episcopal National Baptist Convention,
ed., Facts on File, 2000.
Church USA, Inc.
Katz, William L Black Pioneers. Simon & Schuster, 1999.
African Methodist Episcopal National Baptist Convention Kranz, Rachel, and Koslow, P. The Biographical Dictionary of
J.
Zion Church of America, Inc. African Americans. Facts on File, 1999.
Black Muslims National Primitive Baptist Patrick, Diane. New
York Public Library Amazing African
The
Nation of Islam Convention in the U.SA American History. Wiley, 1998.
Other related articles Level II
Museum Appiah, Kwame A., and Gates, H. L, Jr., eds. Africana: The Ency-
African American lit- Cowboy (The early of
African Ameri-
clopedia of the African and African American Experience. Ba-
erature cowboys)
sic Bks., 1 999.
American literature Dialect can History
group Opera (Porgy and Gates, Henry L, Jr., and West, Cornel. The African-American Cen-
(The Harlem Re- Ethnic
naissance; The Hampton University Bess)
tury: How Black Americans Have Shaped Our Country. Free
Pr., 2000.
black experience: Henry. John Races, Human
Works by minori- Howard University Racism The New
York Public Library African American Desk Reference.
Wiley, 1999.
ty writers) Jazz Rap music
Salzman, Jack, and others, eds. Encyclopedia of African-Ameri-
Black History Month Kwanzaa Segregation
anemia can Culture and History. 5 vols. Macmillan Lib. Reference,
Blues Martin Luther King, Sickle cell
Spingarn Medal
1996. Supplement 2000.
Bradford, Roark Day
Jr.,

Civil rights Minority group Spiritual African hunting dog is a wild dog known for its

Outline large, round ears and sparse, tricolored coat This coat
consists of irregular patches of black, brown, and white
The African background
fur. The dog also has long legs, a deep chest, and pow-
A. The cultural heritage
B. Beginning of the slave trade erful jaws and teeth. An aduli weighs from 45 to 67
The years of slavery
A. Colonial times D. The anti slavery
B. The growth of slavery movement
C Free blacks E. The deepening division
over slavery
III. The end of slavery
A. The Civil War C Temporary gains
B. The years of freedom
first

IV. The growth of discrimination

A. During the late 1800 s
B. During the early 1900's

C The rise of new black leaders

D. The black migration to the North
E. The Carvey movement
F. The Harlem Renaissance and
other achievements
C. The Great Depression
H. World War II (1939T945)
The civil rights movement
A The beginning D. Economic and social

B. The growing progress.

movement E. Unrest in the i ities

C Political gains F. Black militancy

VI Developments since 1970
I ht» African hunting dog is *\n ondangrrvd spot ies.
1 36t African lion hound

pounds (20 to 30 kilograms) and stands 24 to 30 inches gation called apartheid.Young ANC members, led by
(60 to 75 centimeters) tall at the shoulders. lawyer Nelson Mandela, began to resist the govern-
African hunting dogs usually live in packs of about 10 ment, chiefly through civil disobedience. In 1960, the
to 40 animals. A dominant male and who form a
female, government outlawed the ANC The ANC then began a
breeding each pack. The dominant female
pair, lead Numerous
policy of violent resistance to apartheid.
gives birth in a den to a litter of € to 16 pups. The pack members, including Mandela, were imprisoned. Some
assists in grooming, feeding, and protecting the litter. were killed or exiled. Many nations opposed apartheid,
African hunting dogs usually hunt gazelles and ante- and South Africa grew isolated in the world community.
lope, but they may also kill zebras and gnus. They hunt In February 1990, South Africa legalized the ANC and
during the day in packs, often surrounding their victim released Mandela and other ANC leaders from prison.
and chasing it until it is exhausted. In May ANC and the government began talks
1990, the
These dogs once roamed in large numbers through- aimed nonwhites the same rights to vote and
at giving
out much of Africa. Today, however, they are an endan- participate in government that whites had. In August,
gered species. Only a few thousand dogs remain, most- the ANC declared it would abandon the use of violence.
ly on wildlife parks and reserves in eastern and southern In 1 991 the
, government repealed the last of the laws
Africa. Increasing human population, disease, competi- that formed the legal basis of apartheid.
tion from hyenas, and other factors have greatly re- In 1994, South Africa held its first national elections in
duced the dog S population. Duane A Schlitter which blacks were allowed to vote. The ANC won a ma-
Scientific classification. The African hunting dog belongs to jority of seats in the new National Assembly. The Assem-
the dog family, Canidae. Its scientific name is Lycaon pictus. bly, in turn, elected Mandela president of South Africa.
African lion hound. See Rhodesian ridgeback. In elections held in 1999, the ANC again won a majority
African Methodist Episcopal Church (A.M.E.) is of seats in the Assembly, which then elected ANC leader
one of the largest Methodist denominations in the Unit- Thabo Mbeki president of South Africa. Mandela had
ed States. It was founded by African American Method- stepped down as head of the ANC in 1997 and had re-
ists who withdrew in 1787 from St George Methodist tired as South Africa s president in 1999. Bruce Fetter
Episcopal Church in Philadelphia to protest segregation. See also Apartheid; Mandela, Nelson; Mbeki, Thabo;
Blacks then made up a large percentage of the Metho- Xhosa.
dists in the United States. Two free blacks, Richard Allen African Union (AU) an organization that works to
is

and Absalom Jones, led the withdrawal. The church achieve greater and economic coopera-
political, social,
name was chosen to indicate it was formed by people of tion among African governments and peoples. The AU
African descent But the church has never had a policy consists of 52 independent countries and a government-
of discrimination and has members of all races. in-exile. The AU replaced a previous group, the Organi-
Twenty bishops serve the church in the 50 states, Can- zation of African Unity (OAU), in 2002 (see Organization
ada, 14 African countries, the Caribbean, and South of African Unity). The structure of the AU is to be similar
America. The church operates six senior colleges and to that of the European Union (see European Union).
tWO junior Colleges. Critically reviewed by the A.M.E. Church

See also Allen, Richard.

African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church Members of the African Union
(A.M.E. Zion) is a large Methodist denomination in the
Libya
Algeria
United States. It was formed in 1796 by a group of Angola Madagascar
African Americans who withdrew from the John Street Benin Malawi
Methodist Episcopal Church in New York City. The John Botswana Mali
Street church had both white and black members. Many Burkina Faso Mauritania
Burundi Mauritius
leaders of the abolitionist movement of the 1800s were
Cameroon Mozambique
members of the A.M.E. Zion Church. They included Har- Cape Verde Namibia
riet Tubman, Sojourner Truth, and Frederick Douglass. Central African Republic Niger
A general conference is the church's supreme admin- Chad Nigeria
istrative body. Between meetings of the conference, the Comoros Rwanda
Congo (Brazzaville) Saharawi Arab Democratic
church is administered by the Board of Bishops. The de-
Congo (Kinshasa) Republic"
nomination operates Livingstone College in Salisbury, Sao Tome and Principe
Cote d'lvoire
North Carolina, and two junior colleges. Its missionaries Djibouti Senegal
serve in North and South America, Africa, and the Car- Egypt Seychelles
ibbean region. Critically reviewed by the A.M.E Zion Church Equatorial Guinea Sierra Leone
African National Congress (ANC) is a political party Eritrea Somalia
Ethiopia South Africa
in South Africa. It played a major role in winning politi-
Gabon Sudan
cal and civil rights for the country's blacks, who make up Gambia Swaziland
about three-fourths of the population. Until 1994, South Ghana Tanzania
African law denied them the right to vote in national Guinea Togo
elections and to participate in the national government Guinea-Bissau Tunisia
Kenya Uganda
Most ANC members are black, though whites, Asians,
Lesotho Zambia
and people of mixed ancestry are also members. Liberia Zimbabwe
The ANC was founded in 1912 by South African
blacks to defend their political rights. In 1948, the South The Saharawi Arab Democratic Republic is a government- in -exile that was formed by the
Polisano Front, an organization seeking independence for the northwest African territory of
African government started a policy of rigid racial segre- Western Sahara.
 Agassi, Andre 1 37

OAU leaders signed the Constitutive Act of the Afri- the Orange Free and the Transvaal. On this "Great
State,
can Union in 2000. The act entered into force in 2001, Trek," the Afrikaners faced grave dangers and hardships.
and the AU officially replaced the OAU on July 9, 2002. Later, they lost to the British in the Anglo-Boer War of
The act outlines several AU objectives. These include 1899-1902. Today, Afrikaners outnumber people of
working toward further political and economic integra- British descent in South Africa. t o. Beideiman
tion of Africa; defending the independence of member See also Boer War.
states; promoting peace, cooperation, security, and sta- Afro-Americans. See African Americans.
bility in Africa; promoting democratic principles and hu- AFS Intercultural Programs is a nonprofit organi-
man rights; raising the living standards of Africa's peo- zation that promotes worldwide learning and living ex-
ple; encouraging scientific and technological research; periences for secondary school students, young adults,
and working to eradicate diseases and promote good and families. It was formerly known as the American
health. The act calls for participation of African peoples Field Service. AFS is active in about 70 countries. Most
in AU activities. It also says the AU will reject unconstitu- AFS programs involve the international exchange of stu-
tional changes of government in African countries. dents 16 to 18 years old. The student lives with a family
The AUs supreme body is the Assembly of the Union, in another country for a summer or for a year and at-

which consists of the member countries' heads of state tends a local school. AFS also runs programs for young
and heads of government or their recognized represent- professionals in education, journalism, economics,
atives. It will meet at least once a year. An Executive banking, law, agriculture, and language.
Council, made up of ministers of foreign affairs and oth- The American Field Service was founded in 1914 as a
er authorities representing the member states, will volunteer ambulance corps during World War In 1947, i.

make administrative decisions on behalf of the Assem- it established the exchange program for students. AFS

bly.The AU has a peace and security council that is adopted its present name in 1987. It has headquarters in
modeled after the United Nations (UN) Security Council. New York City. Critically reviewed by AFS Intercultural Programs

The AU also will include a Pan-African Parliament, a Agamemnon, ac uh MEHM nahn, in Greek mytholo-
Court of Justice, financial institutions, and a number of gy, led the Greek army that conquered Troy in the Tro-
other administrative bodies. The headquarters of the AU jan War. Agamemnon was the king of Mycenae (or
are in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Mammo Muchie Argos).He married the princess Clytemnestra. Their chil-

African violet, also called Saintpaulia, is a tropical dren included Electra, Iphigenia, and Orestes.
plant with beautiful flowers and heart-shaped, fuzzy Agamemnon assembled the Greek forces at Aulis be-
leaves. It is not a true violet A native of Africa, it is wide- fore sailing for Troy. But the goddess Artemis refused to
ly house
cultivated as a send favorable winds because Agamemnon had offend-
plant It moder-
thrives in ed her. At Artemis's command, Agamemnon sacrificed
ate temperatures and soil his daughter Iphigenia so that the army could sail for

rich in humus (decayed Troy. One version tells that Iphigenia died in the sacri-
matter). The African violet fice. Another tells that Artemis rescued her.

grows from 3 to 5 inches In the last year of the Trojan War, Agamemnon an-

(8 to 1 3 centimeters) tall. gered the god Apollo because he refused to return the
The flowers, up to 1 captured maiden Chryseis to her father, a priest of Apol-
inch (2.5 centimeters) lo. As punishment, Apollo sent a plague to afflict the

across, grow in clusters of Greek army. Agamemnon then returned Chryseis but, in
three or more on slender exchange, he demanded the captive maiden Briseis
stalks. They range in color from his rival, the warrior Achilles. The bitter quarrel
from white to pink to vio- that resulted between Achilles and Agamemnon be-

let The name Saintpaulia

© Oerek Fell came a major theme of the Greek epic the Iliad.
comes from Baron Walter African violet After Troy fell, Agamemnon returned to Mycenae
von Saint Paul-lllaire, a with the Trojan princess Cassandra as his captive. Cly-
German nobleman who discovered the plant in 1892. temnestra, aided by her lover, Aegisthus, killed Aga-
Thomas B. Croat memnon and Cassandra out of revenge for what she
Scientific classification. African violet belongs to the gesne- thought was the death of Iphigenia. Orestes killed his
ria family, Cesneriaceae. It is classified as Saintpaulia ionantha. mother and Aegisthus to avenge the murder of Aga-
Afrikaners, afruh KAH nuhrz, are people of Dutch, memnon. F Carter Philips

German, or French ancestry who live in South Africa. See also Iliad; Iphigenia; Trojan War.
Most Afrikaners are of Dutch descent The first Afrika- Agana. See Hagatfia.
ners were colonists sent to South Africa in 1652 by the Agassi, AG uh see, Andre (1 970- became one of
1,

Dutch East India Company, a trading firm. Many of the the dominant American tennis players of the late 900 s 1

colonists became farmers. Afrikaners are also called and early 2000s. He is known for his powerful forehand
Boers (pronounced bawrz). Boer is a Dutch term mean- and two-handed backhand strokes as well as his ability
to return an opponent s serve. Agassi is one of the most
ing farmer. Afrikaners speak the Afrikaans language,
colorful players in men s tennis and one of the most
which is derived from Dutch.
The British occupied the colony the Afrikaners found- popular. He has made many commercial endorsements
that have spread his fame beyond the sports world.
ed in 1795, but withdrew in 1802. They seized the land
again in 1806 and held In 1836, some Afrikaners left
it.
Agassi became the fifth man to win all four grand
the colony to gain freedom from British rule. They
slam tournaments during his career. He won the Wim-
moved northeast into lands that became known as Natal, bledon tournament in England in 1992. the U.S. Open in
1 38 Agassiz, Louis

1994 and 1999, the Australian Open in 1995, 2000, and ments). Critically reviewed by the National Park Service
2001, and the French Agassi also won the
Open in 1999. Age of Reason was a period in history when philoso-
gold medal as men's singles champion at the 1996 Sum- phers emphasized the use of reason as the best method
mer Olympic Games. In 2001, he married German tennis of learning truth. The period of the Age of Reason be-
star Steffi Graf. Andre Kirk Agassi was born on April 29, gan in the 1600s and lasted until the late 1700s. The Age
1970, in Las Vegas, Nevada. Dave Nightingale of Reason is also called the Enlightenment or the Age of
Agassiz, AC uh see, Louis (1807-1873), was a Swiss- Rationalism. Its leaders included several French philoso-
born naturalist who studied many kinds of animals in phers—the Marquis de Condorcet, Rene Descartes, De-
Europe and America. He became noted for his work on nis Diderot, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and Voltaire— and
both modern and fossil forms of fishes. He established a the English philosopher John Locke.
zoological laboratory on an island Buzzards Bay off
in The leaders of the Age of Reason relied heavily on the
the coast of Massachusetts to study animals in their nat- scientificmethod, with its emphasis on experimentation
ural surroundings. Agassiz believed that animal species and careful observation. The period produced many im-
do not change, and he criticized Charles Darwin's theo- portant advances in such fields as anatomy, astronomy,
ries on evolution. As a geologist, Agassiz showed that chemistry, mathematics, and physics. Philosophers of
glaciers once covered large areas of the earth. the Age of Reason organized knowledge in encyclope-
Jean Louis Rodolphe Agassiz was born on May 26, dias and founded scientific institutes. The philosophers
1807, in Motier-en-Vuly, Switzerland. He studied at the believed that the scientific method could be applied in
universities of Zurich, Heidelberg, and Munich. Agassiz the study of human nature. They explored issues in edu-
came to the United States in 1846. In 1848, he became a cation, law, philosophy, and politics and attacked tyran-
professor of zoology and geology at Harvard University ny, social injustice, superstition, and ignorance. Many of
(see Geology (Experimental geologyl). He died on Dec. their ideas were taken up as the ideals of the American
14, 1873. Carolyn Merchant and French revolutions during the late 1700s.
Agate, AG iht, is a banded form of chalcedony, a fine- The worship of reason. The philosophers of the
grained, porous type of quartz. It occurs primarily as lay- Age of Reason believed human beings have a unique
ers in the cavities of sedimentary rocks (see Sedimenta- advantage over all other creatures because they can rea-
ry rock). Most types of agates are dully colored. Their son. The philosophers credited reason for all achieve-
bands vary from white through gray to black. In some ments in science and philosophy. They contrasted rea-
cases, the bands may be pale red, yellow, or blue. The son with ignorance, superstition, and uncritical accept-
colors result from the presence of such impurities as ance of authority— all of which they felt had dominated
iron oxide and manganese the Middle Ages. They blamed people in authority, par-
oxide. Agates differ in the ticularly Roman Catholic leaders, for keeping others in
pattern of their bands. ignorance to maintain their own personal power.
Onyx\s a type of agate The philosophers of the Age of Reason were greatly
distinguished by parallel influenced by discoveries in the physical sciences, such
bands that lie in a plane. as the law of falling bodies discovered by Galileo in Italy
The bands of eye agate and the laws of gravitation and motion formulated by Sir
form circles that spread Isaac Newton in England. The philosophers saw that
out from the center. Moss great discoveries like these were made through mathe-
agatehas delicate moss- matics. They believed that mathematics yielded ab-
like patterns. solutely certain conclusions because the process started
Agate is used chiefly in with simple axioms (self-evident truths) and moved from
making ornaments, such one self-evident step to another. Using this method,
as pins and brooches. scholars discovered laws of nature that otherwise would
Most agate that is used for Li^ddroMuseum of Lapidary Art
have remained unknown. As a philosophers
result, the
ornaments must be col- (WORLD BOOK photo' of the Age of Reason believed that mathematics was the
ored artificially. Agate's Moss agate model which all other sciences should follow.
hardness and ability to re- Reason was thought to be the power that enables
sistacids also make it valuable in the manufacture of people to "see" mathematical truths just as clearly as
mortars and pestles. Mortars and pestles are tools used they can see a hand before their eyes by visual percep-
to crush and mix chemicals. Most agate comes from tion. However, visual perception yields only particular,
quarries in Brazil and Uruguay. Idar-Oberstein, which is or contingent, truths. For example, it is not necessary
in southwestern Germany, has been the main center for that every hand have five fingers because one or more
cutting and polishing agate for several hundred years. fingers could be lost in an accident. Only reason yields
Robert W. Charles necessary, or universal, truths. An example of such a
See also Chalcedony; Quartz; Sardonyx truth is that 5 plus 5 will always equal 10.

Agate Fossil Beds National Monument is in The philosophers of the Age ofReason believed that
northwestern Nebraska (see Nebraska (physical map]). It each person has a rational will, which makes it possible
has the fossil bones of extinct animals that lived about 20 to make and carry out plans. Animals, they declared, are
million years ago. The fossils include those of two- slaves of their emotions. When an animal is afraid of
horned rhinoceroses and of animals that had horselike something, it tries to escape. When an animal is angry, it
heads, rhinoceroslike forelegs, bearlike hindlegs, and fights. However, people can figure out the best course
clawed feet. The monument was authorized in 1965. For of action when they are afraid, angry, or in trouble. In

its area, see National Park System (table: National monu- addition, people can make themselves do the right
 Age of Reason 1 39

thing, instead of doing only what may seem easier or these novels, rational thought goes as far as possible to-
more appealing. ward separating the thinking individual from conven-
The philosophers realized that people do not always tional influences and limitations.
plan ahead but often act on impulse, which they attrib- Deism. The philosophers of the Age of Reason were
uted to inadequate education. All people, the philoso- convinced that the universe can be understood by the
phers believed, are born with the capacity to reason. human mind. This is not an accident, the philosophers
Descartes wrote that "the power of forming a good emphasized, because God could have created a uni-
judgment and of distinguishing the true from the false, verse too complex to be grasped by human beings. In-
which is properly speaking what is called good sense or stead, God created a universe ideally adjusted to the
reason, is by nature equal in all men." Descartes there- reasoning powers of people.
fore thought that to become rational, a person need Most of the philosophers believed that after God had
only acquire an education that teaches a good method created the universe, He left it strictly alone. This theory,
of reasoning. called deism, rules out the possibility of miracles or
Locke wrote that reason is "the candle of the Lord set other special acts by God. According to deism, God reg-
up by Himself in men's minds" and "must be our last ulated nature so that it proceeds mechanically. Future
judge and guide in everything." Locke believed reason events are therefore fully predictable on the basis of
teaches that people must unite and form a state to pro- earlier events. The philosophers liked to think of the uni-
tect their "lives and liberty and property." He noted that verse as a clock that keeps perfect time because it was
although people must give up some rights when they designed by a superior clockmaker. See Deism.
form a state, they gain more in protection than they lose. Influence of the Age of Reason. The thinkers of the
Locke believed that anyone can reason, providing the Age of Reason formulated ideals of human dignity and
capacity is allowed to develop. He therefore emphasized worth. In France, unjust social and political conditions
the importance of education and insisted on the right of were criticized by a group of philosophers known as the
free speech and on toleration for conflicting ideas. philosophes. This group, which included Diderot, Rous-
The orderliness of nature. Philosophers of the Age seau, and Voltaire, greatly influenced leaders of the
of Reason believed that nature is vast and complex but French Revolution. The philosophes and, more impor-
well ordered. The English poet Alexander Pope de- tantly, Locke also influenced the leaders of the Revolu-

scribed nature as "a mighty maze, but not without plan." tionary War in America.
The philosophers of the period felt that everything in Philosophers of the Age of Reason sometimes dis-
the universe behaves according to a few simple laws, agreed on minor matters, but they all accepted the idea
which can be explained mathematically. Their favorite of the English philosopher Francis Bacon that "knowl-
example of such a law was Newton's law of gravity. edge is power." Because they aimed, in Bacon's phrase,
Human nature, the philosophers believed, is as well at "the improvement of man's estate," they concentrated

ordered as the physical universe. In The Spirit of the their efforts on the advancement of knowledge. Their
Laws (1748), the French philosopher Montesquieu action explains why so many scientific institutes, includ-
wrote: "The material world has its laws, the intelligences ing the famous Royal Society in England, were founded
superior to man have their laws, the beasts their laws, during the Age of Reason.
and man his laws." Montesquieu thought that a science The urge to advance knowledge also explains why
of human nature was possible, and he became one of great effort was made to organize and circulate the re-
the first philosophers to try to formulate the basic uni- sults of the scientific research of the time. Many schol-

formities of all human behavior. ars gathered, organized, and published this knowledge.
Montesquieu believed that climate has an important In fact, the Age of Reason could be called the "age of the

influence on temperament and thus on conduct. Ac- encyclopedia." The most famous reference work was the
cording to Montesquieu, different kinds of government French Encyclopedie, edited by Diderot and Jean
are appropriate for peoples who are living in different d'Alembert, and completed between 1751 and 1772.
parts of the world. The best government for each nation To the philosophers of the Age of Reason, progress
could be planned, he felt, by considering the country's in human affairs seemed assured. It was only a question

climate.Montesquieu thought, for example, that free of time, they believed, until people learned to let

governments are possible in northern latitudes. "People reason— not ignorance, emotion, or superstition— guide
are more vigorous in cold climates," he wrote, and they them. When people did so, they would be happy. Con-
have a "greater share of frankness and sincerity." But, dorcet expressed this optimism in his Sketch for a His-
Montesquieu said, the only workable form of govern- torical Picture of the Progress of the Human Mind (1 793-

ment in a hot climate is despotism (rule by a dictator). 1794).

Although his conclusions were discarded as mere spec- Criticism of the Age of Reason. Today, many be-
ulation, they are typical of the Enlightenment's faith in liefs of the Age of Reason seem rather naive. Most phi-
reason. losophers now believe that truths discovered by reason

Literature in the Reason questioned accepted

Age of are universal only because they are tautologies. A tautol-
thinking. Writers portrayed human life as changeable ogy is merely repeats an idea in differ-
a statement that

and human understanding as partial. Much of the litera- ent words, without giving any new information. We can

ture was written with self-consciousness and irony. It say, for example, that all cats are felines." The statement
is universally true, but only because cat" means "feline."
called attention to conventions and provoked skeptical
If the rational truths of the Age of Reason are tautolo-
awareness. The period reached its peak with works such
gies, they do not tell us anything about nature. They tell
as Pierre de Laclos' Dangerous Liaisons (1 782) and the
Marquis de Sades Philosophy in the Bedroom 11795). In us only how words are used. Most philosophers of the
1 40 Agee, James

1900s believe that factual statements about the world screenplays, including scripts for The African Queen
are never certain. Such statements are only probable at (1951)and The Night of the Hunter (1955). His film re-
best,and they may even be false. views and essays were published in Agee on Film (1 958).
The philosophers of the Age of Reason felt it was self- A second Agee on Film volume, published in 1960, has
evidently true that governments should preserve their five of his screenplays. Collections of Agees writings in-
citizens' property. But in the 1800s, the German philoso- clude Collected Poems (1968), Collected Short Prose
pher Karl Marx argued that this view merely reflected (1 968), and Selected Journalism (1 985). victor a. Kramer

the prejudices of the middle class. These people own Agency for International Development is an

the property, said Marx, and thus want to preserve it. independent agency of the United States government
The argument that universal truths are only tautolo- that administers most of the nation's economic, techni-
gies was stated early the Age of Reason by the Eng-
in cal, and humanitarian foreign aid programs. These pro-

lish philosopher Thomas Hobbes. He wrote that reason- grams are designed to improve the quality of life in de-
ing is "nothing but reckoning, that is, adding and veloping countries in Africa, Asia, Latin America, and
subtracting of the consequences of general names." But central and eastern Europe. The agency, which is com-
few people paid any attention to Hobbes's views, except monly referred to as USAID or simply AID, helps these
to condemn them. nations use their resources to become self-supporting.
The Age of Reason's optimistic belief in a rational hu- USAID works improve education, farm and indus-
to
man will has also been challenged. In the early 1900s, trial production, health care, nutrition, and population

for example, the Austrian physician Sigmund Freud stat- planning. It gives loans and grants to build hospitals,
ed that what we like to consider as "sound reasons" for housing, and schools, and to set up small businesses. It
our actions are only excuses. We act the way we do, also funds communications systems, small factories,
Freud said, because of unconscious drives arising from power plants, and rural roads. USAID also provides
a part of our subconscious mind called the id. We then famine and disaster relief, including food, medical aid,
attribute socially acceptable motives to ourselves to and temporary housing, to any needy nation.
please another part of our subconscious, the superego. Congress created the agency in 1961. From 1979 to
The Age of Reason, however, ended long before 1999, it was part of the International Development Coop-
Marx and Freud attacked its basic beliefs. Toward the eration Agency.
end of the 1700s, a great change in people's outlook oc- Critically reviewed by the Agency for International Development
curred. They came to value feeling rather than reason Agent is a person who represents someone else in le-

and to prefer passion, individuality, and spontaneity to gal, business, or other matters. The person who em-
discipline, order, and control. This change marked the ploys the agent is called the principal. The agent's au-
beginning of the Romantic movement and the end of thority may be express or implied. Express authority
the Age of Reason. James Creech involves doing exactly what the principal says to do. Im-
Related articles in World Book include: plied authority involves doing anything that is a normal
part of the agent's duties on behalf of the principal. For
Biographies
example, the president of a corporation is an agent of
Bacon, Francis Diderot, Denis Rousseau, Jean-
Condorcet, Hobbes, Thomas Jacques
the corporation.He or she has implied authority to per-
Marquis de Locke, John Voltaire form the customary acts of a president, even without ex-
Descartes, Rene Montesquieu press authority.
If the principal allows an agent to appear as if he or
Other related articles
she has more authority than the agent really has, the
French literature (The Age of Philosophy (Modern
principal is bound by what the agent does. If the agent
Reason) philosophy)
Philosophes Rationalism acts without authority, the principal is under no obliga-
Science (The Age of Reason) tion unless the principal takes advantage of the act or
approves it in some other way. If the principal does not
Additional resources
approve the act, the agent may be liable for damages to
Gay, Peter. The Enlightenment 2 vols. 1966, 1969. Reprint. Peter
the person the agent misled. Edward Kionka |.

Smith, 1996.
Reill, Peter H., and Wilson, E. J. Encyclopedia of the Enlighten-
Agent Orange is the military code name for a weed-
ment Facts on File, 1996. killerused by the United States during the Vietnam War
Spencer, Lloyd. Introducing the Enlightenment. Totem Bks., 1997. (1957-1975). In the 1960s and early 1970s, the United
Agee, A Yjee, James (1909-19551, was an American States armed forces sprayed Agent Orange over jungles
writer. His Tennessee childhood provided the setting for and farms in South Vietnam and Laos. Agent Orange
his novel The Morning Watch (1 951 A Death in the Fam-). was used to defoliate (cause the leaves to fall off) trees
ily'^ a poetic novel based on his earliest years in Knox- and shrubs and to kill crop plants. The spraying revealed
ville, his hometown. The work was published in 1 957, af- enemy hiding places and destroyed food crops.
ter he died. It won the 1958 Pulitzer Prize for fiction. Tad Agent Orange consisted of two weedkillers— 2,4-D
Mosel adapted the novel into a play. All the Way Home and 2,4, 5-T. Some veterans blamed Agent Orange for
(1960), which won the 1961 Pulitzer Prize for drama. health problems. In 1990, the Centers for Disease Con-
Agee collaborated with photographer Walker Evans trol (now Disease Control and Prevention), a U.S. govern-
on a study of white tenant farmers during the Great ment agency, said it found no evidence that Agent
Depression. Evans's pictures and Agees text were pub- Orange increased the risk of cancer among Vietnam vet-
lished as Let Us Now Praise Famous Men (1941). During erans. That same year, a congressional committee de-
the 1940s, Agee reviewed movies for 77'meand The clared the study flawed. In 1991, Congress passed a bill
Nation magazines. Beginning in 1948, he wrote several providing disability benefits for Vietnam veterans suffer-
 Aging 141

ing from certain illnesses said to have been caused by be aggressive by witnessing aggressive behavior, such
exposure to Agent Orange. See Dioxin. as family arguments and violent television programs.
In 1993, the Institute of Medicine, an adviser to the They may also learn aggression through direct rewards
U.S. government, released a study that linked exposure (getting what they want after acting aggressively). Social
to Agent Orange to three kinds of cancer and two skin learning theories also emphasize the importance of gen-
diseases. The study based its conclusions on civilians' der roles, society's expectations about appropriate be-
exposure in their jobs or in job-related accidents. It rec- havior for males and females. Deborah South Richardson
ommended more studies before the effects of Agent Or- See also Child (Aggressive and antisocial behavior);
ange on veterans could be determined. Gary f. Bennett Child abuse; Domestic violence; Personality (Freud's
Ageratum, aj uh RAYtuhm or uh JEHR uh tuhm, is a psychoanalytic theory; Emotional reactions); Psychology.
popular, low-growing, annual plant of flower gardens. It Agincourt, AJ ihn kawrt, Battle of, took place be-
is native to tropical regions of Central and South Ameri- tween English and French armies near the village of
ca. Its pale blue, white, or pink flowers bloom all sum- Agincourt, in northern France, in 1415. The English had
mer. Each flower head has many tiny, tube-shaped flow- only about 6,000 troops. But its archers, firmly disci-
ers, crowded closely together. Ageratum plants may be plined and backed by cavalry, routed a French army that
grown from seeds started indoors in early spring, or probably consisted of about 20,000 to 30,000 troops. The
planted later Outdoors. W Dennis Clark battle marked the third great English victory in the Hun-
dred Years' War. The English went on to conquer Nor-
mandy and to sign the favorable Treaty of Troyes in
1420. The English playwright William Shakespeare
wrote about the battle in his history play Henry V.
C T- Allmand
See also Hundred Years' War; Shakespeare, William
(Shakespeare's plays [Henry VI).
Aging is the process of growing old. As adults age,
they become increasingly vulnerable to injury, illness,
and death. Aging is a characteristic of almost ail living
things. The which it occurs, however, varies with-
rate at
in and across species. The biological changes associat-
ed with aging begin at the moment of conception (fertil-
ization). In most human beings, the changes do not
become visible until individuals reach 30 to 40 years of
age. Age-related changes include graying or loss of hair,
W Atlee Burpee Co.
weakened muscles, wrinkled skin, and diminished
blooms sum- sense of hearing and vision.
The ageratum is a popular garden plant that all

mer. Each flower head has many tiny, tube-shaped flowers. Why people age. Early scientists and philosophers
viewed aging as a natural process that removed the el-
Scientific classification. Ageratum plants are in the compos- derly to make room for the young. This idea suggests
ite family, Compositae. A common ageratum is Ageratum hous- that the natural lifespan of an organism is fixed and de-
tonianum. termined by genetic instructions that are present at
Aggression is a term psychologists use to refer to be- birth. However, many scientists now believe that aging

havior intended to hurt others. Aggression may take a is the result of various natural biological processes

direct form, such as verbal abuse or a physical attack rather than a predetermined genetic program. Most sci-
against people or their possessions. Indirect methods of entists think that aging and death occur at different rates

aggression include spreading rumors and stealing. and times among individuals because of a combination
People become aggressive for various reasons. Expe- of genetic variation, differences in the way in which peo-

riencing pain or danger can lead to aggression. In other ple live their lives, and the random nature of the biologi-

cases, people behave aggressively to gain status, mon- cal processes that contribute to aging.

ey, pleasure, or control over others. For most organisms, the timing of death is linked to
Different approaches to understanding aggression the time in the life span when reproduction occurs. The
emphasize different determining factors (causes). Biolog- timing of puberty and menopause is particularly impor-
ical factors, such as genes and hormones, and personali- tant After the reproductive period, the cells, tissues, and
ty characteristics, such as dominance or hostility, can other components of the body have accumulated
lead to aggressive behavior. So can a person's develop- enough damage so that they can no longer function as
mental history-Xhat is, how the person was raised. So- well as before. This loss of function is expressed in the

cial factors, including the presence of an audience and

form of a wide range of diseases and disorders associat-
the sex, race, or other characteristics of the target, can
ed with aging.
also influence aggression.
How aging occurs. Scientists do not fully understand
the precise biological changes in cells, tissues, and or-
Most theories of aggression recognize the relation-
shipbetween emotions and aggression. People who ex- gans that contribute to aging. One important mecha-
perience frustration, anger, or fear may act aggressively. nism involved in aging is the damage that accumulates
in cells from unstable molecules called free radicals.
Some theories focus on social learning, the process by
which individuals learn the behavior society expects of These molecules are produced from the natural biologi-
cal processes as the body works to maintain a constant
them. According to these theories people may learn to
142 Aging

Creagan, Edward T., ed. Mayo Clinic on Healthy Aging. Mayo

Found., 2001.
Kirkwood, Tom. Time of Our Lives: The Science of Human Aging.
1999. Reprint Oxford, 2000
Maddox, George L The Encyclopedia of Aging. 2 vols. 3rd ed.
Springer Pub. Co., 2001.
Wei, Jeanne Y., and Levkoff, Sue. Aging Well: The Complete
Guide to Physical and Emotional Health. Wiley, 2000.
Agnew, Spiro Theodore (1918-1996), became the
only vice president of the United States to resign his of-
ficewhile under criminal
investigation. In 1968 and
1972, Agnew had won
election as vice president
under President Richard
M. Nixon. Agnew resigned
in 1973 after a federal
grand jury began hearing
charges that he had partic-
ipated in graft as an office-
holder in Maryland.
Agnew had been elect-
ed governor of Maryland
Office of the Vice President
in 1966. He was the first

man Greek descent to

of
Spiro T. Agnew

serve as governor of an
American state, or as vice president He became the sec-
ond vice president to resign. In 1832, Vice President
John C. Calhoun resigned after being chosen to fill a U.S.
Senate seat from South Carolina.
© Chuck Savage, Corbis Early life. Agnew was born on Nov. 9, 1918, in Tow-
Exercise can help elderly people maintain or improve physical son, Maryland. His father, Theodore Spiro Agnew, had
fitness. Although the process of aging cannot be prevented, reg- come to the United States in 1897. Theodore Agnew be-
ular physical activity can produce benefits at any age. came a leader of the city's Greek community.
Agnew studied chemistry for three years at Johns
Hopkins University, and then transferred to the law
temperature and level of functioning. school of the University of Baltimore. He served in the
The human body has many biological defense mecha- Army in Europe during World War II (1939-1945).

nisms designed to prevent or minimize free radical Agnew switched from the Democratic to the Republi-
damage and damage that does occur. Over
repair the can Party after the war. He married Elinor Isabel Judefind
time, however, thedamage caused by free radicals ac- in 1942. They had three daughters and a son. Agnew re-

cumulates and contributes to the many processes asso- ceived a law degree in 1947 and began practicing in Bal-
ciated with aging. Scientists are looking for ways in timore County.
which they can reduce or postpone the damage caused Political career. Agnew entered politics in 1957,
by free radicals and possibly delay the aging process. when he was appointed to the Baltimore County Board
Overcoming aging. Some of the effects of aging can of Appeals. In 1962, he was elected county executive, the
be masked through the use of cosmetics, creams, lo- chief official of Baltimore County. In 1967, Agnew be-
tions, and plastic surgery. Many people claim that vita- came the fifth Republican governor in Maryland history.
mins, antioxidants, hormones, and various other sub- Agnew was little known outside Maryland in 1968
stances have antiaging properties. Scientific research on when the Republican National Convention, at Nixon's re-
these claims has yet to be completed, and most scien- quest, nominated him for vice president. In the election,
tists doubt that they will work. However, scientific exper- Nixon and Agnew defeated the Democratic candidates,
iments have shown that it is possible to make some ani- Hubert H. Humphrey and Edmund S. Muskie. Agnew
mals live longer by reducing their intake of food. soon became well known and highly controversial. He
Researchers are trying to understand how and why this often accused some newspapers and TV networks of
method, called caloric restriction, works. Most scien- presenting news in a way that was prejudiced against
tists, however, believe that it is impossible to stop or re- the administration. He also criticized student radicals
verse the process of aging. s. jay oishansky and other dissenters. In 1972, Nixon and Agnew won a
Related articles in World Book include: landslide victory over their Democratic opponents,
Antioxidant Old age George S. McGovern and Sargent Shriver.
Life expectancy Palliative care
In 1973, federal officials began to investigate charges
Middle age Progeria
that Agnew had accepted bribes from contractors in re-
Additional resources turn for helping them get state government work in

Connally, N. Thomas. The Third Third: A Physician's Guide to a Maryland. The investigation covered the period Agnew
Healthy, Happy, Longer Life. Bright Sky Pr., 2001. had served as Baltimore County executive, Maryland
 Agribusiness 143

governor, and United States vice president.

Agnew repeatedly denied any wrongdoing. But on
October 10, he resigned as vice president under an
agreement with the Department of Justice. Agnew
pleaded nolo contendere {no contest) to a single
charge— that he had cheated the government of $13,551
on his federal income tax payment for 1967. The judge
declared that the plea was "the full equivalent of a plea
of guilty." Agnew was fined SI 0,000 and sentenced to
three years of unsupervised probation.
House Minority Leader Gerald R. Ford succeeded Ag-
new as vice president Ford was sworn into the office on
Dec. 6, 1973.
In 1974, the Maryland Court of Appeals disbarred Ag-
new because of his nolo contendere plea. The court's
5 Giuseppe Mazza
action prohibited Agnew from practicing law in the
The agouti is a rodent that lives in forests of Central and South
another Maryland court ordered Agnew
state. In 1981,
America and the West Indies. It eats fruit, leaves, and roots.
amount of the bribes it declared he
to pay the state the
had accepted, plus interest In 1983, Agnew paid Mary-
land $268,482. The former vice president died on Sept. fur at birth,and their eyes are open. They can move
17,1996. EarlMazo about and take care of themselves soon after birth. How-
See also Ford, Gerald R.; Nixon, Richard M.; Vice ever, they remain with their parents for as long as 20
President of the United States. weeks. Coatis, mountain lions, and jaguars prey on
Agnon, AHG nahn, Shmuel Yosef (1 888-1 970), was agoutis. In the tropics, people hunt agoutis for their
an Israeli author. He shared the 1966 Nobel Prize in liter- meat Agoutis make affectionate pets. Charles a. Long

ature with German-born author Nelly Sachs. Scientific classification. Agoutis belong to the paca and
Agnon wrote novels and short stories about Jewish agouti family, Dasyproctidae. They belong to the genus
Dasyprocta.
Europe and Israel. His fiction has profound mysti-
life in

caland psychological overtones, combining social satire See also Rodent

with religious themes. Agnon, who wrote in Hebrew, Agra, AH gruh (pop. 1,259,979), is one of the largest
used language and storytelling techniques drawn from cities in Uttar northern India (see In-
Pradesh, a state in

Jewish religious texts and folk literature. dia [political mapl). It is also one of the oldest cities on
Shmuel Yosef Czaczkes was born on July 17, 1888, in the Indian Peninsula. Agra is famous as the site of the Taj
eastern Galicia, now part of Ukraine. He first went to Mahal. In the 1600s, Emperor Shah Jahan ordered this
Palestine in 1907 and later changed his name to Agnon, magnificent marble tomb built as a memorial to his wife,
which he took from the title of his first published story, Mumtaz-i-Mahal. Agra lies on the Yamuna River. The city
"Agunot" ("Deserted Wives,"' 1909). Agnon's major novels centers around Agra Fort, which was built by the Mu-
include The Bridal Canopy (1931), A Simple 5ro/y(1935), ghal emperor Akbar about 1 566. The northern part of
A Guest for the Night11937), and Yesteryear (1945). Some the city has business and market districts. Modern facto-
of the author's short stories were collected in Twenty- ries lie north of the city along the river. Agra is an impor-

One Stories (1970). Agnon died on Feb. 17, 1970. tant trading center for cotton, grain, sugar, and tobacco.
Stanley L Nash The city is well known and delicate in-
for the gold lace
Agnosticism, ag NAHS tuh sihz uhm, is the belief that laid mosaics that its people make chiefly by hand.
ultimate questions, especially those about the existence P. P. Karan

of God, cannot be answered. The term comes from the See also India (picture: The art treasures of India); Taj
Greek word agnostos, which means not knowing. It was Mahal.
first used by the British naturalist Thomas Henry Huxley Agribusiness, AGruh bihz nihs, is the group of indus-
in 1 869. Agnosticism reflects the point of view that rea- tries involvedproducing, transporting, processing,
in

son and scientific evidence should be the sole guides to distributing, and selling farm products. It also includes

finding truth. During the mid-1 900s, the German- those businesses that supply farmers with such goods
American theologian Paul Tillich argued that a period of and services as machinery, seeds, fertilizers, agricultural
agnosticism— in the form of doubt— is a necessary stage chemicals, credit, and management information.
before one can accept a meaningful faith. See Atheism; Agribusiness is one of the most rapidly growing in-
Ingersoll, Robert Green. Mark Juergensmeyer dustries in the United States. Although farmers make up
Agouti, uh GOO tee, is a rodent that lives in dense only about 3 percent of the U.S. labor force, nearly 1
forests from southern Mexico to northern Argentina, American worker out of every 4 is employed in some
and in the West Indies. Agoutis measure almost 2 feet branch of agribusiness.
(60 centimeters) long. They have small rounded ears, Improved technology and specialization have con-
long legs, and either a short tail or no tail at all. Most tributed to the growth of agribusiness. In the past, farm
agoutis have brown, blackish-brown, or orange fur. The families produced nearly everything they needed on the
hair on the back is grayish. Agoutis run with a jumping farm itself. But farmers today buy many of the products
motion, like deer. they use from others. For example, as farmers began to
Agoutis eat fruit, leaves, and roots. Most females bear use pesticides and herbicides, a need for more workers
in the chemical industry was created.
their young in litters of two. The young have full coats of wwrenl Lee
1 44 Agricola, Gnaeus Julius

Agricola, uh CRIHK uh luh Gnaeus Julius, NEE uhs tion in the United States. They are
(1) high schools, (2)

(A.D. 37?-93), was an able Roman general. He was given colleges and universities, and youth organizations.
(3)

command in Britain by the emperor Domitian about A.D. High schools in every state, the District of Columbia,
77 and ordered to complete the conquest of England. Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands provide vocational
Seven years later, Agricola had conquered all of Eng- agriculture training. Most high school agriculture cours-
land and a part of Scotland. He also sent ships around es offer both classroom instruction and practical experi-
the island of Great Britain to draw maps. Agricola then ence. For example, a student might raise a crop or an an-
prepared to invade Ireland. But Domitian was dis- imal, work on a farm, or work for an agriculture
pleased by the high cost of Agricola's operations. Agri- business, such as a machinery dealer. Many schools of-
cola was relieved of his command and recalled to Rome. fer adult education courses to help people improve
Agricola was born inwhat is now Frejus, France. He their production, management, and computer skills.
owes much of his fame to the writings of his son-in-law, Colleges and universities award bachelors, mas-
the historian Tacitus. Arther remii ter's, and doctor's degrees in agriculture.

Agricultural Adjustment Administration Land-grant universities award more than three-

(AAA). See New Deal; Parity. fourths of all agricultural degrees. These state schools
Agricultural education is instruction about crop receive federal aid under legislation that followed the
production, livestock management, soil and water con- Morrill Act of 1862, which granted public lands to sup-
servation, and various other aspects of agriculture. Agri- port agricultural or mechanical education. Land-grant
cultural education includes instruction in food educa- universities have three chief functions: (1 teaching, (2)
)

tion, such as nutrition. Agricultural and food education research, and (3) extension service.
improves the quality of life for all people by helping Teaching. Colleges of agriculture prepare students
farmers increase production, conserve resources, and for careers inall aspects of the food and agriculture sys-

provide nutritious foods. tem. Some career choices include food science and vet-
There are four major fields of agricultural education: erinary science, farming, ranching, teaching, marketing,
(1 elementary agriculture, (2) vocational agriculture, (3)
) management, and social services.
college agriculture, and (4) general education agricul- Research. Each land-grant university has an agricul-
ture. Elementary agriculture is taught in public schools tural experiment station equipped with laboratories and
and deals with such subjects as how plants and animals experimental farms. There, agricultural scientists work
grow and how soil is farmed and conserved. Vocational to develop better farming methods, solve the special
agriculture trains people for jobs in such areas as pro- problems of local farmers, and provide new technology.
duction, marketing, and conservation. College agricul- Extension service. The Cooperative Extension System
ture involves training of people to teach, conduct re- is a partnership of the federal, state, and county govern-

search, or provide information to advance the field of ments. This service distributes information gathered by
agriculture and food science in other ways. General ed- the land-grant universities and the U.S. Department of
ucation agriculture informs the public about food and Agriculture to farmers, families, and young people.
agriculture. County extension agents, who work in most counties,
trainand support volunteer leaders. Agents and volun-
In the United States
teers carry out extension programs through meetings,
There are three chief sources of agricultural educa- newsletters, radio, television, and visits.

Agricultural education pre-

pares students for careers in
livestock management, crop
production, and other areas
of agriculture. In this photo-
graph, a teacher shows stu-
dents how to evaluate the
quality of hay used for live-
stock feed.
 Agricultural Stabilization Service 145

Youth programs and organizations involved in stations in the Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico. Each state
agricultural education include 4-H and FFA (Future has at least one main station at a state school called a
Farmers of America). Members of 4-H participate in land-grant university. Many states have branch stations
projects dealing with conservation, food and agricul- to meet the needs of different climate and geographic
ture, healthand safety, and other subjects. The 4-H pro- zones in those states.
gram the United States is part of the Cooperative
in The United States stations are state institutions, but
State Research, Education, and Extension Service. the federal and state governments cooperate in funding
FFA is an integral part of the program of vocational the research done at the stations. The states provide
agriculture in many high schools. Local chapters take most of the government money. Additional income
field tripsand conduct projects to develop leadership, comes from grants, contracts, and the sale of products.
citizenship, patriotism, and excellence in agriculture. Station scientists study biological, economic, and so-
History. The rapid growth of agricultural education cial problems of food, agriculture, and related industries
began during the late 1800s. In 1862, Congress created in eachstate. They investigate such subjects as crop vari-
the Department of Agriculture to gather and distribute ations, soil testing, livestock processing, and animal ra-
agricultural information. The Morrill Act, which provid- tions. They also work to develop and apply computers,
ed for the land-grant schools, became law that same biotechnology, and other advanced technology to food
year. The Hatch Act of 1887 gave federal funds to estab- and agriculture. The scientists work with specialists
lish agricultural experiment stations. called extension agents, who teach farmers about devel-
Government support for agricultural education in- opments in agriculture. Most station scientists are facul-
creased during the 1900s. For example, the Smith-Lever ty members of the land-grant universities.
Act of 1914 created what is now the Cooperative Exten- The first state agricultural experiment station in the
sion System. The Smith-Hughes Act of 1917 and the United States was organized in 1875 at Wesleyan Uni-
Ceorge-Barden Act of 1946 financed high school in- versity in Middletown, Connecticut It was supported by
struction in farming. The Vocational Education Act of private donations and state funds. Federal aid for experi-
1963 funded training in other fields of agriculture. ment stations across the country began with the Hatch
Agricultural science and education expanded after Act of 1 887. The provisions of this act and later legisla-
1900 in response to a need for more technical knowl- tion providing increased funds were combined in the
edge and skill. This development led to the use of mod- Hatch Act of 1955. The Mclntire-Stennis Act of 1962 au-
ern farming methods that required fewer farmworkers. thorized forestry research at experiment stations. The
Another major result of this change was the creation of federal government takes part in the experiment station
larger farms and ranches. This development increased program through the Cooperative State Research, Edu-
the need for more agriculture science and education. cation, and Extension Service of the U.S. Department of
Agriculture. The department coordinates research activi-
In other countries
ties among the state experiment stations.

Agricultural education in other countries resembles In Canada, about 50 percent of the experiment sta-

that in the United States. Canada has its own 4-H pro- tions are controlled by the Canadian government The
gram. Agriculture Canada distributes information on Central Experimental Farm in Ottawa is the headquarters
new farming methods and maintains experimental farms of the federal system. Private industries, universities, and

and research institutions throughout the country. In Aus- agricultural colleges control the remainder of the sta-
tralia, each state has several agricultural research sta- tions. Each province has a number of provincial stations.

tions and an extension service. The United Kingdom has James R. Fischer

a program of youth clubs called Young Farmers' Clubs. See also County agricultural extension agent; Land-
The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United grant university.
Nations works to train people throughout the world in Agricultural extension work. See Cooperative Ex-
modern farming. The United States aids farmers in de- tension System.
veloping nations through its Agency for International Agricultural machinery. See Farm and farming
Development (AID). Raymond Miller, J. Jr. and its list of Related articles.

Related articles in World Book include: Agricultural Revolution. See Agriculture (The
Agricultural experiment FFA Agricultural Revolution).
station 4-H Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation
County agricultural extension Land-grant university
Service (ASCS) was an agency of the United States De-
agent
partment of Agriculture from 1961 to 1994. The service
Agricultural experiment station is a research cen- administered programs concerning farm products and
ter thatconducts scientific investigations to solve prob- agricultural conservation. It granted loans to farmers;
lems and suggest improvements in the food and agri- purchased farm products from farmers and processors;
culture industry. Experiment station scientists work with administered acreage allotment and marketing quota
farmers, ranchers, suppliers, processors, and others in- programs; shared the cost of conservation and environ-
volved food production and agriculture. Station scien-
in
mental protection measures with farmers and ranchers:
tists also natural resource and environmental
work with and supervised civil defense activities relating to food. It
organizations and with rural communities. Agricultural also managed the inventories of the Commodity Credit
experiment stations have made outstanding contribu- Corporation (see Commodity Credit Corporation!. The
tions to the development of food and agriculture in
the sen u e was incorporated into the Department of Agri-
United States and Canada.
culture s Farm Service Agency in 1994.

The United States has dozens of stations, including iD) i,'\ lewsd in the Dapaftrmni ol -vyr-n ultura
146 Agriculture

1TX

ta*r
jHb<

NA Stone. DPI
Harvesting wheat in Canada Herding sheep in Australia

The vast and varied world of agriculture provides us with nearly all our food, with fibers for
clothing, and with raw materials for industry. Half the world's workers are farmers, and about a
third of the earth s land area is used for agriculture.

erers could supply. But for many centuries, improve-

Agriculture ments in agriculture came Farming depended
slowly.
heavily on human and animal labor, and farmers had
Agriculture is the world's most important industry. It few tools to make their land and labor more productive.
provides us with almost all our food. It also supplies ma- Then in the late 1600s, inventors began to develop ma-
terials for two other basic human needs— clothing and chines for planting, cultivating, and harvesting crops.
shelter. In addition, agriculture provides materials used Over the years, farm machinery has been steadily im-
in making many industrial products, such as paints and proved.
medicines. About half the world's workers are employed Since the early 1900s, scientists have developed bet-
in agriculture— far more than in any other industry. ter breeds of livestock, better varieties of plants, and
Agriculture is one of the world's oldest industries. It highly effective fertilizers and pesticides. All these im-
began to develop about 10,000 years ago in the Middle provements have greatly reduced the need for farm la-
East At that time, certain Middle Eastern tribes discov- bor and have enormously increased farm output
ered how to grow plants from seeds and how to raise However, nearly all the scientific improvements in
animals in captivity Soon after the tribes mastered these agriculture have occurred in industrialized nations. In
skills, they began to depend chiefly on farming for food. many nonindustrial countries, people farm much as
Before the development of agriculture, people got all their ancestors did many years ago. Countries that use
their food by gathering wild plants, hunting, and fishing. old-fashioned farming methods have great difficulty in-
They had to search for food continually, which left them creasing their production of food. But increased food
little time for other activities. But as agriculture devel- production is necessary to keep up with todays rapid
oped and farm output increased, fewer people were population growth. Helping the nonindustrial nations
needed to produce food. The nonfarmers could then modernize their agriculture is one of the major chal-
develop the arts, crafts, trades, and other activities of lenges of the industrial nations.
civilized life. Agriculture therefore greatly affected the This article discusses the world's chief agricultural
food supply and made civilization possible. products, the various kinds of agriculture that farmers
Farmers provided more food than hunters and gath- practice, and the characteristics of agriculture around
the world. The article also traces the history of agricul-
Larry D. Trede, the contributor of this article, is an Associate ture. To learn about modern farms, see Farm and farm-
Professor in the Department of Agricultural Education and Stud-
ing.For information on particular agricultural subjects,
ies at Iowa State University.
see the Related articles ax the end of this article.
 Agriculture 147

lean Claude lejeune. Stock, Boston

Tapping rubber trees in Indonesia Picking tea leaves in Sri Lanka

Chief agricultural products

Food is by far the most important farm product But From animals. Cattle, chickens, goats, hogs, sheep,
farms also provide many other products, from natural turkeys, and other livestock are the main animals raised
fibers to ornamental flowers and trees. Some crops are for food. Livestock are raised in every country and sup-
used only to feed livestock. These forage crops include ply nearly all the world's meat, eggs, and milk. Farmers
alfalfa; clover; and many grasses, such as brome grass also raise other animals for food. For example, many
and timothy. Forage crops are important because they farmers keep bees for honey. Farmers on fish farms
make commercial livestock production possible. raise freshwater food fish, such as catfish and trout, and
Food products. Farms provide almost all the world's saltwater shellfish, such as mussels and oysters.
food, including some fish and game. Most food prod- Natural fibers come from a variety of plants and ani-
ucts come from crops. The rest come from animals, es- mals raised on farms. Mills and factories use the fibers
pecially cattle, hogs, poultry, sheep, and other livestock. to make fabrics, yarn, and other textile products.
From crops. The world's farmers grow about 85 major Cotton, flax, hemp, jute, and sisal are the chief plant

food crops. They can be divided into eight groups. The Wool, the principal animal fiber, comes mainly
fibers.

main group is cereal grains. Grain is grown on half the from sheep but also from such animals as goats and
world's cropland and supplies much of the nourishment members of the camel family. Silk fibers are obtained
in the human The chief grains are barley, corn, mil-
diet from the cocoons of silkworms. Farms in Japan and
let, sorghum, and wheat
oats, rice, rye, China raise most of the worlds silkworms. The develop-
Various root crops make up the second most impor- ment of nylon and other synthetic fibers since the early
tant group of food crops. Like cereal grains, root crops 1900s has reduced the demand for natural fibers in
are grown throughout the world and are a basic food some countries.
for many people. The leading root crops are potatoes, Other agricultural products. Many farms provide
sweet potatoes, and a tropical plant called cassava. other raw materials for industry besides fibers. These
The six remaining groups of major food crops are: (1) materials include natural rubber; animal hides, which
pulses, which consist mainly of dry beans and dry peas; are used to make leather; and such vegetable oils as cas-
and puls- oil and linseed oil. These oils are used in a variety of
(2) fruits and vegetables other than root crops
tor

es; (3) oil-bearing crops, such as soybeans and coconuts; products, from paints to medicines. Some farmers grow
(4) sugar-bearing crops, especially sugar cane
and sugar trees for timber, though most timber comes from natu-

beets; (5) nuts; and 16) cocoa beans, coffee, and tea. Many farmers raise tobacco. Others grow or-
ral forests.

Some oil crops, especially soybeans, are used to make namental flowers trees and shrubs. A few farmers raise
flour and meal as well as oil. such animals as foxes and mink for their fur.
148 Agriculture

Leading groups of agricultural products

Product groups Production Leading countries

in tons' in metric tons'
Cereal grains 2,253,295,000 2,044,155,000
Corn 661,358,000 599,974,000 Brazil,China, United States
Rice 645,506,000 585,593,000 Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, Vietnam
Wheat 624,837,000 566,843,000 China, France, India, Russia, United States
Sugar-bearing crops 1,650,492,000 1,497,301,000
Sugarcane 1,376,846,000 1,249,054,000 Brazil, China, India, Mexico,Thailand, Pakistan
Sugar beets 273,646,000 248,247,000 France, Germany, Turkey, Ukraine, United States
Fruits and vegetables 1,267,748,000 1,150,082,000
Tomatoes ' 108,712,000 98,622,000 China, Egypt, Italy, Turkey, United States
Melons 91,825,000 83,302,000 China, Egypt, Iran, Turkey, United States
Bananas 73,968,000 67,103,000 Brazil, China, Ecuador, India, Philippines
Oranges 73,594,000 66,763,000 Brazil, China, India, Mexico, United States
Root crops 750,602,000 680,935,000
Potatoes 339,357,000 307,860,000 China, India, Poland, Russia, United States
Cassava 193,585,000 175,617,000 Brazil, Congo (Kinshasa), Indonesia, Nigeria, Thailand
Sweet potatoes 157,692,000 143,055,000 China, Indonesia, Nigeria, Uganda, Vietnam
Milk (cow, buffalo, sheep, and goat) 638,480,000 579,219,000 Germany, India, Pakistan, Russia, United States
Oil-bearing cropst 464,123,000 421,046,000
Soybeans 189,429,000 171,847,000 Argentina, Brazil, China, United States
Cottonseed 62,310,000 56,526,000 China, India, Pakistan, United States, Uzbekistan
Coconuts 54,853,000 49,762,000 India, Indonesia, Philippines

Meat 261,749,000 237,454,000

Pork 102,746,000 93,210,000 China, France, Germany, Spain, United States
Poultry 75,615,000 68,596,000 Brazil, China, France, Mexico, United States
Beef and veal 62,688,000 56,870,000 Argentina, Australia, Brazil, China, United States

The figures for products within a group do not add up to the group total- Only the leading products a ! listed
tUsed to make flour and meal as well as oil.
Figures are for 2001.
Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

Kinds of agriculture

Farmers practice many kinds of agriculture. Each kind eithercommercial or subsistence. Commercial farms
can be classed in a number of ways. Climate is a com- produce crops and animals chiefly for sale. Subsistence
mon basis for classification. For example, the kinds of farmers produce goods mainly for themselves. The fol-
farming practiced in the tropics can be classed as tropi- lowing discussion deals with this classification.
cal agriculture. Similarly, many of the kinds of farming
Commercial agriculture
practiced cooler regions can be classed as middle-
in

latitude agriculture.Most kinds of agriculture can also The great majority of farms in industrialized countries
be classed according to the amount or value of the are commercial farms. They can be divided into two
goods produced per unit of land. Classified in this way, main groups: (1) specialized farms and (2) diversified (va-
^

agriculture is intensive or extensive. riety) farms.

Intensive agriculture is practiced chiefly where farm- Specialized farms earn all or most of their income
land is scarce. It requires large amounts of fertilizer, la- from the sale of one kind of crop or livestock. Many of
bor, or other resources. Each unit of land is thus made these farms use mass-production methods and require
as productive as possible. Small truck farms (vegetable a large investment in equipment and supplies.
farms) and orchards are examples of intensive agricul- Specialized crop production. Crops produced for
ture. A truck farm may cover only acre (0.4 hectare). But
1 sale are called cash crops. Many commercial farms raise
it may produce thousands of dollars' worth of vegeta- only one cash crop. These farms are known as one-crop,
bles yearly. or single-crop, farms. Much of the world's wheat is
Farmers practice extensive agriculture where land is grown on huge one-crop farms on the North American
plentiful, rainfallis light, and the soil is not especially Great Plains and in Ukraine. Large single-crop farms in
fertile. Extensive agriculture requires relatively little in- tropical and subtropical areas are often called planta-
vestment in equipment and supplies per unit of land, tions. Plantations raise such crops as bananas, coffee,
and each unit yields a relatively low return. The vast rice, sugar cane, and tea. Other specialized farms raise
sheep ranches of Australia are an example of extensive two or more cash crops, though most of their income
agriculture. A ranch may cover 40,000 acres (16,000 comes from one crop. Major crops raised on such farms
hectares) or more and raise thousands of sheep. But include cotton, tobacco, oilseeds, and various grains.
each animal needs about 4 acres (1.6 hectares) of land Specialized livestock production. The main kinds of
for grazing. The return per unit of land is therefore only specialized livestock farms include cattle and sheep
a few dollars' worth of wool or meat yearly. ranches, and dairy, poultry and egg, and hog farms.
The many kinds of agriculture can also be classified as Most cattle and sheep ranches consist mainly of graz-
 2

Agriculture 149

ing land. In some major beef-producing countries, such produce goods chiefly for themselves, they may also
as Argentina and Australia, cattle are kept on ranches raise small amounts for sale. This type of farming is
until they are to be slaughtered. In the United States, often called semisubsistence agriculture.
Canada, and a few other countries, most ranchers ship Most subsistence farmers have one or more small
their cattle to feed lots after the animals are 5 to 1 plots of land, which they farm year after year. Such
months old. Feed lots can feed cattle for market much farms are common in the rice-growing regions of south-
faster than the animals can be fattened on the range. The ern Asia and in parts of Africa and Latin America
typical feed lot practices highly intensive agriculture and In some countries, many subsistence farmers do not
can feed thousands of cattle on a very small area of land. have permanent farms. Instead, they live in groups that
The animals are kept in pens and given large amounts of move from place to place within a large area fixed by
grain and other high-energy feed. custom. At each stop, the members of the community
Dairy farms specialize in raising milk cows. The typical establish temporary farms. The number of such commu-
dairy farm is much larger than a poultry farm but far nities has declined since the mid-1 900s. But large com-
smaller than a ranch. Most dairy farmers raise their own munities still exist in certain parts of the world. They
feed crops. But many others buy their feed. practice two main kinds of farming: (1 1 shifting cultiva-
Most poultry and egg farms are also highly intensive. tion and (2) nomadic herding.

Such a farm may cover only about 1 acre (0.4 hectare). Shifting cultivation is an ancient farming method. It
Yet it may raise 20,000 or more laying hens or broiler iswidely used on the grasslands and in the forests of
chickens at a time. The birds are kept in temperature- central Africa, northeastern South America, and parts of
controlled buildings and given high-energy feed. Southeast Asia. The soil in most of these regions is not
At a hog farm, the animals may be kept in buildings particularly fertile. But to keep it as fertile as possible, a
and concrete yards, or in dirt yards or pastures. A hog's farm community grows crops on the same land for only
diet consists primarily of corn and other grains. a year or two. The community then cultivates an adjoin-
Diversified farms raise a variety of crops and live- ing area or moves to a different part of its territory. At
stock. Such farms produce crops to sell and to feed their each new location, the grass and trees are cut down and
livestock. Most farms in Europe and many in the Mid- burned. For this reason, shifting cultivation is also called
western United States are diversified farms. slash-and-burn agriculture. Ashes from the burned grass
Diversified farming is less risky than specialized farm- and trees the soil. The abandoned land returns
fertilize

ing. Bad weather, insects, or disease may ruin a year's to grass or forestand can be farmed again.
output on a specialized farm. Or the market price for a Nomadic herding has long been practiced in desert
particular product may decline sharply. But on a diversi- regions of Africa and Asia. These regions are far too dry
fied farm, losses from one product may often be cov- to grow crops. But they have enough wild grasses to
ered by profits from other products. support small herds of camels, sheep, goats, and other
livestock. Tribes of desert nomads keep such herds to
Subsistence agriculture provide the necessities of life. The nomads depend on
Millions of farm families in Africa, Asia, and Latin their animals for milk, cheese, and meat And they live in
America produce barely enough food to subsiston— tents and wear clothing made from the skins and hair of
that is, to meet their own needs. Subsistence farming the animals. A tribe settles in an area until their livestock
depends heavily on human labor and requires only the have stripped it of grass. The tribe and its herd then
most basic farm tools. Although subsistence farmers move on to a fresh grazing area.

Intensive agriculture is
practiced mainly where farm-
land is scarce, as in this rice-
growing area outside Beijing.
By usi.ig large amounts of
such resources as labor and
water, Chinese farmers make
each unit of land as produc-
tive as possible.
150 Agriculture Agriculture around the world

About 12 billion acres (4.8 billion hectares) of land- many improvements in agriculture, many farm
scientific
more than a third of the earth's total land area— are used goods were formerly associated with a particular
that
for farming. Farmers grow crops on about a third of this region of the United States are now produced over a
land. Farmers use the rest of this land for raising live- much wider area.
stock. The center of cotton production, for example, has
To grow crops, farmers need fairly level land and till- shifted from the Southern States to irrigated farmland in
able (workable) soil. In addition, the climate must pro- the Southwest The broad grasslands of the West were
vide a certain amount of warmth and moisture. For ex- once the nation's chief cattle-grazing areas. But the de-
ample, most crops need a frost-free period, or growing velopment of special breeds of cattle and new species
season, of at least 90 days to develop from seeds into of grass has helped create major grazing areas in the
mature plants. Many crops require much longer. Except Southern farming was once concentrated
States. Dairy
for the Far North and Antarctica, most regions of the in a region that extended from New York to Minnesota.

world have a growing season long enough for at least But large, productive dairy farms are now found in
some crops. However, many of these regions receive every state of the nation.
less than 10 inches (25 centimeters) of rain a year. Few The organization of U.S. agriculture. The United
crops can grow in such dry climates without irrigation. States has about 2,100,000 farms. They average about
Climate also largely determines the kinds of crops a 473 acres (191 hectares) in size. Most farmland in the
farmer can grow. Such crops as bananas and cocoa United States is privately owned. The federal govern-
beans grow well only in a tropical climate. Other crops, ment owns much grazing land in the Rocky Mountain
such as potatoes and apples, need a cooler climate. and Great Plains regions. The government leases most
Many plants, including both bananas and potatoes, re- of this land to ranchers.
quire much moisture. However, some plants, such as
sorghum and wheat, grow best in a climate that is fairly
dry.
Over the centuries, many methods have been devel-
oped to grow crops in unfavorable areas. By using irri-
gation, for example, farmers can raise crops even in
some extremely dry places. Where the land is hilly, farm-
ers build terraces by carving strips of level land out of
the hillsides. Greenhouses enable farmers in areas with
cold winters to grow and vegetables the
certain fruits
year around. Since the early 1900s, scientists have devel-
oped many plant varieties and livestock breeds to suit
the soil or climate of particular areas.
This section discusses agriculture in North America Potatoes Dairy croa>cts
Cattle Hogs Corn
and the other major regions of the world. For additional es Wheat Soybeans
information, see the Agriculture section of individual F '-iti Poultry T ,_
Jobaccr
continent and country articles. Came r
'

Cotton |^^^
The United States

Farmland covers about half the area of the United eans ^m

Corn
States— that is, nearly 1 billion acres (405 million
hectares). The United States has about 465 million acres :o?ffiH
(188 million hectares) of cropland, more than any other
country in the world. The remaining U.S. farmland is
used for raising livestock.
Only about 2 percent of all American workers are em- Shifting cultivation
Bananas
ployed on farms. Yet the United States produces much Brazil nuts
Cotton
of the world's farm output, including 25 percent of the Rubber Suoa-
Where the world's SOUTH cs?V
beef and 1 5 percent of the grain, milk, and eggs. Ameri- TVA1ERICA
can farmers can produce such great quantities of food crops and livestock Srteep ^_ CatWe „
Cocac
for two main reasons. These reasons are (1 the United
are raised Su 9 a '
)

«"•
or us
fn7,ts
States has vast areas of fertile soil, and the climate in
many of these areas is ideal for agriculture, and (2)
American farmers use scientific farming methods and
much farm machinery.
Major crop-growing area .Wa,
Major agricultural regions. Certain regions of the
United States are known for particular farm products.
Major grazing area
The Midwestern States, for example, are famous as the
center of U.S. corn and hog production. More than two- Mostly nonagricultural
thirds of the nation s wheat is grown in the Great Plains
region and the Pacific Northwest But because of the
 Agriculture 1 51

Since the 1920s, the number of farms in the United members' products. Since the early 1960s,
kets for their
States has decreased steadily, while the average size has commodity organizations have also become important
increased.The number of full-time farmers has also de- among farmers. Each organization represents the eco-
clined. Today,most operators of small farms also have nomic interests of farmers who specialize in a particular
nonfarm jobs. About two-thirds of all American farmers product, such as cattle, hogs, corn, soybeans, or wheat
receive more than half of their total income from such Commodity organizations try to improve market condi-
sources. tions through product promotion, by funding research,
About 500,000 U.S. farms— less than a fourth of the to- and by promoting favorable legislation.
tal number— account for over 80 percent of the cash re- A number of general farm organizations also work to
ceipts from the sale of farm products. Many farmers sell advance the interests of farmers. These groups include
their products under an arrangement called contract the American Farm Bureau Federation, the National
farming. In contract farming, a farmer signs a contract Farmers Organization, the National Farmers Union, and
with a food-processing or grain-marketing firm. Under the National Grange. Since the late 1960s, several labor
most contracts, the farmer agrees to supply the contrac- unions have tried to organize U.S. farmworkers. But ex-
tor with a certain amount of the farm's output at a speci- cept in the Pacific Coast States, the drive has had only
fied price. Most of the nation's broiler chickens and limited success.
milk— as well as much of its beef, eggs, fruits, and veg- Government plays an important role in United States
etables—are produced under contract agriculture. Federal and state laws deal with such mat-
Organized support for U.S. agriculture is provided ters as minimum farm prices preservation of the envi-
by farm organizations, government agencies, and exten- ronment, quality standards for farm products, and the
sion services. A large number of farmers belong to mar- inspection of food. Government agencies enforce these
keting cooperatives, which work to find profitable mar- laws and administer government farm programs. The

This map shows the worlds major agricultural areas and some of the chief kinds of
crops and livestock they produce. Some of the areas shown as mostly nonagricul-
tural are too cold, too dry, or too mountainous for
farming. But other areas consist

of tropical forests and dry grasslands where farmers

practice certain kinds of sub-

sistence agriculture, including nomadic herding and

shifting cultivation.
1 52 Agriculture

Leading agricultural states courses in high school and participating in such extra-
curricular activities as 4-H and FFA 'Future Farmers of
Annual cash receipts from farming America) groups (see Agricultural education; FFA 4-H).
A majority of supervisors receive their training on the
California job.
,452.000
Many U.S. farm laborers are migrants—that is, they
Texas move into a region at harvesttime to help pick and
4569,000
process the crops. After the harvest is completed, the
Iowa ••
.592,000
migrants move to another location.
Scientists and professionals of almost every type are
Nebraska i employed in agriculture. For example, engineers de-
)
velop improved methods of irrigation and more efficient
Kansas I
farm machinery. Chemists produce safe and effective
8399,000,
pesticides. Genetic engineers scientifically alter genetic
Illinois material in order to produce desirable new traits in
469.000.C
crops and livestock. Veterinarians protect the health of
Minnesota • •<
317,000,000
livestock.
Business people involved in agriculture include
Florida • •I
143.000.000
bankers and loan officers. Buyers and brokers buy or
negotiate the sale of crops and other agricultural prod-
North Carolina • <
6573,000,000
ucts. Sales representatives sell agricultural goods, in-
cluding machinery, seed, and feed.
Wisconsin Agricultural educators include high-school and voca-
S 6.080.000.000
tional teachers, adult education specialists, and college
faculty. They work with both young people and estab-
Figures are for 1999 and include government payments
Source U5, Department of Agriculture, lished agriculturists. Their jobs take them into traditional
classroom settings or to farms, homes, and businesses.
Agriculture educators teach new methods and ideas.
They help farmers solve problems and devise manage-
United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) is the ment plans for wise use of resources.
chief federal agricultural agency (see Agriculture, De- Communications specialists who are knowledgeable
partment of. Other federal agencies sponsor special about agriculture work in industry, education, and gov-
agriculture programs. Almost every state also has its ernment They include advertising representatives, edi-
own department of agriculture. tors,photographers, public relations specialists, and
Every state has an extension service, and nearly every radio and television producers.
county has extension agents, both of which are part of
Canada
the Cooperative Extension System. These services and
agents provide farm families with up-to-date information Canada s farmland covers about 7 percent of the
about farming techniques and methods of farm manage- country s total land area. Most of the country's farmland
ment The Cooperative Extension System is a partner- lies in the provinces that border the United States.
ship of the federal, state, and county governments. About half of Canada s farmland is used to grow crops.
Thestate and county extension services are operated The nation has about 250,000 farms. They average about
in connection with land-grant universities. Every state 665 acres 1270 hectares) in size.
has at least one of these schools. Over the years, land- Canada has two major farming regions. The larger
grant universities have become the nation s chief cen- one extends through the Prairie Provinces— Manitoba,
ters of agricultural education. Each land-grant university Saskatchewan, and Alberta. The other region lies in
also operates an agricultural experiment station with the southeastern Canada. The Prairie Provinces grow most
help of the federal government The stations are the of Canada s wheat, rapeseed. and barley. These prov-
leading centers of agricultural research in the United inces also produce about two-thirds of Canada s most
States. valuable farm product— beef Farms in the south-
cattle.
Careers in U.S. agriculture. Many agricultural ca- east produce corn, dairy products, eggs, fruits, and veg-
reers are directly related to farming and ranching. But etables.
the number and farmers has declined over
of U.S. farms Agriculture is organized and supported in Canada
the past few decades. Even so, many specialized areas in much as it is in the United States. Almost all the farms
agriculture are growing very rapidly. These areas in- are privately owned. Most owners live and work on
clude biotechnology, communications, education, man- their farm, and many of them also hold a part-time job
agement, sales, and science. off the farm. Contract farming has become increasingly
Farmworkers include self-employed farmers and important Many
farmers belong to the Canadian Feder-
hired managers, supervisors, and laborers. Many peo- ation of Agriculture and the National Farmers Union.
ple who plan to become farmers or farm managers at- Both organizations work to advance the economic inter-
tend an agricultural college. Some young people pre- ests of Canada s farmers.
pare for agricultural occupations by taking special Agriculture Canada, an agency of the federal govern-
 Agriculture 1 53

The agricultural labor force and Argentina is one of the chief wool-producing coun-
The percentage of workers engaged in agriculture varies greatly tries.
throughout the world. In Asia and Africa, for example, about 60
percent of all workers are farmers. But farmers make up only Europe
about 2 percent of the total U.S. and Canadian labor force.
About 50 percent of the land in Europe, excluding
Russia, is farmland. Most of this land is level and re-
^ v
Agricultural workers Nonagricultural workers
ceives abundant approximately 60
rainfall. As a result,
percent of Europe's farmland is used to grow crops.
57.5% 42.5%
Farmers in most European countries use modern farm-
Africa
ing methods and equipment
Total labor force: 342.561 ,000
Russia has the largest land area of any country in the
56.3% 43.7% world. It ranks among the leading countries in area of
Asia*
farmland. But farmland makes up only about 15 percent
Total labor force: 1,846,274,000
of Russia's land. The majority of this farmland is in Eu-
rope. Most of the Asian part of Russia is too dry or has
19.8% 80.2% too short a growing season for farming. Some of the
Latin America land in this region is suitable for raising livestock, how-
Total labor force: 222,800,000 ever.
Western Europe has only about 4 percent of the
18.7% 81.3% world's farmland. Yet it is one of the most productive

Oceania farming regions on the earth. Western European farms

Total labor force: 5,1 70,000
1
produce about 15 percent of the world's potatoes and
wheat; about 20 percent of the eggs; about 30 percent of
8.6% 91.4%
the milk and sugar beets; and about 35 percent of the
Europet
barley. About 5 percent of all workers are employed in
Total labor force. 359,588,000
farming.
United States 2.1% 97.9% Agriculture in Western Europe is highly intensive. For
and Canada example, most of the region's wheat is grown on small
Total labor force: 161,664,000 farms, and the farmers use large amounts of fertilizer on
each unit of land. This intensive operation, combined
'Excluding Asian pan of Russia. with abundant rainfall, results in wheat yields that often
tlncluding Asian part of Russia.
Figures are for 2000. average about 40 percent higher than those in the
Sources: Food and Agriculture Organizanon of the United Nations, World Book estimates
United States.
Western European farms are usually smaller and
merit,is the country's chief agricultural agency. Each

province also has its own department of agriculture.

Regional contributions to world crop production
Latin America
This graph shows how much each major world region con-
About 36 percent of the land in Latin America has tributes to the world's crop output Europe and the United States
been developed for farming. Much of the region lies in and Canada, taken together, account for 41 percent of the total
production. But these regions have only about 3 percent of the
the tropics, and the tropical soils and climate are not
world's farmers.
well suited to many of the crops grown in cooler re-
gions. The largest and most fertile farming areas are in
Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay, and southern Brazil.
Most farmers in Latin America are subsistence farm- Asia" 34.2% Europe^
ers who live mainly on such crops as cassava, corn, dry / 232%
beans, or potatoes. Commercial agriculture is also im-
portant in Latin America, however. Wealthy families own
most of the region's commercial farms, and hired work-
ers or tenant farmers supply the labor. But since the
mid-1900's,many Latin American countries have begun
land-reform programs. These programs have broken up
many large estates and distributed the land among poor
farmers.
Oceania /
4.5%
America grow most of the
Plantations in tropical Latin
world's commercial supplies of bananas and coffee, Africa
6.6%
about a third of the cocoa beans, and more than a fourth Latin America
of the sugar cane. Large farms and ranches in Argentina 13.7%
and Brazil produce great quantities of food and other
agricultural products. Both countries are among the
world's top producers of beef cattle and soybeans. *t \i hiding Asian pari ol Russia 'Including Asian part ol Russia.

Brazil is also the world's leading producer of oranges.

ripurrs arr tor 2001 Sourer f «>od and Aqm uftufr Organization ot the I nitrd Saoon-,
1 54 Agriculture

much more diversified than those in the United States in Asia's few such as Israel and
industrial countries,
and Canada. The typical farm covers only 35 to 40 acres Japan, and China and Malaysia.
in

(14 to 16 hectares). It is used to raise alfalfa, barley, pota- China is the world's leading producer of cotton and
toes, sugar beets, and wheat, as well as various kinds of rice, and it ranks second only to the United States in the
livestock, such as cattle and hogs. Specialized farms pro- production of corn. Malaysia leads all other nations in
duce great quantities of citrus fruits, grapes, milk, olives, the production of palm oil. Thailand, Indonesia, and
poultry, and vegetables. Most Western European farms Malaysia are all major producers of natural rubber. India
are privately owned. produces more tea than any other country. The Philip-
About 16 percent of the workers in Eastern Europe pines ranks as the leading producer of coconuts and co-
work on farms. Farmers in Eastern Europe raise many of conut products. Plantations and many small farms
the same kinds of crops and livestock that Western Eu- throughout tropical Asia raise such export crops as ba-
ropean farmers raise. Most farms in Eastern Europe are nanas, coconut, sugar cane, and tea.
owned by individual farmers or by companies. Some of
these farms are much Western Eu-
larger than those in
Australia and New Zealand
rope. Some are run as joint-stock companies. Managers Farmland covers about 60 percent of Australia and
and farmers on these farms are part owners who own more than 50 percent of New Zealand. In both countries,
stock in their farms. They buy their own equipment and more than 90 percent of the farmland is pasture or rela-
decide what to grow and how to market their products. tively dry grazing land and is used mainly for raising cat-
Farmers on joint-stock farms receive a share in profits tle and sheep. Australia leads the world in wool produc-
and sometimes a small wage. tion and is an important producer of beef, lamb, mutton,
During the period of Communist rule, national gov- and dairy products. New Zealand also ranks high in
ernments owned most of the farmland in Eastern Eu- wool, lamb, and mutton production.
rope. The main kinds of government-owned farms were Most of the cropland in Australia and New Zealand
state farms and collective farms. State farms were man- lies along the east coasts of both countries and in the

aged entirely by the government The government paid southeastern and southwestern parts of Australia. Farms
wages and collected profits for the farm products. Col- in these regions are operated in much the same way as

lective farms were controlled by the government but farms in the major crop-growing areas of North Ameri-
managed partly by workers. Workers were paid wages ca. Grains are the most important crops in both Australia
and shared in profits. and New Zealand. Australia produces large quantities of
In the late 1980s, non-Communist governments began wheat.
to replace Communist governments in Eastern Europe. About 5 percent of the in Australia and about
workers
Many Eastern European countries passed laws allowing 10 percent of the workers New
Zealand are employed
in

government-owned land to be distributed to or pur- in agriculture. Australian farms average nearly 5,000

chased by individual farmers. Some state-owned farms acres (2,000 hectares) in size. New Zealand farms aver-
were broken up and sold to individual farmers or to age about 750 acres (305 hectares). But the average farm
agricultural companies. size in both countries is much smaller if large livestock
ranches are not included. Thus, the typical Australian
Asia
farm, for example, covers about 335 acres (135 hectares).
Approximately 45 percent of the land in Asia is used Most farms in both countries are privately owned com-
for agriculture. Asia's farmland is extremely varied. It mercial operations.
ranges from the high, dry plateaus of eastern Turkey to
Africa
the hot, wet lowlands of Indonesia and Malaysia. The
continent has more than 100 million farms. Most of Deserts and tropical rain forests cover much of Africa.
these farms cover less than 1 acre (0.4 hectare) and are Only about a third of the land is used for farming. But
subsistence farms. Asia also has many large commercial about 60 percent of all workers are farmers. As in Latin
farms that are operated with scientific methods. America and Asia, subsistence agriculture is common in
The state owns most of the farms in the Communist Africa. The main subsistence crops include bananas,
countries of Asia. In Israel, most of the farms are cooper- barley, cassava, corn, sorghum, sweet potatoes, and
atively or collectively owned by the farmworkers (see Is- yams.
rael [Agriculture]). In other countries, the majority of Commercial agriculture centers in a few widely scat-
farms are privately owned. In the past, much of the pri- tered areas. Irrigated farms along the coast of the Med-
vately owned farmland in many Asian countries was iterranean Sea and in the Nile River Valley produce cot-
worked by poor tenant farmers. The rents generally ton, dates, grapes, olives, and wheat. Plantations and
were so high that most tenant families barely survived. small farms in the tropics produce cocoa beans, coffee,
But since the mid-1 900s, land reform programs in such cotton, palm kernels and oil, peanuts, sisal, tea, and to-
countries as India and Pakistan have helped many tenant bacco.
families gain title to their land. Africa's richest farming country is South Africa. Unlike
About 60 percent of Asia's workers are farmers. Sub- most other African countries, South Africa has large
sistence farmers grow such crops as cassava, rice, areas of fertile soil and a middle-latitude climate that is
sweet potatoes, wheat, or yams. Many subsistence farm- well suited to large-scale farming. Commercial farmers
ers also raise some livestock, usually a few chickens, there are major producers of beef cattle, citrus fruits,

goats, hogs, or sheep. Commercial farming is important corn, sheep, and sugar cane.
 History of agriculture Agriculture 1 55

For hundreds of thousands of years, prehistoric peo- farming techniques of the Middle East, such as the ox-
ple lived by hunting, fishing, and gathering wild plants. drawn plow and methods of irrigation. The Romans also
Then about 8000 B.C, people took the first steps toward developed new farming methods. For example, they be-
agriculture. Some tribes
discovered that plants can be gan the practice of leaving half of every field fallow(un-
grown from seeds. They also learned that certain ani- planted) each year. The fallow soil could store nutrients
mals could be tamed and then raised in captivity. These (nourishing substances) and moisture for a crop the fol-
two discoveries marked the beginning of the domestica- lowing year. The Romans also developed systems of
tion of plants and animals. Scholars believe that domes- crop rotation. In one system, they used legumes, or
tication began in the Middle East and then spread to pulses, as a rotation crop. Legumes enrich the soil with
surrounding areas. Later, people in other parts of the nitrogen, one crops need to
of the chief nutrients that all

world independently learned how to domesticate plants grow. By building terraces, Roman farmers were able to
and animals. Some time after the development of do- grow such fruits as grapes and olives along the Mediter-
mestication, groups of people living in what are now Is- ranean Sea's steep shoreline. In various parts of the em-
rael and Jordan began to depend chiefly en farming for pire, Roman engineers built long irrigation canals and
food, even though they still hunted. huge structures to store grain.
Agriculture developed independently in northern and The selective breeding of plants and livestock began
southeastern Asia between 5000 and 4000 B.C and in in Europe during Roman times. For example, farmers in

central Mexico by 1 500 B.C It spread to other parts of the part of Europe that is now the Netherlands pro-
the world from these areas and from the Middle East duced the first specialized breed of dairy cattle, the Hol-
For more information on the beginning of agriculture, stein, about 100 B.C
see Prehistoric people (The rise of agriculture); Indian,
The Middle Ages
American (The first farmers).
During the A.D. 400s, barbarian tribes swept into the
Ancient times
West Roman Empire. By the end of the 400s, the empire
People who farmed no longer had to travel in search had fallen to the invaders, marking the start of the 1 ,000-
They could thus build permanent settlements.
of food. year period known as the Middle Ages.
Some of these settlements developed into the first cities. The barbarian invasions triggered civil wars through-
Some of the cities, in turn, produced the world's first out Europe. These wars, in turn, led to the collapse of
civilizations. Europe's economic system, including the use of money.
The Middle East- The first great civilizations arose in A new economic system called manorialism gradually
two regions of the Middle East One region was the Nile developed in many areas. Under this system, farms be-
River Valley of Egypt The other was Mesopotamia, came part of large estates known as manors. The man-
which lay northeast of Egypt between and around the ors were controlled by rich lords. In most cases, they
Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Both regions had fertile soil, were worked by peasants known as serfs. The serfs sup-
but neither received enough rain for crops to grow. plied the lord of their manor with goods and services in

Farmers discovered, however, that they could raise return for use of the land. Serfs could not be denied use
crops during most of the year if they used river water of the land as long as they fulfilled their duties to their
for irrigation. By about 3000 B.C, Egypt and Mesopo- lord. But they were not allowed to own land. See Mano-
tamia had developed the world's first large-scale irriga- rialism.

tion systems. Also by about 3000 B.C, Egyptian and European farmers invented a three-field system of
Mesopotamian farmers invented a plow that oxen could crop rotation during the Middle Ages. In many areas, it

pull. Earlier farmers had pulled their plows by hand. The

ox-drawn plows worked much better and faster and re-
quired much less human labor.
The large-scale irrigation projects and ox-drawn
plows helped Egyptian and Mesopotamian farmers pro-
duce much more food than their families needed. The
food surpluses enabled more and more people to give
up farming and move to the cities. Classes of builders,
craftworkers, merchants, and priests began to appear-
and systems of writing were improved. These dramatic
developments contributed greatly to the growth of civi-
lization.
The Roman Empire began as a country of small
farms on the peninsula before 500 B.C By the AD.
Italian

200s, Rome had conquered much of Europe and the

Middle East and the entire Mediterranean coast of
Africa. As Rome grew, farms within the empire in-
creased in size and became highly specialized. Most
ol a ria> seal aboul 2900 BCJ from Mesopotamia
large farms specialized in raising wheat, which formed msre Pans Ronald Shrndan

the basis of the Roman diet. Agriculture began to develop in the Middle East about
The Romans introduced into Europe the advanced 10,000 years ago. EarK farm products included grain.
1 56 Agriculture

replaced the Roman two-field system. Under the new methods to the regions they explored and settled.
system, farmland was divided into three fields rather By the late 1600s, England, France, the Netherlands,
than two. Farmers left one field fallow and raised a dif- Portugal, and Spain had colonies throughout the Ameri-
ferent crop in each of thetwo remaining fields. In this cas. In tropical regions, the colonists established planta-
way, two-thirds of the land was farmed each year, in- tions that specialized in growing such crops as cocoa
stead of half of it beans, coffee, and sugar for export Labor was supplied
During the 900s, a new and important kind of harness by black slaves imported from Africa or by the native-
was introduced into Europe. Unlike earlier harnesses, it born Indians, who were forced to work at low wages.
could be used to hitch a horse to a plow. A horse can In most of England's North American colonies, how-
pull a plow three or four times faster than an ox can. ever, the settlers started family farms. Each family had its

Thereafter, horses gradually replaced oxen as the chief own which produced enough food and
plot of land,
source of power on many European farms. other products to meet the family's needs. Plantation
European farmers continued to improve plants and agriculture became important only in England's Chesa-
livestock by selective breeding during the Middle Ages. peake Colonies (Maryland and Virginia) and Southern
Many special-purpose livestock breeds were devel- Colonies (North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia).
oped. For example, a breed of dairy cow that gave espe- By the mid-1 700 s, plantations in these colonies were
cially rich milk was developed in northwestern Europe growing rice, sugar cane, tobacco, and a dye-producing
about 1 100. This breed, called the Guernsey, is still a ma- plant called indigo. By the time cotton became a major
jor source of milk used to make butter. plantation crop in the late 1700 s, the Chesapeake and
Manorialism had begun to die out in western Europe Southern colonies had imported thousands of black
by the 1200s, as money again came into use for payment Africans for slave labor.
of goods and services. More and more peasants re- Agriculture developed more slowly in the French
ceived wages for their work and paid rent for their land. colonies what is now eastern Canada. The French,
in

But until the 1700s and 1800s, peasants still could not who controlled most of eastern Canada from the late
own land in most European countries. 1500s until 763, did little to encourage farming. Much
1

of the land was owned by nobles or merchants called

Colonial agriculture
seigneurs (pronounced seen YURZ). The settlers them-
The European voyages of discovery that began in the selves could not own land. But they could rent small
1400s greatly affected agriculture throughout the world. plots from the seigneurs. By the mid-1 600s, many
Crops and livestock that had been developed in isolated French settlers had started small subsistence farms on
regions became widely known. Potatoes, for example, rented land along the St Lawrence River in Quebec.
were unknown in Europe until Spanish explorers These farms, and similar ones in Nova Scotia and Prince
brought them from Peru in the 1500s. Edward Island, remained almost the only farms in Cana-
American Indians had developed advanced systems da until Britain gained control of the country in 1763.
of agriculture by the time the first European explorers Settlers then began to clear the heavily forested lands of
arrived. In various parts of the Americas, Indian farmers Ontario for farming. For more information about Ameri-
grew cocoa beans, corn, peanuts, peppers, rubber can colonial agriculture, see Colonial life in America
trees, squash, sweet potatoes, tobacco, and tomatoes. (The economy); Seigneurial system. See also Plantation;
Europeans first learned of these crops, and how best to Slavery.
grow them, from the Indians. The Europeans, in turn, Europeans established plantations in parts of Asia
brought their seeds, livestock, and farming tools and during the 1600s and after. But except on the planta-

Detail troni tall painting labout 1275 BO; Metropolitan Mum i of Art, New York Detail ol an illuminated manuscript <U00s! iBenmann Archivei
Gty. Egyptic i Rogers Fund, 1930

An irrigation device called a shadoofwas used by the ancient The use of horses for farm work began in Europe during the
Egyptians to draw water from the Nile River for their crops. Middle Ages and helped farmers increase their output
 Agriculture 1 57

tions,few Asian farmers adopted European farming name Turnip" Townshend. But in the late 700s, an Eng- 1

methods. Instead, they continued to use— and improve— lish nobleman named Thomas Coke produced greatly
the methods that had developed in their countries over increased yields using Townshend's system. Coke en-
hundreds of years. Rice growers, for example, continual- couraged other farmers to adopt the method, and it
ly improved the methods of irrigating their fields. As a soon became widely used in England. The system en-
result, such heavily populated countries as China, India, abled farmers to grow crops on all their land each year,
and Japan greatly increased their rice production from which made farmland much more productive. Both
the 1600s through the 1800s. But in the 1600s, wealthy Townshend and Coke lived in the county of Norfolk, and
landowners throughout Asia began a system of tenant so the four-field rotation system became known as the
farming, which lasted almost unchanged until land re- Norfolk system.
forms of the mid-1 900s. The system kept the vast majori- Before the development of the four-field system,
ty of Asian farmers in constant poverty. farmers could not raise enough forage to feed livestock
through the winter. Most livestock therefore had to be
The Agricultural Revolution
slaughtered in the fall, and the meat was preserved with
During the early 1 700s, a great change in farming salt. But the four-field system greatly increased the pro-

called the Agricultural Revolution began in Britain. The duction of forage crops, especially turnips and clover.
revolution resulted from a series of discoveries and in- As a result, farmers could produce fresh meat through-
ventions that made farming much more productive than out the year, not only during the months when livestock
ever before. By the mid-1800's, the Agricultural Revolu- could be turned out to pasture.
tion had spread throughout much of Europe and North Advances in livestock breeding. In the late 1700s,
America. One of the revolution's chief effects was the an English farmer named Robert Bakewell showed how
rapid growth of towns and cities in Europe and the livestock could be improved by intensively breeding an-
United States during the 1800s. Because fewer people imals with desirable traits. Bakewell produced improved
were needed to produce food, farm families by the breeds of cattle, horses, and sheep. He became best
thousands moved to the towns and cities. known for developing a breed of sheep that could be
The Agricultural Revolution was brought about main- raised for meat as well as for wool. Earlier breeds of
ly by three developments. They were (1 improved crop-
) sheep were expensive to raise for meat because they fat-
growing methods; (2) advances in livestock breeding; tened too slowly. As a result, most sheep were raised
and (3) the invention of new farm equipment. for wool only. But Bakewell's breed, called the Leicester,
Improved crop-growing methods. In the early fattened quickly. It could therefore be raised for slaugh-
1700s, a retired English politician named Charles Town- ter at a reasonable cost. The cost was so low, in fact, that

shend began to experiment with crop rotation. He found mutton soon became the most popular meat in England.
that turnips could be used as one of the four crops in a The invention of new farm equipment The first
four-field rotation system. The other crops consisted of important inventor of the Agricultural Revolution was
two grains, especially varieties of wheat; and a legume, jethro Tull, an English gentleman farmer. Tull lived dur-
such as alfalfa or clover. Each crop either added nutri- ing the late 1600s and early 1700s. But his inventions

ents to the soil or absorbed different kinds and amounts were not widely used until the late 1700s.
Farmers therefore did not have to leave any
of nutrients. When Tull began his career, farmers still planted seed
in two- and three-field rotation systems.
land fallow, as by sowing— that is, by hand scattering. To conserve seed
Townshend's experiments did not become well and increase yields, inventors had tried to build a ma-
known during his lifetime, except to earn him the nick- chine that would dig small furrows (grooves! in the soil

a drawing b) \\ Hli

The first modern farm machine was a seed drill, or planter It The cotton gin that Hi \\ hitne\ of the United States in\ ented in

England about 1700. 1793 saved workers the labor of cleaning rotton by hand.
was invented by Jethro lull of
1 58 Agriculture

and deposit seeds in them. About 1 700, Tull built the mote settlement of undeveloped, publicly owned land.
such seed dri/lthaX worked. Actually, it was the first
first The act granted 160 acres (65 hectares) of such land to
successful farm machine with inner moving parts, and anyone who lived on it for five years and developed it
so itbecame the ancestor of all modern farm machinery. for farming. Or settlers could buy the land for $1 .25 per
One of the most important inventions of the Agricul- acre after living on it for six months and making im-
tural Revolution was the cotton gin that Eli Whitney of provements on Congress also encouraged the build-
it.

the United States built in 1793. Before Whitney's inven- ing of railroads to speed settlement of undeveloped ter-
tion, farmers grew cotton because of the difficulty
little ritories. The first railroad that linked the Great Plains
of separating the fiber from the seeds. Whitney's gin with the eastern half of the United States was completed
simplified this work and so made large-scale production in the late 1860s.
of cotton possible. During the early 1800s, cotton re- From 1862 to 1900, about 500,000 families obtained
placed tobacco as the leading plantation crop in the land under the Homestead Act. Much of the land was in
Southern United States. the Great Plains. The plains were covered with grass and
During the late 1700s and early 1800s, inventors be- so were ideal for grazing livestock. But because rainfall
gan to work on machines to harvest and process the was light and undependable, crop yields were always
ever-increasing amount of grain being produced by U.S. low. To help solve this problem, Great Plains farmers de-
farmers. In 1834, Cyrus McCormick, an American inven- veloped a crop-growing method that was suited to the
tor, patented the first successful harvesting machine, or region's dry climate. This method, called dry/and farm-
reaper. Also in 1834, two American brothers, Hiram and ing, generally requires that a field be left fallow every
John Pitts, patented a combined portable threshing ma- other year. The soil can thus store up moisture for a
chine and fanning mill. Their machine became the mod- crop the following year.
el for most modern threshers. During the early 1800's, Great Plains farmers found that wheat is better suited
inventors began work on developing a combined har- to dryland farming than are most other crops. The farm-
vester and thresher, called a combine. But combines ers soon began to produce plentiful wheat crops nearly
were not widely used until the early 1900s. every year. By the early 1900s, the plains had become
Equally important to increased grain production was one of the world's major wheat-producing regions.
a steel plow invented by John Deere, an Illinois black- In addition to the Homestead Act, Congress passed
smith, in 1837. Earlier plows were made of cast iron and another bill in 1862 that greatly affected agriculture in
wood and did not easily turn the thick soil that covered the United States. This bill was the Morrill Act. It granted
much of the American Midwest. The soil would stick to the states large areas of land to sell. The proceeds were
the face of the plow and clog the furrows (narrow to be invested and the income used to establish col-
grooves). But the soil fell away easily from the steel face leges of agriculture and the mechanical arts. The act
of Deere's plow, permitting it to cut a clean furrow. thus led to the founding of many land-grant colleges.
These schools, in turn, produced many of the remark-
Expansion in the United States
able advances in U.S. agriculture during the 1900s.
The invention of the reaper, the thresher, and the
The development of modern agriculture
steel plow encouraged the development of farming in
the well-watered eastern half of the American prairies. Since the 1800's, science and technology have helped
But farmers were not attracted to the dry prairie to the make agriculture more and more productive. About
west— the region known as the Great Plains. 1850, for example, each U.S. farmer produced, on the av-
In 1862, Congress passed the Homestead Act to pro- erage, enough food to feed 5 people. Today, each

The first successful harvesting machine, or reaper, was An early gasoline-powered tractor did only light work. But it

patented by the American inventor Cyrus McCormick in 1 834. signaled the beginning of a new age of power for farming.
 Agriculture 1 59

farmer produces enough to feed 78 people Science and 1920s and the early 1960s, and they have continued to
technology have contributed to the great increase in increase significantly since that time.
farm production in three main ways. They have (1) pro- During the 1960s, scientists introduced varieties of
vided farmers with labor-saving technologies; (2) pro- wheat and rice that gave much higher yields than earlier
duced improved plant varieties and breeds of livestock; varieties. The new varieties were intended mainly to
and (3) developed new agricultural chemicals. help various poor nations, such as India and Mexico, in-
Labor-saving technologies. Steam-powered tractors crease their food supply. This effort proved so success-
were developed in the mid-1 800's, and some farmers in ful that it has been called the Green Revolution.

Europe and the United States began to use them. But the Livestock breeders have developed many improved
tractors were expensive, and they were difficult to oper- lines since the early 1900s. They have also devised inten-
ate. As a result, most farmers continued to use horses sive selection techniques to speed genetic develop-
and mules to power farm machines. ment Nutrition specialists have developed better live-
The first successful gasoline-powered tractors were stock feeds, and veterinarians have improved methods
made in the United States in the early 1890s. However, of health care. All these advances continue to make live-
they were not powerful enough for most farm work. By stock more and more productive. For example, today's
the early 1900s, engineers had designed models power- broiler chickens grow much faster than earlier breeds
ful enough to pull a plow. The first all-purpose tractors or lines, on much less feed. And the average annual milk
appeared in the 1920s. They could be used to power a production of cows in the United States is continually
variety of farm machinery, from combines to cotton increasing.
pickers. The new tractors gradually replaced work ani- Agricultural chemicals. Almost since the beginning
mals and steam-powered machines on almost all U.S. of agriculture, farmers have used various substances to
farms. Today, there are millions of farm tractors in use enrich the soil and to kill insect pests. For example, they
throughout the world. have used wood ash and manure as fertilizers since pre-
In Japan and several European countries, most farms historic times. Arsenic, pyrethrum, and other natural
had electric power service by the mid-1 930s. The exten- poisons have long served as insecticides. Such sub-
sion of electric service to rural areas of the United States stances were used because they worked. But little was
was slow until the federal government established the known about why or how they worked.
Rural Electrification Administration (REA) in 1935. At that Since the beginning of modern chemistry in the late
time, only about percent of all U.S. farms had electric
1 1 700s, scientists have produced many kinds of synthetic

power. The REA helped expand service by granting low- chemicals for use in agriculture. These chemicals in-
interest loans for rural electric power development. By clude (1) fertilizers; (2) insecticides; (3) herbicides, or
1960, more than 97 percent of all farms in the United weed killers; and (4) chemicals to control plant and ani-
States had electric power. mal diseases. All these chemicals have helped increase
Today, farmers use electric motors to run milking ma- farm production dramatically. However, improper or ex-
pumps, and many other farm ma-
chines, irrigation cessive use of these chemicals can be hazardous and
chines. Farmers also use electric power to operate elec- cause damage to the environment. In the United States,
tronic and automated equipment This equipment federal and state laws limit such practices and prohibit
includes devices that fill feeding troughs or collect and the use of chemicals that have been proved harmful.
grade eggs automatically. Fertilizers. During the 1800s, scientists began to iden-

Many farmers use computers to aid in farm opera- tify the chemicals that crops need to grow. They estab-

tions and to keep track of finances. They often use their lished, for example, that legumes are useful rotation

computers to gain access to the Internet, the worldwide crops because the plants incorporate atmospheric nitro-
network of computers. Using the Internet, farmers may gen into the soil. Scientists also identified other ele-
make use of data provided by agricultural colleges or ments that crops need, such as phosphorus and potassi-
other information centers. For example, they may use um. Mixed fertilizers that contained the necessary
such information to determine the correct mixture of in- elements soon became commercially available. But their
gredients to use in livestock feed or to estimate the prof- use was often limited by high cost.
it that can be expected from a particular crop.
An economical commercial method of capturing at-
Plant and livestock breeding. During the mid- mospheric nitrogen was developed in 1909 by Fritz
1800s, an Austrian botanist and monk named Gregor Haber, a German chemist. Nitrogen is such an important
Mendel discovered the principles of heredity. Mendel fertilizer element that the development of low-cost nitro-

thus laid the groundwork for genetics— the science that

gen greatly affected the use of fertilizer. Farmers
explains how characteristics are inherited. The develop- throughout the world are using ever-increasing
ment of genetics has made it possible to breed plants amounts of fertilizer. See Fertilizer.

and animals scientifically. Insecticides. In 1939. scientists in Switzerland devel-

In the early 1900s, plant breeders in the United States oped a powerful chemical, called DDT, for use as an in-
developed a hybrid com that produced unusually high secticide.By the early 1950s, farmers were using great
quantities of DDT on their crops. However scientists
yields.Various corn hybrids became commercially avail-
later discovered that although DDT killed insect pests, it
able the 1920s. By the early 1960s, more than 95 per-
in
also endangered other animal life. During the 1970 s the
cent of all U.S. corn acreage was planted with hybrid
seed. Average com yields in the United States increased
governments of many countries banned most uses of
dramatically. They nearly doubled between the early DDT. Today, most farmers use insecticides made of the
160 Agriculture

chemical compounds organophosphate and carbamate. not recover money they had loaned to the farmers.
For more information on methods of insect control, see In 1996,the U.S. government passed a law intended to
Insect (Insect control); Insecticide. eliminate or reduce price support payments that had
Herbicides. Farmers have always had to fight against been established in the 1930s for some crops. It made
weeds. But until the mid-1900's, hand weeding, hoeing, farm income for many crops more dependent on market
and machine cultivating were almost the only methods prices. But high production and low farm prices in the
farmers had to control weed growth. The first chemical late 1990 s resulted in an increase in government pay-
herbicide, called 2,4D, was patented in the United ments tO farmers. Larry D Trede
States in 1945. It quickly became the most widely used
herbicide. See Weed (Weed control).
Study aids
Chemicals to control diseases. Like weed growth,
plant and animal diseases have always been difficult and
costly problems for farmers. Many plant diseases are Related articles. See Farm and farming. See also the Agri-
caused by tiny organisms called fungi. Since the mid- culture section of the state, province, country, and continent arti-

cles. Additional related articles include:

1800 s, scientists have developed a number of chemicals
known as fungicides to help fight these diseases. Some Biographies
plant diseases are caused by viruses or bacteria. Chemi- Bailey, Liberty H. McCormick, Ruffin, Edmund
cals have also been developed to help control these dis- Borlaug, Cyrus H. Townshend, Vis-
eases. In addition, scientists continually develop plant Norman E. Mendel, Gregor). count
varieties that have greater resistance to disease. For fur- Burbank, Luther Morton, Julius S. Tull, Jethro
Carver, George W. Pinckney, Eliza- Wallace, Henry A.
ther information on fungi and fungicides, see Fungi (The
Deere, John beth L Whitney, Eli
importance of fungi); Fungicide. Lysenko, Trofim D.
Most animal diseases are caused by bacteria or virus-
Kinds of farming
es. Some are controlled by vaccines. The great French
scientist Louis Pasteur created the first livestock vac- Aquaculture Fur (Fur ranching) Plantation
Collective farm Gardening Ranching
cines in the 1800s. They were developed against such
Dairying Horticulture Tenant farming
diseases as anthrax and chicken cholera. Since 1900,
Dry farming Hydroponics Tree farming
chemists have introduced additional vaccines as well as Floriculture Nursery Truck farming
antibiotics and other substances to help fight livestock
Major crops
diseases. See Veterinary medicine (On farms).
Recent developments. The demand for food Alfalfa Corn Oats Soybean
Barley Cotton Potato Sugar
throughout the world is constantly increasing. To help
Bean Flax Rice Sweet potato
meet this demand, farmers have expanded their food Cassava Fruit Rye Vegetable
output enormously. The largest increase in food de- Coffee Hemp Sorghum Wheat
mand has occurred in the nonindustrial, or developing,
Chief kinds of livestock
countries. Rapid population growth in these countries
Cattle Duck Hog Poultry Sheep
has been chiefly responsible for the increase. But most
Chicken Goat Horse Rabbit Turkey
developing countries produce barely enough food to
meet their present needs. And few can afford to import Methods and problems
the additional supplies they need to feed their rapidly Conservation Fertilizer Migrant labor
growing population. The developing countries there- Cropping system Fungicide Pest control

fore must expand their food production greatly or face a Drainage Herbicide Rainmaking
Erosion Insecticide Shelterbelt
severe food shortage. Most developing countries, how-
Environmental Irrigation Weed
ever, lack the resources that scientific farming requires. pollution Land reform
Many industrial countries sponsor programs that pro- (Agriculture!
vide farmers in developing countries with low-interest
Education and research
loans and technical training to help modernize their
Agricultural education County agricultural extension
farm operations. The Food and Agriculture Organization
Agricultural experiment agent
(FAO)— an agency of the United Nations— helps coordi- station Hybrid
nate the various national programs. The FAO also spon- Agronomy International Fund for Agri-
sors assistance projects of its own. See Food supply. Breeding cultural Development
Throughout the 970s, demand
1 in other countries for Census (Kinds of censuses) Land-grant university
Cooperative Extension Nutrition
U.S. farm products increased rapidly. As a result, many
System
U.S. farmers borrowed large sums of money to expand
production. But in the early 1980s, American farmers History of agriculture
faced a severe farm debt crisis. Interest rates for bor- Aztec (Agriculturel Prehistoric people (The rise of
rowed money increased sharply, and worldwide de- Babylonia (Way of life) agriculturel

mand for U.S. farm products decreased. This reduced Colonial life in America Rome, Ancient (Agriculture)
(Farming) Serf
demand led to lower prices for farm products. Thus,
Egypt, Ancient {Agriculture) Villein
many farmers were unable to repay loans and prepare Feudalism Western frontier life in
for a new growing season, and some had to sell their Greece, Ancient (Farmingl America (The cattle boom;
farms. Banks and other lenders foreclosed on loans that Indian, American (Farmingl Homesteading on the
were not repaid— that is, they took over the farms. Many Middle Ages Great Plains)
banks were forced out of business because they could Persia, Ancient (Economy) Yeoman
 Agriculture, Department of 1 61

Other related articles many ways. It works to

Agribusiness Insect (The importance of safeguard the food supply
Animal (The importance of insects) by inspecting meat and
animals) Livestock poultry in slaughtering
Crop Marketing
and processing plants. It
Food and Agriculture Organi Plant (The importance of
zation plants)
grades meat, poultry, and
Food supply Soil dairy products to indicate
Grain elevator their quality. It establishes
standards of quality for
Outline
grain exported from the
I. Chief agricultural products
United States and admin-
A. Food products
B. Natural fibers isters a nationwide system The seal of the Department of
The Agriculture
C Other agricultural products of grain inspection.
II. Kinds of agriculture department's regulatory
A. Commercial agriculture programs help protect animals and plants from pests
B. Subsistence agriculture
and diseases.
III. Agriculture around the world
The department runs food assistance programs to
A. The United States
B. Canada
fight the problems of hunger and to improve the diet of
C Latin America Americans. These programs include the Food Stamp
D. Europe Program, which helps needy people purchase food; the
E. Australia and New Zealand
National School Lunch Program; and a program to pro-
F. Asia
vide certain foods for pregnant women and for nursing
G. Africa
IV. History of agriculture
mothers and their infants.
The USDA finances research in its own laboratories
Questions and in agricultural experiment stations at land-grant uni-
How does climate determine the kinds of crops that can be versities and other institutions. This research deals with
grown in a particular region?
such topics as plant and animal diseases, crop produc-
When and where did agriculture begin?
tion,marketing of agricultural products, nutrition, pest
What are some of the products besides food products that agri-
culture provides?
control,and soil conservation. Together with state and
What is subsistence agriculture? Where is it widely used? county governments, the department sponsors a nation
Why is agriculture the world s most important industry? wide program of agricultural education.
What are forage crops? Why are they important?
How did agriculture affect the development of civilization?
How do intensive and extensive agriculture differ? Secretaries of agriculture
Why is mixed farming less risky than specialized farming?
Name Took Under
What was the Agricultural Revolution? office president

Additional resources
Norman J.
Colman 1889 Cleveland
Level I
Jeremiah M. Rusk 1889 Harrison
Coster, Patience. Farming and Industry. Children s Pr., 1998. Morton 1893 Cleveland
'Julius S.
Peterson, Cris. Harvest Year. Boyds Mills, 1996.
James Wilson 1897 McKinley,
Wolfman, Judy. Life on a Cattle Farm. Carolrhoda, 2002. Life on a T. Roosevelt
Crop Farm. 2001. 1909 Taft
Woods, Michael and Mary B. Ancient Agriculture. Runestone Pr., David Houston
F. 1913 Wilson
2000. Edwin T. Meredith 1920 Wilson
Level II Henry C Wallace 1921 Harding,
Arntzen, Charles )., and Ritter, E. M., eds. Encyclopedia of Agri- Coolidge
cultural Science. 4 vols. Academic Pr., 1994. Howard M. Core 1924 Coolidge
Paarlberg, Don and Philip. The Agricultural Revolution of the William M. Jardine 1925 Coolidge
20th Century. 2000. Reprint la. State Univ. Pr., 2001. Arthur M. Hyde 1929 Hoover
Smith, Bruce D. The Emergence of Agriculture. Scientific Am. "Henry A
Wallace 1933 F. D. Roosevelt
Lib., 1998. Claude Wickard
R. 1940 F. D. Roosevelt
Stephens, Alan, ed. Dictionary of Agriculture. Rev. ed. Fitzroy Clinton P. Anderson 1945 Truman
Dearborn, 1998. Charles F. Brannan 1948 Truman
Ezra Taft Benson 1953 Eisenhower
Agriculture, Department of, is an executive de- 'Orville L Freeman 1961 Kennedy,
partment of the United States government It works to L B. Johnson
maintain adequate supplies of farm products and to ex- Clifford M. Hardin 1969 Nixon
pand overseas markets for such products. It helps en- Earl L Butz 1971 Nixon, Ford

sure reasonable incomes for farmers and reasonably

John AKnebel 1976 Ford
Robert S. Bergland 1977 Carter
priced farm products for consumers. The department John R. Block 1981 Reagan
also works to combat hunger in the United States and Richard E. Lyng 1986 Reagan
abroad and to improve the economy of rural America. Clayton K. Yeutter 1989 C. H. W. Bush
The secretary of agriculture, a member of the presi- Edward R. Madigan 1991 G. H. W. Bush
The president ap- 'Mike Espy 1993 Clinton
dent s Cabinet, heads the department.
Dan Clickman 1995 Clinton
points the secretary with the approval of the U.S. Senate.
Ann M. Veneman 2001 G. W. Bush
Functions. The Department of Agriculture, also
*H*» * *^p*r*h" ruogr«pht m HoridBook.
called the USDA, serves farmers and consumers in
162 Agrimony

The Department of Agriculture provides other servic- become emperor.

years but died before he could
es as well. It reports on crop production, crop prices, M Eckstein
Arthur

and farm operating costs. It gathers world agricultural Agrippina the Younger, ac ruh PYnuh or ac ruh
data and provides technical assistance to help develop- PEE nuh (AD. 15-59), was one of the most powerful
ing nations improve food production. The department s women in ancient Rome. She was the great-grand-
Forest Service manages national forests. The depart- daughter of the emperor Augustus and sister of the em-
ment also provides financial aid and other assistance to peror Caligula. She greatly influenced two other Roman
communities, businesses, and utilities in rural areas. emperors her husband Claudius and her son Nero.
History. Congress established the Department of Ag- In A.D. 39, Caligula banished Agrippina from Rome

riculture in 1862. In 1889, it became a Cabinet-level de- for her part in a plot against him. She returned after her
partment headed by a secretary of agriculture. uncle Claudius became emperor in AD. 41. She married
From the start, the department devoted much of its at- Claudius in A.D. 49. The following year, she was hon-
tention to developing and distributing information that ored by the founding of a Roman colony, Colonia Agrip-
would help increase agricultural production. Later, as pinensis, at her birthplace in what is now Cologne, Ger-
improved farming methods led to larger crop yields, the many. Agrippina persuaded Claudius to adopt Nero, her
department increased its emphasis on marketing farm son by a previous marriage, as guardian of Claudius s
products and supporting prices. In the 1960s, the USDA son, Britannicus. Many Romans believed Agrippina poi-
began to give more attention to expanding the agricul- soned Claudius in AD. 54 so Nero could succeed to the
tural markets at home and abroad and to ensuring an throne. In the first year of Nero s reign, she had great
adequate diet for all Americans. political power. She retired from the imperial court after
Critically reviewed by the Department of Agriculture Britannicus died— probably by poison at Nero s order-
Related articles in World Book include: in AD. 55. Nero had Agrippina murdered four years lat-
Agricultural experiment County agricultural extension er. Judith P Hallett
agent
station
Agronomy, uh CRAHN uh mee, is a branch of agricul-
Agricultural Stabilization and Farmers Home Administration
tural science that deals with the study of crops and the
Conservation Service Food for Peace
Commodity Credit Food Stamp Program soils in which they grow. Agronomists work to develop

Corporation Forest Service methods that will improve the use of the soil and in-
Cooperative Extension System Rural Electrification crease the production of food and fiber crops. They
Administration conduct research in crop rotation, irrigation and drain-
Agrimony, AG ruh moh nee, is the common name for age, plant breeding, molecular biology, soil classifica-

a group about 18 species of woodland plants that

of tion, soil fertility, weed
and other areas.control,
grow in North America, Europe, Asia, and the Andes Agronomy involves selective breeding of plants to
Mountains of South America. The hairy leaves are feath- produce the best crops under various conditions. Plant
erlike and consist of both small and large leaflets. The breeding has increased crop yields and has improved
small yellow flowers occur in clusters on a long spike. the nutritional value of several crops, including corn,
The fruit is a cone-shaped bur with hooked bristles. rice, soybeans, and wheat It also has led to the develop-
Kenneth R_ Robertson ment of new types of plants. For example, a hybrid grain
Scientific classification. Agrimony plants are in the rose called triticale was produced by crossbreeding rye and
family, Rosaceae. They are genus Agrimonia. wheat. Triticale contains more usable protein than does
Agrippa, uh CRIHP uh, Marcus (63-12 B.O, was a either rye or wheat. See Triticale.
Roman general who was the chief adviser and military Agronomists study ways to make soils more produc-
leader of Augustus, the first emperor of Rome. Agrippa tive. They classify soils and test them for substances vital

was also a lifelong friend and loyal supporter of Augus- for plant growth. In addition, agronomists develop
tus. methods and to decrease the effects
to preserve the soil
Agrippa rose to prominence during the civil wars that of erosion by wind and water. For example, a technique
followed the assassination of the Roman leader Julius called contour plowing may be used to prevent soil ero-
Caesar in 44 B.C In these wars, Octavian, as the future sion and conserve rainfall. Researchers in agronomy
Emperor Augustus was then known, struggled against a also seek ways to use the soil more effectively in solving
number of enemies for control of Rome. Agrippa be- other problems. Such problems include the disposal of
came Octavian s best commander, both on land and sea. wastes; water pollution; and the build-up in the soil of
His most important victory was the Battle of Actium, chemicals that are used to kill insects and weeds.
fought west coast of Greece in 31 B.C There, a
off the Most agronomists are researchers, consultants, or
fleet led by Agrippa defeated the forces of Mark Antony, teachers. Many work for agricultural experiment sta-
co-ruler of Rome with Octavian, and Cleopatra, queen of tions, federal or state government agencies, industrial
Egypt. This victory cleared the way for Octavian to be firms, universities, or international organizations.
named sole emperor of Rome, in 27 B.C Tavlor | lohnston

Agrippa helped the new emperor in the reordering of See also Agricultural experiment station; Cropping
Roman politics and society under one-person rule. system; Soil.
When Augustus fell ill in 23 B.C, he gave Agrippa his Additional resources
seal ring. Augustus recovered, but the gift of the ring
Basra, Amarjit S., ed. Crop Sciences. Food Products Pr., 1997.
meant that Agrippa would have become emperor if Au- Cooper. Elmer L Aghscience. 2nd ed. Delmar Pubs., 1997.
gustus had died. Agrippa married the emperors daugh- Harlan, lack R. Crops & Man. 2nd ed. Am. Soc. of Agronomy,
ter Julia in 21 B.C, another sign that he was the chosen 1991
successor. Agrippa held wide powers for the next 10 Parker, Rick. Introduction to Plant Science. Delmar Pubs., 2000.
 AIDS 163

Aguinaldo, ah gee NAHL doh, Emilio, eh MEE lyoh Symptoms. People infected with HIV eventually de-
(1 869-1 964), was a leader in the fight for Philippine inde- velop symptoms that also may be caused by other, less
pendence. he took part in an unsuccessful re-
In 1896, serious conditions. With HIV infection, however, these
volt against Spanish rule. In 1898, he led a Filipino army symptoms are prolonged and often more severe. They
against Spain in the Spanish-American War. In June of include enlarged lymph glands, tiredness, fever, loss of
that year, the Filipinos set up a revolutionary govern- appetite and weight, diarrhea, yeast infections of the
ment and made Aguinaldo president. He declared Phil- mouth and vagina, and night sweats.
ippine independence from Spain that same month. In HIV commonly causes a severe "wasting syndrome,"
December 1898, Spain gave up the Philippines to the resulting in substantial weight loss, a general decline in
United States for $20 million. In January 1899, Aguinaldo health, and, in some cases, death. The virus often infects
established the Philippine Republic, and his troops the brain and nervous system. There HIV may cause de-
began fighting U.S. forces in February. United States mentia, a condition characterized by sensory, thinking,
forces captured him in March 1901. In April, Aguinaldo or memory disorders.
took an oath of allegiance to the United States and re- Opportunistic illnesses. HIV makes infected people
tired. He was born on March 23, 1869, near Cavite, Lu- susceptible to infections and other conditions that do
zon. See also Philippines (History). Socorro l Reyes not normally occur or that are normally not serious.
Ahmadabad, ah muhd ah BAHD (pop. 3,515,361. met. These illnesses are called opportunistic because they
area pop. 4,519,278), the largest city in Gujarat, a state
is take advantage of the damaged immune system. With
inwestern India. It lies on the Sabarmati River in India's the onset of an opportunistic infection or one of several
cotton-growing region (see India [political mapl). other severe illnesses or a marked decline in the num-
The city is a manufacturing and trade center for the ber of CD4 cells, an HIV-infected person is considered
nation's cotton textile industry. Ahmadabad's chemical to have AIDS.
industry produces drugs, dyes, pesticides, and plastics. There are many opportunistic illnesses that typically
Chemical plants have caused widespread air pollution. affect AIDS patients. In North America and Europe,
Ahmadabad was named after Ahmad Shah I, the sul- Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia, yeast infections of the
tan of Gujarat who founded the city in 1411. The over- esophagus i\ube that carries food to the stomach), cyto-
crowded, older section of the city lies on the east bank megalovirus retinitis, Kaposi s sarcoma, and tuberculo-
of the Sabarmati. Ahmadabad has many historic monu- sis are the most common. People with AIDS may con-

ments as well as busy shopping areas. Weaving mills tract several of these diseases.

and other factories stand near this section. The west Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia (PCP), which is an in-

bank of the river includes many upper-class neighbor- fection of the lungs, is a leading cause of death among
hoods and Gujarat University. p. p. Karan AIDS patients. Yeast infections of the esophagus cause
Ahura Mazda. See Zoroastrianism. severe pain when swallowing and result in weight loss
AID. See Agency for International Development and dehydration. Cytomegalovirus retinitis is an eye in-
AIDS is the final, life-threatening stage of infection with fection that can cause blindness. Kaposi s sarcoma is a
human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). AIDS stands for form of cancer that usually arises in the skin. The tumors
acquired /mmunocfeficiency .syndrome. The name refers may look like bruises, but they grow.
to the fact that HIV severely damages the immune sys- A major illness that defines AIDS in HIV-infected peo-
tem, the body's most important defense against disease. ple is tuberculosis, a severe bacterial infection that usu-
Cases of AIDS were first identified in 1981 in the United ally affects the lungs. Throughout the 1900 s, the number
States, but researchers have detected HIV in a specimen of cases of tuberculosis in the United States declined
collected in 1959 in central Africa. Millions of AIDS steadily. However, in the mid-1980s, doctors noticed a
cases have been diagnosed worldwide. growing number of cases of tuberculosis in HIV pa-
tients. People with HIV are especially vulnerable to tu-
How AIDS affects the body berculosis because of their damaged immune systems.
Cause. AIDS is caused by two viruses that belong to a An HIV-infected person may develop AIDS from 2 to
group called retroviruses. The first AIDS virus was isolat- 15 or more years after becoming infected. In children
ed by researchers in France in 1983 and researchers in born with HIV infection, this interval is usually shorter.
the United States in 1984. This virus became known as Medical treatment can increase the interval by inhibiting
HIV-1. In 1985, scientists in France identified another the growth of HIV, preserving the immune system, and

closely related virus that also produces AIDS. This virus, delaying the onset of opportunistic infections. An infect-
named HIV-2, occurs mainly in west Africa. HIV-1 occurs ed person can transmit the virus to another person
throughout the world. whether or not symptoms are present. Infection with
HIV blood cells, including T-
infects certain white HIV appears to be lifelong in all who become infected.
helper cells and macrophages, that play key roles in the How HIV is transmitted
immune system (see Immune system IParts of the im-
mune system!). The virus attaches to CD4 receptor mole- Researchers ha\e identified three ways in which HIV
transmitted: sexual intercourse, direct contact
cules on the surface of these cells, which are often is (1) (2)

called CD4 cells. HIV enters CD4 cells and inserts its
with infected blood, and (3) perinatal (transmission from

own genes into the cells reproductive system. The cell an infected woman The most com-
to her fetus or baby).

then produces more HIV, which spreads to other CD4 mon way of becoming through sexual inter-
infected is

cells. Eventually, infected cells die. The immune system course with an HIV-infected person. In the United States,
produces millions of CD4 cells every day, but HIV de- sexual transmission of HIV has occurred mainly among

them as fast as they are produced homosexual and bisexual men but it is becoming more
stroys
164 AIDS

frequent among men and women. HIV is

heterosexual Doctors combine the drugs and vary the order in which
transmitted through forms of sexual intercourse, in-
all they are given to improve their effectiveness.
cluding genital, anal, and oral sex. In 1995 and 1996, the
first three protease inhibitors—

People who inject drugs into their bodies can be ex- indinavir, ritonavir,and saquinavir—were approved for
posed to infected blood by sharing needles, syringes, or treating HIV. Other such medicines followed. These an-
equipment used to prepare drugs for injection. In the tiviral drugs block the action of protease, another HIV

past, transfusion and transplant recipients and people enzyme not found in human cells. Protease inhibitors
with hemophilia contracted the virus from the blood, block a later step in HIV reproduction than reverse tran-
blood components, tissues, or organs of infected scriptase inhibitors do. Additional antiviral medicines
donors. But screening and testing of donated blood and may be developed with new ways of blocking the virus.
of potential organ donors have virtually eliminated this In 1996, several studies showed that certain combina-
hazard. Healthcare workers can become infected with tions of antiviral drugs could decrease HIV in the blood
HIV by coming into direct contact with infected blood. to undetectable levels. Although HIV appears to persist
This infection may occur through injury with a needle or inside CD4 cells, the studies raised hope that combina-
other sharp instrument used in treating an HIV-infected tion therapy can control reproduction of the virus. The
patient. A few patients became infected while receiving research also raised hope for an eventual cure. But the
treatment from an HIV-infected American dentist and drugs must be taken in large quantities for a long time,
from a French surgeon. and HIV may develop resistance to them. Doctors need
An infected pregnant woman can transmit the AIDS to determine which combinations of drugs are safest
virus to her fetus even if she has no symptoms. Trans- and most effective over the long term.
mission may also occur from an HIV-infected mother to Physicians also prevent and treat opportunistic infec-
her baby through breast-feeding. tions in AIDS patients. PCP can be prevented with specif-
Studies indicate that HIV is not transmitted through ic antibiotics. Physicians use biological substances
air, food, or water, or by insects. No known cases of called interferons and chemotherapy to treat Kaposi's
AIDS have resulted from sharing eating utensils, bath- sarcoma. They use interferon plus antiviral medicines to
rooms, locker rooms, living space, or classrooms. treat hepatitis C (see Interferon). Researchers believe
any eventual cure for AIDS must stop the growth of the
Medical care for HIV infection and AIDS
Diagnosis. Tests for detecting evidence of HIV-1 in
the blood became widely available in 1985. Tests for de-
tecting HIV-2 became widely available in 1992. These Stages of HIV infection
HIV tests identify antibodies to the AIDS virus. Antibod- People infected with human immunodeficiency virus
ies are proteins produced by certain white blood cells (HIV) go through three stages of infection. These stages
to react with specific viruses, bacteria, or foreign sub- are: (1) acute retroviral syndrome and asymptomatic pe-
riod. (2) symptomatic HIV infection, and (3) AIDS. The
stances that enter the body. The presence of antibodies
length of time any person stays in each stage varies
to HIV indicates infection with that virus. There is also an
greatly and depends on many factors, including med-
mouth fluids.
oral test for HIV-1 antibodies in icaltreatment HIV can be transmitted during ail stages
Other tests directly measure the amount of HIV in the of infection, even when no symptoms occur.
blood. These tests enable doctors to measure a patient s Acute retroviral syndrome and asymptomatic
response to treatment, predict the future health of peo- period. Most people get a flulike or mononucleosislike
ple with HIV, and estimate their survival time. illness within 12 weeks after becoming infected with
HIV. This illness, known as acute retroviral syndrome,
People with HIV infection are diagnosed as having
usually goes away without treatment From this point
AIDS when tests show that they have fewer than 200 on, the infected person s blood tests positive for HIV
CD4 cells per microliter (0.000001 literl of blood or when antibodies even though symptoms usually do not devel-
they develop one or more opportunistic illnesses. All op for 2 to 1 5 years or more. During this early stage of
HIV-infected patients should have their health closely infection, the patient maintains a near normal number
monitored by a doctor and get periodic blood tests to of CD4cells— that is. more than 500 CD4 cells per mi-
croliter of blood. CD4 cells are the white blood cells
measure the levels of virus and CD4 cells in their blood.
that are infected by HIV.
Treatments have been developed, but no cure for
Symptomatic HIV infection. In this stage, a wide vari-
HIV infection or AIDS has yet been found. Ever since
ety of mild or severe symptoms may appear. Common
AIDS was identified, scientists have worked to under- symptoms include tiredness, enlarged iymph glands,
stand how HIV infects and damages human cells. In one yeast infections, skin rashes, and dental disease. This
important discovery, researchers learned that HIV uses stage of the infection may last from a few months to

an enzyme called reverse transcriptase Xo reproduce. many years. During this time, the patient's CD4-cell
count gradually declines, typically ranging between 500
Because this enzyme is not normally found in cells, sci-
to 200CD4 cells per microliter of blood.
entists focused on developing drugs that block its ac-
AIDS is characterized by severe damage to the immune
tion. These efforts led to development of a class of an-
system and such opportunistic infections as Pneumo-
tiviral drugs called reverse transcriptase inhibitors. The
cystis carinii pneumonia and Kaposi s sarcoma. The pro-
first of these drugs, called zidovudine, commonly qressi\e breakdown of the immune system eventually
known AZT, was licensed in the United States in 1987.
as leads to death, usually within a few years. Most people
AZT and other reverse transcriptase inhibitors some- with AIDS have fewer than 200 CD4 cells per microliter
of blood, with most deaths occurring in patients with
times produce toxic side effects, including severe ane-
CD4-cell counts below 50.
mia that requires blood transfusions. HIV also develops
resistance to these drugs when they are given singly.
 AIDS 164a

virus,prevent opportunistic illnesses, and restore nor-

mal function to the immune system.
Prevention. To prevent transmission of HIV, a person
must avoid sexual contact with anyone who is or might
be infected with the The most effective preventive
virus.
strategies are to refrain from all sexual intimacy or re-
strict sexual intimacy to one uninfected person. Health
authorities recommend that a condom be used every
time sexual intercourse occurs with a person who is in-
fected with HIV or whose infection status is unknown.
Drug users should seek help to stop taking drugs and
should never share hypodermic needles, syringes, or
other injection equipment. Research has shown that
AZT reduces the risk of transmission from an infected
woman to her fetus or baby. Physicians administer AZT
and other antiviral drugs to HIV-infected women during
pregnancy and labor, and to their newborn babies. Doc-
tors advise HIV-infected women not to breast-feed.
Centen for Disease Control and Pretention
Physicians, dentists, and other health-care workers now
AIDS viruses reproduce in CD4 and circulate in the blood.
cells
wear gloves, masks, and other protective clothing dur- In this electron micrograph of a white blood cell, AIDS viruses
ing many examinations and procedures. can be seen as the small white dots covering the cell's surface.
The tests to detect evidence of HIV-1 have been used
to screen all blood donated in the United States since
1985. These tests have greatly increased the safety of that mainly affects young adults. Some efforts to deal
transfusions. Screening for HIV- 2 began in 1992. with AIDS or prevent HIV transmission have provoked
Researchers are working to develop safe, effective, controversy.
and economical vaccines against HIV infection. But even Education. Educating people about AIDS, both in
if HIV transmission ended, AIDS cases would still occur, schools and in the community, has become the chief ap-
since millions of people already have HIV. As a result, proach to preventing infection. Some schools have set
scientists are working to develop vaccines that would up health clinics that distribute condoms to students.
boost the immune systems of HIV-infected people. However, some people oppose even classroom discus-
sion of condom use because they believe it implies ac-
Social issues
ceptance of sexual intimacy outside of marriage.
AIDS causes concern because new, life-
it is a Preventing drug abuse and educating drug users
threatening disease, spread largely by sex and drugs, about AIDS are important approaches to controlling HIV

Percentage of adults with HIV or AIDS

By 2000, an estimated 36 million people throughout the world had HIV or AIDS. The highest rates of infection were in
central and southern Africa, where public health and education programs lacked resources to combat the epidemic.

mE£

<1
AMERICA EUROPE
United States

-^

Botswana AUSTRALIA
Southl

No data available 15 to 36 5to149 | Ho 4.9 ]o.1to0.9

J Less than 0.1

WORLD BOO!
164b AIDS

Estimated number of The number of people infected with HIV has risen dramatically, especially among people living in
new HIV infections by poverty. But efforts to control the spread of HIV have had some success. Education about HIV pre-
year worldwide vention has led to declines in the rate of new infection in some areas.

New HIV infections per year

4,500,000 Sub-Saharan Africa

Southern and Eastern Asia
4,000,000

3,500,000
- Eastern Europe and Central Asia
Latin America and the Caribbean
3,000,000 North Africa and Middle East

2,500,000
-
— Highly industrialized countries

2,000,000

1,500,000

1,000,000

500,000

1980 1984

Source: Joint United Nations Program on HIV AIDS

infection. Efforts to prevent HIV infection among drug awareness of AIDS. They hope that greater awareness
users include health and sex education as well as needle will result inmore compassion and support for people
and syringe exchange programs. But such programs with AIDS and adequate funding for AIDS prevention,
have been criticized as seeming to imply acceptance of research, and treatment. One project that has brought
drug use. attention to the crisis is the AIDS quilt. Begun in 1986 by
In the United States, federal, state, and local govern- an organization called the NAMES Project, this quilt con-
ments have provided funds for AIDS education, treat- sists of thousands of individually designed panels, each

ment, and research. Public health clinics offer counsel- of which memorializes a person who died of AIDS. The
ing and HIV-antibody testing to people who have quilt has been displayed throughout the world.
symptoms or are at risk of infection. In addition, these Celebrities have helped raise public consciousness of
clinics may privately and confidentially notify an infected AIDS. Many well-known entertainers, athletes, and oth-
person s sexual or needle-sharing partners of their risk. ers have participated in education and fund-raising ef-
Once notified, they, too, can receive preventive counsel- forts. The epidemic also has gained attention as a result
and medical services.
ing, testing, of well-known people becoming infected with HIV or
Public awareness. Many individuals and organiza- dying from AIDS. These people include actor Rock Hud-
community-based groups and the
tions, including son, who died of AIDS in 1985, and tennis champion
American Red Cross, have worked to increase public Arthur Ashe, who died in 1 993. Basketball star Magic
Johnson announced he was infected with HIV in 1991,
and Olympic diver Greg Louganis announced his infec-
tion in 1995.
The United Nations has designated December 1 each
year as World AIDS Day. Public agencies and schools
around the world sponsor education and prevention
programs. Many individuals wear a red ribbon to show
support for people with AIDS.
Discrimination. Some people infected with HIV have
unjustly lost or been denied jobs, housing, medical
care, and health insurance. Children with AIDS have
been kept from attending school or playing on sports
teams. To prevent discrimination, the federal govern-
ment and many states include AIDS patients and people
infected with HIV under laws protecting the rights of
people with disabilities. Some states have strengthened
laws that safeguard the confidentiality of medical
records relating to HIV infection and AIDS.
Preventing discrimination against AIDS patients is im-
portant not only for moral reasons but also to help main-
tain public health. When people are not afraid of dis-

! I
L Allan crimination, they will more likely seek counseling and
The AIDS quilt memorializes people who have died of AIDS. get tested for HIV. In many cases, these measures lead
The quilt is a moving symbol of the epidemic's human cost to less risky behavior and earlier diagnosis.
 Aiken, Conrad Potter 1 65

Providing medical care for the hundreds of thou- 1981. The doctors recognized the condition as some-
sands of people with HIV infection or with AIDS is ex- thing new because all the patients were previously
pensive. Paying and planning for this care is a major healthy, young homosexual men suffering from other-
health economics issue. The problem may be partly wise rare forms of cancer and pneumonia. The name
solved by increasing prevention efforts and by finding AIDS was adopted in 1982. Scientists soon determined
less costly antiviral medicines and alternatives to hospi- that AIDS occurred when the immune system became
tal care. Such alternatives include expanded home care damaged, and that the agent that caused the damage
services and hospice care. was spread through sexual contact, shared drug nee-
Antiviral drugs are effective
prolonging the life of
in dles, and infected blood transfusions.
AIDS drugs exceeds what
patients, but the cost of the Researchers developed tests to detect HIV infection.
nearly all individuals can pay. Patients in developing na- These tests have also been used to analyze stored tis-
tions, who often have only limited access to medical sues from several people who died from the late 1950s
care, cannot afford these medications. Experts view this through the 1970s. Scientists have concluded that some
issue, as well as the public health impact of AIDS itself, of these people died from AIDS.
as a major challenge to social and economic progress in Cases of HIV infection reported worldwide rose dra-
developing nations. matically during the 1980s and 1990s. By 2001, an esti-
mated 36 million people throughout the world were liv-
AIDS around the world
ing with HIV infection or AIDS. This number represents
AIDS occurs in every nation. In Africa, India, and an increase of about 50 percent since 1 991 when an es- ,

Southeast Asia, transmission of HIV has occurred mostly timated 24 million people were living with HIV or AIDS.
among heterosexual men and women. Heterosexual Efforts to control the spread of AIDS have had some
transmission of HIV, particularly among teens and success. For example, among homosexual men in the
young adults, has risen dramatically. HIV infection has United States, HIV infection is spreading more slowly
become epidemic in many developing nations. In some than it did in the early 1980s. This is due entirely to edu-
parts of Africa, the epidemic has reached disastrous lev- cation about prevention and the resulting changes in
els. According to the United Nations, 25 percent of the sexual behavior, such as decreased numbers of sexual
adults in some African countries are infected. The per- partners and increased use of condoms. HIV blood tests
centage is even higher in some large African cities. The caused a gradual decline in transfusion-related cases in
number of young adults dying of AIDS in Africa has the late 1980 s. The rate of AIDS in other groups rose,
caused an overall decrease in life expectancy through- however, during the 1980s and 1990s. These groups
out the continent. Increasing numbers of people are in- include heterosexual men and women, people who in-
fected in countries with growing drug abuse problems, ject drugs, and younger homosexual men.
such as the nations of central Europe, Russia, and China. D. Peter Drotman
Public health departments in many of these countries Related articles in World Book include:
lack the resources to treat patients effectively or to con- Adolescent (Risk taking) Medicine (Unequal distribu-
trol the epidemic through education. Antiviral drug tion of medical care)
Disease (picture: Viruses) Pneumonia
History of AIDS Elion, Gertrude Belle Sexually transmitted disease
Herpes, Genital Tuberculosis
Scientists are not certain how, when, or where the
AIDS virus evolved and first infected people. Research- Additional resources

ers have shown and HIV- 2 are more closely

that HIV-1 Hyde, Margaret O., and Forsyth, E. H. AIDS: What Does It Mean
to YourSXh ed. Walker, 1996.
related to simian immunodeficiency viruses, which in-
Leone, Daniel A., ed. The Spread of AIDS. Greenhaven, 1997.
fect monkevs and apes, than to each other. Thus, it has
Roleff, Tamara L, and Cozic, C
P., eds. AIDS. Greenhaven, 1998.
been suggested that HIV evolved from viruses that origi- Schoub, Barry D. AIDS & HIV in Perspective. Cambridge, 1999.
nally infected monkeys and apes in Africa and was
somehow transmitted to people. In 1999, researchers in Aiken, AYkuhn. Conrad Potter (1889-1973), was an
the United States found evidence that HIV-1 most likely American poet, novelist, and critic. He was a sympa-
originated in apopulation of chimpanzees in west thetic ally of Ezra Pound, T. S. Eliot, and others who used

Africa. The virus appears to have been transmitted to new methods in poetry. Aiken s verse, however, is rela-
people who hunted, butchered, and consumed the tively conservative and deeply personal, and especially

chimpanzees for food. HIV was then transmitted sexually influenced by the Austrian psychiatrist Sigmund Freud.
and perinatally to others, thus beginning the chains of Aiken's central poetic concern was the problem of
transmission that have reached around the world. achieving personal identity in an unstable world of
Scientists believe HIV infection became widespread change. The greatest strength of his poetry is its musi-
after significant social changes took place in Africa dur- cality, which often overwhelms the poem s ideas. His Se-

ing the 1960s and 1970 s. Large numbers of people lected Poems won the 1930 Pulitzer Prize for poetry.
moved from rural areas to cities, resulting in crowding, Aiken was born in Savannah, Georgia, but grew up in
unemployment, and prostitution. These conditions New Bedford, Massachusetts In addition to several no\
brought about an increase in cases of sexually transmit- els and collections of stories and essays, Aiken wrote
i s7?<)nn1952), an autobiographical fantasy. This work
ted diseases, including AIDS. HIV may have been intro-
duced into industrialized nations several times before provides an eloquent account of the writers develop-
transmission was sustained and became widespread ment as an artist despite personal setbat ks and uncer-
identified as a disease by pi tainties Aiken s Collected Poems 1916-1970 was pub-
AIDS was first nev\
New York City in 1980 and lished 1971 Ronnie Co-tello
cians in Los Angeles and ill
166 Ailanthus

Ailanthus, ay LAN thuhs, is a hardy tree that thrives in

and places where other trees fail to grow. It is also
cities
Air
called the tree of heaven. Although native to the forests
of China, the treegrows throughout much of the world. Air is the mixture of gases that surrounds the earth. It is

An ailanthus has smooth brown-gray bark and small often called the atmosphere. Air covers the land and sea
greenish flowers. Male flowers give off an unpleasant and extends far above the earth's surface. We cannot
odor. During spring and summer, the tree produces see, smell, or taste air. Yet it is as real as land or water.
compound leaves (leaves with more than one blade) that When the wind blows, it is the air you feel against your
smell like peanut butter when autumn, ailan-
broken. In face. Wind is simply moving air. You can also see the ef-
thuses develop attractive, reddish-brown, winged fruits. fect of wind in drifting clouds, pounding waves, and
Because the ailanthus can live in most soils and many trembling leaves. Moving air can turn windmills and
climates, people often call it a weed tree." It resists in- blow large sailboats across the ocean.
jury from insects, diseases, and pollution. Seedlings car- Without air, there could be no life on the earth. All liv-
ried by the wind sprout almost anywhere they land. ing things— animals and plants— need air to stay alive.
Many ailanthuses grow at roadsides and forest edges. You are breathing air now. You must breathe air, or you
They also flourish in vacant city lots and sidewalk cracks. will die. People have lived more than a month without
The tree develops rapidly. From seed, it may grow 8 feet food and more than a week without water. But a person
(2.4 meters) in one year. A mature ailanthus stands about can live only a few minutes without air.
60 feet (18 meters) tall. Norman L Christensen. |r. Air does much more than make it possible for us to
Scientific classification. The ailanthus belongs to the quas- breathe. Air shields the earth from certain harmful rays
sia family, Simaroubaceae. It is Ailanthus altissima. from the sun and other objects in outer space. At the
Alley, AY lee, Alvin (1931-1989), was an American cho- same time, it traps the heat that comes from the sun. In
reographer (creator of dances) and director of the Alvin this way, air helps keep the earth warm enough
to sup-
Ailey American Dance Theater. Ailey s modern dances port life. Air protects us from meteors, most of which
strongly reflected his Southern background. He com- burn up in the atmosphere before they can strike the
posed many of them to black folk music and jazz. His earth's surface. Clouds that form in the air bring us water
works include Revelations (1960), Mary Lou's Mass in the form of rain and snow. All living things must have
(1971), and Oy(1971). He based Survivors i1986) on the water to live, just as they must have air.

antiapartheid movement in South Africa. We also need Sound must travel through
air to hear.
Ailey was born in Rogers, Texas. He studied and per- the air or some other substance. Most of the sounds we
formed with the American choreographer Lester Hor- hear travel through the air. Thus, the world would be
ton. In 958, Ailey formed his own dance company and
1 silent if there were no air. Air has weight. This weight
in 1965, he retired from performing to devote himself to enables balloons filled with a light gas or heated air to
choreography. In addition to works created for his own rise high above the earth because they are lighter than
company, Ailey composed dances for ballet, television, the air around them. Air moving past the wings of air-
and opera. Revelations, an autobiography, was pub- planes, birds, and insects enables them to fly.
lished in 1995, after his death. Katv Matheson The earth has plentiful air. But the quality of the air de-
AIM. See American Indian Movement. pends largely on the amount of industrial wastes and
Ainu, EYE noo, are a group of people who may have other pollutants (impurities) that people add to the at-
been the first inhabitants of what is now Japan. There are mosphere. Air pollution is a serious problem in most of
about 1 5,000 Ainu. Most of the Ainu live on Hokkaido, the world's big cities. Polluted air harms our health. It
japans northernmost main island. Until the mid-1900's, also injures plants and animals, damages building mate-
some Ainu also lived on Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands. rials,and even affects the weather. For a detailed discus-
Sakhalin is a part of Russia. Russia claims and occupies sion of the problem of air pollution, see the World Book
all the Kurils, but japan claims the southernmost ones. article Air pollution. See also Environmental pollution
Scientists are uncertain about the ancestry of the (Air pollution).
Ainu. Some anthropologists think the Ainu are related to
What is air?
European peoples. Other anthropologists believe they
are related to Asian peoples or Australian Aborigines, Air consists of a mixture of gases that extends from
the original inhabitants of Australia. The Ainu language the earth's surface to outer space. The earth's gravity
has not been clearly classified. holds the air in place around the earth. The gases of the
Through the centuries, many Ainu have intermarried air move about freely among one another. As sunlight
with the Japanese and other neighboring peoples. The passes through the earth s atmosphere, it strikes mole-
was once the basic unit of Ainu society. Each vil-
village cules of the gases. The molecules scatter the sunlight,
lagewas headed by a leader and consisted of 5 to 30 which is a mixture of all colors, in every direction. The
one-room houses. Hunting, fishing, and gathering plants sky appears blue because much more blue light is scat-
provided food for the community. The Ainu practiced a tered than any other color. See Sky.
complicated set of religious ceremonies. Many small particles of dust are suspended among
The Ainu have long been victims of discrimination. the gases of the air. The air also carries tiny water drop-
However, they have started a movement to achieve fair
treatment in Japan. The Japanese government has begun
a program of economic aid for the Ainu. Stanley David Cedzelman, the contributor of this article, is
Professor of Meteorology at the City College of New York. He is
Emiko Ohnuki Heme)
also the author o/The Science and Wonders of the Atmosphere.
See also Japan (People Ipicturel).
 Air 167

The air around us is invisible. But we can feel the air when it pushes against us as gusts of wind.
Wind simply moving air. We can also tell that air has weight This weight enables hot-air bal-
is

loons to rise above the earth because they are lighter than the surrounding air.

lets and ice crystals in the form of clouds. However, sci- The amount of vapor in the air depends on location. For
entists do not consider the dust, water droplets, and ice example, air near the equator usually contains much
crystals to be part of the air. more vapor than air near the North and South poles. Air
Gases of the air. The principal gases of the air are ni- near sea level usually contains much more vapor than
trogen and oxygen. Other gases include argon, water air several miles above sea level. The amount of water

vapor, carbon dioxide, neon, helium, krypton, hydrogen, vapor in the air also depends on weather. Air usually
xenon, and ozone. The water vapor in the air is water in contains more vapor on cloudy days than on clear days.
the form of an invisible gas. Nitrogen makes up about 78 Warm air can hold much more water vapor than cold
percent of dry air— that is, air from which all water vapor air. Scientists express the ability of air to hold water va-

has been removed. Oxygen accounts for about 21 per- por in terms of relative humidity—the air's vapor content
cent of dry air. The remaining 1 percent consists chiefly divided by its vapor capacity. Vapor capacity is often de-
of argon, with only extremely small amounts of the other fined as the maximum amount of vapor the air could
gases. hold (see Humidity). According to this definition, air that
Some gases of the atmosphere are particularly impor- is holding as much moisture as possible has a relative

tant When we breathe, we take in oxygen from the air humidity of 100 percent Air just above water surfaces,
and give off carbon dioxide. Green plants take in carbon such as the ocean, often has a relative humidity near 100
dioxide and give off oxygen in a food-making process percent Air over dry surfaces, such as deserts, usually
called photosynthesis (see Photosynthesis). Oxygen has a low relative humidity.
from the plays a part in such chemical processes as
air However, air in clouds can actually have a relative hu-
the rusting of iron and the formation of vinegar from midity greater than 100 percent; if air is cooled enough,
cider. Most fuels must have oxygen to burn. Certain bac- its vapor capacity decreases. The excess vapor can then

teria turn nitrogen that has passed into the soil from the change to tiny water droplets or ice crystals in a process
atmosphere into chemicals that fertilize plants. called condensation. The temperature at which water va-
Water vapor and carbon dioxide are two of the gases por begins to condense is called the dew point. Air
in the air that help keep the earth warm. They prevent cools as it rises, and clouds form when masses of moist
some of the surface heat created by sunlight from es- air rise and cool below the dew point. The vapor in

caping back into space. This behavior of the gases is clouds condenses on tiny particles of matter.
known greenhouse effect [see Greenhouse ef-
as the Most droplets form when vapor condenses on tiny
fect). Water vapor is also needed to produce rain and particles of sea salt or of a chemical compound such as

snow. Ozone, a form of oxygen, absorbs many of the ammonium sulfate or magnesium sulfate. Most ice crys-
sun's harmful ultraviolet rays, an invisible form of light tals form when droplets containing other particles of

(see Ultraviolet rays). dust freeze. After ice crystals form, vapor condenses
Moisture in the air takes the form of water vapor more rapidly on them than on the droplets.
v t\ loud consists ot air filled with countless water
and tiny particles of water and ice. Vapor enters the at- I < c

mosphere when water evaporates from oceans lakes droplets or ice crystals. Rain or snow is produced after
rivers, and soil, or is given off from the leaves of plants.
the droplets or crystals become heavy enough to fall out
168 Air

The gases of the air liquids. At sea level, each cubic foot of air weighs only
about 1 I ounces, a measurement equivalent to about

1.2 kilogram per cubic meter. But the weight of all the
Nitrogen 78% air around the world is more than 5,700,000,000,000,000
tons (5,200,000,000,000,000 metric tons). The weight of
the air pressing from the top of the atmosphere upon
the layers of air below produces air pressure, also called
atmospheric pressure. The air pressure at sea level aver-
ages 14.7 pounds per square inch (101.3 kilopascals). The
air pressing down on your shoulders weighs about 1
ton (0.9 metric ton). You do not feel this weight because
you are supported by equal air pressure on all sides.
An instrument called a barometeris used to measure
air pressure. Barometers indicate air pressure in inches
or millimeters of mercury or in units called bars and mil-
libars. The bar is a unit of pressure in the metric system,
equal to 1 00 kilopascals, and a millibar equals of a , ^
bar. On a barometer, the average atmospheric pressure
Argon and
Oxygen 21% other gases 1% at sea level is 29.92 inches (760 millimeters) of mercury,
or 1 ,01 3 millibars. The atmospheric pressure changes a
little each day with the weather. The pressure is usually

Air consists chiefly of nitrogen and oxygen. They make up about lower on stormy, wet days than on clear, dry days. Thus,
99 percent of dryair^air from which all water vapor has been a falling reading on a barometer often indicates that a
removed. Argon and other gases account for about 1 percent
storm is approaching. See Barometer.
The upper atmosphere has less pressure than the air
of the clouds. Fog is a cloud near the earth's surface. near the earth, simply because there is less air pressing
See Rain (Formation of rain); Snow; Fog. down from above. When you ride up a tall building in a
Particles in the air. Air always contains many tiny sol- fast elevator, you can feel the air pressure changing. The
id particles called aerosols. Most aerosols measure only pressure of the air inside the elevator decreases, but the
about ^'oqo inch (0.1 micrometer) in diameter. They are air pressure inside your ears remains the same. This dif-

therefore invisible, exceptwhen crowded together in ference in pressure causes your eardrums to bulge out-
extremely large numbers. ward slightly until some air finally forces its way out of
Many aerosols enter the air from active volcanoes, au- your ears. You then feel your ears "pop.''

tomobile exhaust, forest and brush fires, and factory We use the pressing force of air in various ways.
smoke. The wind carries particles of dust and sand up When we suck a soft drink through a straw, for example,
from the ground into the atmosphere. Other aerosols in- we do not pull the liquid up through the straw. Instead,
clude pollen from plants, salt from the oceans, ashes of by sucking on the straw, we remove some of the air
meteoroids, and tiny living things called microbes. from inside it. As a pressure inside the
result, the air
Aerosols are always being added to the air. But they do straw becomes pressure of the air on the
less than the
not remain in the atmosphere forever. Rain and snow liquid outside the straw. The greater pressure of the air
wash out many aerosols, which is why air is fresher after
it rains or snows. Other aerosols slowly fall to the earth.
Air pressure
Near the earth's surface, the number of aerosols in the
The weight of the air pressing down all around us produces air
air varies greatly from place to place. The air over the
pressure. The diagrams here show one common way we use the
oceans contains about 30 million aerosols per cubic foot force of the air to drink through a straw. Sucking on the straw
(1 billion per cubic meter). However, the polluted air creates a partial vacuum inside it The greater air pressure out-
over a large city may contain about 3 billion aerosols side then pushes the liquid in the glass up through the straw.
per cubic foot Fewer aerosols float in the higher re- WORLD BOOK illustrations by Oxford Illustrators Limited

gions of the atmosphere.

How air behaves

Weight and pressure. We do not usually notice the
weight of air because air is much lighter than solids or

How air pressure decreases with altitude

Altitude Pressure
Inpounds per In
In feet In meters square inch
en kilopascals

50,000 15,000 1.8 12.1

40,000
30,000
20,000
12,000
9,000
6,000
2.8
4.5
6.8
19.4
30.8
47.2
nl/a
10,000 3,000 10.2 70.1
Sea level Sea level 14.7 101.3
Equal air pressure Unequal air pressure
 Air 169

outside then pushes the liquid in the giass up through Air resistance
the straw and into our mouths. Suction pump; and vacu- Air resists the motion of objects traveling through it This resist-
um cleaners also work by means of air pressure (see ance slows a parachute jumper's fall, shown here. The jumper
Pump; Vacuum cleaner). meets minimum air resistance and falls rapidly until the para-
chute is opened. The greater resistance acting on the surface of
Air movement Air moves across the surface of the
the parachute enables the jumper to float safely to the ground.
earth in the form of wind. The sun causes the wind be- WORLO BOOK illustration:, by Oxford Illustrators Limited
cause it heats the earth's surface unevenly. Air above
warm areas of the earth expands and becomes lighter. It
then rises, creating an area of low pressure near the sur-
face. Wind is produced when cooler, heavier air flows
toward the low-pressure area, replacing the rising air.
Wind often develops along an ocean shore during the
day because land heats up more quickly than water
does. The air over the shore is thus warmer than the air
over the water. As the warm air over the shore rises, the
cooler air from the sea moves inland and replaces it,
producing a sea breeze. At night, the air over the shore
becomes cooler than the air over the water. Thus, the
wind direction reverses, and a breeze blows out to sea.
The warm air above the equator is usually rising.
Cooler air from north and south of the equator blows in
steadily, replacing the rising air. This movement of air
Minimum resistance Maximum resistance
creates two vast belts of winds called the trade winds.
The trade winds do not blow straight toward the equa-
tor because of the earth's rotation. The trade winds form in the air. The winds of cyclones swirl inward to-
north of the equator are twisted to the right of their ward a center of low pressure. Anticyclones whirl out-
original direction, or toward the southwest The trade ward around a center of high pressure. See Jet stream;
winds south of the equator are shifted to their left, or to- Weather (Synoptic-scale systems).
ward the northwest. This effect of the earth's rotation on Air resistance. Air resists the motion of objects trav-
the paths of winds is called the Coriolis effector Coriolis eling through it This resistance occurs because moving
force. The Coriolis effect also shifts the paths of four oth- objects rub against the atoms and molecules of the gas-
er great belts of winds that circle the earth. These winds es that make up the air. A piece of paper in the air floats
are the prevailing westerlies and polar easterlies in each slowly to the ground because of the air resistance acting
hemisphere north and south of the equator. See Trade on its surface. Air resistance slows down the speed of a
wind; Coriolis effect; Wind. parachute jumper's fall.
Bands of fast-moving winds occur about 6 to 9 miles During the early days of aviation, airplanes flew slow-
(1 to 1 5 kilometers) above the earth. These bands are ly partly because such parts as the wing braces and

known as jet streams. Winds in the core of a jet stream landing wheels rubbed against the air. Aviation engi-
may exceed 200 miles (320 kilometers) per hour. Systems neers found that they could reduce air resistance and
of swirling winds, called cyclones and anticyclones, also thus increase the speed of a plane by streamlining its
shape. They removed outside wing supports and in-
stalled landing wheels that could be pulled up into the
plane. They found that even smoothing down rivet
heads helped reduce air resistance. See Aerodynamics.
The faster objects move through the air, the more re-
sistance they meet For example, the faster you ride a bi-
cycle, the stronger the air resistance against you will be.
As you increase your speed, you can feel the air pushing
harder and harder against you. Air resistance generates
heat Meteoroids move through the atmosphere at such
great speeds that they encounter enormous air resist-
ance and so become very hot As a result, most mete-
oroids glow brightly, producing streaks of light known
as meteors, and disintegrate before hitting the surface
of the earth. Rockets traveling through the earth s atmos-
phere must be made of materials that can withstand the
intense heat created by air resistance.
Air compression. Air can be pumped into steel cylin-
ders or tanks until the air pressure is several hundred
iMnnf Illustrators trmitfi)
.,
times greater than normal atmospheric pressure. Such
Air movement Wind resultsfrom differences in the tempera- air is called compressed air. When air is being com-
ture of the air. For example, on a sunny d.iv the air above an pressed, the atoms and molecules of the air speed up.
ocean shore is warmer than the air ovei ihe w.itrc fhe warmer
rhecoot As their speed increases, the air gets warmer
air over the shore expands, becomes lightei and rises
People use compressed air to inflate tires and air mat
er air from the sea moves in. producing a sea breeze
 Air

A World Book science project

The effects of air pressure

This project demonstrates that air pressure depends on the

number of air molecules per cubic inch of space. The two jars,
left, are linked together so that the air space in each one can be
varied to increase or decrease the pressure.

Preparing the materials

You will need two one-quart Mason jars with

rubber washers, lids, and screw tops. Get a
36-inch-long piece of copper tubing with a
j-inch inside diameter. Cut the tubing into four
equal parts. You will also need flexible rubber or
plastic tubing. It, too, must have a f-inch inside
diameter, and should be about 14 inches long.
Other equipment includes a pencil, paper,
thumb tack, rubber bands, siiicone sealant, and a
wooden block or cardboard box about 3 inches
high.

Pencil
Tack
Wooden block

Assembling the materials

3/8-inch
diam.
Ve-inch diam.
copper tube copper tube

Water Water
Making the turbine wheel. Cut L-shaped notches in a
circular piece of paper. Fold the notches over, all in the
same direction. Fasten the wheel to the top of the pencil
with a tack. It must be loose so that the wheel will turn.
Demonstrating the project

To conduct a demonstration, slip a balloon over the top of one

of the copper tubes with crimped ends. Fasten the balloon in
place with a rubber band. Blow into the other tube until water
flows from one jar to the other, completely filling the flexible
tubing. Then cap the tube with the remaining balloon and twist
a rubber band around it to hold it securely in place.

Changing the pressure. Place one of the jars on a wooden Working the turbine. Leave one jar raised. Remove the bal-
block or cardboard box. As the water drains from this jar, the air loon from the raised tube to allow more air into the jar so that
molecules have more room and the pressure decreases, letting the water will flow freely. Take the balloon off the other jar also,
the balloon collapse. The water added to the other jar takes up and hold the paper turbine wheel over the open tube. Water
space originally held by air molecules. The air molecules are flowing into this jar increases the pressure, pushing air out of
squeezed together. The increased pressure inflates the balloon. the tube. This escaping air causes the turbine wheel to turn.

^"^ \ Turbine «-C^H»

'

!
*> /- ->^ 'A i
^~

%J

How temperature affects air pressure

To use temperature to change air pressure, fas-

ten a balloon on top of each of two pop bottles,
and put the bottles in deep pans. Fill one pan
with ice, and the other with hot water. The ice
willcool the air in the bottle, causing the air to
contract and deflate the balloon. The hot water
will warm the air in the other bottle, causing the
air to expand and inflate the balloon.

llluMtalrdliv WluUta WOI

172 Air

tresses. Scuba divers breathe from tanks of compressed thinner with increasing height above the earth. The out-
air strapped to their backs. Submarines carry cylinders er atmosphere gradually fades into space, where it
of air compressed to about 2^> its normal volume. A sub-
-
meets the solar wind—that is, a continuous stream of
marine dives as compartments called ballast tanks are charged particles from the sun. See Solar wind.
flooded with water. It rises to the surface as the water is The troposphere is the layer of the atmosphere clos-
forced out of the ballast tanks by compressed air. Com- est to the earth— the layer in which we live. The tropos-
pressed used to operate air brakes, certain in-
air is also phere contains more than 75 percent of the earth's at-
and paint sprayers, and air hammers and other
secticide mosphere. Nearly all the earth's weather
pneumatic tools (see Pneumatic tool). conditions— including most clouds, rain, and snow— oc-
cur in this layer. Scientists forecast the weather by study-
Structure of the atmosphere
ing the troposphere. The troposphere also contains
Scientists divide the earth's atmosphere into five lay- most of the aerosols and water vapor in the air. Jet
ers according to differences in temperature. The layers, streams blow in the upper part of the troposphere.
from lowest to highest altitude, are (1 ) the troposphere, The temperature of the troposphere decreases about
(2) the stratosphere, (3) the mesosphere, (4) the thermos- 3.5 °F for every 1 ,000 feet (6.5 °C for every 1 ,000 meters)
phere, and (5) the exosphere. The atmosphere becomes of increase in altitude. The temperature stops decreas-

The layers of the atmosphere

atmosphere into five layers, according to differences in the tempera-
Scientists divide the earth's
ture of the These layers are the troposphere, the stratosphere, the mesosphere, the thermos-
air.

phere, and the exosphere. The outer atmosphere gradually fades into interplanetary space.
WORLD BOOK illustration by Oxford Illustrators Umited
Altitude Divisions of Detailed enlargement of the Temperature
the atmosphere divisions of the atmosphere extremes
600 m
(960 km

200 mi.
(300 km)

150 mi.
(240 km)

100 mi.
(160 1m)

50 mi.
(80 km)

mi/km
 Air 173

ing at the tropopause, the upper boundary of the tro- tivity]). It then becomes much hotter, reaching a temper-
posphere. The tropopause lies about 6 miles (10 kilome- ature as high as 3600 F (2000 C) at the top of the ther-
ters) over the North and South poles and about 10 miles mosphere, called the thermopause.
(16 kilometers) over the equator. At the tropopause, the The lower part of the thermosphere and the upper
air has become too thin to support life. part of the mesosphere are called the ionosphere. When
The troposphere is usually warmest near the earth's radiation from the sun and from other sources in outer
surface because sunlight that passes through the air space strikes the air in this region, it ionizes (charges
heats the ground and seas. The ground and seas, in electrically) some atoms and molecules of the air.
of the
turn, warm theair directly above. Sometimes, especially These charged atoms and molecules are called ions. The
at night and during the winter, the air near the earth's ionosphere plays an important part in radio communica-
surface becomes cooler than the air above it. The tem- tion. It reflects back to earth radio waves that would oth-
perature in a thin layer of the troposphere then in- erwise travel into space. See Ionosphere.
creases with altitude. This abnormal situation is called a Light displays called auroras occur in the thermo-
temperature inversion. The worst outbreaks of air pollu- sphere. Auroras are produced when charged particles
tion occur during temperature inversions because the given off by the sun are captured by the earth's magnet-
cold air near the ground traps the pollutants, preventing ic field. The particles strike the atmosphere in a ring

them from rising and scattering. An inversion lasts until around each of the earth's magnetic poles, releasing en-
sunlight heats the air below or wind breaks up the over- ergy in the form of light. The display in the Northern
lying layer of warm air. Hemisphere is called the aurora borealis or the northern
At the tropopause, the air is so cold that the clouds lights {see Aurora). The display in the Southern Hemi-
consist of ice crystals.The coldest part of the tropo- sphere is the aurora australis or southern lights.

sphere is at the tropopause over the equator. There, the The exosphere begins at the thermopause and even-
air has risen so high that its temperature drops as low as tually merges with the solar wind. The exosphere has so
— 112 F (-80 C). The tropopause over the equator can
=
little and spacecraft orbiting the earth
air that satellites

be as much as 54 Fahrenheit degrees (30 Celsius de- in the region encounter almost no resistance. The atoms

grees) colder than the tropopause over the poles. and molecules of the air in the exosphere move ex-
The stratosphere extends from the tropopause to tremely fast. Some travel so fast that they overcome the
about 30 miles (48 kilometers) above the earth's surface. force of the earth's gravity and escape into space. The
Very little moisture enters the stratosphere, so clouds earth is thus slowly losing its atmosphere. However, the
are rare. Airline pilots prefer to fly in the stratosphere to process will take billions of years before all the air
avoid weather disturbances in the troposphere. around the earth disappears.
The stratosphere usually has a lower layer of nearly
Origin of the atmosphere
steady temperature and an upper layer in which tem-
perature increases with altitude. The temperature of the Most scientists believe that the earth was formed ap-
lower layer is about -67 F (-55 C). The upper layer's proximately 4 I billion years ago and probably did not
temperature increases to about 28 F (-2 C) at the top then have an atmosphere. Slowly, gases that escaped
of the stratosphere, called the stratopause. The strato- from the developing earth began to accumulate around
sphere contains most of the atmosphere's ozone. Ozone itFor example, numerous volcanoes on the young earth
heats the air by absorbing the sun's ultraviolet rays. released such gases as ammonia, carbon dioxide, car-
The mesosphere extends from the stratopause to bon monoxide, hydrogen, methane, nitrogen, sulfur
about 50 miles (80 kilometers) above the earth. The tem- dioxide, and water vapor. These volcanic gases made up
perature of the mesosphere decreases with altitude. The atmosphere.
a large part of the earth's earliest
lowest temperatures in the earth's atmosphere occur at Much water vapor from the volcanoes con-
of the

the top of the mesosphere, called the mesopause. At the densed, forming rivers, lakes, and oceans. Some of the
mesopause over the poles, the air temperature drops as other gases in the early atmosphere dissolved in the
low as -171 (—113 C) during the summer. Trails of
F oceans or combined with rocks on the earth's surface.
hot gases by meteors can be seen in the meso-
left But most of the nitrogen stayed in the air. Additional
sphere. Extremely strong winds blow in this layer. gases, such as argon and xenon, were added by the de-
The thermosphere begins at the mesopause and ex- cay of radioactive elements in the earth.
tends to about 300 miles (480 kilometers) above the The earth's earliest atmosphere probably did not con-
earth. The air in the thermosphere is extremely thin. tain much
oxygen. But after blue-green algae, also called
More than 99.99 percent of the atmosphere lies below it. cyanobacteria, and some simple green plants appeared
The chemical composition of the thermosphere differs in the oceans before 3 ) billion years ago, the amount of

from that of the lower layers. In the lower regions of the oxygen started to increase as a result of photosynthesis.
thermosphere, many of the oxygen molecules in the air As plants spread over the earth, more and more oxygen
are broken into oxygen atoms. The outer layer of the built up in the atmosphere. As oxygen increased, carbon

thermosphere consists chiefly of hydrogen and helium. dioxide in the atmosphere decreased. By about 400 mil
is completely exposed to the sun s lion years ago, the air probably contained as much oxy-
The thermosphere
which heats the thin air there to ex-
ultraviolet radiation, gen as it does today. See Earth (History of Earth).
tremely high temperatures. Ordinarily, the temperature Changes in the atmosphere
climbs rapidly from the mesopause to about 100 F 1

(600 C) at 120 miles i00 kilometers) above the earth and

Human activity has caused small but important
then levels Bui during solar storms, more radiation
off.
changes in the composition of the air. The amounts of
and particles strike the thermosphere (see Sun ISolar ac- many gases in the air such as carbon dioxide, are in-
1 74 Air

tion of weather.
Early philosophers and scientists could not test their
theories about the air because they had no instruments
to measure the air's properties. Around 1600, scientists
began to use a type of thermometer to study air. Evange-
lista Torricelli, an Italian mathematician and physicist, in-

vented the mercury barometer in 1643. In the mid-

1600s, the Irish chemist Robert Boyle used the
barometer to formulate the relationship between the
volume of air and its pressure.
During the 1700s, scientists began to study atmos-
pheric gases. Oxygen was discovered by the Swedish
chemist Carl Scheele in the early 1770s and independ-
ently by the English chemist Joseph Priestley in 1 774.
In 1777, Antoine Lavoisier, a French chemist, realized
that oxygen in the air enables objects to burn. Daniel
Rutherford, a Scottish physician, discovered nitrogen in
1772. In 1894, the Scottish chemist Sir William Ramsay
and the English physicist Baron Rayleigh together isolat-
ed argon. By the late 1800s, scientists had found that the
composition of the air is the same all over the earth.
During the early 1900s, Norwegian researchers head-
National Center for Atmospheric Research
ed by the physicist Vilhelm Bjerknes discovered that the
A research balloon is helium in preparation for its
inflated with movement of enormous bodies of air, called air masses,
launch, shown aboard such balloons
here. Scientific instruments
helps determine weather conditions. The researchers
collect data about the earth's atmosphere.
showed that when a warm air mass and a cold air mass
meet, a zone of rapidly changing weather, which they
creasing at significant rates. Carbon dioxide enters the called a front, develops. Their model of weather systems
atmosphere whenever coal, oil, or other fuels contain- vastly improved the accuracy of weather forecasting.
ing carbon are burned. Since the early to mid-1800's, the Since the mid-1 900s, scientists have made much
use of enormous amounts of these fuels has led to a 25 progress in developing equipment for studying the at-
percent increase in the amount of carbon dioxide in the mosphere. Today, weather balloons, radars, satellites,
air. Levels of methane and nitrous oxide have more than and monitor atmospheric conditions, air pollution
lasers
doubled, and there were no chlorofluorocarbons levels, and changes in the composition of the air. Mete-
(CFCs) in the atmosphere before 1930. CFCs are synthet- orologists can analyze the data supplied by these de-
ic substances that were formerly used widely as refrig- vices to prepare detailed weather forecasts.
erants in air conditioners and refrigerators and as pro- In December 1999, the National Aeronautics and
pellants in aerosol spray products. Space Administration (NASA) launched Terra, the first
Many scientists believe that the increases in the gases satellite of an extensive program known as the Earth Ob-
and the introduction of CFCs has strengthened the serving System. Terra can monitor 16 factors that deter-
greenhouse effect. A strengthening of this effect would mine climate, including aerosols, air temperature,
produce global warming, an increase in the average clouds, and Water Vapor. Stanley David Cedzelman

temperature of the earth's surface. See Global warming. Related articles in World Book. For a discussion of the at-
CFCs are also involved in the weakening of the pro- mosphere of other planets, see the separate articles on the plan-

tective layer of ozone in the stratosphere and tropos-

ets, such as Venus and Mars. See also:
Aerodynamics Lavoisier, Pressure Torricelli,
phere. CFCs are harmless near the ground, but cause
Air pollution Antoine L Priestley, Evangelista
damage when they drift up into the stratosphere and Barometer Mesosphere Joseph Trade wind
troposphere. There, they break apart and release chlo- Climate Nitrogen Radiosonde Troposphere
rine atoms. The chlorine reacts with the ozone, convert- Gas Oxygen Stratosphere Weather
ing it into ordinary oxygen molecules. This conversion Ionosphere Ozone Thermosphere Wind
enables an increased amount of harmful ultraviolet radi- Outline
ation to reach the earth's surface. In 1990, the United I. What is air?
States and most other industrialized countries agreed to A. Cases of the air
stop production of most CFCs. B. Moisture in the air
C Particles in the air
The study of air II. How air behaves
A. Weight and pressure C Air resistance
Since ancient times, people have known that air is im-
B. Air movement Air compression
D.
portant to life. During the 400s B.C, Empedocles, a III. Structure of the atmosphere
Greek philosopher, suggested that four elements— air, A The troposphere D. The thermosphere
earth, fire, and water— combined in various proportions B. The stratosphere E. The exosphere
to make up all objects in the universe. Many other Greek C The mesosphere
IV. Origin of the atmosphere
scholars accepted this theory. In the 300s B.C, the Greek
V. Changes in the atmosphere
philosopher Aristotle wrote Meteorology, a collection VI. The study of air
of observations about the nature of air and the forma-
 1

Air cleaner 175

Questions side-impact air bag can be triggered by less impact

Which atmosphere is closest to Earth?
layer of the After an impact, sensors send an electric current to an
How is a sea breeze produced? igniter system or, in some cases, to the computerized
What holds the air in place around Earth? control unit. This unit evaluates the situation and then
How do most scientists believe Earth's earliest atmosphere sends an electrical impulse to the igniter system. The
formed? How was oxygen added to the early atmosphere?
electric current heats a filament (wire), which in turn ig-
How does the humidity of the air depend on temperature, loca-
nites a capsule. This ignition capsule supplies the heat
tion, and the weather?
What causes meteoroids to burn up in the atmosphere? to ignite gas-generating pellets.
What is an aerosoR What are common sources of aerosols? most systems, the pellets are made of sodium
In
Why do airline pilots prefer to fly in the stratosphere? azide, which produces nitrogen gas when it burns. The
Why does the upper atmosphere have less pressure than the air gas expands quickly and inflates the air bag, which then
near Earth?
breaks through a plastic cover in the steering wheel, the
How is Earth slowly losing its atmosphere?
dashboard, or a door panel. The whole process takes
Additional resources about 0.1 second from the moment a frontal impact is
Allaby, Michael. Air. Factson File, 1992. detected, and even less time in the event of a side im-
Barry, Roger C, and Chorley, R. J. Atmosphere, Weather, and pact. The air bag starts to deflate immediately, venting
Climate. 7th ed. Routledge, 1998.
the harmless gas through holes in the back of the bag or
Dann, Sarah. The Science of Air. Careth Stevens, 2000. Younger
readers.
through the fabric itself.
Denny, Mark W. Air and Water The Biology and Physics of Life's Safety experts have raised concerns that air bags can
Media. Princeton, 1993. injure children, pregnant women, and adults of below-
Gardner, Robert Science Project Ideas About Air. Enslow, 1997. average height by hitting them on the head or neck. Au-
Younger readers. tomobile manufacturers are developing systems that
Sauvain, Philip. Air. Discovery Bks., 1992.
can adjust the position and inflation speed of an air bag
Air, Liquid. See Liquid air. based on the position and size of the person in the seat.
Air bag is an inflatable automobile safety device that The United States National Highway Traffic Safety Com-
helps protect a driver or passenger in a collision. An air mission recommends placing all children 12 years old
bag is most effective used with lap and shoulder belts. and younger in the back seat William h. Haverdink

An air bag system consists of one or more cloth air Air brake. See Brake (Air brakes).
bags, an inflator, and devices called sensors. The sen- Air cleaner is a device that removes contaminants (im-
sors can detect a sudden slowdown, which would occur purities)from a stream of gas or air. Solid contaminants
ina frontal collision, or the jarring force of a side impact include dust, lint, smoke, and pollens. Liquid contami-

Sensors to detect frontal collisions are usually mounted nants include mist and fog. Other contaminants come in
at the front of the vehicle and in the passenger compart- the form of vapors and gases.
ment Those that detect side collisions are usually in the Uses. Air cleaners serve many different purposes. In

door and in the center pillar at the side of the vehicle. homes, they improve the cleanliness of the air and re-
The sensors run on energy from the vehicle's battery or duce housekeeping time. Special types of air cleaners
from a computerized control unit, a device that also help to eliminate pollens and dust, and thereby bring re-
monitors the system for malfunctions. lief to individuals who suffer from hay fever and other

Air bags are designed to inflate in frontal or front-an- allergies. Department stores may use air cleaners to

gle impacts in which the automobile strikes an immov- keep merchandise clean, and to reduce fire hazard by
able object at more than about 10 miles (16 kilometers) collecting lint or other burnable material that may be
per hour or another car at about twice that speed. A deposited in the ventilation system. Hospitais use air
cleaners to reduce or eliminate the spread of infection.
Without air cleaners, many
industries could not oper-
ate efficiently. For example, food processing and elec-
tronic equipment manufacturing require relatively dust-
free air. Air cleaners can lower expense by recirculating
conditioned air from heating and air-conditioning sys-
tems. Air-cleaning systems also keep exhausted contam-
inants from reentering the factory. Sometimes industrial
dust or odors must be removed to keep the air from
harming people in the area nearby. Air cleaners also
protect internal-combustion engines and other machin-
ery from excessive wear.
Types of air cleaners. The type of air cleaner used
depends on the size and the amount of particles to be
removed and on the characteristics of the contaminant
Cost is also important because some air-cleaning sys-
tems cost more to buy, operate, and maintain than oth-
ers. Air cleaners are classified according to their princi-
ple of operation. The chief types of air cleaners are (1

filtration, 12) electrostatic precipitator, and (3) inertial.

A cloth air bag helps protect the driver in a head-on collision cleaners use a dry,
Filtration air uncoated filter made
or
The bag inflates within a fraction of a second after a frontal oi such materials as wool felt cotton batting or cellu-
front-angle impact.
176 Air cleaner

lose fiber.They come in both cleanable and throwaway wet filters or containers full of ceramic material.
types. Dry filters can hold large amounts of lint But large Another type of air cleaner, the viscous-impingement
accumulations can clog the filter pores, slowing the air cleaner, was once commonly used in automobiles. Air
flow through the filter and disturbing effectiveness. The entering the carburetor was usually forced through a
most familiar dry filters are those used in the air clean- metal mesh screen wetted with oil. It then passed
ers of automobiles and in the heating and cooling sys- through a pool of oil to help collect any remaining dust
tems of homes. Sarwan S Sandhu
Special dry filters, called HEPA, ultra, or absolute, Related articles in World Book include:
have an efficiency as high as 99 percent They contain Air conditioning (Cleaning the air)
Air pollution
such material as pleated cellulose-fiber paper, deep
Filter
sand beds, a combination of fiberglass and wool, or a
Gasoline engine (Fuel system)
compressed fiberglass. Slightly less efficient versions Ventilation
used in the home remove pollen, smoke, and tiny dust
particles from the air. These filters actually increase in Air compressor is any device used to compress air. A
efficiency as they accumulate contaminants, until they common type works on the same principle as a pump. It
reach their maximum effectiveness. has a piston that moves back and forth within a hollow
Electrostatic precipitators are among the most impor- cylinder, compressing the air and forcing it into a closed
tant air cleaners in use today because they run so effi- chamber. Pipes or hoses connected to the chamber
ciently and have so many different uses. They are espe- channel the air to tools and other devices that run on
cially useful for removing particles of dust and smoke, compressed air.
but they also remove bacteria and pollen. Air compressors do many important jobs. Trains and
Some types of electrostatic precipitators are designed heavy road vehicles have air compressors that supply
only for cleaning ventilating air in such places as homes, the air used to power their brakes (see Brake (Air
offices, hospitals, and stores. Other types of electrostatic brakes)).
precipitators are widely used in industry to clean air and Air compressors also provide the air that runs pneu-
gas. matic lair-powered) tools in manufacturing plants, con-
An electrostatic precipitator consists of an ionizer, struction sites,and home workshops (see Pneumatic
through which air passes; a or collector, which re-
cell, tool).Such compressors may be driven by electric mo-
moves the contaminant; and a power pack, which pro- tors or by gasoline or diesel engines. Compact com-
vides direct-current electric energy.A fan blows the pressors powered by electric motors are used in the
contaminated air past a number of small, electrically home to operate paint sprayers. Rotary (fan-type) com-
charged wires in the ionizer. In most electrostatic pre- pressors are used in gas turbines, jet engines, and other
cipitators, the particles receive a positive electric devices. Evan Powell
charge. The charged particles are said to be ionized (see See also Free-piston engine; Pump (Axial-flow
Ion). The particles then pass to the cell, which consists of pumps); Turbine (Gas turbines; diagram).
a series of metal plates. Some of the plates carry a posi- Air conditioning controls the temperature, moisture,
tive charge, but others carry a negative charge. The pos- cleanliness, and movement of indoor air. It cools the air
itively charged dust particles are attracted to the nega- when the weather is hot It warms the air when the
tively charged metal plates because opposite charges weather is cold. Comfort depends partly on humidity,
attract one another, and like charges repel each other. and air conditioning removes moisture from the air or
The dust particles stick to the metal plates until the adds it as needed. Removing dirt and dust from air
plates are cleaned, usually by washing them in deter- makes the air more healthful. By controlling air move-
gent and water. ment, air conditioning brings fresh air into a room and
Inertial air cleaners use the principle of centrifugal pushes out stale air. In all these ways, air conditioning
force (see Centrifugal force). They change the direction provides air that makes people comfortable at work, at
of the air flow so that dirt particles are thrown out of the play, and while sleeping.
air stream. Inertial air cleaners are primarily used in in-

dustry for the continuous removal of dust, granular ma-

How we use air conditioning
terial, and other contaminants. For comfort. When the weather is hot, most people
Other types of air cleaners. Absorber cleaners use enjoy eating in cool, air-conditioned restaurants. They
simple absorbing agents, such as water or alkali. Ab- sleep better in air-conditioned bedrooms. Airplanes,
sorber cleaners are used to remove soluble gases in trains, ships, buses, and automobiles that are air condi-
various industrial processes. In some industries, certain tioned make traveling more pleasant Air conditioning
combustible gases or vapors become dangerous. Com- helps keep homes clean by taking dirt from the air. It of-
bustion cleaners burn these gases at a high temperature ten relieves the discomfort of hay-fever victims, because
and ensure safety. They also burn gases or vapors that it removes pollen from the air. Air-conditioned hospitals
have an unpleasant odor. Adsorption cleaners are used protect the health and improve the comfort of patients
to recover solvents where large amounts of solvent va- and hospital staffs.
por are given off. The adsorbing material is powdered During cold weather, air conditioning performs much
charcoal, silica gel, or some other substance that does the same services. It supplies clean, moist air that is

not change physically or mechanically during the ad- warmed to the most comfortable temperatures for
sorption process. Some scrubber cleaners wash the air working and sleeping.
with an air washer, such as a stream of steam. Scrubber In business and industry, air conditioning improves
cleaners also absorb gases or collect solid particles with the efficiency of workers. Employees stay more alert
 Air conditioning 177

and become less tired in air-conditioned offices and fac- dles of these machines are so small, and operate in such
tories.They make fewer mistakes and have fewer acci- sudden temperature changes could
tiny spaces, that
dents. Air conditioning also protects workers against cause them to jam and break.
high temperatures and harmful dust, smoke, and fumes. Paper stretches in wet weather, and becomes brittle
In stores and shops, air conditioning keeps merchan- in dry weather. Air conditioning helps control moisture
dise clean. It also increases sales, because people like to in printing plants so the paper will remain flexible and
shop in comfort. stay the same size. This makes possible high-speed
Several industries, such as the electronics industry, printing of newspapers, magazines, and books through-
work with delicate parts and therefore require air- out the year.
conditioned clean rooms, which are free of dust or In bakeries, air conditioning controls the rising of
germs. Companies in these industries make or assemble bread dough. It also keeps flour from molding. Bread
equipment in such rooms because the tiniest speck of that is cooled in air-conditioned rooms has crack-free
dust could prevent the equipment from working prop- crusts.
erly. In drug and chemical plants, air conditioning not only
Large computers become warm when in use and are provides clean air but also removes germs from air. Air
sensitive to dust. A computer may break down unless air conditioning keeps moisture at the proper level so that
conditioning removes this heat and keeps the surround- powders, salts, and other chemical substances stay dry.
ing air clean. Air-conditioning systems in commercial buildings are
Metals and other materials expand as the temperature being used increasingly for smoke control during fires.
rises, and contract as the temperature drops. For this By controlling the airflow, the systems provide smoke-
reason, air conditioning is used to control the tempera- free areas for evacuation and fire-fighter access.
ture in factories that manufacture tools or parts for in-
struments, watches, cameras, and other precision prod-
How air conditioners work
ucts. Changes in temperature would change the size of There are three main kinds of air-conditioning sys-
such products. tems. Summer air conditioning cleans, cools, and re-
Many nonmetallic materials, including textiles, paper, moves moisture from air. Winter air conditioning
and tobacco, absorb moisture from the air. Too much cleans, heats, and adds moisture to air. Year-round air
moisture may make these materials stretch out of shape. conditioning cleans and controls the temperature and
Too little moisture in the air makes these materials dry moisture content of air throughout the year. All air-
and brittle. conditioning systems have some way of blowing, or cir-
Almost all textile mills use air conditioning to control culating, the conditioned air through rooms.
moisture so they can produce strong, uniform threads Cleaning the air can be done in several ways. Some
and fabrics. Some fibers, such as nylon and rayon, could air conditioners force the air through filters. The filters

not be made and woven into cloth without air condition- usually consist of closely packed fiberglass wool or
ing. Even the sewing machines that mass-produce nylon metal fibers that have been coated with a sticky oil or
stockings require proper temperature control. The nee- some other type of adhesive (see Fiberglass). As the air

How a window air A window air conditioner cools room air by means of a refrigerant. The liquid refrigerant absorbs
conditioner works heat from the air and becomes a vapor as it flows through the evaporator. A compressor pumps
the vapor to the condenser, which discharges the heat and turns the vapor back to liquid.
WORLD BOOK diagram by Ramon Goas
178 Air conditioning

How home central air conditioning works

In a home central air conditioner, the refrigerant carries heat outside just as does in a window it

unit. A system of ducts (pipes) and a blower on a furnace move the air cooled by the evaporator to
all the rooms in the building. The compressor and condenser are in a separate unit outside.
WORLD BOOK diagram by Ramon Coas

Outside Inside
ZT
/
Cool air
4=>
^> Evaporator

u n »».uy.. gg£yj Refrigerant vapor

-Furnace

T
Liquid
Warm air
refrigerant -

Condenser -

Outside air [_}

Compressor—

Valve Blower Filter

passes through, the dirt, dust, and soot in the air stick to by blowing it over coils filled with hot water or steam. A
the fibers. Air can also be cleaned by blowing it through boiler heated by a gas or oil burner produces the hot
sprays of water called air washers. A central air condi- water or steam. In some air conditioners, electric heat-
tioner that uses this method has a row of nozzles that ers warm the air. These heaters have a screen of wires
squirt a fine mist of water into the The water rinses
air. heated by electricity. The air is warmed as it passes
out the dirt. Central air conditioners may also be through the screen.
equipped with electrostatic filters, or electrostatic pre- Controlling the moisture. The evaporation of mois-
cipitators. These devices put a positive electric charge ture from our skin helps cool our bodies. But in sum-
on the particles of dirt in the air. Negatively charged col- mer, air often becomes humid (moist). Humid air cannot
lector plates attract the positive particles out of the air pick up as much extra moisture as dry air can. We find it
(see Air cleaner). Some central air conditioners force difficult to cool off in humid weather, because the air
the air through porous pieces of carbon, which absorb does not absorb the perspiration from our bodies. The
odors. amount of moisture that people lose as perspiration de-
Drug firms and hospitals require extremely pure air. pends on their activities and emotions. For example, a
They usually have air conditioners equipped with spe- crowd at a game perspires more than an au-
basketball
cial filters. These filters remove all dirt particles down to dience motion-picture theater. An air conditioner
in a

a size of -^hoo mcn '00003 millimeter). Air conditioners must remove warm, moist air from a room and supply
may also have special lamps that kill germs in the air cool, dry air. Otherwise, the air becomes sticky and we
with ultraviolet rays (see Ultraviolet rays). feel uncomfortable.
Controlling the temperature. After an air condi- The amount of moisture in air compared with the
tioner cleans the air, it must cool it in summer and heat amount it can hold is called the relative humidity [see
it in winter. comfortable when the
Most people feel Humidity!. People usually feel most comfortable when
temperature of the air is between 68 °F (20 °C) and 75 °F the relative humidity is kept between 30 and 60 per cent.
(24 °C) in the winter and between 73 °F (23 °C) and 79 "F Air conditioners can dehumidify (remove moisture
(26 °C) in the summer. from) air in several ways. Cold air cannot hold as much

To cool the air, some air conditioners blow it through moisture as warm air can. When air conditioners cool
sprays of cold water. The same sprays that clean the air air by passing it over cooling coils, the water or refriger-
may also cool it. Most air conditioners blow the air over ant in the coils can be made cold enough to cause the
coils (large groups of tubes) that are filled with cold moisture in the air to condense (turn into a liquid). The
water or a chemical refrigerant. Refrigeration machines same process occurs when the outside of a drinking
may be used to chill the water or refrigerant that flows glass becomes moist as it is filled with ice water.
through these coils (see Refrigeration (Mechanical Air conditioners also can remove moisture from air
refrigeration!). Other air conditioners may use cold by passing it through sprays of cold water. These sprays
water that comes from a well, a river, or a city's water cool the air enough to condense some of the moisture.
system. Moisture control is important in winter, too. Cold out-
Most air conditioners used in large buildings heat air side air contains little moisture. When this air is heated,
 Air conditioning 179

it becomes extremely dry. Such air dries the skin and room unit controls the temperature and moisture-
may irritate the nose, throat, and lungs. To prevent these content of the air.

discomforts, air conditioners add moisture to the air in Another type of combination system furnishes cold
cold weather. They do this by passing air through sprays water or a refrigerant from a central refrigeration ma-
of water or over pans of heated water. The water evapo- chine to a conditioner in every room. Each room condi-
rates into the air. tioner has a fan, filter, and cooling coils to condition and
Circulating the air is important because most peo- circulate the air.

ple feel uncomfortable in motionless air. The air in a A combination system conditions a
third variety of
room becomes filled with moisture and odors.
often mixture of outside and inside air. This system supplies

This air must be removed as conditioned air is blown in. each room with cool, conditioned air through one duct,
Fans blow conditioned air through the room. The air and warmed, conditioned air through another duct. A
may be blown in directly or through ducts (pipes) that mixing-box unit in each room mixes the two air streams
lead to various parts of a building. In large commercial to provide the right temperature. Combination systems
buildings, other fans suck out used air. To eliminate have the advantage of supplying conditioned air or a
smoke and odors, the fans exhaust some of the used air cooling fluid from a central source. This cuts the cost of
by blowing out of the building. The remaining used air
it maintaining them. At the same time, the individual room
is returned to the air conditioner, where it is mixed with units allow the people in each room to adjust the tem-
ventilation air drawnfrom outside. This mixture of in-
in perature to suit their wishes.
side and outside air then conditioned and returned to
is Air conditioners for vehicles. In automobiles, the
the cooled room. Eventually, an air conditioner replaces refrigeration unit is located under the hood near the en-
all the air in a room or building with ventilation air gine.The engine drives the unit by means of a belt con-
drawn in from outside. An air conditioner can circulate nected to the engine. Air ducts feed the conditioned air
air through a room at a rate of about 1 5 to 40 cubic feet into the car.
(0.4 to 1.1 cubic meters) per minute. The amount of air Buses often have a separate motor to drive the refrig-
circulated through a room depends on the size and erating equipment. This equipment may be located ei-
speed of the fan used in the air conditioner. ther in the rear of the bus or under one side near the
luggage compartment. The air conditioner is in the roof
Kinds of air conditioners of the bus. It supplies cool, conditioned air to the seats
Room air conditioners operate on electricity or gas, through ducts running along the roof.
and are located partly in the room to be cooled. They In a railroad passenger car, an electric motor or a

are enclosed in a single cabinet. They blow the condi- gasoline engine drives a refrigeration unit located
tioned air directly into the room and do not have air under the car. The air conditioner is mounted over the
ducts leading to and from them. The three chief types entrance at one end of the car. Fans in the conditioner
are (1) window air conditioners, (2) consoles, and (3) self- blow the air through ducts to outlets that are located in
contained air conditioners. the car.
Window air conditioners fit into the lower part of a Airplanes require special air-conditioning units.

window and can be moved from window to window. In Much of the equipment is made of aluminum to save
the air-conditioning industry, these units are called weight. The refrigeration and air-conditioning units for
room air conditioners. large airplanes are usually located in the wings. In
Consoles are larger than window air conditioners and smaller aircraft, these units may be in the body of the
stand on the floor in the room. They must be near a win- airplane. Air turbines drive the refrigeration equipment.
dow or a wall opening in order to obtain outside air. Air ducts feed the conditioned air to different parts of
Self-contained air conditioners are the largest room the airplane.
air conditioners. They may stand 7 feet (2 meters) tall, On ships, the refrigeration equipment is installed in

and can cool an entire large room, such as a restaurant. the engine room or
mechanical equipment room.
in a

Central air conditioners use electricity or gas. They The air-conditioning units are located throughout the
can supply conditioned air to a number of rooms or to ship. Air-conditioning equipment for ships must be extra

an entire building from one central source. Fans blow strong to withstand the rolling and pitching motion of
the conditioned air through air ducts from the air condi- the water. Special metals are used to resist corrosion by
tioner to the rooms. seawater.
Central conditioners have a number of advantages
Choosing a window air conditioner
over other kinds. For example, all the equipment for air
conditioning a large area is located in one place. This re- Two facts should be kept in mind when selecting a
duces the cost of cleaning and repairing. Central condi- window air conditioner. (1 The capacity (cooling power)
)

tioners can also be zoned. That is, they can supply air of of the air conditioner should be suitable for the room.
different temperatures to different parts of a building. A (2) The electric power requirements for the air condi-

doctor with a crowded waiting room might want cooler tioner must match the electric system available for it.

air than a lawyer in a smaller office. Zoning makes it Capacity of air conditioners. The size of a room
possible to serve both their needs. and the number of people using it help determine the
Combination room and central air conditioners capacity of the air conditioner needed. So do the num-
are used in large buildings. They combine the advan- ber, size, and direction of the windows in a room, the

tages of both types. One kind of combination system has wattage of appliances and lights, and the amount of wall
a central conditioner to condition outside air. It circu- insulation.

lates the conditioned air to a unit in each room. The An air conditioner that has a lower capacity than
180 Air conditioning

per hour operate on 1 10-volt, single-phase current.

Filter Ionizer Collector Larger air conditioners need either 220-volt or 220-440-
volt, three-phase current. See Electric generator (Kinds
of AC generators).
Different air conditioners use variousamounts of
electricity toremove the same amount of heat. Engi-
neers use a number, called the Energy Efficiency Ratio
(EER), to measure how economically an air conditioner
uses electricity. To find an air conditioners EER, its Btu
per hour rating is divided by the number of watts of
electricityused by the unit. For example, an air condi-
tioner that uses 600 watts to remove 5,000 Btu's per hour
has an EER of 5,000 divided by 600, or 8.33. Most air con-
ditioners have an EER of from 8 to 9. The higher the EER
of a unit, the less electricity it uses— and the less it costs
to operate.

History

The ancient Egyptians, Creeks, and Romans used wet

mats to cool indoor air. They hung the mats over the
doors to their tents and other dwellings. When wind
WORLD BOOK diagram by Ramon Coas blew through the mats, evaporation of the water cooled
An electrostatic filter, also called an electrostatic precipitator, the air. The people of India later used this method to
removes particles of dust and smoke from the air. The ionizer
cool the royal palaces. About 1500, Leonardo da Vinci,
gives the particles a positive electric charge. The negatively
the great Italian artist and scientist, built the first me-
charged collector then attracts and holds the particles.
chanical fan to provide ventilation. Water power turned
the fan. In 1 553, the English developed a rotary fan to
needed will notkeep a room cool. An oversized unit will ventilate mines.
control the temperature, but it may not reduce excess Textile manufacturers made the first attempts at air
humidity. Such a unit will run only a short time before conditioning. In 1719, a silk company in Derwent, Eng-
the temperature falls. It may not even run long enough land, installed a central system to heat and ventilate its
to remove much moisture from the air. mill. Early makers in New England boiled water in
cloth
Manufacturers rate the capacity of air conditioners in huge pots near their looms to keep the air moist. Unfor-
four ways: (1) British thermal units, (21 watts and kilo- tunately, the heat injured the health of the workers and
watts, (3) tons of refrigeration, and (4) horsepower. this method was discontinued.
British thermal units. One British thermal unit (Btu) About 1838, David B. Reid, an English scientist, pro-
equals the amount of heat needed to raise the tempera- vided the British House of Commons with a system to
ture of 1 pound (0.45 kilogram) of water from 59 °F to ventilate and humidify the air. In the mid-1 800s, John
60 °F (15 °Cto 15.56 °C). The Btu per hour rating is the Corrie, an American, invented a cold-air machine to
basic measurement for air conditioning, and should al- cool hospital rooms.
ways be used to specify the capacity of an air condi- During the late 1800s, textile manufacturers in New
tioner. An conditioner with a capacity of 12,000 Btu's
air England began using sprays of water to condition the air
per hour can removp enough heat from the air it is con- in their mills. In 1897, Joseph McCreery of Toledo, Ohio,

ditioning to raise 12,000 pounds (5,440 kilograms) of received a patent for the type of spray now used in air
water one degree Fahrenheit each hour. The cooling ca- conditioners.
pacities of room air conditioners range from 4,000 to By 1902, Alfred R. Wolff, a consulting engineer, had
36,000 Btu's per hour. designed air-cooling systems for Carnegie Hall and sev-
Watts and kilowatts are the units used to measure air- eral other buildings in New York City. That same year,
conditioner capacity in the metric system. One watt Willis H. Carrier, a research engineer, designed the first
equals 3.4 Btu's per hour. scientific system to clean, circulate, and control the tem-
Tons of refrigeration. One ton of refrigeration re- perature and humidity of air.
moves the amount of heat needed to melt 1 short ton In 1906, Stuart W. Cramer, a textile engineer from

(0.9 metric ton) of ice at 32 °F (0 °C) in 24 hours. A one-ton Charlotte, N.C., used the term air conditioning for the
air-conditioning unit can remove 288,000 Btu s of heat in first time. Air conditioning became a recognized branch

24 hours, or 12,000 Btu s per hour (3,510 watts). A two- of engineering in 1911.
ton air-conditioning unit can remove twice this amount, The Baltimore & Ohio Railroad installed the first air-
and so on. conditioning system for trains in 1931. Air conditioning
Horsepower measures the power needed to run the of apartments and homes also began during the 1930s.
refrigeration equipment that cools the air. One horse- In 1939, Packard Motors introduced air-conditioning
power equals 745.7 watts. units for automobiles. The Greyhound Corporation in-
Electric power requirements. Local electrical stalled the first bus air-conditioning systems in 1940. By
codes govern the kind of motor that can be connected the 1 990 s, about 70 percent of all of the housing in the
to different kinds of electrical systems. Most air condi- United States had some form of air conditioning. In ad-
tioners that have a capacity rating of up to 14,000 Btu's dition, most of the new single-family homes that were
 Air embolism 181

built in the United States were equipped with central air

conditioning.

Careers in air conditioning

Careers in air conditioning can be divided into five
main fields: (1) designing, (2) manufacturing, (3) selling,
(4) installing and servicing, and (5) teaching and re-
search. College-educated engineers research and de-
sign air-conditioning systems. Skilled machinists, tool-
makers, cabinetmakers, and similar craftworkers help
manufacture air conditioners. Technical training, such as
a degree in engineering, is often essential for positions
in the selling and executive branches of air conditioning.
Specially trained technicians, and operating and service
engineers, install and maintain air conditioners.
lames E. Hill

Related articles in World Book include:

WORLD BOOK diagram
Air Heat pump Refrigeration
Air cleaner Heating Solar energy
A "cushion" of air under pressure supports an air cushion ve-
hicle. A powerful fan creates the cushion by blowing air beneath
Air pollution Humidifier Thermostat
Dehumidifier
the vehicle's flexible skirt. A propeller drives the craft forward.
Humidity Ventilation
The pilot steers the vehicle with an airplane-type rudder.
Heat

Air-cooled engine. See Gasoline engine (Cooling). and either rudders or propellers for steering. These
Air cushion vehicle (ACV) is a craft that travels on a three devices enable the vehicle to travel backward, for-
layer of compressed air just above any kind of surface- ward, or sideways, or to hover or turn.
land or water. The compressed air serves as an invisible History. ACV principles were recognized as early as
cushion that eliminates almost all friction between the the mid-1 SOD'S, but the technology did not exist for
vehicle and the surface. ACVs, which are also known as building a practical model. In the early 190CS, a limited
hovercraft, can carry passengers, vehicles, and freight. number were built. The Austrian Navy demonstrated
Some ACVs can travel as fast as 80 miles (1 30 kilome- one in 1916. In the mid-IDSCCs, Christopher Cockerel!, an
ters) per hour. English inventor, improved the basic design. In the early
How an ACV works. An air cushion vehicle has one 1960s, Britain, Japan, the Soviet Union, the United
or more fans that suck air into the craft. The fans force States, and other countries all tested ACVs.
the air underneath the vehicle, creating an air cushion In the late 1960s, the U.S. Navy and Army began to
between the and the surface. ACVs are sometimes
ACV use ACVs in the Vietnam War for patrol duty and rescue
called ground effect machines because they use the sur- missions.In 1968, the British began to use ACVs to carry

face to help trap the air. passengers and cars across the English Channel. Devel-
A rubberized skirt surrounds the lower edge
flexible opment of hoverbarges— that is, ACVs that are pulled or
of most ACVs. It fills with air forced in by the fans. The pushed by another vehicle— began in the 1960's. In 1972,
skirt enables the vehicle to travel over such rough ob- Canadian researchers discovered that ACVs could be
stacles as rocks and waves. Some ACVs have skirts only used to break ice on waterways.
across the bow and stern. Rigid sidehulls run along the Today, manufacturers produce a number of models
length of the craft. Such ACVs are called surface effect that vary in size, speed, and power. Modern ACVs ac-
ships (SES's). They can be used only in water. complish many tasks. However, most ACVs are used for
Gas turbines or lightweight diesel engines provide military missions. Russia and the United States are the
the power for the fans, and propellers drive the ACV world's largest users of the craft.

forward. Most ACVs have small doors called puff ports In the late 1950s, Jean Berlin, a French engineer, in-

vented a special train called a tracked air cushion vehi-

cle (TACV) or air train. This train runs only on land, and it
requires tracks. It does not actually touch the tracks but
uses them as a guide. The train has a linear electric
motor, which includes electromagnets in the underside
of the vehicle (see Linear electric motor). The tracked
air cushion vehicle is powered by magnetic forces be-
tween the track and the electromagnets. It may also be
powered by a jet engine.
A vehicle called a magnetic levitation train, or maglev
train,resembles the TACV. But a maglev train relies on a
magnetic force between the vehicle and the guide rail-
rather than on a cushion of compressed air— to hold the
vehicle above the track. iohn d Bogus
leitrun Mjnr>f Ssvlrmv
See also Ship (picture: Air cushion vehicles).
An air cushion vehicle can travel on land or on water This ve- Air embolism. See Diving, Underwater (Dangers of
hicle is a U.S. Navy Landing Craft, Air Cushion (LCAC). It can
cross rough shores to land troops and equipment.
underwater diving).
182 Air force

Department of National Defence of Canada

Fighter planes attack enemy aircraft and ground targets. In this photograph, three CF-18 Hornet
fighters from the Canadian Air Force practice a maneuver. A Hornet fighter can carry missiles and
other weapons at the tips of its wings and under its wings and main body.

of aircraft and long-range missiles, some with nuclear

Air force warheads. Other powerful nations, including China,
France, and the United Kingdom, also have such mis-
Air force is the branch of a nation's armed forces re- siles.
sponsible for military operations in the air. An air force Until the development and guided mis-
of airplanes
consists of pilots and other personnel, aircraft, support on armies and navies
siles in the ISKHJs, nations relied
equipment, and military bases. Some air forces also for military power. The operations of these forces, how-
have guided missiles and spacecraft. ever, are limited by land and sea barriers. Today, armies
Most countries have some type of air force. More and navies remain extremely important. But the main
powerful nations have an independent air force equal in striking force of the most powerful nations consists of
rank to the other branches of the nation s armed forces. airplanes and guided missiles.
These countries usually also have an air force unit in
their army and navy. Many smaller, less powerful na-
The role of air forces

tions have an air unit as part of their army or navy. A nation's air force may have several different roles
Air forces differ greatly in size and fighting strength, depending on the country's security needs. Air forces
depending on a nation's wealth, technology, and na- within an army or navy support the operations of that
tional defense needs. The large air forces of industrial- branch. A navy's air force, for example, may operate at-

ized nations have modern bombers, fighters, transport tack and reconnaissance (observation) planes from air-

planes, helicopters, and other aircraft. Most developing craft carriers to obtain information about operations in

nations cannot afford the advanced technology required enemy territory. A navy's air force may also patrol its

to build a modern air force. But some have assembled country's coastline. An air force that serves as a separate
relatively strong air forces through loans and trade with military branch, however, usually has several roles re-
industrialized nations. Many smaller developing nations lated to establishing control of the air. These roles in-
have air forces that consist of older aircraft. clude (1 combat, (21 defense, and (3) transport.
)

The United States and Russia have the most powerful Combat missions involve fighting directly against an
and complex air forces. These forces include thousands enemy force. The two chief types of combat missions
are strategic and tactical, in strategic missions, air forces
Timothy M. Laur, the contributor of this a consultant
article, is operate over long distances, usually traveling from one
and lecturer on military issues. He is a retired lieutenant colonel continent to another. The most common strategic mis-
in the United States Air Force and author of An Encyclopedia of
sions involve attacks with bombs and long-range mis-
Modern Military Weapons.
siles against specific targets in enemy cities and indus-
 Air force 183

trial areas. Strategic attacks are designed to destroy the

enemy's ability and desire to fight.
Tactical missions are short- or medium-range opera-
tions carried out in cooperation with ground or sea
forcesin battle. Such missions include attacks on enemy

ground forces and counter air tactical missions. In these

missions, fighter planes may attack enemy aircraft to
gain control of the air over a battle area. In interdiction
attacks, aircraft strike transportation networks and other
targets behind enemy lines. Such attacks prevent enemy
forces and supplies from reaching the battlefield.
Defense missions protect a nation's territory from
enemy attack. Advanced air forces use radar stations
and satellites to detect surprise attacks by enemy bomb-
ers or missiles. In case of such an attack, an air force
uses missiles and fighter planes to shoot down enemy
Shaun Harris PhoJo Press
bombers and missiles.
Paratroopers drop from planes into battle areas or behind
The threat of a counterattack can also serve as part of
enemy lines, often surprising the enemy Above, paratroopers
a nation's air defenses, especially among nations that from Britain's Royal Air Force train for an assault by air.
have nuclear weapons. Nations may avoid launching a
nuclear attack because of their fear of a counterattack. Bombers are usually large, medium-range or long-
Transport missions, also called airlifts, support a range planes that carry a combination of bombs and
nation's combat operations by moving troops and guided missiles for striking strategic targets. Only a few
equipment quickly by air. In a strategic airlift, aircraft nations with powerful air forces have bombers. Bomber
transport troops and equipment over long distances. A crews range in size from about four to six people.
tactical airlift provides air support to battlefield opera- Transport aircraft carry troops or cargo. The crew of a
tions. For example, aircraft may drop paratroopers and typical transport plane includes a pilot, copilot, naviga-
supplies in a battle area or behind enemy lines. In tor, flight engineer, and one or more loadmasters re-

peacetime, air forces may transport food and other sup- sponsible for the cargo or passengers.
plies to areas struck by disaster. Reconnaissance aircraft carry cameras or electronic
Other missions include reconnaissance and air res- sensors to gather information about enemy forces. Re-
cue. Reconnaissance missions gather military informa- connaissance aircraft include both airplanes specifically
tion using visual observation, or cameras, radar, and designed for reconnaissance and modified versions of
other sensing devices aboard aircraft and satellites. Air other aircraft.

rescue missions use small airplanes or helicopters to Other aircraft include trainers, tankers, and helicop-
rescue people trapped in dangerous areas. ters. Trainers are used to train pilots. Tankers refuel
other aircraft in flight. Helicopters serve a variety of
The organization of air forces
functions. Some, guns and mis-
called gunships, carry
The leader independent air force may be a chief
of an silesand are used in combat. Others transport troops
of staff or air marshal and hold the rank of general. In and equipment over short distances.
the U.S. Air Force, however, the highest authority is the Missiles used by air forces may be launched from the
secretary of the Air Force, a civilian appointed by the ground or from aircraft. Ground-launched strategic mis-
President. Air forces of smaller countries often come siles include intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBM's)
under the command of the army or navy. and intermediate-range ballistic missiles (IRBM's).
The squadron is the basic administrative unit of air ICBM's can deliver a nuclear warhead to a target up to
forces. A squadron usually consists of aircraft of one 9,200 miles (15,000 kilometers) away. IRBM's can reach
type or model. Most fighter and attack squadrons have
18 to 24 assigned aircraft, which are usually grouped
into smaller units of 2 to 4 planes called flights. Bomber
squadrons typically have from 1 to 1 9 assigned aircraft.
Two or more squadrons form units called groups or
wings. In large air forces, these units may combine to

form larger divisions or commands.

Aircraft and missiles

Aircraft are usually classified by their function. The
main types of aircraft are (1 attack and fighter aircraft,
)
(2)

bombers, (3) transport aircraft, and (4) reconnaissance

aircraft.
Attack and fighter aircraft are designed for speed and
maneuverability in combat. They usually have a crew of
one or two and carry missiles or bombs, depending on Russian-made MIC aircraft such as this MIC-29K fighter from
their mission. These aircraft attack enemy planes and the Russian Air Force, are common in the world's air forces.
ground targets or defend against air attacks. India. Iraq. Poland, and many other countries fly MIC's.
1 84 Air force

from about 1 ,700 to 3,400 miles (2,700 to 5,500 kilome- force controls about 700 ICBM s in Russia and about 70
ters). In some nations, such as in the United States, the in Ukraine. Another force for space operations launches
air force is responsible for ICBM's. But in others, includ- and operates military satellites. The Russian Navy's avia-
ing China and Russia, these missiles fall under a sepa- tionbranch has about 250 combat airplanes and about
rate command. Air forces defend against ballistic missile 100 armed helicopters.
attacks with ground-launched antiballistic missiles The Chinese Air Force has more than 3,000 fighter
(ABM's). and attack planes and about 350 bombers. Many of its
Air-launched missiles include both strategic and tacti- planes are based on Russian designs. About 420,000
cal missiles. Bombers carry air-launched strategic mis- people serve in the Air Force. China s Navy operates
siles, such as the cruise missile, that can hit targets hun- about 550 additional combat aircraft. China also has
dreds of miles or kilometers away. Fighter and attack about 20 ICBM s and 100 IRBM s under a separate strate-
aircraft and helicopters fire tactical air-to-air missiles gic force.
(AAM's) at enemy aircraft and air-to-surface missiles The Ukrainian Air Force has about 900 combat air-
(ASM s) at ground targets. craftand 25 bombers. It has about 95,000 members.
The French Air Force has about 500 combat aircraft,
Major air forces of the world
mostly fighter and attack planes. The force has about
The powerof an air force depends on the quality of 60,000 members. A separate strategic air force operates
itstechnology, training, and equipment. The world s about 60 bombers equipped with IRBM s. The French
most powerful air forces have advanced aircraft, well- Navy has about 50 combat airplanes and 30 armed heli-
trained crews, and efficient maintenance and supply sys- copters.
tems. They include the air forces of the United States, The Indian Air Force has about 800 combat aircraft,
Russia, China, Ukraine, France, India, the United King- including about 350 fighters and more than 30 attack he-
dom, Germany, and Israel. Other important air forces in- licopters. India's AirForce also controls a large arsenal
clude those of Italy, North Korea, and Turkey. However, of surface-to-air missiles.About 50,000 people serve in
1

these forces are smaller and less technologically ad- the Air Force. India s naval air force has about 40 addi-
vanced. tional combat airplanes and about 70 armed helicopters.
The United States Air Force has about 2,500 active The British air force, called the Royal Air Force
fighter and attack aircraft and about 200 bombers. The (RAF), has more than 400 active combat aircraft, mostly
Air Force also operates several satellite and radar sys- fighter and attack airplanes. It has about 55,000 mem-
tems. It has about 350,000 members, along with more bers. The Royal Navy's air arm has about 30 additional
than 70,000 in the Air Force Reserve. An additional combat airplanes and more than 100 armed helicopters.
1 10,000 people serve in Air National Guard units, which The German Air Force, called the Luftwaffe, in-
are administered by the states. The U.S. Air Force com- cludes about 450 active attack and fighter aircraft, with
mands about 700 ICBM s but no IRBM s. Under a 1987 about 50 additional combat airplanes and 50 armed heli-
treaty, the United States and the Soviet Union agreed to copters in the navy s air unit. About 73,000 people serve
eliminate their IRBM s. in the Luftwaffe.
The Army, Navy, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard
U.S. The force has about 450 active fighter and
Israeli air
all have their own air force units. The U.S. Navy has the and about 36,000 members. It is one of the
attack aircraft
world's largest air arm with more than 1,400 combat air- largest and most capable air forces in the Middle East,
planes and more than 500 armed helicopters. The U.S. with highly experienced pilots.
Army air unit includes about 1 ,500 armed helicopters.
History
The Russian Air Force has about 2,700 active com-
bat aircraft, including about 2,300 fighters. The Air Force Early air forces. The first air force was established by
has more than 180,000 members. A separate strategic France in 1794, during a war against several other Eu-

Wu Senhui Xinhua News Aqencv

Skilled pilots are essential to

an effective air force. Like all
military pilots, this pilot from
the Chinese Air Force must
spend many hours training
before he can fly sophisticat-
ed aircraft into dangerous
combat areas.
 Air force 185

flew maximum speed of about 75 miles (120 kilome-

at a
ters) per hour. They could reach an altitude of about
1 0,000 feet (3,000 meters). By 1 91 8, when the war ended,

the maximum speed of aircraft had reached about 120

miles (190 kilometers) per hour, and maximum altitude
had more than doubled. Planes also had become much
more maneuverable.
At the beginning of the war, the fighting nations used
planes only for observing enemy ground movements.
Aircraft soon began to exchange gunfire, but many
could not shoot forward because the plane's propeller
was in front. Bullets might shatter the spinning blades of
the propeller. In 1915, a Dutch designer, Anthony Fok-
ker, developed a machine gun for the Germans that
fired only when the propeller blades were not blocking
the muzzle. The Allies began to use a similar gun in
1917.
During the war, pilots fought air battles called dog-
fights,and fliers who shot down five or more enemy
planes became known as aces. Toward the end of the
war, battles between squadrons of airplanes replaced
most combat between single pilots. Early in the war, pi-
lots had dropped bombs by hand. Later, they used me-
chanical devices to release the bombs. By 1917, some
planes could carry up to 3,000 pounds (1,400 kilograms)
of bombs.
In September 1918, American officer Billy Mitchell di-
rected the largest air assault of the war. He commanded
about 1 mission over St.-Mihiel in
,500 Allied aircraft in a

France, where the Germans had advanced. The Allied

planes gained control of the air, dropped bombs behind
the German lines, and attacked enemy ground forces.
The first air force was a French balloon corps, formed in 1 794. Two months later, the Allies won the war.
Before airplanes were invented in 1903, warring nations used The growth of national air forces. Although many
balloons to observe enemy troops and to drop bombs.
nations reduced their armed forces after World War I,

the success of the airplane caused them to gradually de-

ropean nations. The air force flew large balloons filled velop their airpower. This policy often produced com-
with hot air or gas. The French used the balloons to ob- petition between a country's new air service and older
serve movements of enemy troops. army and navy. In the United States, for example, Billy
The first air attack took place in 1849. Austria con- Mitchell and other aviation leaders argued vigorously
trolled much of Italy at that time, and the people of Ven- for greater emphasis on airpower. Mitchell became so
ice revolted. The Austrians sent unmanned balloons car- bitter in his criticism of the U.S. defense program that he
rying time bombs over the city. Some of the bombs was court-martialed for defying his superior officers. In
exploded as planned. But the wind changed direction 1946, after events had confirmed many of Mitchell's pre-
and blew several balloons back over the Austrian dictions, he was awarded the Medal of Honor, the na-
troops, where the rest of the bombs exploded. tion's highest military decoration. During the 1920s and
During the American Civil War (1861-1865), both the early 1930s, France, Germany, Italy, and Sweden formed
Union and Confederate armies used balloons. The independent air forces.

Union Army organized a balloon corps to direct artillery World War Airpower played a vital role in decid-
II.

fire and observe Confederate troop movements. Almost ing the outcome World War II. In the war, Germany,
of
every major army in the world soon established a bal- Italy, Japan, and other Axis powers fought the Allies,
loon corps. who included Britain, Canada, China, the Soviet Union,
Balloons became much important in warfare after
less and the United States.

Orville and Wilbur Wright made the world's first air- The war began in 1939 when Germany invaded Po-
plane flight in 1903. By 1909, France, Germany, Britain, land. The Germans used a new method of warfare called
Russia, and the United States had purchased planes for blitzkrieg (lightning war). Germany s air force, the Luft-
their armed forces. In 1912, Britain established the Royal waffe, bombed Polish troops, destroyed airfields, and
Flying Corps as the air arm of the Royal Army and Navy. struck at key cities, highways, and railroads. On the
In 1918, the corps became the Royal Air Force, the first ground, tanks and infantry overwhelmed the Polish
independent air force. forces. Between April and |une 1940, Germany attacked
World War began in 1914. In the war, the Allies,
I
and defeated Denmark, Norway, Luxembourg, the Neth-
who included Britain, France, Russia, and the United erlands, Belgium, and France.

States, fought the Central Powers, who included Ger- The Germans planned to invade Britain next, but first
many and Austria-Hungary. At that time, most airplanes they had to defeat the Royal Air Force. In July 1940, the
186 Air force

Luftwaffe started to bomb British ships and ports. Ger- World War II. After the war, several nations, including
man on London began in September. The RAF
air raids the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, and the United
was outnumbered, but it had better planes and pilots States, rapidly developed jet-powered air forces. Soon
than the Luftwaffe. The British also had developed radar each of these nations operated a fleet of jet fighters and
and a decoding device that enabled them to read coded long-range bombers. By the late 1950s, France and Chi-
German messages. Both developments were carefully na also began developing jet-powered air forces.
guarded secrets that helped the RAF intercept Luftwaffe Air forces in the nuclear age. The United States
raids. By October, the RAF had shot down more than emerged as the most powerful nation at the end of
1,700 attacking planes and had lost about 900 of its own. World War II. It was the only nation with atomic weap-
Germany postponed its plans to invade the United King- ons and the aircraft to use them. But the Soviet Union
dom, but air raids on British cities continued. soon began to challenge the United States, competing
The United States entered the war on Dec. 8, 94 1 1 for power and international influence in a struggle
the day after about 360 Japanese aircraft attacked the known as the Cold War. In 1949, the Soviet Union tested
U.S. fleet at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii. The attack destroyed its first atomic bomb. Several other nations have devel-

or damaged 21 ships and more than 300 planes, tem- oped nuclear weapons since then.
porarily crippling the Pacific Fleet and Hawaii's air de- The Soviet Union successfully tested its first ICBM in
fense. 1957, several months before the first successful United
In mid-1942, American airpower halted Japanese ad- States test The Soviets also launched the first space
vances in the Pacific in two important battles at sea. In satellite in 1957. The United States and the Soviet Union
the Battle of the Coral Sea, in May, planes based on air- competed for supremacy in missiles and space. They
craft carriers did all the fighting. The opposing warships also developed antiballistic missiles (ABM's) designed to
did not shot at one another. Japan lost more
fire a destroy enemy To provide warning of
missiles in flight
planes, but fewer ships, than the United States lost in a missile attack, the two nations set up missile detection
the battle. Neither side won, but the battle prevented a systems on the ground and in space.
Japanese assault on New Guinea. A month later, in the By the late 960s, the number of missiles and nuclear
1

Battle ofMidway, Japan lost 4 aircraft carriers and more warheads had grown alarmingly large. In 1969, the Unit-
than 200 planes. The United States lost 1 carrier and ed States and the Soviet Union began a series of confer-
about 150 airplanes. The battle blunted Japan's naval ences an effort to limit each country's missile strength.
in
strength for the rest of the war and ended the threat of a After several more conferences in the 1970s and 1980s,
Japanese attack on Hawaii and the United States. they agreed to eliminate their IRBM's. See Arms control.
By mid-1942, Japan had captured large parts of China Many smaller nations established strong air forces
and had cut off the country's main supply routes. To during the 1 980s by obtaining aircraft from the United
help China continue fighting Japan, Allied forces flew States or the Soviet Union. These nations included Fin-
supplies from India to China over the Himalaya, the land, Hungary, Kuwait, and Saudi Arabia.
world's tallest mountain range. This dangerous route The Soviet Union began withdrawing its forces from
was called the "Hump." During this airlift, which lasted Eastern Europe in 1990. In 1991, the United States and
almost three years, the Allies carried about 650,000 tons the Soviet Union agreed to reduce their long-range mis-
(590,000 metric tons) of supplies to China. siles and bombers, including their ICBM forces, by
The Allies attacked Germany m 1943, when the Unit- about a third. They also ended a continuous alert for
ed Kingdom and the United States started a bombing of- long-range bombers carrying nuclear weapons and
fensive that lasted almost until the end of the war. The took other steps to reduce the threat of a nuclear air at-
RAF bombed German cities at night, and American tack. This alert had been in effect in the United States
planes attacked enemy industries during the day. In since 1957. In late 1991, the Soviet Union broke up.
1944, the Luftwaffe began
to use jet fighter planes. These These developments reduced the threat of nuclear war
planes could fly nearly 550 miles (885 kilometers) per and the need for huge armed forces. As a result, most
hour, compared with about 400 miles (640 kilometers) major air forces made cuts in personnel and equipment
per hour for propeller-driven fighters. Germany also de- during the 1990s.
veloped the first guided missiles, the V-l and V-2. In Air forces in limited wars. Fear of a massive nuclear
1944 and 1945, the Germans fired more than 12,000 mis- war has helped prevent nations with nuclear weapons
siles at enemy cities. But these technological advances from using them. In all wars fought since World War II,
came too late to affect the outcome of the war. Germany nations restricted the weapons they used, the targets
surrendered in May 1945. they attacked, and the areas of battle in order to avoid a
August 1945, American B-29 bombers dropped
In nuclear conflict In such wars, called limited wars, air
atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and forces played an important role.
Nagasaki. The bombers had flown from Tinian Island, The Korean War 11950- 1 953) brought the first combat
1,360 miles (2,189 kilometers) away. Japan surrendered between jet aircraft. The United States and other mem-
in September, and the war ended. bers of the United Nations aided South Korea, and the
The development of jet aircraft in the late 1 930 s Soviet Union and China assisted North Korea. United
and early 1940s greatly increased the range and speed States military leaders limited attacks on military targets,
of attacking planes. In 1939, a German Heinkel He 178 but airplanes often fought each other. As many as 1 50 jet

made the first successful jet-powered flight. By 1944, fighters took part in some Each side adopted
air battles.
Germany had developed the Messerschmitt Me 262, the the principle of asylum, which allowed aircraft to with-
first jet to fly combat missions. The American jet
first draw from the battle zone without being pursued. Nei-
plane, the Bell XP-59, flew in 1942 but was little used in ther side won complete victory in this war.
 Air Force, Department of the 1 87

During the Vietnam War II 957- 1975), the United C Transport

States supported South Vietnam, and the Soviet Union D. Other missions
and China backed North Vietnam and the Viet Cong II. Organization of air forces
III. Aircraft and missiles
rebels of South Vietnam. From 1965 to 1968, the U.S. Air
A. Aircraft
Force and the air arm of the U.S. Navy conducted fre- B. Missiles
quent bombing raids against North Vietnam and later at- IV. air forces of the world
Major
tacked targets in South Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos. A. The
United States Air Force
The U.S. Air Force used helicopter gunships to locate B. The
Russian Air Force

and attack enemy forces in the jungles and mountains. C The

Chinese Air Force
D. The
Ukrainian Air Force
United States helicopters also rescued downed aviators, E. The
French Air Force
transported the wounded, and carried supplies and F. The
Indian Air Force
troops. In 1969, the United States began withdrawing its G. The
British air force

troops from Vietnam. The United States removed the H. German Air Force
The
last of its troops and stopped its air attacks in 1973. Two
I. The
Israeli air force
V. History
years later, the war ended with a North Vietnamese and
VietCong victory. Questions
Wars in the Middle East In 1 967, the Israeli Air Force How do strategic missions differ from tactical missions?
destroyed most of the air forces of Egypt, Jordan, and What makes an air force powerful?
Syria in the Six-Day War. Egypt rebuilt its air force and, What type of aircraft is used to gather military information?
Which country had the first independent air force?
in 1973, staged a surprise attack with Syria against Israel.
What is a dogfight?
For a brief period, Egypt established control of the skies. What is an airlift?
Israel's airpower, however, regained control and helped Which country has the largest air force?
drive back the attackers. An airlift of supplies from the What type of aircraft was the first to be used in war?
United States also heiped Israel win the war. What is the basic administrative unit of air forces?
In the Persian Gulf War in 1 991 airpower played a de-
,
How do the air forces of industrialized nations and developing
nations differ?
cisive role. In that war, a coalition of nations led by the
United States drove Iraq out of Kuwait. Before the war Additional resources
began, the coalition moved huge amounts of equipment Bowie, Christopher J., and others. Trends in the Global Balance
to the Persian Gulf region in one of the largest airlifts in of Airpower. Rand Corp., 1995.
history. Cooksley, Peter, and Robertson, Bruce. Air Warfare. Arms & Ar-
mour, 1997.
Coalition air forces began the war in mid-January 1991
Gooch, John, ed. Airpower Theory and Practice. Frank Cass,
with massive bombing of targets in Iraq and Kuwait The 1995.
United States Air Force used precision-guided "smart" Hallion, Richard P., ed. Air Power Confronts an Unstable World.
bombs and the F-1 1 7 "stealth" fighter-bomber. The spe- Brasseys, 1997.
cial design and surface materials of "stealth" bombers
make them difficult to detect with radar. The coalition Air Force, Department of the, is one of the three
quickly gained control of the air, destroying many Iraqi military departments within the Department of Defense
aircraft on the ground and forcing many others to flee to of the United States government It is located in Wash-
Iran. When
the coalition launched a ground attack in late ington, D.C, and operates as Air Force headquarters.
February, the air war had so devastated the Iraqis that The department provides support for national and inter-
they surrendered within days. Timothy m. Laur national policy by organizing, training, and equipping
Related articles in World Book include: the Air Force. Its major divisions include the secretariat
and the air staff.
Wars
The secretary of the Air Force, a civilian, heads the de-
Korean War World War I

partment under the direction of the secretary of de-

War
Persian Gulf World War II

fense, and ranks equally with the secretaries of the Army

Vietnam War
and Navy. The principal civilian aides to the secretary of
Weapons and equipment the Air Force include an undersecretary and three assist-
Aircraft, Military Bomb Parachute ant secretaries.
Airplane (Military Bomber Radar lln the mili-
The chief of staff of the Air Force, a general, is the sec-
planes) Guided missile tary)
Rocket (Military
retary's chief military adviser. The chief of staff heads the
Airship Helicopter
air staff; supervises such members and units of the Air
Balloon (Balloons Machine gun use)
in warl Nuclear weapon V STOL Force as are determined by the secretary; and is a mem-
ber of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, a military group that ad-
Other related articles
vises the U.S. president A vice chief of staff assists the
Ace Aviation
chief of staff.
Aerospace medicine Logistics
Luftwaffe
Congress set up the department as an executi\ e
Air Force, U.S.
Airborne troops National Guard agency within the National Military Establishment in
Aircraft carrier Space exploration 1947. Before then, the Department of War controlled
Amphibious warfare military aviation. In 1949, the Department of the Air

Outline Force became a military agency.

Critically reviewed b\ the Department ot Defense
I. The role of air forces
See also Air Force, United States; Defense, Depart-
A. Combat
B. Defense ment of.
 Air Force, United States

General Dynamics Corporation

U.S. Air Force demonstration pilots, called Thunderbirds, fly their F-16 jets in close formation.
The Thunderbirds perform at air shows in the United States and other countries.

United States Air Force

Air Force, United States, is the branch of the U.S. National Guard. The Air Force also employs about
armed forces responsible for most military operations in 140,000 civilians. The Air Force has about 3,600 active
the air and in space. Air Force reconnaissance (informa- aircraft and about 600 intercontinental ballistic missiles
tion-gathering) satellites and aircraft constantly scan the (ICBM's), long-range missiles that can reach targets up
earth for signs of hostile activity. The Air Force is ready to 9,200 miles (15,000 kilometers) away.
to attack immediately with conventional or nuclear The Air Force's official colors are ultramarine blue
weapons. The Air Force also supports ground troops in and Air Force yellow. Its official song is the "United
battle and protects them from air attack. Air Force trans- States Air Force Song,' which begins, "Off we go into
port planes deliver troops and supplies. the wild blue yonder."
Because the Air Force needs to use advanced technol- The Air Force is the youngest branch of the United
ogy, it has a large research and development organiza- States armed forces. Congress created the Air Force in

tion, with laboratories and testing centers throughout 1947 by reorganizing the Army Air Forces as a separate
the United States. In addition, thousands of civilian sci- branch. The Army Air Forces developed from an Aero-
entists and engineers at universities and in corporations nautical Division that the Army Signal Corps set up in

conduct research for the Air Force. The Air Force has 1907.
cooperated with the National Aeronautics and Space
Life in the Air Force
Administration (NASA) to send astronauts and satellites
into space. The Air Force also tracks hurricanes, fore- Men and women who serve in the United States Air
casts weather, and carries help to disaster victims. Force give up some freedoms they protect for
of the
The Air Force has about 350,000 men and women on their country. They must go wherever they are sent,
active duty throughout the world. In addition, about even on missions that may put their lives in great dan-
190,000 people serve in the Air Force Reserve or the Air ger. The United States Air Force has about 90 major
bases, many of which are overseas. Most Air Force
members serve abroad at some time.
Wayne Thompson, the contributor of this article, is a historian
Recruit training. After enlisting in the Air Force, re-
at Headquarters United States Air Force.
cruits receive six weeks of basic military training at Lack-
 Air Force, United States 1 89

Grade insignias for officers Air Force officers wear insignias made of metal or of thread or wire embroidery. Insignias
decorate caps, shirt collars, or shoulders. Shoulder-board insignias are shown here.

i -
k i * ** *
General of the Air Force General Lieutenant General Major General Brigadier General

«i HP

Colonel
»
Lieutenant
t.
Major
II
Captain
I
First
I
Second
Colonel Lieutenant Lieutenant

Grade insignias for enlisted men and women

The insignias of enlisted personnel, shown worn on
here, are
the sleeves of the uniform. Similar insignias are worn on the col-
lar or shoulder of certain uniforms.

^^
Chief Master Sergeant
of the Air Force
^^ Chief
Master Sergeant
Senior
Master Sergeant

Dress uniforms for Air Force enlisted personnel are shown

here. The uniforms for Air Force officers are similar, but officers
uniforms have grade insignias on the shoulder.
Master Sergeant

Senior Airman
^
Technical Sergeant

Airman First Class

Staff

*&>
Sergeant

Airman

Air Force badges, displayed here, show the qualifications and area of specialization of
Badges*
personnel. Aircraft crews wear wing badges. Missile crews wear missile badges.

Pilot Navigator or Aire. aft Observer Aircrew Member

Flight Surgeon Flight Nurse Missile Badge

*Some badges art" not iho

1 90 Air Force, United States

land Air Force Base near San Antonio. Through march- sile or bomber attack and must be prepared to respond
ing, exercise, and classroom studies, recruits learn to such an attack.
about teamwork in a military environment. Graduates of The U.S. Air Force has developed an extensive warn-
basic training learn a job specialty. They may reenlist af- ing system to give the United States time to launch its

ter their minimum four or six years of service. See Lack- offensive air weapons before they could be destroyed
land Air Force Base. by a missile or bomber attack. The U.S. early warning
Officer training. The Air Force offers several pro- system is managed by the North American Aerospace
grams for training officers. The programs include those Defense Command (NORAD), which maintains a com-
of the Air Force Academy near Colorado Springs, Col- mand center under Cheyenne Mountain near Colorado
orado; Air Force Reserve Officers Training Corps Springs. The most important parts of the system are re-
(AFROTC) in colleges and universities; and the Officer connaissance satellites that orbit over various parts of
Training School (OTS) at Lackland Air Force Base. the world.
Air Force women are trained, administered, and On the ground, the Ballistic Missile Early Warning
paid under the same policies as are Air Force men. Be- System (BMEWS) radars in Alaska, Greenland, and the
in 1947, many
fore the establishment of the Air Force United Kingdom have been upgraded and supplement-
members Women's Army Corps (WAC) were as-
of the ed by radars in Massachusetts, Georgia, Texas, and Cali-
signed to the Army Air Forces. fornia.Enemy bombers or cruise missiles flying over
During World War (1939-1945), more than 40,000
II Alaska or Canada might be detected first by the North
"Air Wacs" served at air bases in the United States and in Warning System line of radars. Cruise missiles are jet-
other parts of the world. More than 1 ,000 civilians powered missiles that fly at low altitudes to avoid radar
served as Women Airforce Service Pilots, also known as detection. A radar system in Maine can detect aircraft
WASFs, under the leadership of aviation pioneer and cruise missiles approaching the east coast of the
Jacqueline Cochran (see Cochran, Jacqueline). The United States. See North Warning System.
WASP'S flew aircraft from factories to air bases in the The Air Force also carries radar aboard its Airborne
United States. Warning and Control System (AWACS) planes. In addi-
In 1 948, women became a permanent part of the tion to performing its early warning function, an
armed forces. Women in the Air Force became known AWACS plane can fly to another part of the world and
as WAF's. The Air Force dropped this term in the 1970s. control U.S. air strikes. AWACS planes flew such mis-
The term airman is now used for all Air Force enlisted sions in 1991, during the Persian Gulf War.
military personnel. About 1 7 percent of Air Force mili- Offense. The most important use of the Air Force
tary personnel are women. during war is to attack the enemy. Air attack can hit un-
Careers in the Air Force provide opportunities for expectedly, at long range, and with devastating power.
advanced education and promotion. Enlistment may Each flight a combat plane makes against the enemy is
prepare a person for a civilian job or an Air Force ca- called a sortie. An attack by one or more planes is a
reer. The Air Force offers jobs in more than 40 career combat mission. If 10 planes fly in a group, the group
fields. Applicants must be at least 1 7 years of age and flies 1 combat mission, but 10 sorties.

not older than 34. They also must pass the Air Force's Tactical air attacks Are the direct help given to
physical and written examinations. Air Force military ground or sea units in battle. Tactical air units fight to
personnel may retire after 20 years of service. But many control the air over a battle area by destroying planes in

personnel stay on active duty for 30 years and some the air and on the ground. They attack enemy troops
even longer. and supplies to interdict them— that is, keep them from
Members of the Air Force receive a base pay that is reaching the battlefront. They provide close supportfor
determined by their rank and length of service. They ground troops, attacking specific targets for them.
may receive extra money for special tasks, such as flying Strategic air attacks hit far behind the battle lines.
a plane or taking part in combat The Air Force also pays Such attacks destroy the enemy's industries and war ma-
for quarters (housing) or subsistence (food) when airmen terials. They also ruin the enemy's transportation net-

are unable to live or eat on base. All Air Force personnel work so troops and supplies cannot be moved into bat-
on active duty are eligible for 30 days' leave (vacation) a tle. Strategic air attacks are designed to destroy the

year. The Air Force provides free medical care to airmen enemy's capability to make war or its will to fight.
and their families. Peacetime emergencies. Prompt action by the Air
Force may times relieve emergencies that are short of
at
The purpose of the Air Force
war. The Berlin Airlift was a good example of such ac-
Since World War (1914-1918), the most powerful
I tion. In 1948, the Soviet Union tried to force the Allies
countries have built large air forces. Air forces are the out of West Berlin with a ground blockade. The plan
best defense against enemy airpower, and they can do was defeated when the U.S. Air Force, the French Air
great harm to enemy ground and sea forces. Air forces Force, and the Royal Air Force of the United Kingdom
can attack targets anywhere in the opening minutes of a created an effective aerial supply line to the city. The U.S.
war. Air Force also charts the courses of hurricanes and
Defense and deterrence. The people of every na- gives advance warning to people living in the path of
tion understand the terrible destructive power of nu- such storms. In times of disaster, the Air Force has flown
clear and conventional weapons. As long as a potential emergency medical supplies into the affected areas.
enemy is unwilling to risk an exchange of attacks, the Air

Force serves its primary purpose—to deter war. Howev-

Planes and weapons of the Air Force

er, the Air Force must remain on alert for an enemy mis- The United States Air Force has many kinds of aircraft.
 Air Force, United States 191

A few are driven by propellers, but jet engines drive

most Air Force planes today. Many planes carry only a
pilot Others have a crew of several members that may
include a copilot, navigator, and flight engineer. Some
aircraft are guided only by electronic devices.
Planes of the Air Force are designated by both letters
and numbers. A letter in front of the numbers refers to
the basic mission of the plane, and the numbers desig-
nate the model. Basic missions include A, attack; B,
bomber; C, cargo transport; F, fighter; H, helicopter; K,
tanker; R, reconnaissance; and ^trainer. For example, A jet fighter shoots down enemy aircraft and attacks ground
an F-1 5 is a fighter aircraft targets. This fighter, the single-seat F-1 5 Eagle flies at more than
A letter following the numbers indicates a general twice the speed of sound.
modification of the design. The original design is desig-
nated A, but often this letter is not used. The first modifi- Missiles are a major weapon of the U. S. Air Force.
cation is designated ftthe second, Cand so on. Thus, They can be equipped with a conventional or nuclear
the fourth modification (the fifth general design) of the warhead.
F-1 5 is the F-15E. Some designations have an additional Surface-launched missiles are fired from the ground
letter indicating a special modification. This letter ap- at enemy ground or air targets. The largest of these are
pears in front of what would otherwise be the first letter. intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBM's), which can
For example, an AC-1 30 is a C-1 30 to which guns have travel from one continent to another. The Minuteman
been added to convert it to an attack aircraft ICBM can carry 3 nuclear warheads. The Peacekeeper
Bombers drop explosives on enemy targets. They are can carry 10 and is more accurate than the Minuteman.
equipped with radar and bombsights to find the target Air-launched missiles axe carried by bombers and
and direct bombs to it The navigator guides the pilot fighters.Air-to-ground missiles (AGM's) are fired attar-
over the target, then releases the bomb. Bombers also gets on the ground. The Maverick is an AGM
guided by
launch missiles. The B-52 is the oldest American bomber a television or infrared (heat) image of a target on the
in service. Its maximum range without refueling is more ground. Other AGM's include the /Vigh-speed Ant\-Rad\-
than 7,500 miles (12,000 kilometers), and its top speed is ation Missile (HARM) and the Shrike, which destroy ene-
nearly 600 miles (970 kilometers) per hour. American my radar by following the radar signal to its source. Air
bombers also include the B-l which is smaller than a B-
, interceptor missiles (AIM's) are used against enemy
52 but carries a heavier bomb load. A third type of planes. The advanced /Vfedium-Zfange /4.ir-to-/4ir

bomber, the B-2 "stealth" bomber, is a sleek plane de-

signed to be nearly invisible to radar.
Fighters shoot down enemy aircraft and attack
ground targets. They are smaller and generally faster

than bombers. However, many fighters perform bomb-

ing missions. In fact, the leading precision bombers in
the Persian Gulf War were F-1 17, F-1 1 1, and F-15E fight-
ers. The F-1 1 7 "stealth" fighters penetrated heavy air de-
fenses around Baghdad, Iraq, without being hit The
two-seat F-1 5E lacks the "stealth" of the F-1 1 7, but it is
faster and can reach a speed of Mach 2.5. Mach 2.5 is 2.5
times the speed of sound. Sound travels about 760 miles
(1 ,220 kilometers) per hour at sea
level. Equally fast is the

single-seat F-15C, which has been the Air Force's best

fighter for shooting down enemy aircraft Lighter and
slower than the two-engine F-1 5 is the single-engine F-

16, which can be used in air-to-air combat or against

ground targets. The Air Force's newest fighter, the F-22,
combines stealth and speed.
Other aircraft include attack and reconnaissance
planes, tankers, and transports. Attack planes, such as
the A-10, are designed to provide low-flying air support
for ground troops, particularly against armored targets.
Reconnaissance planes observe and photograph enemy
forces and installations. Tanker aircraft refuel other
planes in flight
Transport aircraft carry personnel and equipment and
can evacuate wounded soldiers in battle. The C-5 Galaxy
can carry tanks or helicopters. The C-5 and the smaller l S Air lor\t-

bigger
C-141 can fly long distances. The C-1 7 can carry a A-IO Thunderbolt attack planes provide low-flying air support
can.
load and land on a shorter runway than the C-141 tor ground troops, armored targets. The
especial!) against sin-

The C-1 30 Hercules is used on shorter

flights. gle-seat planes are armed with guns and carry bombs.
1 92 Air Force, United States

Different types of U.S. Air Force planes carry out various missions. The KC-10 tanker refuels oth-
er planes in flightThe B-2 "stealth' bomber is designed to avoid detection by radar. The F-22 com-
bines stealth and speed. The F-16 Fighting Falcon fighter is armed with guided missiles. The
AWACS airplane can use its radar dome to detect aircraft and missiles. The C-5A Galaxy transport
carries tanks and other heavy equipment

KC-10 tanker refueling C-5A Galaxy transport

F-22 jet fighter

B-2 "stealth" bomber

/V/issile (AMRAAM) and the Sparrow are AIM s guided The Air Force has a headquarters at the Pentagon
by radar. Another AIM called the Sidewinder seeks the Building near Washington, D.C, and eight major com-
heat of the enemy aircraft's engine. mands. These be roughly grouped
units can into com-
bat commands and support commands.
Organization of the Air Force
Combat commands provide forces that carry out the
The Department of the Air Force operates under fighting assignments of the Air Force. A four-star gener-
the secretary of the Air Force, a civilian directly respon- al usually heads a major command. These major com-

sible to the secretary of defense. The chief of staff, a mands are divided into successively smaller units called
four-star general, is the top military officer of the Air air forces, wings, and squadrons. A squadron usually
Force. However, the chief of staff does not command the has 20 to 25 aircraft.
Air Force in wartime. In peacetime, all combat-ready missiles, bombers,
When Air Force units go to war, they are part of joint fighters, attack aircraft, and reconnaissance aircraft of
commands that include all branches of the armed the active Air Force belong to one of five commands.
forces. The Air Force chief of staff and his or her subor- They are the Air Combat Command, headquartered at
dinates are known formally as Headquarters United Langley Air Force Base, Virginia; Pacific Air Forces,
States Air Force and informally as the air staff. headquartered at Hickam Air Force Base, Hawaii;
 Air Force, United States 1 93

F-16 Fighting Falcon jet fighters

Boeing Aerospace & Electronics

Airborne Warning and Control System (AWACS) aircraft C-5 Galaxy jet transport

United States Air Forces in Europe, headquartered at Support commands help the combat commands of
Ramstein Air Base, Germany; Air Force Special Opera- all the services. Air Mobility Command transports
tions Command, headquartered at Hurlburt Field, Flori- troops and supplies and also extends the range of
da; and Air Force Space Command, headquartered at bombers and fighters by refueling them in the air. This
Peterson Air Force Base, Colorado. command was formed in 1992 when its predecessor,
These Air Force combat commands make their forces Military Airlift Command, gained most of the air refuel-

available in wartime tocommands. Joint commands

joint belonged to the Strategic Air Com-
ing aircraft that had

include the Central Command for war in the Middle East mand. The Air Force Materiel Command, formed in
and the Strategic Command for nuclear war. Air Combat 1992, buys planes, missiles, and supplies. In 1993, the Air

Command was set up in 1992 by merging much of the Training Command and the Air University joined to form

Strategic Air Command with the Tactical Air Command. the Air Education and Training Command.

Air Force Special Operations Command has helicopters Components of the Air Force
and gunships (airplanes or helicopters armed with
guns). Air Force Space Command, a part of NORAD
has The regular Air Forcesupplies the professional

intercontinental ballistic missiles. The command also

core of Air Force personnel. Its size is fixed by Congress.
Regular Air Forre personnel include regular officers
controls satellites and ground radar sites.
1 94 Air Force, United States

who have graduated from an officer training program chine. Now pilots sought enemy planes and tried to de-
and regular airmen who enlist in the service. stroy them in airborne battles called dogfights.
Air Force reserves provide additional personnel and Most of the airplanes used in World War were small I

aircraft in times of emergency. Even in times of peace, wood and canvas biplanes that had one wing above and
most junior Air Force officers on active duty are re- one beiowthe open cockpit. Plane design improved
servists, and reserve units perform important functions, rapidly during the war. In 1914, most machines could fly
such as airtransport only about 75 miies ii20 kilometers) per hour. By 1918,
The Ready Reserve consists of units and individuals planes were flying at 120 miles (190 kilometers) per hour.
trained and equipped to be called to duty in any emer- As planes improved, pilots began to use them on
gency. The Standby Reserve includes personnel who bombing missions. At first, the pilot carried a sack of
can be called to duty in time of war. The Air National bombs in the cockpit and simply dropped them over the
Guard is administered by the individual states, but can side. Later, mechanical devices released the bombs
be called to duty by the president in emergencies. from under the fuselage. American pilots flew mostly
Civil Air Patrol (CAP) is a civilian auxiliary of the Air French-built planes, such as Spads, Salmsons, and Nieu-
Force. It trains young people in the science of aviation ports. The United States produced a version of the
and conducts search and rescue missions. British de Havilland D.H.4, though most of these planes
did not reach the front lines. The United States entered
History
the war with almost no airpower, but Congress quickly
United States military leaders sent up balloons to ob- appropriated S640 million for military aviation. Flying
serve the enemy during the American Civil War (1861- schools trained 8,688 flying cadets. Another 1,800 were
1865) and the Spanish-American War (1898). But military trained in Europe. The 94th Pursuit Squadron entered
officials did not begin to consider the airplane an impor- combat in April 1918. American pilots destroyed about
tant weapon until early in World War I. 750 enemy planes and 70 balloons. The leading Ameri-
Early years. On Dec. 17, 1903, two brothers, Wilbur
and Orville Wright, flew the first successful engine-pow-
Important dates in Air Force history
ered airplane to carry a pilot. In early 1905, the Wright
brothers offered to sell planes to the U.S. government, 1907 The Army set up an Aeronautical Division in the Office of
but the government did not take them seriously at first the Chief Signal Officer.
Finally, in 1907. President Theodore Roosevelt showed 1909 The Army bought its first airplane from the Wright broth-
ers.
interest in the airplane. That year, an Aeronautical Divi-
1914 The Aviation Section of the Signal Corps took charge of
sion was established in the office of the chief signal offi-
aviation operation and training.
cer of the U.S. Army to look into the new "air machines." 1917 The First Aero Squadron arrived in France during World
The Army bought its first airplane from the Wright War I.

brothers in 1909. In 1911, Congress appropriated the 1926 Congress established the U.S. Army Air Corps.
first funds for aviation— 5125,000. However, by 1914, 1940 President Franklin D. Roosevelt requested 50,000 planes
for the Army and Navy.
when World War broke out in Europe, the United
I

1941 Congress set up the Army Air Forces.

States Army's air force owned only five planes. 1945 A B-29 dropped the first atomic bomb used in warfare, on
The airplane's military role had grown much faster in Hiroshima, Japan.
Europe. Germany had about 250 planes. France, Russia, 1947 The United States Air Force was created as a separate
and the United Kingdom each had more than 100. service.
1947 Captain Charles E. Yeager piloted an X-l rocket-powered
World War pitted France, Russia, the United King-
I
aircraft through the sound barrier.
dom, and other Allies against the Central Powers, in- 1948 Fcie Berlin Airlirt began.
cluding Germany and Austria-Hungary. Under the pres- 1950 f he U.S. Air Force was ordered into action in Korea. Dog-
sure of war, the European nations air forces grew fighis between |et fighters occurred for the first time.

rapidly to several thousand airplanes. When the United 1957 The Air rorce successfully fired its first intercontinental
ballistic missile IICBM).
States entered the war in April 1917, the Army had fewer
1959 The U.S. Air Force Academy graduated its first class.
than 300 training planes and no combat planes. Only
1962 Air Force U-2 reconnaissance aircraft took photographs
American pilots who already had been flying in British indicating that Soviet ballistic missiles were being in-
and French units had significant combat experience. The stalled in Cuba.
Lafayette Escadrille, a French squadron which included 1965 Air Force and Navy fighter planes bombed North Vietnam
some American pilots, already boasted several aces, avi- to begin Operation Rolling Thunder.
1968 The C 5 Galaxy jet transport, the world's largest aircraft at
ators who had shot down at least five enemy aircraft.
the lime, made its first flight.
Not all aircraft in the war were planes. Observation 1971 Jeanne M. Holm became the first woman in the Air Force
balloons were used for reconnaissance. Huge, dirigible to be promoted to the rank of general.
(steerable) airships— most notably the German Zep- 1976 Women were admitted to the U.S. Air Force Academy for
pelins— could drop bombs. See Airship. the first time.

At the start of the war, opposing armies used planes

1986 Air Force Fills bombed the headquarters of Libya s
leader Muammar al-Qadhafi.
only to scout out enemy positions. Enemy pilots waved 1988 The Air Force unveiled its stealth bomber and fighter
to each other when they passed in the sky. But soon they planes designed to be nearly invisible to radar.
began to carry pistols and rifles and took potshots at 1991 The Air Force helped drive Iraqi forces out of Kuwait dur-
each other. In 1915, a Dutch engineer, Anthony H. G. ing the Persian Gulf War.
1995 Ihe An Force helped end a war between Bosnian Serbs
Fokker, perfected a machine gun that could fire be-
and government forces in the former Yugoslav republic of
tween the revolving propeller blades. He transformed Bosnia-Herzegovina.
aerial warfare by making the airplane a true fighting ma-
 Air Force, United States 1 95

The first U.S. Army plane,

shown here, was built by the
Wright brothers in 1909. The
aircraft, which cost $30,000,
flew 42.5 miles (68.4 kilome-
ters) per hour in a record
flight that lasted
1 hour 12
minutes 40 seconds.

can ace, Captain Eddie Rickenbacker, shot down 22 ene- in combat. Others were lost in training or other non-
my planes and 4 balloons. The Allies won the war. combat operations. About 88,000 U.S. Army airmen died
in the war, which ended in an Allied victory.
Between world wars. The most prominent Ameri-
can air combat leader of World War was Brigadier I
Separate Air Force. On Sept. 18, 1947, Congress cre-
General Billy Mitchell. In September 1918. Mitchell had ated the United States Air Force as an equal partner with

commanded nearly 1,500 American British, French, and the Army and Navy. It Department
also established the

Italian aircraft during the Battle of St.-Mihiel in France. of the Air Force. Stuart Symington became the first sec-
assault had helped Allied ground forces win an retary of the Air Force, and General Carl Spaatz became
The air
the first Air Force chief of staff.
easy victory at St.-Mihiel.
wartime experience convinced him that air
Mitchell's The Berlin Airlift was the first big job of the new Air
units needed to be independent of ground units so that
Force. After World War II, the Western Allies occupied

airpower could be concentrated where it was most western Germany, and the Soviet Union occupied the
needed. In July 1921, he demonstrated the power of the east. Berlin, in the east, was divided into Allied-occupied

airplane by sinking a former German battleship with aer-

West and Soviet-occupied East Berlin. On June 26,
Berlin
1948, Soviet troops blockaded all ground routes
ial bombs. Mitchell's criticism of the government's de-

fense program was so outspoken that he was court-mar-

through the Soviet zone of occupation to West Berlin,
stopping all food and supplies. The Air Force, with
tialed for insubordination. He chose to resign from the
British and French units, supplied the city by air. Soon
Army rather than accept a five-year suspension. In 1946,
Allied planes were landing at Tempelhof airport every
afterdevelopments had confirmed many of Mitchell's
3 } minutes. During the 462 days of "Operation Vittles,"
ideas, he was awarded the Medal of Honor, the nation s
as U.S. airmen called it, Allied planes flew 277,000 flights
highest military decoration.
Army Air Corps carrying about 2,325,000 tons (2,109,000 metric tons) of
The Air Service was renamed the in

1926. In 1931, the first all-metal bomber was built. In supplies into West Berlin.

1 935, the Army tested the first B-1 7, the Flying Fortress The Korean War (1950-1953) was a local war in Ko-
rea. The United States and other members of the United
that would be important in World War II.

Nations aided South Korea, and the Soviet Union and

World War II was a huge war in which Germany,
China assisted North Korea. The war brought the first
Italy, Japan, and other Axis powers fought the Allies
dogfights between jet fighters. In November 1950, Air
who included Canada, China, the Soviet Union, and the
Force F-86 fighters clashed with Soviet-made MiG fight-
United Kingdom. The U.S. Army Air Forces (AAFI was
ers near the Chinese border along the Yalu River. Air
formed in 1941. The United States entered the war in
Force pilots called this area "MiG Alley." They shot down
December of that year, after Japan attacked the U.S.
10 times as many jets as they lost there. When the Kore-
naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. By the time of the at-
an War ended, the Air Force had downed about 900 en-
tack, the United States had begun a program of building
emy planes and had lost 139 of its own planes in aerial
planes and training pilots.
combat. The Korean War ended without either side win-
General Henry H. "Hap" Arnold was the first comman-
ning a complete victory.
der of the AAF. Under Arnold, the AAF grew to its top
The nuclear Air Force. After Korea, the Air Force
strength during World War II of 2,41 1 ,000 members and
found itself undergoing rapid change. It soon had ther-
80,000 planes. Aircraft used by the AAF during World
monuclear hydrogen bombs thousands of times more
War II included the P-51 Mustang long-range fighter
powerful than the atomic bombs that ended World War
and such bombers as the B-1 7, the B-24 Liberator, the B-
II. Propeller aircraft rapidly became obsolete for most
25, and the B-29.
jobs. Newer planes, such as the B-52 bomber, had jet
During the war, the AAF dropped more than 2 million
engines and carried nuclear weapons. Intercontinental
tons (1.8 million metric tons) of bombs and destroyed
ballistic missiles could be launched from the United
over 40,000 enemy planes. The most destructive raids
States and the Soviet Union.
were the firebombing of Tokyo in March 1945 and the
The Vietnam War (1957-1975) was a drawn-out con-
atomic bombing of Hiroshima in August 1945. The
flict in Southeast Asia. In that war, the United States sup-
Tokyo raid killed an estimated 80,000 to 25,000 people, 1

ported South Vietnam, and the Soviet Union and China

and the bombing of Hiroshima killed an estimated
backed North Vietnam and the Viet Cong rebels of
70,000 to 100,000 people. The fact that a single atomic
South Vietnam. From 1961 to 1973, the United States
bomb could destroy a large city made nuclear weapons
dropped amuch greater tonnage of conventional
a dominating factor in U.S. military planning
bombs in Southeast Asia than had been dropped by
The AAF lost about 23,000 planes, about half of them
1 96 Air Force, United States

both sides in World War II. Most of this bombing was Outline
conducted in the jungles of South Vietnam by B-52's and I. Life in the Air Force
Communist rebels and their North
fighter aircraft against A. Recruit training
Vietnamese allies. The simultaneous bombing of North B. Officer training

Vietnam was done mostly by F-105 and F-4 fighters. Be- G Air Force women
D. Careers in the Air
Force
fore the end of the war, the Air Force had developed
II. The purpose of the Air Force
laser-guided bombs, which rarely missed their targets. A. Defense and deterrence
The war ended with a North Vietnamese and Viet Cong B. Offense

victory. C Peacetime emergencies

The Persian Gulf War. After Iraq occupied Kuwait in III. Planes and weapons of the Air Force
August 1990, the U.S. Air Force began its most extensive
A. Bombers
B. Fighters
airlift In six months, the Air Force transported more than
G Other aircraft
577,000 tons (523,000 metric tons) of supplies and D. Missiles
498,000 military passengers as far as 7,000 miles (11,000 IV.Organization of the Air Force
kilometers) to points in the Middle East. After the war A. The Department of B. Combat commands

began in January 1991, the Air Force flew more than the Air Force G Support commands
V. Components of the Air Force
37,000 combat sorties and lost only 14 aircraft. In their
A. The regular Air Force
first extensive use, 42 F-1 fighter-bombers
1 7 "stealth" B. Air Force reserves
dropped hundreds of laser-guided bombs without los- G Civil Air Patrol
ing a plane. The air assault so devastated the Iraqis that VI. History
they surrendered in February.
Questions
The Balkans. In 1991, a war began in Bosnia-
What are the risks and benefits of belonging to the Air Force?
Herzegovina between Bosnian Serb rebels and the Who sold the United States its first military plane?
country's government, which was dominated by Bosnian What types of planes make up the Air Force?
Muslims. The war continued for several years. In 1995, Where was "MiG Alley?
the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) inter- When did the Air Force become a separate service?
vened. As part of the NATO operation, the U.S. Air Force Why is the B-2 called the "stealth" bomber?
How does the Peacekeeper missile differ from the Minuteman?
attacked Bosnian Serb forces to help provide relief to
How many planes must a pilot shoot down in wartime to be
Bosnian Muslims under siege. Later that year, the considered an ace?
groups involved in the conflict agreed to a peace treaty. How are combat commands organized?
In 1999, the Air Force participated in NATO air strikes What are the differences between attack craft and bombers?
against Serbia to end Serbian attacks on ethnic Albani-
Additional resources
ans in its province of KOSOVO. Wayne Thompson
Boyne, Walter J. Beyond the Wild Blue: A History of the United
Related articles in World Book include:
States Air Force, 1947-1997. St Martin's, 1997.
Biographies Nalty, Bernard C, ed. Winged Shield, Winged Sword: A History
of the United States Air Force. 2 vols. U.S. Government Print-
Arnold, Henry H. LeMay, Curtis E.
ing Office, 1997.
Balchen, Bernt Mitchell, Billy
Watson, Bruce W. and S. M., eds. The United States Air Force: A
Chennault, Claire L Rickenbacker, Eddie
Dictionary. Garland, 1992.
Doolittie, James H. Spaatz, Carl
James, Daniel, Jr. Yeager, Charles E. Air Force Academy, United States. See United
Air Force installations States Air ForceAcademy.
Air Line Pilots Association is the largest labor
Andrews Air Force Base Patrick Air Force Base
Edwards Air Force Base Scott Air Force Base
union and professional organization of airline pilots in
Hickam Air Force Base United States Air Force North America. It represents more than 60,000 pilots for
Lackland Air Force Base Academy nearly 50 United States and Canadian airlines with
Langley Air Force Base Vandenberg Air Force Base scheduled flights. The association seeks to improve pay,
Offutt Air Force Base
working conditions, seniority rights, pensions, and other
History benefits for airline pilots. It also establishes standards
Ace Midway Island World War I
for safety, aircraft performance, accident investigations,
Cold War Pearl Harbor World War II flight operations, and security.
Korean War Persian Gulf War The association was founded in 1931. Its full name is

Organization Air Line Pilots Association, International. It is affiliated

with the American Federation of Labor and Congress of
Air Force, Department of the
Civil Air Patrol Industrial Organizations (AFL-CIO). Headquarters are in
NORAD Washington, D.C.
Strategic Air Command Critically reviewed by the Air Line Pilots Association, International

Other related articles

Air lock is a device that permits people or materials to
pass in or out of a structure called a pneumatic caisson.
Aircraft, Military Guided missile
Armed Forces Staff College Medals, decorations, and
The caisson contains compressed air. Air locks are used
Cape Canaveral orders in digging underwater tunnels or other projects that re-
Defense, Department of NationalGuard quire caissons. Air pressure in the caisson balances out-
Flag (picture: Flags of the Rand Corporation side water pressure, keeping water out of the working
armed forces) Rank, Military area. Caissons cannot be opened directly to the outer air
General Space exploration
because the air pressure in the caisson is much
 Air pollution 197

How an air lock works The damage caused by air pollution costs the people
of the United States billions of dollars each year. This in-
cludes money spent for health care and increased main-
tenance of buildings. Air pollution also causes damage
to the environment that cannot be reversed.

Chief sources of air pollution

People depend on the atmosphere to dilute and re-
move pollutants as they are produced. But weather con-
ditions called thermal inversions can trap the pollutants
over a certain area until they build up to dangerous lev-
els. A thermal inversion occurs when a layer of warm air
u OKI U BOOK illustration by David Cunmnghai
settles over a layer of cool air that lies near the ground.
Air locks enable people to enter caissons containing com-
This condition traps the impurities and prevents them
pressed air. When
person enters an air lock, left, its air pres-
a
sure is the same as that outside. Air pressure in the air lock is from rising until rain or wind breaks up the layer of sta-
slowly increased, right, to equal that inside the caisson. This ac- tionary warm air.
tion permits a person to enter the caisson without danger. Forms of transportation, such as automobiles, air-
planes, ships, and trains, are the leading source of air
pollution in the United States, Canada, and most other
greater than the pressure of the outer move- air. All industrial nations. The major pollutants produced by
ments to and from the caisson must take place through these sources are carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hy-
an air lock. This is a large airtight chamber equipped drocarbons (compounds of carbon and hydrogen), and
with valves. Compressed air is forced into the air lock nitrogen oxides (compounds of nitrogen and oxygen).
through these valves until the pressure within the air Nitrogen oxides can react with hydrocarbons in the
lock equals the pressure in the caisson. The valves are presence of sunlight to produce a form of oxygen called
also used to withdraw compressed from the air lock
air ozone. Ozone is the chief component of photochemical
until its pressure equals the pressure of the normal out- smog, which is a common form of air pollution (see
side air. Smog).
To enter the caisson, the workers first step into the air Fuel combustion for heating and cooling homes, of-
lock. Compressed air holds the inner door of the air lock fice buildings, and factories contributes significantly to
tightly shut. The outer door is then closed, and com- air pollution. Electric power plants that burn coal or oil
pressed air slowly introduced. When pressures within also release pollutants into the atmosphere. The major
the air lock and the caisson are the same, the inner door pollutants from these sources are nitrogen oxides, sul-
may be opened into the caisson. When workers leave fur oxides (compounds of sulfur and oxygen), particu-
the caisson, pressure in the air lock is reduced to nor- lates, and carbon dioxide.

mal, and the workers may then go out. This lowering of Industrial processes produce a wide range of pollu-
the air pressure, or decompression, must be done tants. Oil refineries discharge ammonia, hydrocarbons,

slowly. the pressure drops too rapidly, the workers

If

may develop a painful and dangerous condition called

bends. Separate air locks are usually provided for peo-
ple and for materials. A third air lock is often added to
permit rapid escape in emergencies. Larry w Mays
See also Bends; Caisson.
Air mail. See Airmail.
Air mass. See Weather (Air masses; map).
Air Patrol, Civil. See Civil Air Patrol.
Air piracy. See Hijacking.
Air plant. See Epiphyte.
Air pollution occurs when wastes dirty the air. People
produce most of the wastes that cause air pollution.
Such wastes can be in the form of gases or particulates
(particles of solid or liquid matter). These substances re-
sult chiefly from burning fuel to power motor vehicles
and to heat buildings. Industrial processes and the burn-
ing of garbage also contribute to air pollution. Natural
pollutants (impurities) include dust, pollen, soil parti-
cles, and naturally occurring gases.
The rapid growth of population and industry, and the
increased use of automobiles and airplanes, have made
serious problem. The air we breathe has
air pollution a
mil (Ink! hfc .loo

become so filled with pollutants that it can cause health Air pollution is a serious problem in many of the world s large
problems. Polluted air also harms plants, animals, build- cities. Heavy concentrations of air pollutants, which are often in

ing materials, and fabrics. In addition, it causes damage the form of smog, settle over a city, creating a health hazard for
by altering the earth s atmosphere. its people.
198 Air pollution

organic acids, and sulfur oxides. Metal smelting plants Indoor air pollution occurs when energy-efficient
give off large amounts of sulfur oxides and particulates houses and office buildings trap pollutants inside. As a
containing lead and other metals. Plants that make alu- result,some pollutants found outdoors are found in-
minum expel fluoride dust. By 1996, most industrialized doors in even higher concentrations. Some plastic prod-
countries, including the United States, had ended pro- ucts, processed wood products, paints, and adhesives
duction of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), compounds of can give off hydrocarbons. Many cleaning products emit
chlorine, fluorine, and carbon. However, many older re- poisonous gases such as ammonia and chlorine. Soil
frigerators and air conditioners produce CFCs during and rocks release an odorless gas called radon into the
normal operation. atmosphere. The gas enters buildings through cracks in
Burning of solid wastes often creates a very visible the foundation (see Radon).
form of air pollution thick, black smoke. It also pro-
Effects of air pollution
duces invisible pollution in the form of toxic chemicals
called dioxins. Many cities and towns enforce bans on Health. When people breathe polluted air, the impu-
the burning of garbage, leaves, and other refuse. rities can irritate their air passages and their lungs. Par-
Other sources of pollution include chemical sprays ticulates often remain in the lungs, and they can worsen
and organic chemicals used to start fires on charcoal such respiratory ailments as asthma and bronchitis.
grills. Forest fires and structural fires also contribute to Radon can cause lung cancer if inhaled in large quanti-
air pollution. In rural areas and in developing countries, ties. Certain chemical compounds can cause cancer and

the burning of forests and grasslands to clear areas for birth defects.Ozone reduces resistance to colds and
farming is a major source of air pollution. pneumonia and can aggravate emphysema. Carbon
Natural sources also contribute to air pollution. Vol- monoxide interferes with the transfer of oxygen from
canoes emit large amounts of sulfur oxides and particu- the lungs to body tissues.
lates. Microbes in the digestive tracts of cattle and in In London in 1952, about 4,000 people died of respira-
rice fields break down plant materials and release an tory diseases during a killer smog." More than 600 peo-
odorless gas called methane, a type of hydrocarbon. ple died as a result of thermal inversions that occurred

Major air pollutants Most air pollution results from human

activity. These pie graphs represent the total emissions of

and their sources each of the five major the United States in 1996 The legend identifies the sources of
air pollutants in
air pollution by color. Each graph shows how much each source contributed to that kind of air pol-
lution. All natural sources of air pollution are included in "Miscellaneous," as well as other sources.

Sources of pollutants
Carbon monoxide Volatile organic compounds

Transportation airplanes, motor

vehicles, ships, and trains!

1.4%,
Fuel combustion in homes, offices,
and electric power plants
52%.
k /
6.7%^
Industrial processes ( hemical pro-
duction, oil refining, and smeltingl

Solid waste disposal (burning gar

bage dead leaves, and refuse)

Miscellaneous '< hemical sprays,

forest fires, and structural fires)

Nitrogen oxides Particulates Sulfur dioxide

7.1%

^.33%
^1.0%
~0.4%
/

Figures An for 1996, Source: VS. Environmental Protection Agency-

 Air pollution 199

© Peter Vadnai, The Slock Market © Chns Jones. The Stock Market

A carbon monoxide detector is usedmanufacturing facili-

in A platinum catalyst scrubber is used
an industrial smoke-
in
ties to test for leakage from tanks that store the gas. Carbon stack to remove pollutants before they can be released into the
monoxide has many uses in industry, but it is a deadly poison. air. The pollutants stick to metal oxide crystals in the scrubber.

in New York City in 1953 and 1963. Today, such extreme 1967. Under this act, the federal government sets goals
events are rare in many countries because of govern- called air quality standards for achieving cleaner air. The

ment emission standards, which limit the amounts of states must enforce air pollution controls to meet the
pollutants that factories and other sources may release. goals. When states fail to enforce the regulations, the
However, air pollution still contributes to a large num- federal government can act against polluters by impos-
ber of deaths each year. ing fines.
Agriculture. Air pollutants can stunt the growth of The Clean Air Act of 1970, and
amendments, have
its

crops, harm livestock, and destroy crops. Such damage and emissions. It has
set strict standards for air quality
can prove costly to farmers. Forests also have been dam- required fuel producers to develop cleaner-burning fu-
aged by air pollution. els. It also requires automobile manufacturers to equip

Atmosphere. Some pollutants are not poisonous but new vehicles with pollution control devices called cat-
can cause damage by altering the earth s atmosphere. alytic converters. In addition, the smokestacks of many
For example, the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmos- electric power plants, incinerators, and factories must
phere has been increasing since the early to mid-1 800 s, have scrubbers installed to remove pollutants before
oil, and other
chiefly as a result of the burning of coal, they can reach the air. New standards will remove most
carbon-containing fuels. Carbon dioxide allows sunlight sulfur from fuels and reduce emissions of particulates.
to reach the earth and warm its surface, but it prevents However, industry groups have repeatedly opposed
some surface heat from escaping out of the atmosphere. stricter standards.

This greenhouse effect an produce significant climatic States may set stricter air standards than the federal
changes, which will result in great environmental chal- government requires. Since 1970, California has set the
lenges. See Greenhouse effect. strictest standards for motor-vehicle emissions. Several
CFCs break down the layer of ozone in the earth's up- states require that a certain percentage of vehicles sold
per atmosphere. This layer protects plants and animals annually must be non-polluting.
from harmful ultraviolet rays (see Ozone). Efforts to control air pollution in the United States

Other effects. Most materials deteriorate faster when have been generally successful. Between 1970 and 1997,
exposed to the pollutants present in the air. Concrete federal regulation resulted in a 98-percent reduction in
and stone are dissolved by air pollutants. Metals cor- lead emissions. During this same period, pollution by
rode faster than usual. Plastics, rubber, and fabrics are dust particles decreased by 75 percent. Pollution by sul-
also damaged by air pollutants. fur dioxide decreased 35 percent. Both carbon monox-

Air pollution is closely related to other forms of pollu- ide and ozone emissions were reduced by more than 30
tion. Sulfurdioxide and nitrogen oxides can react with percent. Efforts to reduce nitrogen oxide pollution have
water droplets in the air to produce acid rain. Acid rain met with the least success. Nitrogen oxide emissions de-
pollutes lakes and streams and, in high concentrations, creased by only about 10 percent between 1970 and
can harm soil fertility (see Acid rain). 1997. They increased for a number of years during this
period before finally decreasing.
Control of air pollution In other countries. The lack of controls on automo-

In the United States, all levels of government-feder- bile emissions in Western Europe has contributed to ex-

al, state, and local-have passed laws designed to con- tensive damage to forests there. Countries in Eastern Eu-

trol pollution. Congress passed the Air Quality Act in rope have lacked pollution controls altogether and as a
200 Air rights

result, have suffered enormous environmental damage. for apartment buildings, office buildings, parking
David E Henderson garages, and schools. In some states, the law does not
Related articles in World Book include: clearlydetermine who owns the air rights over high-
Acid rain Incinerator ways and railroad tracks. As a result, the sale and use of
Automobile (Environmental Iron and steel (picture: Con- these air rights have been limited. Zoning laws that limit
impactl trolling air pollution)
building height also affect the use of air rights.
Catalytic converter Los Angeles (Recent develop-
Coal (Coal as a fuel) ments) Landowners cannot prevent aircraft from flying over
Environmental pollution Ozone their land at a legal height. But they have the right to
Gasoline engine (Air pollution Smog protection from noise caused by aircraft. In the late
controls) Smoke 1960s, the Federal Aviation Administration began to set
Global warming Soot
limits for aircraft noise levels.
Greenhouse effect
Every nation owns the air rights over its territory. A
Additional resources country may control this air space and deny the aircraft
Blewett, Stephen E. What's in the Air Natural and Man-Made Air of other nations the right to fly over its territory. But in-
Seaview Pub., 1998.
Pollution. ternational law has not yet determined if such air rights
Holgate, Stephen T., ed. Air Pollution and Health. Academic Pr.,
extend into OUter space. Jean Appleman'
1999.
Kidd, Jerry and Renee A. Into Thin Air. The Problem of Air Pol-
Air route. See Aviation (Aviation agencies).
S.

lution. Facts on File, 1998. Air sac. See Bird (The respiratory system); Human
Miller, E. Willard and Ruby M. Indoor Pollution. ABC-Clio, 1998. body (The air passages); Lung (Parts of the lungs).
Air traffic control center. See Airplane (Safety).
Air rights are the rights to use the space above a Air Transport Association of America (ATA) is

piece of real estate. In the United States, a person or a an organization of scheduled airlines of the United
company that owns land also owns the air rights above States. ATA works to improve air safety, to help produce
it The use of air rights increases the value of land. For economical, efficient air service, and to coordinate the
example, some companies construct buildings in leased airlines' role in national defense. The organization was
air rights over railroad tracks. In this way, companies founded in 1936. Its headquarters are located in Wash-
use space that would otherwise be wasted. ington, D.C
Since the early 1900s, many large buildings have Critically reviewed by the Air Transport Association of America
been constructed in air rights over railroad tracks. These Air turbulence is a disturbance of the air that is often
buildings include the Merchandise Mart in Chicago and felt by the passengers and crew of aircraft. Air turbu-
the Terminal Tower in Cleveland. Buildings constructed lence may produce only a slightly bumpy ride. But in

over railroad tracks must have a large chimney or airway some cases, luggage and even passengers have been
to carry off the smoke and foul air of the trains below. tossed about the cabin.
The buildings also must have special sound insulation to A major source of air turbulence is connective heat-
reduce the noise from the trains. ing. This phenomenon begins when the sun heats the
Air rights over highways can provide additional space ground. The ground, in turn, heats the air just above it
Because warm air is less dense than cool air, parcels of
warm air rise in a convection current. Cooler air then
moves downward and inward, filling the space beneath
the rising air. We can see an up-and-down movement of
air parcels in puffycumulus clouds. Air travelers who fly
through even a small cumulus cloud usually feel some
turbulence.
Much air turbulence is not readily visible and so is

known as clear-air turbulence. Convective heating can

create clear-air turbulence where there is not enough
moisture to form clouds. Clear-air turbulence also oc-
curs at extremely high altitudes, where clouds are rarely
present.
An example of turbulence at high altitudes is a dis-
turbance created by a jet stream. Jet streams are bands
of fast-moving air that circle the earth at altitudes of
about 30,000 to 45,000 feet (9,000 to 1 5,000 meters). Air-
flow in the core of the jet stream is usually smooth.
However, near the stream's outer edge, the high-speed
air rubs against the surrounding low-speed air. This in-
teraction creates pockets of air turbulence.
In the Northern Hemisphere, aircraft flying in an east-

erly direction frequently ride in a jet stream to reduce

travel time. As an airplane crosses the stream s outer
boundary, the occupants of the craft usually feel turbu-
WORLD nook photo In Artstreel
lence.
Air rights permit builders to use space above real estate. An ex-
tension of Chicago s Art Institute, shown here, was built in air Air turbulence is also associated with weather fronts,
rights over Illinois Central Gulf Railroad tracks. narrow zones between huge volumes of air that differ in
 Aircraft, Military 201

temperature or humidity. These air masses move over the Netherlands. In the Philippines, airborne troops re-
the earth s surface much like blobs of molasses on an captured Corregidor from Japanese forces.
apple. Where air masses bump and rub against one an- Airborne troops have taken part in all major military
other, pockets of air turbulence form. operations since World War II. United States airborne
Airflow over mountain ranges creates air turbulence troops are often called paratroops, paratroopers, and
at virtually all altitudes. Certain cloud formations some- Sky Soldiers. David R. Kiernan
times indicate the presence of low-altitude disturbances. See also Parachute.
But clear-air turbulence also occurs over mountain Airbrush is a tool used by photographers and com-
ranges. The movement of an air mass over a range may mercial artists to apply color or shading to drawings,
create several disturbances at the same time. This turbu- prints, and photographs. Photographers find it useful to
lence can often be felt at altitudes as high as 60,000 feet bring out highlights and to supply backgrounds. The air-
(1 8,000 meters). Brian M. Argrovv brush looks something like a pencil. It has a length of
See also Cloud; Weather (Weather systems). tubing at one end and a fine nozzle at the other. An elec-
Airbag. See Air bag. tric pump or tank with a pressure gauge supplies a cur-

Airborne troops are soldiers trained for assault by rent of compressed air. The air enters the nozzle
air. They may be dropped to the ground by parachute, through the tubing and sends a stream of fine particles
or transported to combat areas by airplanes. Airborne of liquid coloring matter out through the nozzle. The
troops of the United States Army are volunteers. The artist controls the air pressure by means of a valve to

chief center for training U.S. airborne troops is at Fort create different effects.
Bragg, North Carolina.
Volunteers must undergo a difficult three-week train-
ing course. In combat, airborne troops land behind ene-
my blow up bridges, destroy communications,
lines,
and cut supplies and reinforcements. They often take
off
the enemy by surprise and engage in fierce hand-to-
hand fighting. Airborne troops carry heavy packs of
^
equipment, including an automatic rifle, a machine gun,
grenades, a medical kit, and radio equipment
In World War II, both the Allies and the Germans
used airborne troops. The Germans first employed sky
soldiers in the Netherlands in 1940 and in capturing the

^^
island of Crete in 1941.The Allies made the most effec-
tive use of paratroops. They formed a complete army of
sky soldiers and coordinated parachute attacks with air,
land, and naval operations. United States Army para-
troopers spearheaded attacks in Sicily, Normandy, and
^Ul^\«
Kongsgaarrt studiu WORLD BOOK photo b\ Vemkamp Ballixjg'

The airbrush blows out a mist of coloring matter that creates

images with delicate tones and a smooth-looking surface.

The spray gun is a tool that works in the same way as

an airbrush, but it takes less skill to operate. Painters use
it to apply a coat of paint, varnish, shellac, and other fin-

ishing materials to all types of manufactured articles.

Andrew |- Stasik |r

Aircraft. See Aircraft, Military; Airplane; Airship; Au-

togiro; Balloon; Glider; Guided missile; Helicopter;
Rocket; V STOL
Aircraft, Military. Military aircraft are airplanes, heli-
copters, and other flying machines used for military pur-
poses. Most military aircraft are operated by pilots. But
aircraft called unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV's), which
carry no crew, are guided by electronic devices.
Armed forces use military aircraft for a wide variety of
tasks in both combat and peacetime. During a war,
these aircraft attack enemy forces, protect and transport
troops and supplies, defend territory, and carry out
many other types of missions. Peacetime uses include

Airborne troops drop by para< hute from an airplane into a bat- rescue operations and scientific expeditions.

tle area or behind enemy lines. Military aircraft range from I IAV s the size of small
202 Aircraft, Military

B-1B bomber KC-10 tanker

TR-1 reconnaissance aircraft Blackhawk UH-60 helicopter

Military aircraft, such as the United States aircraft shown here, are designed to perform various
tasks.For example, bombers attack targets with bombs, missiles, rockets, and other weapons.
Tankers refuel aircraft in flight. Reconnaissance aircraft observe and photograph enemy forces and
bases. Transport helicopters are used to carry cargo.

model airplanes to huge transport planes that carry are strategic bombers and fighter-bombers. Most strate-
tanks and trucks. Their speeds also vary greatly, reach- gic bombers are large, long-range airplanes that can at-
ing more than 2,000 miles per hour (mph), or 3,200 kilo- tack targets deep inside enemy territory. They have two
meters per hour (kph), for some jet planes. Some aircraft or more jet engines and a crew of two to six people.
are designed for specialized duties. For example, some One such strategic bomber, the American-made B-1B,
military planes take off and land vertically, enabling can fly up to about 7,500 miles (1 2,000 kilometers) with-
them to operate from ships and rough terrain. Others out refueling. Its top speed is Mach 1.25, which is 1 \
can fly at extremely high altitudes to escape enemy mis- times the speed of sound. The American B-2 "stealth"
siles or at low altitudes to avoid detection by radar. bomber has special features that make it difficult to de-
tect by radar. These features include surface materials
Types of military aircraft
that absorb radar energy and a winglike shape that de-
Most military aircraft are fixed-wing a/rcra/flairplanes) flects radar beams. See Air Force, United States (pic-
or rotary-wing a/rcra/r(helicopters). They are classified ture: B-2 stealth bomber).
by their function. Those that can perform more than one Most fighter-bombers, also called attack planes, are
type of mission are designated by their original or prin- small, short- to medium-range aircraft with one or two
cipal use. Military planes include (1 bombers, (2) fight-
) jet engines and a crew of one or two people. These

ers, (31 reconnaissance aircraft, (4) transports, (5) tankers, planes are used primarily to attack ships and ground
and (6) special-mission aircraft. Some of these classifica- forces. One of the most advanced fighter-bombers is the
tions are also used for helicopters. American F-1 1 7 "stealth" fighter. Features much like
Bombers bombs, missiles, rock-
attack targets with those of the B-2 bomber make the F-1 1 7 difficult to de-
ets, and other weapons. The two main kinds of bombers tect by radar.
 Aircraft, Military 203

Fighters are used chiefly to intercept and attack other Special-mission aircraft include electronic support
aircraft,but they also hit ground targets. These planes aircraft, trainers,and UAV's. Electronic support aircraft
must be fast and easy to maneuver. Most fighters carry contain sensitive electronic instruments. Some of these
cannons, rockets, and missiles. The American F-14 Tom- aircraft are used to interfere with enemy radar and other
cat has an electronic weapons system that automatically electronic equipment. Others guard against air or
detects and tracksenemy aircraft. It allows a pilot to fire ground attack and serve as command centers in a war.
at enemy long before seeing them. The F-14 has
aircraft The U.S. Air Force uses the Airborne Warning and Con-
variable-sweep wings, which can be spread out or trol System (AWACS) aircraft. A radar dome on top of
swept back according to the flight speed. this plane can detect and track aircraft and missiles.
Most
fighters have one or two jet engines and a crew Trainers are used to train pilots and are designated by
of one or two people. Many have swept-back wings, the stage of training in which they serve— primary, basic,
which slant backward from the plane's body to the tip of or advanced. They range from planes with piston en-
the wing, or triangle-shaped delta wingsto provide gines to jet aircraft that can be used for both training
great speed. Two widely used fighters, the Russian MiC- and combat. UAV's of various sizes are used for haz-
29 and the French Mirage, can fly faster than Mach 2. ardous reconnaissance missions and as targets in com-
Reconnaissance aircraft are equipped with cam- bat practice.
eras or electronic sensing devices for collecting infor- Helicopters play an important role in military opera-
mation about enemy forces. The TR-1 one of the few , tionsbecause they can be used in a variety of missions.
American reconnaissance aircraft, is used to locate ene- They have the ability to take off and land almost any-
my forces during wartime. The plane's sensing devices where, and they can hover over one spot. Helicopters
can detect signals from enemy radars, communications, serve chiefly as attack aircraft, reconnaissance aircraft,
and other electronic equipment. Some reconnaissance
aircraft photograph enemy forces and bases. However,
artificial satellitesthat orbit the earth carry out most pho-
tographic reconnaissance today.
Transports carry military personnel and equipment
Almost any aircraft can be used as a transport, but some
combat situations require specially designed planes.
Most such specialized transports have oversized tires
on their landing gear and high-lift devices on their
wings that enable the planes to use short, unpaved run-
ways. The largest transport, the Russian Antonov An-1 24,
can carry more than 330,000 pounds (150,000 kilograms).
Some transports are equipped with guns to convert
them to attack aircraft called gunships.
Tankers refuel other aircraft in flight. A tanker must
be able to fly at the same speed and altitude as the
planes it refuels. The planes approach from behind and
below and pick up refueling tubes that trail from the
tanker. Nearly all tankers are modified bombers, cargo

aircraft,or commercial airliners. The U.S. Air Force uses The French Mirage 2000 is a fighter airplane designed mainly
the KC-1 35, a version of the Boeing 707 airliner, and the to intercept enemy planes. The missiles attached under its wings
KC-10, a version of the McDonnell Douglas DC-10 can be fired at enemy aircraft

The Boeing Company

The P117 stealth" American fighter designed mainly to attack

is The C-17 Globemaster III is a United States transport plane. It

ground forces and ships. Flat surfaces on its fuselage deflect can carry about 205 troops or 160,000 pounds (72,500 kilograms)
difficult to detect of cargo a distance of about 2 750 miles 14,450 kilometers).
radar beams, making the plane
204 Aircraft, Military

and transports. Some attack helicopters are called heli- low the body of the plane. By 1914, biplanes could fly at
copter gunships. A gunship, such as the American-made an average of 75 mph (121 kph) and reach an altitude of
AH-64 Apache, can carry cannons and missiles to attack about 1 0,000 feet (3,000 meters). Military use of the
targets on the ground and in the air. Other helicopters planes was limited largely to reconnaissance.
are specially equipped for antisubmarine warfare. The World War I (1914-1918) brought great changes in the
American-made OH-58 Kiowa, the British Lynx, and oth- design and performance of military aircraft For exam-
er small helicopters are used for reconnaissance and ple, the German Army used the engine-powered airship,
light transport duty. The largest transport helicopters a lighter-than-air aircraft, for reconnaissance and bomb-
can pick up and carry planes, tanks, or trucks by using ing missions. In addition, both sides recognized the pos-
cables suspended from the helicopters. sible advantages of using airplanes for attack as well as
for reconnaissance. Engineers designed larger, more
History
powerful planes that could carry bombs over long dis-
The first military aircraft were balloons filled with tances. The introduction of these bombers created a
gas or hot air. In 794, the French Army sent up soldiers
1 need for fighter aircraft to intercept them. As the war
in balloons to observe enemy troop movements. During continued, fighters were armed with more effective
the 1800's, most major armies set up a balloon corps. weapons and became faster and easier to maneuver.
Heavier-than-air aircraft gained military importance During the 1920s and 1930s, further improvements
after 1903, when the Wright brothers made the first suc- were made in military aircraft design. Biplanes were re-
cessful plane flight Early planeswere made of cloth, placed by aluminum monoplanes.lhe monoplanes had
wood, and wire and had a low-powered gasoline en- one main wing, which extended outward from both
gine. Most of these aircraft were called biplanes be- sides of the body of the plane. Increasingly powerful en-
cause they had two main wings, one above and one be- gines and a streamlined design enabled monoplanes to

Early military The first military aircraft were balloons used for reconnaissance. Heavier-than-air aircraft, devel-
oped during the early 1900s, played a major role in World War (1914-1918). Some important early
I

aircraft military aircraft are shown below. The dates indicate when the aircraft were first built
WORLD BOOK illustrations by Tony Gibbons. Linden Artists Ltd.

Wright A flyer
United States. 1908
Wingspan— 36 ft. 5 in. (11.1 ml
Length-32 ft 8 in. (9.96 ml
\J

L'Entreprenant balloon
S.P.A.D. 13
France, 1794
France, 1917
Diameter— About 27 ft 6 in. (8 ml
Wingspan— 26 ft 1 1 in. 182 ml
Length-20 ft 8 in. (6.3 ml

Fokker DR-1 triplane Sopwith Camel

Germany, 1917 United Kingdom, 1917
Wingspan— 23 ft 7 j in. (7.2 ml Wingspan-28 ft. 18.53 ml
Length- 18 ft 11 in. (5.77 m) Length- 18 ft 9 in. (5.72 ml
 Aircraft, Military 205

reach speeds of more than 300 mph (480 kph). During the Vietnam War (1957-1975), the United
World War II (1939-1945) sped up the development States Army, Navy, and Air Force used helicopters for
of piston-engined aircraft and marked the first use of jet attack, reconnaissance, and transport Helicopters were
planes. One of the most advanced fighters was the also used to rescue pilots shot down in enemy territory.
British Spitfire, which could fly faster than 350 mph (563 Recent developments in military aircraft include im-
kph) and higher than 40,000 feet (12,000 meters). Late in provements design and materials. Surfaces that de-
in
the war, Germany began to use the Messerschmitt flect radar beams and materials that absorb radar ener-
Me 262, the first jet to fly in
combat. This plane had a gy make "stealth" aircraft difficult to detect by radar. The
top speed of almost 550 mph (885 kph). supercritical wing, which is thinner and flatter than a
The jet age. Aircraft technology made further rapid standard wing, increases the speed and range of
progress in the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s. For example, planes. In some supersonic aircraft, titanium and other
new types wings and other structural improvements
of heat-resistant materials have replaced aluminum, which
greatly increased the speed and maneuverability of jet melts at speeds higher than Mach 2.5.
planes. The United States and the Soviet Union devel- Floyd D. Kennedy, Jr.

oped jet bombers that could fly nonstop from their own See also Air force, with its list of Related articles.
country to the other country in only a few hours.
Additional resources
At the same time, ground warfare was transformed
by the wide use of helicopters. Military helicopters
Fredriksen, John C
Warbirds: An Illustrated Guide to U.S. Mili-
tary Aircraft, 1915-2000. ABC-CLIO, 1999. Warbirds II: An Illus-
were introduced on a large scale in the Korean War trated Guide to the World's Military Aircraft 2001.
(1950-1953), chiefly for transporting supplies and jane's All the World's Aircraft Jane's, published annually.
wounded troops. In the late 1950s, the use of jet en- Oliver, David, and Ryan, Mike. Warplanes of the Future. MBI
gines boosted the speed and lift capacity of helicopters. Pub. Co., 2000.

Later military Through the years, military aircraft have been improved to increase their speed and maneuverability. For
example, the use of jet engines enabled planes to fly much faster than before. The Messerschmitt Me
aircraft
262, built by Germany during World War II, was the first jet plane to fly in combat

A6M2 Zero fighter

lapan, 1939
Wingspan— 39 ft 4) in. (12 ml
Length-29 ft 9 in. (9.07 ml
B-17C Flying Fortress bomber
United States, 1943
Wingspan-103 ft 9 in. (31.62 ml
Length-74 ft 9 in. (22.78 m

P-51D Mustang fighter

United States, 1940
Wingspan-37 ft (1 128 ml
Length-32 ft 3 in (9.83 ml

Messerschmitt Me 262 fighter

Germany, 1944
Wingspan-41 ft (12.5 ml
Length-34 ft 9\ in. (1 0.6 ml

F14 Tomcat fighter

United States, 1970
Maximum Wingspan-64 ft 1
j
in 119.55 ml
Minimum Wingspan-38 2 in. (11.63 ml
ft.
MiC-21F fighter
Length-62ft(18.9ml SuMt't I nutn 1955
Wingspan 23 ft 5 in (7.15 ml
Length- 44 ft 2 in 1 346 ml

Avro Vulcan B.Mk.2

bomber
1 rilted Kingdom 1952
Wingspan- m
n 3383 mi
Length 99 ft 11 in i3045mi
206 Aircraft carrier

Aircraft carrier is a ship used as a mobile base for knots thus has a relative landing speed of only 50 knots.
airplanes. With its aircraft striking force, the carrier is Arresting gear four steel cables stretched across the
the most powerful surface warship. Carriers are often rear landing area of the deck, catch a tail hook lowered
called flattops because of their wide, flat decks. The only from the plane. The plane is brought to a stop over a
ships bigger than carriers are the largest oil tankers. distance of about 300 feet (90 meters).
Aircraft carriers are equipped with only a minimum Modern carriers for conventional aircraft have angled
number of antiaircraft guns or defensive missiles. Carri- landing sections on their flight decks. The landing sec-
ers usually steam (travel) with other ships. Cruisers, de- tion, which takes up the rear two-thirds of the deck, an-
stroyers, and submarines protect aircraft carriers from gles toward the carrier s port side (left side facing for-
enemy missiles, planes, surface ships, and submarines. ward) and extends over the water. A plane that makes a
Such a fleet is called a carrier task force or battle group. bad approach or misses the arresting wires with its tail
Airplanes take off from and land on the flight deck. hook may keep going and fly off the deck. Helicopters
They are repaired and stored on the hangar deck just and VTOL aircraft take off and land vertically and so re-
below it Large elevators move the planes from one quire no runway.
deck to the other. The superstructure of the ship, called The United States carrier fleet Aircraft carriers are
the island, includes the command and navigation the U.S. Navy's principal warships. They carry jet fighters
bridges, communications equipment, radar antennas, and jet bombers. They also have radar, reconnaissance,
and smokestacks, unless the ship has nuclear power. and tanker planes, and antisubmarine aircraft Each carri-
The island rises on the flight deck's starboard side (right er usually carries six helicopters.
side facing forward). The rest of the deck is left clear for The Navy groups its carriers by class. The name of
planes. A carrier also houses maintenance shops for the each class is the name of the first ship built in that class.
planes and living quarters and mess (cooking and eating The four classes from the newest to the
of carriers are,
areas) for the pilots, air crews, and ship s crew. It has oldest, Nimitz, John Kennedy, Kitty Hawk, and Enter-
F.

storage space for bombs, ammunition, fuel, and food. prise. Ships of the Nimitz and Enterprise classes are nu-
The United States Navy operates the world's largest clear-powered. Those of the John F. Kennedy and Kitty
carrier fleet, consisting of 12 ships. The navies of Brazil, Hawk classes are oil-powered.
France, India, Italy, Russia, Spain, Thailand, and the Unit- The Nimitz class consists of the Nimitz, the Dwight D.
ed Kingdom each have at least one aircraft carrier. Eisenhower, the Carl Vinson, the Theodore Roosevelt,
Flight operations. Conventional airplanes, heli- the Abraham Lincoln, the George Washington, the John
copters, and K57DZ.(l/ertical/5hort 7ake-L7ff and land- C Stennis, and the Harry S. Truman. Nimitz class ships
ing) aircraft operate from aircraft carriers. Only the are the world s largest warships measured in displace-
navies of Brazil, France, Russia, and the United States ment tonnage. This measurement refers to the number
have carriers that launch and land conventional aircraft of long tons or metric tons of water displaced (occupied)
The carriers operated by the navies of other nations car- by a Each Nimitz class ship displaces 97,000 long
ship.
ry only V/STOL aircraft and helicopters. tons whenfully loaded. A long ton is equal to 2,240
Conventional airplanes are too heavy and require too pounds or 1 .01 6 metric tons. Each ship is 1 ,092 feet (333
great an airspeed to take off from a carrier entirely un- meters) long and has a flight deck 252 feet (77 meters)
der their own power. For this reason, they are launched wide. Each can carry 85 aircraft and about 5,700 people.
by a catapult from the take-off areas (see Catapult). The The John F. Kennedy class consists of one ship, the
carrier steams into the wind at high speed during take- John F. Kennedy. This ship displaces 82,000 long tons
offs. Wind speed plus the ship's speed helps lift the when fully loaded, and can carry 85 aircraft and about
planes as they take off. 5,600 people.
The carrier also heads into the wind when planes The Kitty Hawk class consists of the Kitty Hawkand
land. If a carrier steams at 25 knots (nautical miles per the Constellation. Both ships displace 80,800 long tons
hour) into a wind blowing 25 knots, then the wind speed when fully loaded and can carry 85 aircraft and about
over the carrier's deck is 50 knots. A plane flying at 100 5,600 people.
U.S. Navy

An aircraft carrier is a war-

ship that serves as a mobile
base for jet bombers, fighters,
and other types of military
planes. The nuclear-powered
carrier Carl Vinson, shown
here, is part of the Nimitz
class of U.S. Navy carriers.
 Airmail 207

The Enterprise class consists of one ship, the Enter- ern England. This breed was developed in England
prise This ship, which was commissioned in 1961, was about 1880. One of its ancestors was the otter hound.
the world's first nuclear-powered aircraft carrier. It dis- The Airedale is fearless, a good watchdog, and affec-
places 89,600 long tons when fully loaded. The Enter- tionate toward its owner. It also is a good swimmer.
prise caw carry 85 aircraft and about 5,800 people. Critically reviewed by the Airedale Terrier Club of America
History. Beginning in 1910, British and American pi- See also Dog (picture: Terriers); Terrier.
lots experimented with take-offs and landings from Airfoil. See Aerodynamics (Lift).
ships. In 1 91 7, the Furious, a British Royal Navy cruiser, Airline. See Aviation; Airport.
was outfitted with a flight deck. The first ship to have a Airliner. See Airplane (Commercial transport planes).
full, unobstructed flight deck was the Royal Navy's Ar- Airmail is mail sent by aircraft It is the fastest way to
gus, completed in 1918. The first aircraft carrier in the send packages and many other types of mail to distant
United States Navy was the Langley, a converted collier places. Airliners carry the mail between large cities.
(coal ship). It went into service in 1922. The Ranger, com- Some cities offer helicopter service between central and
missioned by the U.S. Navy in 1 934, was the first ship suburban post offices. Nearly all first-class mail going
built especially for aircraft. more than 200 miles (320 kilometers) travels by air.
During World War II (1939-1945), the warring nations Early balloonists and pioneer airplane pilots some-
built more than 50 1 aircraft carriers. They were the most times carried airmail as stunts. Earle Ovington flew the
important ships of the war. Planes launched from Japan- first official airmail in the United States in 1911 between

ese carriers attacked the U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor, Garden City and Mineola, New York. The first continu-
Hawaii, and the first United States air raid on Japan was ous regular airmail service in the world started on May
made by bombers from the Hornet. British aircraft carri- 15, 1918, with United States Army pilots flying between
ers escorted supply convoys in the Atlantic Ocean and New York City, Philadelphia, and Washington, D.C
the Mediterranean Sea, and also took part in fleet ac- On Aug. 12, 1918, the Post Office Department (now the
tions such as the sinking of the German battleship Bis- United States Postal Service) began making contracts
marck with private airlines to carry the mail. The first night air-
After the war, many carriers were scrapped. By the mail was flown from Omaha, Nebraska, to Chicago in
1960s, only the United States maintained a large fleet of 1921. Regular night airmail flights and regular transconti-
carriers. Among these ships were those of the Forrestal nental mail service began in 1924. The American Railway
class— the Forrestal, the Saratoga, the Ranger, and the In- Express Company began shipping air express packages
dependence. The Forrestal, commissioned in 1955, was on airlines in 1927.
the first U.S. carrier to have an angled flight deck and to The cancellation of all airmail contracts in 1934
carry jet fighters. Forrestal class ships carried more air- marked the beginning of airmail rate regulation. Rates
craft than previous carriers, and they were sometimes were regulated by the Civil Aeronautics Administration
Called SUpercarrierS. Norman Polmar (now part of the Federal Aviation Administration). The
See also Navy, United States; World War II (The war regulation of airmail rates and service ended on Dec. 31,
in Asia and the Pacific; picture: The aircraft carrier). 1984. In 1985, the U.S. Postal Service returned to con-
Airedale terrier, AIRdayl, is the name of a breed of tracting with a variety of both passenger and freight air-

large terriers. It weighs 50 to 60 pounds (23 to 27 kilo- lines to transport mail.

grams) when full-grown. Its coat of wiry hair is black or Critically reviewed by the United States Postal Service

grizzled on its back, and a rich tan on the other parts of See also Airplane (The golden age); Aviation (Aviation

its body. progress; picture); Postal Service, United States (Tech-

The Airedale was named for the Aire Valley in north- nological advancements).

WORLD BOOK illustration by Robert Keys

Parts of an
aircraft carrier
Aircraft take offfrom and land
/Radar Arresting <d^
antennas wires
on the flight deck of a carrier.
This deck has catapults and Landing
arresting wires that assist area
planes. Elevators move aircraft

toand from the hangar deck,

where they are stored. The is- Parking and
land houses communications take-off area

and radar equipment.

Elevator

^. Hangar deck
otapults
208 Airplane

The Boeing Company

A giant commercial airliner can bring all parts of the world within easy reach of one another by
flying hundreds of passengers long distances. The Boeing 777-300, the world's largest twin-engine
passenger jet, can fly about a fourth of the way around the world without refueling.

can roar through the air at about 1 ,350 mph (2,1 80 kph).
Airplane Such planes carry passengers between London or Paris
and New York City in less than four hours.
Airplane is an engine-driven machine that can fly Airplanes range in size from training planes, which
through the air supported by the flow of air around its have only two seats, to jumbo jets, which can carry hun-
wings. Hundreds of thousands of airplanes are used dreds of passengers. In the United States, about 90 per-
throughout the world. Millions of people depend on air- cent of all airplanes have one or two engines and carry
craft for swift transportation. Businesses rely on quick only a few passengers at a time. Many people use such
airmail and air express service, and many industries ship airplanes for short business or pleasure trips.
their products by air. Airplanes have many other uses, Manufacturers build airplanes according to the prin-
from helping fight forest fires to carrying emergency ciples of aerodynamics, the study of the forces acting on
aid. In addition, airplanes are a major weapon of war. an object as it moves through the air. An airplane has
Airplanes provide the world's fastest practical means wings, one or more engines, and various control sur-
of transporting passengers and freight. Most large trans- faces. The wings extend from either side of the plane's
port planes routinely fly 500 to 600 miles per hour (mph), body. The wings are fixed— that is, they do not move—
or 800 to 970 kilometers per hour (kphl. The fastest air- and curved on top. As the plane moves forward, the air
planes are supersonic, which means they can fly faster flowing around the curved wings creates an area of low-
than sound travels. At sea level, sound has a speed of er air pressure above the wings, resulting in a lifting
760 mph (1 ,225 kph). A supersonic transport plane (SST) force. An airplane's engines give it the power to move
fast enough through the air to produce the lift needed
The contributors of this article are Drew Steketee, Senior Vice for flight. The control surfaces are movable sections on
President of the Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association, and the back edge of the wings and tail that the pilot moves
F. Robert van der Linden, Curator of Aeronautics at the National to control the plane's flight path. The activity of design-
Air and Space Museum of the Smithsonian Institution. The draw- ing, building, and flying aircraft is called aeronautics.
ings throughout this article, unless otherwise credited, were pre-
An airplane is a heavier-than-air aircraft, meaning it is
pared for World Book by Tom Morgan.
heavier than the air it displaces. An airplane achieves
 Airplane 209

n The Stock Marlel

A powerful jet cargo plane can carry tons of goods nonstop

thousands of miles or kilometers.
for
Privately operated package delivery services use planes like the one above to deliver almost any
kind of merchandise within a few days to customers throughout the world.

flight in a different way than an airship, also called a - —-

blimp, which is a lighter-than-air aircraft. A typical airship
mBKT
'

rises and because it is filled with a gas

floats in the air j*> "_"

that is lighter than the surrounding air. Hi

During the late 1 700s, people made their first flights I
into the air using balloons, which were an early form of " TERMINAL
airship. After the first balloon flights, inventors tried to
!T '..^U^* E3
develop a heavier-than-air flying machine. Some inven-
tors experimented with g/Zaters (engineless planes). They
**££ * B~j_^ 0MI
'

* V
studied birds' wings and discovered that the wings are «4 1
r
curved. By building gliders with curved wings instead of
flat ones, they could make the vehicles fly hundreds of
I \n4
mm
-4 1

_
3* -* •- *
*i
feet or meters. But long-distance flight in a heavier-than-
air machine did not
of an engine light
become possible
enough but powerful enough to keep
until the invention

\V
a plane in flight. The first such engines were four-stroke
gasoline engines, developed during the 1880s and ini-
tially used to power bicycles, boats, and carriages.
A ."O-Sr
Henle\ *> Savage, Unipholo
<

In 1903, the brothers Orville and Wilbur Wright— two Light planes make up most of the world s privately owned air-
American bicycle makers— made the first successful planes. Most planes are propeller driven, have a single en-
light

powered airplane flights in history near Kitty Hawk, gine, and are small enough to land and take off at small airports.

Outline IV. Principles of flight

and lift
A. Gravity C Changing altitude
Types of airplanes Drag and thrust D. Changing direction
B.
A. Commercial transport planes
V. Frying an airplane
General aviation planes
B.
A Basic movements and controls
C Military planes B. Proper use of the controls
D. Seaplanes
C Stalling
E. Special-purpose planes
D. Flying by instruments
The parts of an airplane E. Measuring flying speed
A. The wing Learning to fly
F.
B. The fuselage
VI. Air navigation
C The tail A Pilotage
D. The landing gear
B. Dead reckoning
E. The controls and instruments
C Radio navigation
F. Propellers
D. Navigating across oceans
III. Power for flight E. Sat.-tN
A. Reciprocating engines
VII. Building an airplane
engines
B. )et
A Design and testing B. Mass production
C Rocket engines VIM. History
210 Airplane

North Carolina. After the Wright brothers success, pilots washrooms and 6 galleys and carries more than 47,000
and inventors worked continually to improve airplane gallons (1 78,000 litersl of fuel.
design. By the late 1 950 s, passenger planes with jet en- Most airliners routinely fly 500 to 600 mph (800 to 970
gines had brought all countries within easy reach of one kph). Supersonic transport planes can travel at 1 ,350
another, and the world seemed much smaller than it had mph (2,180 kph).
just a few years before. Most airliners are powered by jet engines, which en-
This article provides an overview of airplanes and able the planes to travel long distances at high speeds
how they work. To learn about the aviation industry and without refueling. Most four-engine jets, such as the
careers in aviation, see the World Book article on Boeing 747, can fly nonstop 6,000 miles 19,700 kilome-
Aviation. ters) or more— farther than the distance between New
York City and Tokyo, and can travel faster than 600 mph
Types of airplanes
(970 kph). Four-engine jet transports fly at an altitude of
There are many kinds of airplanes that vary greatly in 30,000 to 45,000 feet (9,1 00 to 1 3,700 meters), and so they
size,speed, and function. Today s airplanes can be di- stay above most storms.
vided into five main groups: ID commercial transport Most three-engine jets are designed for shorter flights
planes, (21 general aviation planes, (3) military planes, (4) than four-engine jets. They can also use shorter runways.
seaplanes, and 15) special-purpose planes. Some three-engine jetliners, such as the McDonnell
Commercial transport planes are large planes Douglas DC-10, can carry as many passengers as most
owned by airline companies. Most of these planes are four-engine jets can carry.
airliners— planes that are designed to carry passengers Many twin-engine jetliners carry fewer passengers
and some cargo. Some commercial transports are de- than three- or four-engine jets and are used for shorter
signed to carry cargo only. The largest transport planes trips to serve small and medium-sized cities. Other twin-
commonly used weigh about 400 short tons 1360 metric engine jets fly long trips. The Boeing 777, for example,
tons) when fully loaded. can carry more than 300 passengers over 7,200 miles
Most large airliners can carry from 100 to 250 passen- (1 1 ,600 kilometers). Twin-engine, propeller-driven

gers. However, some can carry more. For example, the planes, such as the SAAB 2000, travel at less than 400
Boeing 747 has room for over 400 passengers. It has 12 mph 1640 kph) and make mostly short flights.
The Boeing Comparr

Cessna Aire ran Com pans

Passenger jets range in size from the enormous Boeing 747

jumbo jet, above, which can carry more than 400 people, to small
business such as the Cessna Citation Bravo, right, which
jets
seats a maximum of 6 passengers. The 747 is the world s largest
commercial airliner. Business executives use small jets like the
Citation Bravo to fly to out-of-town assignments or meetings.
 1

Airplane 21

General aviation planes are smaller than most com-

mercial transports and can thus land and take off at
smaller airfields. Most of these planes are light planes,
which generally weigh less than 2,000 pounds (900 kilo-
grams) when empty and have two to six seats.
Most light planes are single-engine, propeller-driven
planes owned by individuals. Many people fly such
planes for personal transportation and enjoyment. Light
planes have hundreds of other uses. For example, they
are used to inspect pipelines and power lines, to spot
and and to deliver emergency aid.
fight forest fires,
Some light planes are used to haul light cargo, to take
pictures from the air, and to teach student pilots to fly.
Farmers use light planes to help them plant seeds, check
soil erosion, and count livestock.
The largest general aviation planes have two engines.
Air taxi services and commuter airlines use such planes McDonnell Douglas Corporation

to transport passengers usually fewer than 20— be- A three-engine jet transport, such as the DC-10, above, gener-
ally makes shorter flights than four-engine jets do. But some car-
ry nearly as many passengers as jumbo jets carry.

Four-engine jet transports are designed for long nonstop Raytheon Aircraft
flights. Commercial airlines own and operate most of these
planes. But some, such as the Lockheed C-5A Galaxy, above, are Propeller-driven light planes are used to carry passengers and
military transports. The Galaxy is one of the world's largest air- lightweight or perishable goods. They also perform many other
planes. It carries battle tanks and other military equipment tasks, from scattering seeds to carrying emergency aid.

L S Air Force

Military planes carry out spe-

cial duties for a nation s armed
forces. Jet fighters, such as the
U.S. Air Force s F-16, left, are
used chiefly to intercept and
attack enemy aircraft
212 Airplane

Aerobatic planes perform

difficult maneuvers, such as
flying in close formation.
These military jets are flown
by the Blue Angels, the U.S.
Navy s famous aerobatic team.

tween small airports and the large airports that serve tertightbody that floats in the water like the hull of a
larger airliners. ship.Amphibians, which can land and take off on both
Many businesses own single- or twin-engine air- land and water, are flying boats with retractable wheels
planes. Such business planes, also called corporate attached to their floats or hull. The pilot raises the
planes, are used to fly employees to out-of-town assign- wheels when operating the plane on water and lowers
ments or meetings. the wheels on land.
Extremely light aircraft are flown for recreation. In the Special-purpose planes. Many airplanes are built for
United States, where they are called ultralights, these particular jobs. For example, farmers use agricultural
one-seat, single-engine aircraft weigh no more than 254 spray planes to spray their fields with liquid fertilizer or
pounds (1 15 kilograms) and carry only 5 gallons (19 liters) insecticide. These planes are built to fly slowly and to
of fuel or less. Ultralights are allowed to fly only below carry large tanks filled with chemicals. An amphibian
10,000 feet (3,000 meters) and at a speed of 63 mph (101 plane made in Canada is designed for fighting forest
kph) or less. In other countries, these light aircraft are fires. This plane can fly just above a lake and draw more

commonly called microlights and usually have two seats. than 1,000 gallons (3,800 liters) of water into its tanks. The
They may weigh up to 496 pounds (225 kilograms) and
carry up to 5 gallons (57 liters) of fuel. They are allowed
1

to fly only below 10,000 feet and at a speed of 40 mph (65

kph) or less.
Military planes carry out a variety of duties for a na-
tion's armed forces. Some military planes are special
models of transports or light planes that the armed
forces have bought from aircraft manufacturers. For ex-
ample, the United States armed forces use special mod-
els of the Boeing 707 as tankers for refueling other
planes in the air. Many other kinds of military planes are
custom-made. Most are bombers, which mainly attack
And\ Sacks Tom Slone Images
ground targets, or fighters, which mainly attack other
Agricultural spray planes, also known as crop clusters, are
aircraft Fighter-bombers can both fight and drop
used to spray farm crops with liquid fertilizer or insecticide.
bombs. One of the most advanced fighter-bombers is These planes are built to carry large tanks of liquid chemicals.
the Lockheed F-117A "stealth" fighter, a sleek plane de-
signed to be nearly invisible to radar.
Some military planes are designed for tasks other than
attacks on an enemy. For example, the Lockheed C-5A
Galaxy is an enormous transport plane that can carry two
battle tanks weighing 50 short tons 145 metric tons), or
about 350 troops. Another Lockheed plane, the SR-71 A,
is designed to survey enemy forces and installations. It

carries cameras and other equipment. The SR-71 A flies

as high as 100,000 feet (30,000 meters) and has a speed
of more than 2,000 mph (3,200 kph), which makes it one
of the fastest planes in the world. For more information
on military planes, see Aircraft, Military; Air Force,
United States (Planes and weapons of the Air Force).
Seaplanes can touch down and take off on water.
There are three kinds of seaplanes: (1 floatplanes, (2) fly-
)

An amphibian plane can operate from land or water. An am-

ing boats, and (3) amphibians. Floatplanes are equipped phibian designed to fight forest fires, above, can draw lake water
with big floats instead of wheels. Flying boats have a wa- into tanks in its hull and spray the water on a fire from the air.
 3

Airplane 21

The wing. People usually think of an airplane as hav-

ing two wings, but modern planes actually have only
one. This wing is a single, continuous structure that ex-
tends outward from each side of the fuselage. A wing
has a nearly flat bottom and a curved top. This shape
helps create the lift that raises an airplane off the ground
and keeps it in the air.
Most airplane wings are metal. They have a skeleton
of lengthwise spars and crosswise ribs. The skeleton has
a thin covering, usually of an aluminum a/loy(m\xture of
metals). Most planes have a cantileverWmg, which is

Ultralight planes, such as the one shown above, are flown for completely supported by its internal structure.
recreation. In the United States, ultralights weigh no more than An airplane wing has a root, tip, leading edge, and
254 pounds (115 kilograms! and have one seat and one engine. trailing edge. The root is the part of the wing attached to
the fuselage. The tip edge of the wing farthest
is the
plane then flies to the fire and drops its load of water. from the fuselage. The leading edge is the curved front
Special-purpose planes also include planes used for edge of the wing. The top of the wing thickens from the
air races or aerobatics (air acrobatics).These are light leading edge and then slopes back to the knifelike trail-
planes that can perform difficult maneuvers. Another ing edge. On most airplanes, the wing tips are slightly
large category of special-purpose planes consists of higher than the wing roots. Such wings are called dihe-
home-built airplanes, which are built from plans or man- dral wings. Many planes have a low-wing design— that is,
ufactured in kits for assembly by the owner. the wing is joined to the lower part of the fuselage. In
Aircraft called V/STOLs are designed to take off and planes of mid-wing design, the wing is attached about
land vertically or on a short runway. The term V/STOL halfway up the side of the fuselage. High-wing planes
stands for l/ertical/5hort 7ake-Offand landing. V/STOL's have the wing near the top. In planes of straight-wing de-
have great military value because they can land on small sign, the wing's leading edge and the fuselage form a
airfields near battlefields and on ships smaller than air- right angle. Most planes have this design because it per-
craft carriers. See V/STOL. forms well at both high and low speeds.
Many high-speed airplanes, especially jets, have a
The parts of an airplane
sweptwing. Such a wing, also called a swept-back wing,
few experimental planes,
All airplanes, except for a slants backward from the root to the tip. A few planes
have the same basic parts. They are (1 the wing, (2) the
) have a wing that is swept forward. A delta wing is
fuselage (pronounced FYOOzuh lahzhl-that is, the body shaped like a triangle. The root may be almost as long as
of the plane, (3) the tail, (4) the landing gear, and (5) the the fuselage, and the leading edge is deeply swept-back.
engine. All these parts— except the engine— make up a This design provides for both high speed and great lift.
plane's airframe. Most airplane wings have movable control surfaces
This section of the article discusses the basic parts of that help balance the plane in flight. The ailerons are
the airframe, as well as airplane controls and instru- hinged sections along the trailing edge of the wing.
ments and types of propellers. The airplane engine is de- They can be moved up or down to control the plane's
scribed in the next section. For information about how lateral stability (balance from side to side). The ailerons

the parts of an airplane work to move the plane through are used to make the plane bank (tilt) to the right or to
the air andhow a pilot uses airplane controls and instru- the left for a turn. When one aileron is raised, the other
ments, see the section called Principles of flight. is lowered. On most planes, each aileron has a small

Mi nonnell Douglas Corporatlo

V/STOL's, or Vertical 5hort

Take- Off and landing planes,
can take off and land without
runways or on short ones.
These planes can land easily
on ships and can also use
small airfields in large cities
or in rural areas, left.
214 Airplane

The parts of an airplane This drawing shows the parts of a light plane, a Piper Cherokee. The basic parts are the wing, fuse-
lage (bodyl, tail, landing gear, and engine. Some other parts, such as the ribs and spars in the wing,
are structural. Still other parts, including the ailerons, flaps, rudder, and stabilator, are used to con-
trol the plane. The drawing also shows the wing s root, tip, and leading and trailing edges.

WORLD BOOK illustration by Tom Morgan, courtesy or Piper Aircraft Corp

Wing tip

Leading edge

Propeller

Engine

Navigation light

hinged section called a trim tab. A pilot uses the trim these two lights, a person can tell the direction in which
tabs to regulate the pressure that must be applied to a plane is traveling.
other controls in keeping the plane in trim (balance) in The fuselage of an airplane extends from the nose to
flight.There are usually trim tabs on the movable parts the tail. Most airplane bodies have a tubelike shape and
of the tail as well as on the ailerons. aluminum skin. The name
are covered with a lightweight
Many airplanes have flaps. These hinged sections fuselage comes from word fusele, which
the French
along the trailing edge of the wing are near the root The means spindle-shaped. The engine of most single-en-
flaps are lowered to help increase the plane s lift during gine planes is in the front part of the fuselage. However,
take-off and to increase the plane's drag during landing. some multiengine jet planes have their engines at the
Some planes have additional wing controls. A spoiler rear of the fuselage.
is a plate on the upper part of each side of the wing. A The fuselage houses the controls, crew, passengers,
pilot can raise both spoilers to act as air brakes. If the pi- and cargo. In the smallest airplanes, the fuselage con-
lot raises the spoiler on one side only, it makes the plane tains a cockpit with room for only the pilot, or for the pi-
bank in that direction. Some airplanes have spoilers in- lot and one passenger. In most planes that carry from
stead of ailerons. A slat is a hinged section on the lead- two to six people, the pilot and passengers sit together
ing edge of the wing. At low speeds, the slats automati- in Most large planes have a cockpit for
a single cabin.
cally slant forward and help the wing provide extra lift A thecrew and a cabin for the passengers and cargo. In
slotis an opening behind the leading edge near each enormous planes, such as the Boeing 747 and the
wing tip. Slots also help produce more lift at low speeds. McDonnell Douglas MD-1 the cabin has separate
1 ,

Many airplanes have their engines on or in the wing. decks (floors) for the passengers and cargo.
The engines are enclosed in metal casings called na- The tail, also called the empennage fehm PEHNahjl, is
celles inuh SEHLZI. Most wings also have space inside the rear part of an airplane. It helps guide the plane and
for fuel tanks and landing gear. Various lights are also lo- keep it balanced in flight, much as feathers do on an ar-
cated on the plane s wing. For example, each wing tip row. Most tails consist of a vertical fin and rudder and a
has a colored navigation light, also called a position light. horizontal stabilizer And elevator. The fin stands upright
The light on the plane s left wing tip is red, and the light and does not move. It keeps the rear of the plane from
on the right wing tip is green. By noting the position of swinging to the left or right The rudder is hinged to the
Text continued on page 216.
 Airplane 215

Wing, tail, and landing gear designs

WORLD BOOK diagri

Wings have various shapes, depending on the planes for which they are designed. Straight wings
perform the best at both high and low speeds. Sweptwings (also called swept-back wings), swept-
forward wings, and delta wings axe used on high-speed jets. Delta wings also provide great lift

Straight wing Swept-back wing Swept-forward wing Delta wing

Tails. The fin and rudder, which make up the vertical surfaces of the tail, may be at a right angle to
the fuselage or swept-back. Some planes have twin or triple fins. The stabilizer and elevator, the
horizontal surfaces of the tail, are near the top of the vertical surfaces in a T-tail and attached to the
fuselage in an anhedral tail. A V-tail has two fins in a V shape, each with an elevator and trim tab.

Right-angle
assembly

T assembly
Anhedral V assembly
assembly

Landing gears. Some planes have a tail-wheel landing gear— \ wheel under the tail and 1 under
each side of the fuselage or wing. Most planes have a tricycle landing gear— \ to 4 wheels under the
nose and 2 to 20 under the midfuselage or 1 or 4 wheels under the nose and 1 to 10 under each
side of the wing.

Tail-wheel landing gear Tricycle, or nose-wheel, landing gear

(side view and bottom viewl (side view and bottom view) 7SV
216 Airplane

rear edge of the fin and can be moved from side to side. planes, the fin and rudder stand upright at a right angle
It helps control the plane during a turn. to the fuselage.On other planes, they slant back at a
The stabilizer is like a small wing in the tail. It prevents sharp angle. Most jet planes with engines at the rear of
the from bobbing up and down and so keeps the
tail the fuselage have their horizontal stabilizer and elevator
plane flying at a steady altitude. The elevator is hinged to mounted across or near the top of a tall vertical fin and
the rear edge of the stabilizer. A pilot moves the elevator rudder. Some light airplanes have a V-tail. This type of
up or down to raise or lower the plane s nose. tail consists of two fins in a V-shape with an elevator and

Many modern airplanes have a stabilator instead of a a trim tab attached to each fin.
stabilizer and an elevator. A stabilator is a single solid The landing gear, also called the undercarriage, con-
unit that moves up or down. Almost all planes have a sists of the wheels or floats upon which an airplane
trim tab on the elevator or stabilator, and some have a moves on the ground or water. The landing gear also
trim tab on the rudder. supports the weight of a plane on the ground or water.
Tails have various shapes and arrangements. On some Landplanes have two main types of landing gear. In

Raytheon Aircraft

Instrument panels range

from a relatively compact pan-
el in the cockpit of a single-
engine plane, left,\o a vast
array of dials, switches, and
electronic displays that ex-
tend over the front, ceiling,
and side walls of the flight
deck of a Boeing 747 jumbo
jet, below left
 Airplane 217

some light planes, landing gear consists of a wheel un- Airplane propellers
der each side of the wing or front part of the fuselage WORLD BOOK diagrams; courtesy of Hartzell Propeller, Inc.

and a third wheel under the tail. Most airplanes, howev-

er,have a tricycle landing gear. On light planes, it con- Propeller designs vary according to the type of plane.
wheel under the nose and two wheels under
sists of a On most light planes, propellers have two or three
the midfuselage or one under each side of the wing. blades. On large planes, they have three to six blades.

Many large airplanes have a tricycle landing gear made Two-bladed propeller Four-bladed propeller
up (Da main gear with from 1 to 10 wheels under
of
each side of the wing or from 2 to 20 wheels under the
midfuselage and (2) a nose gear with 2 or 4 wheels.
Landing gear may be fixed or retractable. Fixed land-
ing gear remains extended in flight. The extended gear
increases air resistance and thus slows down the plane.
Retractable landing gear can be retracted (drawn back!
into either the wing or the fuselage after take-off. Most
high-speed planes use retractable landing gear.
The watertight body of a flying boat serves as both
landing gear and cabin. Floats serve as the landing gear
for floatplanes. Amphibians, which operate from land or
water, have retractable wheels in their floats or hull.
The controls and instruments. Inside the cockpit,
the pilot has a variety of controls, instruments, and navi-
gation aids. Most planes have a yoke (control wheel) that A propeller blade resembles a plane wing. Like a wing,
ithas a tip, root, leading edge, and trailing edge. The
operates the ailerons and elevator. A few special types of blades are attached to an engine-driven shaft by a hub.
planes, such as fighters and spray planes, have a control
stick instead of a yoke. Two rudder pedals on the floor
control the rudder. Various engine instruments display Ti.P Trailing edge Hub
information on the fuel supply, oil pressure, and other
conditions affecting the engine. Flight instruments show
the plane's speed, altitude, and attitude (position in rela-

tion to the horizon).

Leading edge Root
Some pilot, also called an
airplanes have an automatic
autopilot. This device connected to the airplane's con-
is

trols and automatically keeps the plane on course.

A feathering propeller has blades that can be turned
Propellers, also called airscrews, move turboprop on edge if the engine fails. This action reduces air resist-
planes and planes with reciprocating engines through ance and stops the propeller from spinning.
the air. On most such planes, each propeller has its own
engine. However, a few planes have coaxial propellers—
two propellers turned by a single engine. On most sin-
gle-engine planes, the engine and a single propeller are
mounted at the front of the fuselage. Most propeller-
driven planes with more than one engine have their en-
gines and propellers on the wing.
Small planes have a two- or three-bladed propeller.
Larger planes have propellers with up to six blades.
Many planes have controllable-pitch propellers. A pilot
can change the angle of the blades on these propellers Leading edge-

in flight A particular blade angle is best suited to a par-

ticular speed or maneuver. With the blades at the proper

angle, the plane operates most efficiently. On fixed-pitch
propellers, the angle of the blades cannot be changed.
Constant-speed propellers adjust their blade angle auto-
matically and so keep the plane's engine speed steady main types of engines: (1) reciprocating engines, (2) jet
during any maneuver. engines, and (3) rocket engines. Reciprocating engines
The blades of feathering propellers can be turned to a are the heaviest and least powerful of these engines, and

right angle so that their edges are parallel to the plane's

rocket engines are the most powerful. Most small air-

flight path. If a plane s engine is disabled, a pilot angles a

planes and many large ones have reciprocating engines.
feathering propeller to decrease air resistance. This ac- Nearly all newer airliners and some private planes have
jet engines. Rocket engines are used mainly for research.
tion also keeps the wind from spinning the propeller
and so prevents possible damage to the engine. Reciprocating engines, also called piston engines,
are the most widely used type of airplane engine. Air-
Power for flight planes that use reciprocating engines also have one or

An airplane s engine produces the power that makes more propellers. The engine turns the propeller, which
the plane move fast enough to fly. Airplanes use three
moves the plane through the air.
TtKt continued on p
218 Airplane

Parts of a passenger jet airplane

A large jet airliner can fly hundreds of passengers long distances. This drawing
shows the features of a Boeing 777-200, one of the largest twin-engine jetliners.

The tail
The tail helps guide the plane and keeps it

balanced in flight The fin keeps the rear of

the plane from swinging to the left or right
The rudderhe\ps control the plane during a
turn. The stabilizers prevent the tail from
bobbing up and down.

Baggage
Baggage handlers pile suitcases and other checked
luggage into large luggage containers, which are
then loaded into the cargo hold of the aircraft. The
777-200 carries 32 luggage containers that hold more
than 5,000 cubic feet (140 cubic metersl of baggage.

Luggage -

container
Facts in brief about the Boeing 777-200

Length: 209 ft 1 in. (63.7 m)

Wingspan: 199 ft. 1 in. (60.9 m)
1

Maximum weight at take-off: 632,500 lb. 1286,900 kg)

Range: 7,230 nautical mi. (1 3,390 km)
Cruising speed: 550 mph (890 kph)
Two classes

Flexible seating
Seating arrangements vary among airlines. A 777-200 may carry
up to 440 passengers. But the maximum number varies depend- 345 economy class
30 first class
ing on the seating plan. These diagrams show three common
seating plans. 375 passengers

One claSS ™ e Boein 9 Company Three classes

III fJULU fc^ J 1^0*
EgnJBBBBBS 1 1 1 1 1 1

18 8 8 81 §30 §§§§§&, on
24 first class 54 business class 227 economy class
418 passengers 305 passengers
 Airplane 219

Flight deck
Instrument panels in the flight deck display
Fuel tanks information that helps the pilot and copilot
A jetliner's mainfuel tanks are in- Engines keep the airplane on course and monitor the
side the right and left wing and in Most jetliners have turbofan engines, jet operation of the engines. The 777-200 has six
the center section of the plane. The engines with a propellerlike fan at the large display screens that provide navigation
777-200's tanks hold 31,000 gallons front thatdraws in huge amounts of air. information and engine data. , ,

Flight deck
(1 17,000 liters) of aviation fuel. The 777-200 has two large turbofan en-
gines that produce up to 84,000 pounds
(374,000 newtons) of thrust each.

Nose landing
gear

Landing gear
Most jetliners have retractable
landing gear, which tucks away
during flight The 777-200's main
landing gear is under the wing and
not shown here. It has 1 2 wheels.
Engine

Meals in the air

Airline catering companies prepare and re-
frigerate hundreds of meals and load them
onto the planeat the airport. At mealtime,
attendants reheat the food in mi-
flight
crowave ovens in the galleys.

The twin-engine Boeing 777-200 is slightly larger than two other

wide-bodied jets that serve similar markets, the four-engine Air-
bus A340-200 and three-engine McDonnell Douglas MD-1 1.
220 Airplane

A reciprocating engine in an airplane works much like burned with the fuel to form the jet exhaust The rest is
one in an automobile. Both burn a mixture of gasoline added to the exhaust as it passes out the tail pipe. The
and air inside cylinders. The burning fuel-air mixture resulting exhaust is much more powerful and much
forms a fine spray, which explodes. The explosion drives cooler than that of a turbojet. In addition, turbofans use
pistons inside the cylinders up and down. This pumping less fuel than turbojets do, make much less noise, and
motion rotates a crankshaft. In an airplane, the rotating operate better at low speeds.
crankshaft turns the propeller. In an automobile, the Turboprop planes use turbojet engines to turn pro-
crankshaft turns other parts of the car that make the pellers. The name is a combination of the words turbojet
wheels spin. and propeller. Turboprop planes combine the tremen-
Reciprocating engines in airplanes differ from those dous power of the jet engine with the propeller's useful
in automobiles in some ways. In most airplane engines, ability to fly at low speed.
for example, the cylinders are arranged in a circle or Rocket engines work much like jet engines, except
opposite each other. In automobile engines, they are that they do not need a supply of oxygen from outside
arranged in a single line or a V-shape. In addition, most the engine. A rocket engine operates best at extremely
airplane engines are cooled by air, but most automobile high speeds. It also burns much fuel, and so it is expen-
cooling systems use a mixture of water and antifreeze. sive to operate. In addition, the possibility of explosion
The power of reciprocating engines is measured in makes rocket engines too dangerous to power passen-
units of horsepower or kilowatts. Most reciprocating en- ger airplanes. But a few jet and turboprop military
gines made for airplanes range from 65 horsepower (50 planes use small rockets to help them take off quickly
kilowatts) for small single-engine planes to about 400 with heavy loads or on short runways. The rockets are at-
horsepower (300 kilowatts) for larger two-engine planes. tached to the plane s body or under its wing. This system
The most powerful reciprocating engines ever used on is called /?ocket-/lssisted rake -Off (RATO). Rocket en-

an airplane were the 3,650-horsepower (2,722-kilowatt) gines have powered many supersonic test planes, such
engines of the huge B-36 bomber of the late 1940s. as the Bell X-1 and North American X-15. See Rocket
Large, high-speed airplanes no longer use such power-
Principles of flight
ful reciprocating engines. These airplanes are powered

by jet engines, which weigh less than reciprocating en- Four basic forces govern the flight of an airplane: (1)
gines but produce much greater power. Reciprocating gravity, (2) lift, (3) drag, and (4) thrust Gravity is the natural

engines are still used for most light airplanes because force that pulls a plane toward the ground. Lift is the
they work better than jet engines at low speeds. force that pushes a plane upward against the force of
Jet engines enable large airplanes to travel long dis- gravity. It is created by the plane's wing as it moves
tances at high speeds. But to be useful in an airplane, a through the air. Drag is the natural force of air that re-
jet engine must also operate well at low speeds for safe sists an airplane s forward movement Thrust is the force
take-off and landing. Airplanes use three main types of that moves a plane forward. Thrust is created by a
jet engines. They are (1) turbojets;{2) turbofans, also plane s propeller or by its jet engines.
called fanjets;ar\d (3) turboprops. Gravity and lift are opposing forces, as are drag and
The turbojet was the first successful jet engine and is thrust When a plane s lift equals the force of gravity and
still used on some airplanes. Like other jet engines, the its thrust equals the drag, the plane is in level, cruising
turbojet takes air in through the front and burns it with flight When one or more of the four forces change, the
fuel. This process forms a powerful jet exhaust. The ex- plane begins to change its altitude, direction, or speed.
haust moves backward through the engine at tremen- Gravity and lift. on
Gravity tends to keep an airplane
dous speed, which causes the engine to move forward the ground or to pull it to the earth when in flight. The
atan equally high speed. Before the jet exhaust passes force of gravity on the ground equals the weight of the
out the engine s tail pipe, it spins a device called a tur- plane on the ground. For a plane to become airborne
bine, which consists of a set of blades attached to a shaft. and to stay in the air, its wing must create a lifting force
The turbine runs the various parts of the engine. See Jet greater than the downward force of gravity.
propulsion (How jet propulsion works). created by a change of air pressure around an
Lift is

Almost all new airliners have turbofan engines, which airplane s wing as the plane moves. When a plane stands
are an improvement on the turbojet. A turbofan works on the ground, the air pressure above and below its
much like a turbojet, but it has a fan at the front that wing is the same. As the plane starts to move forward,
draws in huge amounts of air. Only part of the air is air begins to flow over and under the wing. The air mov-

WORLD BOOK diagram

Four forces on an airplane in flight (1)

act
gravity, drag, and (41 thrust. Gravity is
(2) lift, (3)

the natural force that pulls a plane toward the

ground. Lift opposes gravity and pushes the
plane upward. Drag is the natural force of air
opposing a plane s forward movement.
Thrust opposes drag and moves the plane
forward.
 Airplane 221

ing over the curved upper surface must flow in a curve

and, as a result, must travel farther. Because this air trav-
els farther, its speed increases and its pressure drops.

The airmoving under the flat bottom of the wing moves

in a straight line. Its speed and pressure are not changed

by the wing. Because air in a high-pressure area always

moves toward a low-pressure area, the air under the
wing tries to move upward to the air over the wing. It is
unable to do so, however, because the wing is in the
way. Instead of meeting the low-pressure area, the air Air pressure remains the same
creates a pushing force that lifts the wing upward.
The faster the airplane moves, the greater the lift its Direction of airflow
wing produces. As an airplane increases its speed down
the runway before take-off, its wing builds up more and
Direction of flight
more lift. The air pressure beneath the wing finally be-
comes greater than the weight of the plane, and so the WORLD BOOK diagram

Lift iscreated by a drop in air pressure over a plane's wing. The

How thrust is produced wing has a curved upper surface. As the plane moves forward,
the pressure of the air that rushes over this curved surface falls.
Propellers produce thrust in gasoline-powered and turboprop Air in a high-pressure area always moves toward a low-pressure
airplanes. Jet engines produce thrust in jet planes. area. The air in the high-pressure area below the wing thus rises

WORLD BOOK diagrams toward the low-pressure area above it and lifts the airplane.

force of the lift becomes greater than the force of gravi-

The plane then takes off.
ty.

Drag and thrust A wing can produce lift only if it is

moving forward through the air. A plane needs thrust to
create the required forward movement
In a jet airplane, the rapid movement of gases through
the jet engine produces produce
thrust. Propellers
thrust in turboprop planes and planes powered by re-
ciprocating engines. Propeller blades are shaped much
like airplane wings. As the propeller spins, the air pres-

sure on the front surface of the blades is reduced. The

Direction higher pressure air on the back of the blades pushes to-
of ward the lower pressure area on the front, moving the
flight plane forward. The faster the jet engine works or the
propeller spins, the greater the force of thrust
To reduce drag, engineers design airplane bodies to
Propeller blades have a front surface curved like the be as streamlined as possible. They make the bodies
upper surface of an airplane wing. As the propeller spins, sleek and trim, and they design every part on the outside
the air pressure in front of the blades drops. The air in of the aircraft so that it will slip through the air easily and
the high-pressure area behind the blades moves toward smoothly.
the low-pressure area in front and so produces thrust.
Changing altitude. An airplane cruising in level flight
The faster the propeller spins, the greater the thrust
has balanced against gravity and thrust balanced
lift

against drag. To enable the airplane to descend, the pilot

Combustion chaml )er Compressor must decrease engine power. The propeller or engines
slow down, reducing the plane's thrust The reduction in

High
*,

velocity
^
^
<
Z
nr
UJ1 (U
1

KMifS
1
Irs
:a

)
Air enters
at low
thrust also reduces lift, and the airplane begins to de-
scend. At the same time, drag increases its effect, which
further slows the airplane and thus adds to the rate at
which the plane descends.
jet \. velocity To climb, the pilot increases the engine power, creat-
exhaust j> ing more thrust As a result, the plane moves faster
(

cJl i - ^gf|LS through the air. The faster speed increases lift, and the
airplane begins to climb. However, climbing adds more
Thrust
Turbi ne drag, and so the plane needs still more lift. To get addi-
tional lift, the pilot increases the airplane's angle of
A jet engine takes in air at low ve/oc/rylspeed). A com
attack that is, the angle at which the wing cuts through
pressor increases the pressure of the air. The com
theair. The pilot uses the controls to make the aircraft s
pressed air is then burned with jet fuel In a combustion
chamber, forming a high-velocity exhaust. The exhaust nose point up slightly so that the wing is at an upward
moves rapidly backward through the engine which BUS l
angle to the path of the plane s flight. The flow of air
es the engine to move forward he exhaust also spins a
I

over the upper pan ol the wing gains speed and pro-
turbine, which runs the engine parts
duces added lift.
222 Airplane

An airplane's An airplane has three basic movements: (1 pitch, (21 roll, and (3) yaw. The airplane makes each move-
)

basic movements ment on an imaginary axis. Pitch is the plane s movement on its lateral axis as the nose moves up or
down. Roll is the plane s movement on its longitudinal axis as one wing tip dips lower than the oth-
er. Yaw is the plane s movement on its vertical axis as the nose turns left or right.

WORLD BOOK diagrams

Pitch Roll Yaw

Vertical axis

Changing direction. A pilot turns a plane by banking plane in flight, see the World Book article on Aero-
(tilting) the wing left or right. Lift always occurs at a right dynamics.
angle to the surface of the wing. It is the lifting force of
Flying an airplane
the wing, occurring at an angle to the horizon, that
makes the airplane turn. The rudder is not used to turn An airplane is a mechanical device that obeys me-
the plane but only to balance the turn. chanical laws. To become a skilled airplane pilot, a
When a plane makes a turn, the amount of lift oppos- person must understand these laws and the laws of
ing the force of gravity is reduced. Unless the pilot aerodynamics. The person must also have training and
brings and gravity back into balance, the plane be-
lift experience in flying an airplane.
gins to lose altitude.To produce greater lift, the pilot Flying an airplane differs from driving an automobile
raises the nose slightly to increase the angle of attack. In in many ways. To make a turn in an automobile, for ex-

making a steep turn, a pilot increases the angle of attack ample, the driver simply turns the steering wheel. But to
and the engine power at the same time to keep the make a turn in an airplane, the pilot must operate several
plane from losing altitude. controls at once.
For more information on how an airplane flies and on Basic movements and controls. An airplane has
how basic forces of gravity, lift, drag, and thrust act on a three basic movements: (1 ) pitch, (2) roll, and (31 yaw.

Horizon indicator Altimeter Vertical speed Magnetic compass

indicator

Air-speed indicator

Clock

-Yoke

Flight instruments

Engine instruments Left rudder pedal Right rudder pedal Left rudder pedal Right rudder pedal

WORI [) BOOK diagran OWlesy Pippr Aire rah Corp

Basic cockpit controls and instruments. Both the pilot's and copilot s yokes control the ailerons
and elevator. Their pedals operate the rudder. The throttle controls engine power and speed. Flight
instruments, such as the air-speed indicator and altimeter, help keep the plane on course. Engine in-
struments, such as the oil-pressure gauge and tachometer, measure engine operations.
 Airplane 223

Pitch is the motion of a plane as its nose moves up or The yoke and rudder pedals make the plane pitch,
down. A plane rolls when it banks— that is, when one or yaw. The yoke moves forward and backward and
roll,

wing tip dips lower than the other. Yaw is a plane's mo- turns from side to side. Pushing the yoke forward or
tion as the nose moves left or right. A pilot uses the con- pulling it backward moves the elevator up or down and
trols to make these movements and to adjust for them. makes the plane pitch up or down. When the yoke is
An airplane has many controls, but four of them are pushed forward, the elevator lowers and the nose drops.
basic. They are (1) the elevator, (2) the rudder, (3) the When the yoke is pulled back, the elevator moves up,
ailerons, and (4) the throttle. The elevator and rudder are forcing the nose up. Turning the yoke from side to side
parts of the tail assembly. The ailerons are on each side raises or lowers the ailerons and makes the plane roll.

of the wing. A system of cables, rods, and pulleys leads When the yoke is turned to the right, the right-wing
from these outside flight controls to the pilot's controls aileron goes up and the left-wing aileron goes down.
in the cockpit The pilot's yoke or stick controls the The plane then rolls to the right. Turning the yoke to the
ailerons and elevator. The rudder pedals control the rud- left makes the plane roll to the left. The pilot operates

der. The pilot uses the throttle to control the engine the two rudder pedals to make the plane yaw. Pushing
speed and power. on the left pedal swings the rudder to the left, causing
Text continued on page 225.

Straight and level flight

Elevator neutral Elevator down Elevator up

WORLD BOOK diagrams

To make a plane pitch, the pilot lowers or raises the elevator. The pilot lowers the elevator by
pushing the yoke forward and raises it by pulling the yoke back.

Left bank Straight and level flight Right bank

Right aileron
down

Right aileron up
Left aileron up
WORLD BOOK diagri

To make a plane roll, or bank, the pilot operates the ailerons. To make a left bank, for example,
the pilot turns the yoke to the left, which raises the left aileron and lowers the right one.

Straight and Right yaw Left yaw

level flight

Rudder turned Rudder turned

to the right to the left
Rudder neutral

HDHIlBOClkJu.iunu

To make a plane yaw, the pilot operates the two pedals that ontrol the rudder The pilot presses
<

to swing to the left

the right pedal to swing the rudder to the right and the left pedal
it
224 Airplane

How a pilot uses angle of attack

Level flight at low speed, high angle of attack
High angle of attack
ord line

Angle
1
Flight path Flight path

Moderate angle of attack

Level flight at cruising speed, low angle of attack
Chord line

Flight path

Low angle of attack

~~T^Chord line
Level flight at top speed, very low angle of attack
^ Flight path
Angle

Angle of attack is the angle formed by a plane s t

flightpath and an imaginary chord line through Flight path

the wing. A pilot raises the elevator to increase

the angle of attack. In so doing, the pilot gives the
For levelflight, a plane must keep lift balanced against gravity. If its speed is re-
plane added lift. But if the angle becomes too
duced, the plane loses lift To regain lift, the pilot increases the angle of attack.
great, lift decreases dangerously.
As speed increases, the angle of attack can be reduced.

Climbing before leveling off

Full power
Elevator halfway up
Flaps neutral
Take-off
Nose lift off Full power
Moving down the runway Full power Elevator halfway up
Full power Elevator up Flaps lowered slightly
Elevator neutral Flaps down
; lowered slii

For take-off, a plane moves down the runway at high speed. The wind rushes around the wing,
building up lift To get more lift, the pilot raises the elevator, increasing the angle of attack. The pilot
may also lower the flaps. When lift becomes greater than gravity, the plane takes off.

Approach glide
Power reduced to glide speed
Elevator neutral
Flaps down Wind direction

Steeper approach glide

Final glide, or flare-out

Power nearly off
Elevator nearly up Touching down
Flaps down Power off
Elevator up
Flaps down

WORLD BOOK diagrams

For landing, a plane s speed must be reduced as much as possible, and so the pilot decreases the
engine power. But redu< ing speed also reduces lift The plane must recover enough lift to counter-
act gravity. To recover lift, the pilot increases the angle of attack and lowers the flaps.
 Airplane 225

the plane s nose to swing left also. Pushing on the right For all maneuvers— from taking off to
other airplane
pedal swings the rudder and nose to the right. landing must also keep all the forces of flight in
a pilot
The pilot also has cockpit controls for the trim tabs on balance, just as in making a turn. By using all the basic
the ailerons, elevator, and rudder. The trim tabs help controls at once, a pilot balances lift against gravity and
keep a plane balanced in spite of changes in the plane's thrust against drag.
air speed or its center of gravity. A plane's center of Stalling occurs when the wing's angle of attack be-
gravity changes many times in flight. For example, the comes lift and begins to fall.
so great that the plane loses
center of gravity changes as the fuel in the plane's tanks If a pilot brings the plane snose up so that the wing is at
is used. To keep the plane from pitching up or down be- an angle of more than 15 to 20 degrees to the flight path,
cause its center of gravity is changing, the pilot would the air flowing over the wing will bubble wildly. As a re-
have to keep constant pressure on the yoke. But if the pi- sult, the plane stalls. The pilot can bring the plane out of

lot adjusts the elevator trim tabs, they adjust the elevator the stall by lowering the nose and letting gravity build
to handle the change in the center of gravity and thus up the speed needed for lift. The pilot can also increase
help keep the plane balanced. engine power to regain flying speed.
Proper use of the controls. To make any maneuver, Flying by instruments. A pilot can maneuver a plane
an airplane pilot never uses only one basic control. To without being able to see anything but the plane's instru-
make a left turn, for example, a pilot does not simply ments. This skill is necessary when flying in clouds, fog,
press down on the left rudder pedal. Using only this one or heavy rain. If a pilot cannot see the horizon or the
control would send the airplane into a left skid. An air- ground below, it is difficult to know if the plane is on
plane in a skid does not complete its turn. It returns to its course, flying straight or turning, and losing or gaining
original course of flight as soon as the pilot releases the altitude. Cockpit instruments provide this information. In

rudder pedal. addition, the instruments help pilots carry out various
To make a left turn must (1 turn
in level flight, a pilot ) maneuvers without losing altitude or speed and help
the yoke to the left to raise the and lower the
left aileron them land safely.
right aileron for a left bank; (2) press down on the left Measuring flying speed. A plane's speed is meas-
rudder pedal to make the plane's nose swing to the left; ured in several ways. The indicated air speed'is the
and (3) pull back on the yoke to bring up the elevator speed a pilot reads on an instrument called an airspeed
and raise the nose, which increases the wing's angle of indicator. But an air-speed indicator is affected by the
attack. In a steep turn, the pilot might also need to push changes in temperature and air pressure at different alti-
the throttle forward to increase engine power. The pilot tudes. As a result, a plane's indicated air speed differs
makes all these movements at the same time, but they from its true air speed And its ground speed. True air
soon become second nature for an experienced pilot. speed is the speed of the plane in relation to the air

How an airplane A must use several controls to make a turn. This plane is beginning a right turn. The pilot has
pilot

is turned raised the right aileron to bank the wing to the right and has also turned the rudder to the right to
steady the plane's nose. The lift on the left side of the wing has increased and is pulling the plane
around the turn. But in turning, a plane loses lift The pilot has therefore raised the elevator to in-
crease the angle of attack. The pilot may also need to increase engine power for added thrust
WORLD BOOK illustration by Tom Morgan: courtesy of Piper Aircraft Corp

Rudder turned
partly to the right

Flight
path

Stabilator
(elevator)
partly
raised
226 Airplane

through which it is moving. Ground speed is the speed examinations. However, students are not required to
of the plane in relation to the earth. A pilot can figure take formal instruction in these subjects and may, in-

true airspeed by checking the indicated air speed and stead, use home-study materials.
the outside air temperature. Because the air is usually
Air navigation
colder at higher altitudes, true air speed increases over
indicated air speed about 2 percent for every 1 ,000 feet Air navigation is the means by which pilots determine
(300 meters) of altitude. For example, if a plane is flying at their plane s location in the air and direct its route of
10,000 feet and its air-speed indicator reads 100 mph, the use charts,
flight Pilots compasses, radio systems, and
plane s true air speed will probably be about 120 mph. A computerized instruments to navigate accurately.
pilot can use true air speed to figure the ground speed if The three chief methods of air navigation are (1 pi- )

he or she knows the direction and speed of the wind. lotage, (2) dead reckoning, and (3) radio navigation. Most

For example, if the true air speed is 120 mph and the pilots use a combination of all three methods.
plane is flying into a 30-mph headwind, the ground Pilotage, also called piloting, is the simplest and most
speed will be 90 mph. common method method, a
of air navigation. Using this
A plane s maximum
speed, also called top speed, is pilot keeps on course by following a series of landmarks
the fastest speed it can reach in level flight. Its best rate on the ground. Before take-off, the pilot plots his or her
of climb speed is the speed at which it climbs the fastest. course on an aeronautical chart, a map that shows the lo-
Cruisingspeed is the most suitable speed for long-dis- cation of various landmarks, such as bridges, highways,
tance Maneuvering speedis the fastest speed at
flight. railroad tracks, rivers, and towns. An aeronautical chart
which an airplane can be flown in maneuvers or in tur- also shows routes for aircraft, landing fields, and radio
bulence (irregular air flow, often due to stormy weather) stations that broadcast air navigation signals. The U.S.
without endangering its structure. Department of Commerce publishes such charts for all
Every plane also has a yellow arc speed and a red line parts of the United States.
speed, which are shown on the air-speed indicator. The As the plane over each landmark on the plotted
flies

area marked in yellow is a caution area. A pilot should course, the pilot checks it off on the chart If the plane

not carry out sudden maneuvers or enter turbulence does not pass over a landmark, the pilot must adjust the
while flying at speeds in this range. The area marked in path of flight to resume its preplanned course.
red indicates the fastest speed at which the plane can be Dead reckoning is a way of navigating when there
flown under any conditions. are few or no visible landmarks. Itdemands more skill
Every plane has a stall speed— the speed at which the and experience than pilotage does. An aviator uses dead
wing loses lift However, the indicated stall speed tells reckoning when flying over forests, deserts, large bod-
only the speed at which the airplane will stall in level ies of water, or heavy clouds. This method of navigation
flight If the plane is turning, its stall speed will be higher requires an aeronautical chart, an accurate clock, a com-
than it is in level flight. pass, and a calculator for figuring time, speed, and dis-
Learning to fly. The Federal Aviation Administration tance.Working with the chart, the pilot plots a route in
(FAA) issues private pilot certificates to qualified United advance. The pilot also figures how long it should take
States citizens who are at least 1 7 years old. A private pi- to reach the destination while flying at a constant speed.
lot certificate authorizes a person to fly a plane carrying
passengers without payment for his or her services.
A person who wants to learn to fly must first get a stu-
dent pilot certificate by passing a simple medical exami-
nation. Student pilots may be any age, but they must be
at least 16 to fly solo (alone).
Student pilots must successfully complete a course of
Plane off course
flight instruction consisting of a minimum of 35 to 40
hours of flying time. About half the time is spent in dual
flight instruction, with an instructor accompanying the
student in the plane. The rest of the time is solo practice
flight with only the student pilot in the plane. Students
Plane on course
must complete about half their solo hours in cross-coun-
try flights outside their local airport area. Before every - I

cross-country flight, students check the weather and plot Plane on course
their course. Student pilots must also pass both a written
examination and a flight examination before being is-
sued a private pilot certificate.
In Canada, the Department of Transport issues private
Plane off course
pilot licenses to people who are at least 17 years old and
who pass certain physical, written, and flight examina-
tions. A student pilot must have a student pilot permit.
Many student pilots take ground instruction as well as WORLD BOOK diagram
flight instruction. Ground instruction includes courses in
A VOR station sends out rays of radio signals, or radials, in 360
aerodynamics, meteorology (the study of the weather), shown A
directions. Eight radials are here. pilot selects a radial to
navigation, and flying regulations. Students must have follow to or from the station. The plane s VOR equipment indi-
good knowledge of all these subjects to pass their pilot cates whether the plane is on or off the selected course.
 Airplane 227

The course to allow for the wind.

pilot adjusts the tionfrom outside the vehicle. Instead, a computer and
In the air compass to keep the
the pilot watches the other devices on board provide the guidance informa-
plane headed in the right direction. The plane should ar- tion.The devices measure changes in the plane's speed
rive at the destination when it has flown exactly the and The computer uses this information to cal-
direction.
length of time planned. Dead reckoning is not always a culate the vehicle's position and to guide it on course.
successful method of navigation because changing Loran systems use radio signals sent out continuously
winds may drive a plane slightly off course. from various maritime transmitting stations. Electronic
Radio navigation uses signals broadcast from spe- equipment aboard the airplane picks up the signals from
cial radio stations. Electronic equipment on the plane at least three stations to determine the plane's location.
uses these signals to indicate the location and direction Satellite navigation systems use radio signals that are-
of the plane with respect to the transmitting station. broadcast from artificial satellites orbiting the earth. The
Radio navigation is used by almost all pilots, especially signals from at least three satellites are picked up by re-
in the United States. There are more than 1,000 radio ceivers located on the aircraft The equipment uses this
navigation stations throughout the country that guide information to calculate the plane's location based on
aircraft en route, plus many other stations for navigation the distances between the satellites and the receiver.
near airports. When pilots fly in or above the clouds, Navigation satellites enable airplanes to determine their
they use the IFR (/nstrument /light /?ules) chart, a map of locations within 100 feet (30 meters) or better. In the
routes between radio navigation stations. 1990s, thousands of planes began to be outfitted with
To navigate by radio, pilots first find out from an aero- receivers that provide access to a satellite system called
nautical chart what radio station they should tune to in a the Global Positioning System (GPS). In the 2000s, satel-
particular area.The plane s navigation equipment picks lite navigation will gradually replace loran.
up the signal. An indicator needle on the equipment in- Safety. Airplane pilots follow two sets of rules when
dicates when the plane is flying on a direct course to or flying. When the weather enables them to see clearly, pi-
from the station. The needle also shows when the plane lots usually follow Visual Flight Rules (VFR). They ob-
drifts off course so the pilot can correct its direction. serve Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) when they cannot see
This system, which is designed for c/V/Y(nonmilitary) air- the ground or other aircraft in the sky. However, the U.S.
craft, is called VOR Very High Frequency Omnidirec-
( government requires all jet airliners to operate under

tional Range). Most VOR stations also transmit signals Instrument Flight Rules at all times.
for DME (/distance Measuring fquipment). DME tells the Pilots have various navigation aids that help them take

pilot how far the from the VOR station. Military

aircraft is off, fly, and land safely. In the United States, one of the

aircraft use a similar system called TACAN 7/lCtical Aw( most important aids is a series of air route traffic control
Navigation). A combined civil and military system, called centers operated by the federal government. Each cen-
VORTAC, is used by both civil and military planes. ter uses radar to make sure all the planes in its vicinity

Navigating across oceans requires the use of spe- are clear of other traffic. In addition, airplanes carry a
cial systems. Three commonly used systems are (1) iner- special receiver and transmitter called a radar transpon-
tia/guidance, (2) loran {long range navigation), and (3) der. This device receives a radar signal from a control
sate/lite navigation. Many planes also use loran and satel- center and transmits back a code assigned to the plane
lite navigation for any flight by the control center. When the signal reaches the
Inertial guidance systems do not rely on any informa- ground, it identifies the plane and makes the aircraft
The Boeing Company

A wind tunnel enables air-

craft designers and engineers
to test how a plane will per-
form under various flying con-
ditions. Air is forced through
the tunnel at high speeds to
study the effects of wind and
air pressure on a scale model
of the plane. This wind tunnel
isoperated by Britain s
Defence Research Agency in
Farnborough, near London.
228 Airplane

The Boeing Company

Aircraft assembly takes place in some of the largest manufacturing plants in the world, such as
this huge facility near Everett, Washington, where the Boeing 777 is manufactured.

show up more clearly on a radar screen, regardless of mass production. Transports and other large planes re-
the plane's size. quire at least 8 to 10 years of planning. The design de-
Most large and medium-sized airports also have air pends largely on how the plane is to be used. Transports
traffic control towers. In the towers, air traffic controllers must be able to carry heavy loads great distances, using
use radio communications and often radar to direct as little fuel as possible. Light planes must be able to ma-
planes that are approaching and landing or taking off neuver easily and to land on shorter runways. All planes
and departing. Most larger airports also have an must have a wing that gives great lift at low speed and
Instrument Landing System (ILS) to guide pilots to the little drag at high speed. The FAA requires that a wing be

runway in bad weather. This system uses horizontal and joined to the fuselage so firmly that it can produce lift
vertical radio beams from the ground to operate an in- four to six times the force of gravity on the plane. For ex-
strument in the cockpit of an airliner. By watching this in- ample, if a plane weighs 2,000 pounds (910 kilograms),
strument, pilots can tell their exact position in relation to its wing must withstand a force of gravity of at least 8,000

the runway and so can make a safe landing. pounds (3,600 kilograms).
Engineers carefully test the metal, plastics, wood, and
Building an airplane
other materials to be used in a plane. All the materials
In theUnited States, the Federal Aviation Administra- must be able to withstand tremendous air pressures and
tion makes rules for the design and manufacture of air- extreme weather conditions. Engineers may use a struc-
planes. The agency sets standards that every airplane de- ture called a wind tunnel'to test the effects of air flowing
signer and manufacturer must meet. A manufacturer over the plane at various speeds and altitudes. Today,
may not sell a plane until the aircraft receives certifica- however, many airplane designs are tested using com-
tion from the FAA. The certification states that the plane puters instead of wind tunnels. In addition to these tests,
meets FAA standards for design, materials, workman- engineers build full-sized mock-ups (models) of aircraft
ship, construction, and performance. from wood or metal— often complete in every detail— to
Some people build their own airplanes. The FAA sets test the arrangement of seats and equipment
different standards for home-built planes. Such a plane After years of planning and research, engineers build
receives a certification that specifies (1 where and when
) a prototype (full-sized test model) of the plane. They test
it may fly and (2) how many passengers it may carry. it thoroughly on the ground, running the engines at high

Design and testing. Designers and engineers begin speed and taxiing the model along a runway as fast as it
to plan and test a new airplane long before it is ready for will go. Usually, engineers build several prototypes to
 Airplane 229

Flight of Daedalus and Fall of Icarus 114931. a woodcut

by an unknown German artist; the Science Museum. Londo

An ancient Greek story told how Daedalus and his son Icarus
flew with wings of feathers and wax But Icarus flew too near the
sun. His wings melted, and he fell into the sea and drowned.

s An early design
chine was drawn about 1500 by
for a flying ma-

Leonardo da Vinci. The machine

had flapping wings.
The Science Museum. London

The first human flights were in balloons filled

with hot air. This balloon, built by the Montgolfier
brothers of France in 1 783, carried two passen-
gers about 5 miles (8 kilometers) across Paris.

discover how much wear the plane can take and to test place, the finished airplane rolls off the assembly line.

various systems. The engine and other parts on some Each new plane receives a complete inspection, and a
prototypes are tested until they fail. The manufacturer test pilot flies it to make sure the engines and controls

then tests an experimental plane in flight Following are in perfect working order. After the plane passes
these procedures, the FAA reviews every aspect of the these final tests, it is ready for delivery to a customer.
design, construction, and testing of the aircraft, includ-
History
ing the flight testing. If the plane meets the FAA's strict
requirements, the agency gives the manufacturer a type For thousands of years, people dreamed of flying.
certificate,which allows the plane to be sold. Some even tried to fly by tying feathers to their arms and

The Boeing 777, which entered service in 1995, was flapping them like wings. But most people believed that
completely planned with computers. Instead of making flying was beyond the powers of ordinary human be-

paper drawings or building models, engineers used ings. They told stories of godlike people who could fly

computers to electronically design and test the entire or who were carried through the air by winged animals.
plane and ensure that the parts would fit together. The ancient Greeks told a story about an inventor named
Mass production. Only a few companies manufac- Daedalus and his son Icarus, both of whom flew with
ture airplanes. But thousands of factories supply airplane wings made of feathers and wax But Icarus flew too
manufacturers with the parts they need to assemble the close to the sun. The sun's heat melted his wings, and he
planes. Some suppliers specialize in making such parts fell into the sea and drowned. See Daedalus.

as fasteners, landing gears, or instruments. Others build Early experiments and ideas. About 400 B.C, a
the larger parts of the aircraft, including the wing, fuse- Greek scholar named Archytas bu lt a wooden pigeon
:

lage, and tail. that moved through the air. No one knows how Archytas

An airplane assembly plant operates much like an au- made his pigeon fly. He may have attached the bird to a
tomobile assembly plant, with workers stationed aiong revolving arm and used steam or gas to move it in a cir-
an assembly fine, also called a production line. Large cle. During the 300 s B.C, the Chinese discovered how to
plants also have subassembly lines, where workers put make kites. A kite is really a form of glider. Later, large

together large parts of the plane, such as the fuselage kites lifted people into the air.
and wing, before sending them on for final assembly. During the 200 s B.C the great Greek mathematician
The fuselage moves slowly along the final assembly line. and inventor Archimedes discovered how objects float
the line, and workers in liquids. For hundreds of years, people thought their
It stops at various locations along

install or attach the engine, wing, and other parts.

bodies would float or fly in the air, too. if they equipped
After all the parts of the airplane have been put in themselves with such devices as flowing cloaks orartifi-
230 Airplane

An "aerial steam carriage" was patented by

William S. Henson of the United Kingdom in
1843. had fixed wings, a
It steam engine, two
propellers,and a passenger cabin. But
Henson s "airliner" was never built

Smithsonian Institution

The first glider flights in which a person ac- Improved gliders were built and tested by and Wilbur Wright of the
Orville
tually piloted the glider were made in the United States. Their first glider, left, was a large, two-wing kite built in 1899. After
early 1890 s by Otto Lilienthal of Germany. experiments with this and other gliders, the Wright brothers built a glider in 1902
But his gliders were difficult to control. that the pilot could control in the air, right

cial wings. But ail of their attempts failed. About A.D. were easier to handle than free-floating balloons, whose
1290, an English monk named Roger Bacon wrote that course could not be controlled. See Airship; Balloon.
air, like water, has something solid about it. Bacon had Meanwhile, other inventors had turned their attention
studied the ideas of Archimedes and concluded that if to gliders, which are heavier-than-air aircraft without en-
people could build the right kind of machine, the air gines. In 1804, Sir George Cayley, a British inventor, built
would support it, as water supports a ship. About 1500, the first was a small craft that flew
successful glider. It

the Italian artist and inventor Leonardo da Vinci made without a passenger. Cayley later built successful full-
drawings of ornithopters, flying machines with wings sized gliders. One of these carried his unwilling coach-
designed to flap like those of a bird. In 1680, Giovanni A. man across a small valley. Cayley also founded the sci-
Borelli, an Italian mathematician, showed that people ence of aerodynamics and was probably the first person
cannot fly by flapping wings. Borelli proved that peo- to describe a fixed-wing airplane powered by propellers.
ple's muscles are too weak to flap the large surfaces that From 1891 to 1896, Otto Lilienthal of Germany made
would be needed to support their weight in the air. the first successful glider flights which a person actu-
in
First human flights. In 1 two Frenchmen— a doc-
783, ally piloted the glider. Before theend of the 1800 s, other
tor named Jean F. Pilatre de Rozier and a nobleman, the inventors, including Percy Pilcher of Britain and Octave
Marquis d'Arlandes— made the first free flight in an artifi- Chanute of the United States, made similar flights. Some
cially created device. They floated for more than 5 miles of these early gliders were so well built that they carried
(8 kilometers) over Paris in a large linen and paper bal- their pilotshundreds of feet or meters through the air.
loon. Two French papermakers— the brothers Jacques But gliders were often hard to control. In addition, they
Etienne Montgolfier and Joseph Michel Montgolfier— were not designed to carry passengers or cargo and so
had made the balloon, which was filled with hot air from were not a practical means of transportation.
burning wool and straw. The hot air made it rise. Powered flight In 1843, William S. Henson, a British
The Montgolfiers made other successful balloons. The inventor, patented plans for the plane with an en-
first

flights ofthese balloons excited other inventors, who gine, propellers, and a fixed wing. But after building one
soon began to fill their balloons with hydrogen, a gas unsuccessful model, he gave up the project In 1848, his
lighter than air, to make them rise. The balloons were friend John Stringfellow built a small model plane using
hard to control. But inventors continued their balloon ex- Henson s design. The model was successfully launched
periments and, during the mid-1800's, developed the air- but could stay in the air only a short time. In 1890,
ship. The airships had engines and propellers and so Clement Ader, a French engineer, took off in a steam
 Airplane 231

The Wright brothers' Flyer, which they

built in 1903, became the world s
and flew
first successful airplane. It had a light-

weight gasoline engine that turned two

propellers located behind the wings.

Wingspan-40 ft. 4 in. (12.29 m

Length-21 ft. 1 in. 16.43 m

powered plane that he had built But he could not con- both times the airplane crashed into the water.
trol the plane or keep About the same time,
it in the air. The Wright brothers. During the 1890s, Orville
the inventor Hiram Maxim— an American who had be- Wright and Wilbur Wright became interested in flying
come a British citizen built a huge steam-powered fly- while operating their bicycle-manufacturing shop in
ing machine. It had two wings, two engines, and two Dayton, Ohio. The brothers read every book about flying
propellers. Maxim tested the plane in 1894. It lifted off they could find. They started building gliders in 1899.
the ground briefly but did not actually fly. The next year, they began making glider flights near Kitty
During the 1890s, Samuel P. Langley, an American sci- Hawk, North Carolina, an area known for its steady
entist, built a steam-powered model airplane. Langley winds and high sand dunes. After conducting many ex-
called his plane an aerodrome. In 1896, it flew more than periments, the brothers worked out a system for control-
\ mile (0.8 kilometer) in about 1? minutes. Langley then ling an aircraft in flight

built a full-sized aerodrome powered by a gasoline en- In 1 903, the Wright brothers built their first airplane,
gine. A pilot attempted to fly the airplane on Oct 7 and named the Flyer. It was a biplane (two-wing plane) with
on Dec. 8, 1903. Both times Langley' s plane was launched a 1 2-horsepower (9-kilowatt) gasoline engine that the

into the air from a houseboat on the Potomac River, and brothers also built The wings, which measured 40 feet 4
Text continued on page 233.

Important dates in airplane development

c. 1500 The Italian artist and inventor Leonardo da Vinci made 1927 The Lockheed Vega, a single-engine transport, flew for the
drawings of flying machines with flapping wings. first time. It became one of the most popular transport planes

of the 1920s and early 1930s.

1783 Two Frenchmen-Jean F. Pilatre de Rozier and the Marquis
d Arlandes-made the first free lighter-than-air ascent They 1936 Douglas DC-3 transport planes entered airline service in
made the ascent in a hot-air balloon. the United States. They were the most widely used airliners in

of Britain flew the successful model the mid-1 900 s.

1804 Sir George Cayley first

glider. 1939 The first successful flight of a jet-engine airplane took place
in Germany.
1843 William S. Henson, a British inventor, patented plans for a
steam-driven airplane that had many of the basic parts of a 1947 Charles E. Yeager, a U.S. Air Force captain, made the first

modern plane. supersonic flight, in a Bell X-l rocket plane.

1848 John Stringfellow of Britain built a small model based on 1952 De Havilland Comets, the world s first large commercial jet-

Henson s plane. It remained in the air only briefly. liners, began service.

1891-1896 Otto Lilienthal of Germany became the first person to 1953 The North American F-100 Super Sabre jet fighter became
successfully pilot gliders in flight the first operational supersonic fighter.

1896 Samuel P. Langley of the United States flew a steam-pow- 1958 The Boeing 707 began the first U.S. jet transport service be-
ered model plane. tween the United States and Europe.
1903 Orville and Wilbur Wright of the United States made the 1968 Russian pilots test-flew the world s first supersonic trans-
first engine-powered, heavier-than-air flights, near Kitty
Hawk, port plane, the Tu-144.
North Carolina. Their first flight went 20 feet 137 meters! and 1
1970 The first jumbo jet, the Boeing 747, entered service. The
lasted only about 12 seconds. 747 became the most widely used airliner of the late 1900's.
1906 Trajan Vuia, a Romanian inventor, built the first full-sized 1976 The Concorde, a supersonic transport plane built by the
monoplane, but it could not fly. United Kingdom and France, began passenger service.
1909 Louis Bleriot of France became the first person to fly across 1983 A Rockwell Sabreliner became the first plane to cross the
the English Channel. Atlantic Ocean with a pilot guided only by a satellite naviga-
1913 Igor Sikorsky, a Russian inventor, built and flew the
I.
first tion system.

four-engine plane. 1995 he Boeing 777 airliner, the world

1 s largest twin engine jet,

1915 The first flight of an all metal, cantilever-wing plane, the began passenger service.
Junkers J took place in Germany.
1 ,
232 Airplane

The Bleriot XI, built and flown by Louis

Bleriot of France, in 1909 became the first
plane to fly across the English Channel.

Wingspan— 25 ft 7 in. 17.8 m)

Length 26 ft 3 in. 18 m)

Wingspan-^IZ ft 6 in. 113.89 m

Length-30 ft (9.1 ml

The June Bug was designed by Glenn H.

Curtiss. In July 1908, Curtiss used the plane to
make the first official public airplane flight in
the United States. But it was only a short,
shaky flight
The Deperdussin racer, built in France in
1912, was one of the first planes with a mono-

cot7ue(tubelikel body, reducing the need for

body braces and so lightening the plane.

Wingspan— 21 ft 10 in. 16.65 ml

wingspan — 18 ft 155 ml
Length-20ft(6.1 ml

The Demoiselle of 1909 was one of a series

of small lightweight planes built in France by
Alberto Santos-Dumont, a Brazilian. The
Demoiselles were among the first planes
used for personal and pleasure flying.

The Grand'of 1913, built by Russia s Igor I.

Sikorsky,was the first four-engine plane. The

engines were paired back to back.

The Junkers J 1, built in Germany in 1915,

was the plane with an all-metal body and
first

a cantileverw'mg, which is supported by an

internal framework instead of outside braces.
—
Wingspan 55 ft 1168 ml
Length-29 ft. 8 ia (904 ml

Speed records
Speed Year Aviator Country Speed Year Aviator Country
Inmph In kph Inmph In kph
38.0 61.2 1905 W. Wright U.S. 82226 1,323.3 1955 H. A Hanes U.S.
108.18 174.1 1912 J.
Vedrines France 1,132.13 1,82159 1956 L P. Twiss U.K.
22237 358.84 1922 W. Mitchell U.S. 1,207.6 1,943.44 1957 A Drew
E. U.S.
294.38 473.76 1932 ). H. Doolittle U.S. 1 ,404.09 2,259.66 1958 W. W. Irwin VS.
30458 490.82 1933 |. Wedell U.S. 1,483.85 2.388.03 1959 G. Mosolov U.S.S.R.
469.22 755.14 1939 F. Wendel Germany 1,52536 2,455.79 1959 J.
W. Rogers US.
606.25 975.66 1945 H. Wilson
). U.K. 1 ,606.32 2,585.12 1961 R. B. Robinson US.
67038 1,079.84 1948 R. L Johnson U.S. 1,665.89 2,68039 1962 G. Mosolov USSR.
6983 1,024.13 1952 J. S. Nash U.S. 2,070.1 3,331.5 1965 R. L Stephens U.S.
755.14 1,21528 1953 F. K. Everest |r U.S. 2,193.16 3,529.56 1976 E. W. Joersz U.S.
Source: Ndliurul AerotwutK Association
 Airplane 233

The Ford Tri-Motor of 1926, a three-engine

plane produced by Henry Ford, was the first
successful all-metal U.S. transport plane.
The Fokker D VII, a 1918 German fighter
plane used in World War was known
I, for its

fast climbing ability.

The Lockheed Vega of 1927 became one of

the most popular U.S. transport planes. Lock-
heed Vegas also made long-distance flights.

The Dornier Do-X, a German flying boat Wingspan-41 ft. (12.5 m)

with 12 engines paired back to back, first flew Length-27 ft. 6 in. (8.38 m)

in 1929. By far the largest airplane built to that

time, the Do-X could carry 150 passengers,
but it never went into service.

Wingspan-157ft. 5 in 147.98 m
Length-131 ft 4 in. (40.03 ml

inches (1 2.29 meters) from tip to tip, were wooden Wilbur made the first official public flights in France and
frames covered with cotton cloth. The pilot lay in the amazed the world with the plane's flying ability.
middle of the lower wing. The engine, mounted to the Other pioneer planes and fliers. Alberto Santos-
pilot's right, turned two wooden propellers located be- Dumont, a Brazilian who lived in France, became the
hind the wings. Instead of wheels, the plane had wood- third person to fly an airplane. In 1906, he made a few
en runners. Most important of all, it had the successful brief flights in a plane patterned after a box kite. He later

control system that the brothers had developed for their built a series of planes that were among the first used

gliders. A main feature of this system, called a wing warp for personal and pleasure flying. Also in 1906, Trajan
system, was wing tips to pre-
a device for twisting the Vuia, a Romanian inventor living in France, constructed
serve balance The device consisted of a wire
in flight. the first full-sized monoplane (single-wing plane). It had
strung from each wing tip to a "cradle" that fitted around the propeller mounted in front of the wing rather than
the pilot's hips. By moving their hips, the brothers could behind. Although the plane was unsuccessful, it influ-
twist one wing tip or the other in order to maintain the enced the design of later airplanes.
plane's balance and control while in flight. Glenn H. Curtiss, an American inventor, made the first
On Dec. 17, 1903, Orville Wright became the first per- important airplane flight in the United States after the
son to successfully fly an engine-driven, heavier-than-air Wright brothers. On July 4, 1908, he became the first
machine. The flight took place near Kitty Hawk. The American to make an official public flight of more than 1

brothers launched the plane from a 60-foot (18-meter) kilometer (0.6 mile). He flew his biplane, the lune Bug,
rail on a sand flat. The plane took off and flew 120 feet 5,090 feet (1.55 kilometers) at 34 mph (55 kph). Henri

(37 meters) at about 30 mph (48 kpht.The flight lasted Farman, an English flier living in France, had made a cir-

only about 12 seconds. The Wright brothers made three cular flight of 1 kilometer earlier in 1908. Then, on Oct.
more flights that day. Wilbur made the longest one-852 30, 1908, Farman flew 16j miles 127.0 kilometers) directly

feet (260 meters) in 59 seconds. across the French countryside in the first cross-country
Except for a few inventors, most people took little no- flight. The Wright brothers had made longer circular
tice of theWright brothers achievement. But the men flights. Curtiss, Farman, and the Wright brothers all be-
continued to improve their planes. By the end of 1905, came successful airplane manufacturers John A. D.

they had built and flown the first plane that was hilly ma McCurdy, a Canadian engineering student made the

neuverable and could fly tor more than a half hour at a first successful airplane flight in Canada. On Feb. 23,

time. But no important officials had seen the plant-

tK 1909, flew his biplane the Silver Out- over? mile
lit-

and so the flights were not officially recognized In 1908, (0.8 kilometer) across Bras d Oi Lake in Nova Scotia
234 Airplane

The Taylor Cub, later called the Piper Cub,

first appeared in 1931. It was the best-known
light plane in the United States.

Wingspan— 35 ft. 2 in. (10 72 ml

Length-22 ft. 6 in. 16.86 ml

The Douglas DC-3, built in the

United States, began service in
1936. It became the most widely
used airliner of the mid-1900 s.

The Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress was a

widely used U.S. bomber in World War II. Wingspan— 103 ft. 9 in. (31.62 ml
Improvements the design of B-17 s and oth
in Length-74 ft. 9 in. (22.78 ml
Wingspan^tl ft (12.5 ml
er bombers enabled planes to fly farther, Length-34 ft 9J in. (10 6 ml
higher, and faster with heavier loads.

The Messerschmitt Me 262, a German fight-

er, was the first jet combat plane. It flew mis-
sions over Europe in 1944 and 1945.

Thomas E. Selfridge, a lieutenant in the U.S. Army strong enough to bear the stresses of flight, reducing
Signal Corps and the first officer trained to fly, was the the need for external bracing. The monocoque design
firstperson killed in a plane crash. The Army had decid- produced a streamlined aircraft that was lighter and cre-
ed to test the military value of the Wright brothers air- ated less drag. Meanwhile, two-engine planes had been
plane. On Sept 17, 1908, Selfridge went up in a plane developed. In 1913, a Russian inventor, Igor I.Sikorsky,
with Orville Wright. At an altitude of 75 feet (23 meters), flew his Russky Vityaz (Russian Knight), also called The
one of the two propellers broke. The plane crashed, Grand, the first four-engine plane. Most planes still had
killing Selfridge and injuring Wright. But the Wrights one engine.
were not discouraged. In 1909, they won an Army con- The early fliers and their planes participated in many
tract to build the world s first military plane. air races and air circuses. These tests of flying skill did
A French inventor, Louis Bleriot, made the first inter- much to improve airplane design and to make flying
national airplane flight. In 1909, he flew his Bleriot XI more popular. In 1913, a French pilot, Adolphe Pegoud,
monoplane 23? miles 137.8 kilometers) across the English became noted for his skill at air acrobatics.
Channel from France to England. The plane had a long, World War (1914-1918) greatly advanced airplane
I

enclosed body, a tail for control at the rear, and a development Early in the war, both sides discovered the
wheeled landing gear. Other successful monoplanes of value of the airplane for locating enemy forces and mili-
the period included the Antoinette series designed by tary bases. Engineers designed more powerful engines
the French inventor Leon Levavasseur. to put swift fighter planes and heavy bombers into the
In 1911, Calbraith P. Rodgers made the first airplane skies. Germany, France, and Britain began to turn out
flight across the United States— from Sheepshead Bay, thousands of these planes. Dogfights (air battles be-
New York, to Long Beach, California. During the 84-day tween fighters) became common. Seaplanes were used
journey, Rodgers landed— or crashed— his Wright air- for taking pictures of enemy naval forces and for bomb-
plane about 70 times. He had to replace almost every ing enemy submarines. For the story of how airplanes
part of the plane before he reached Long Beach. His ac- were used in World War I, see Air Force (World War I);
tual flying time was 3 days 10 hours 24 minutes. World War I.

In 1912, the Deperdussin Company of France built the At the beginning of the war, most planes could fly 60
Deperdussin monoplane racer, the first successful air- to 70 mph (97 to 1 10 kph). By the war s end, many could
plane of monocoque construction (pronounced maw go 130 mph (209 kph) or faster. Hugo Junkers, a German
nawKAWK or MAHN uh kohkJ. In this type of construc- inventor and manufacturer, created one ot the most in-
tion, the fuselage of the plane consisted of a structure fluential airplane designs of the war. His plane, called
 Airplane 235

The Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet was the

first operational rocket plane. Germany used
theKomet as a fighter plane near the end of
World War II.

Wingspan-30 ft. 6 in. (9.3 ml

Length-19 ft. 5 in. (5.92 ml

The Bell XT became the first plane to fly

faster than the speed of sound. The experi-

mental U.S. rocket plane made the super-
sonic flight in 1947.

Length

The de Havilland Comet, a British plane, be-

came the first jet airliner. Comets began pas-
senger service in 1952. But they had serious
structural flaws and were grounded in 1954.

De Havilland engineers designed an im-

proved Comet— the Comet 4, above— which
entered airline service in 1958.

The North American MOO Super Sabre,

a U.S. fighter, flew for the first time in 1953
and became the first jet fighter that could
be operated at supersonic speeds.

the Junkers) 1, made its first flight in 1915. The plane was before the war, they still were not always
safe. They

the firstbe made entirely of metal and the first to have

to were made mostly of wood andand lacked satis-
cloth
a cantilever wing, which is completely supported by an factory navigation equipment. But many former military
internal framework. Earlier airplane wings were support- pilots bought the planes and used them for an exciting

ed by struts (braces) between the body and wings, which and dangerous type of flying called barnstorming.
created drag and reduced the airplanes' speed. Barnstormers toured the United States in the 1920s and
The golden age in the development of the airplane put on daring air shows at county fairs and other events.
occurred during the 1920s and 1930s. During this peri- The pilots flew the planes in wild acrobatics. Performers
od, rapid advances were made in airplane design, and called wing walkers stepped from wing tip to wing tip in
airlines began large-scale operations. It was also a time flight, or leaped from the wing of one flying plane to an-

when daring pilots amazed the world with feats of flying other. Many of the planes crashed, and a number of
skill and endurance. barnstormers were killed.
In 1914, an American flier named Tony Jannus was the The United States Post Office, the forerunner of the
pilot of the world's first scheduled airline. Jannus used a U.S. Postal Service, also used modified military planes to

small seaplane to carry passengers and freight across fly mail between a few large cities. The Post Office began
Tampa Bay between St.Petersburg and Tampa, Florida. airmail service in 1918, operating its own planes. By
The plane had room for one passenger, who paid $5 for 1927; the Post Office gave up operating its own planes
the 22-mile (35-kilometer) flight. The airline had financial and contracted with the airlines to carry airmail. Airmail
difficulties and lasted only a few months. In 1919, small greatly aided the growth of commercial aviation.
airlines began to operate in Europe. They used rebuilt Meanwhile, engineers were working to design safer,
World War bombers to carry passengers and mail on
I
more powerful transport planes. German engineers de-
short flights between European cities. The cabins of veloped an all-metal, fr/mofor(three-engine) transport,
some of the planes were elegantly decorated and fur- the Junkers G 23. It flew for the first time in 924 and was 1

nished with comfortable armchairs. But the passengers the first of a series of all-metal, trimotor planes made in

could barely make themselves heard above the roar of Europe. The such plane in the United States was de-
first

the engines, and the cabins were unheated. veloped from the ideas of William B. Stout, an aircraft
After World War I, the U.S. government offered thou- manufacturer. Henry Ford, the automobile maker,
sands of surplus warplanes for sale at bargain prices bought Stout s company and began producing a trimo-
Although these planes were stronger than those built tor plane in 1926. The Ford Tri Motor could carry 10 pas-
236 Airplane

The Convair XFY-1, or Togo," was an ex-

perimental fighter that could take off and
land vertically. The aircraft was built for the
United States Navy and test-flown in 1954,
The Morane-Saulnier M.S. 760 of 1954, a
but it did not enter service.
French-built light plane with twojet en-

Wingspan-27 ft 8 in (8.43 m)
gines, was the first jet plane sold especially
Length-32 ft 3 in 19.83 m) for business travel. It held four passengers.

Wingspan-33 ft 3 in (10.13 ml
Length-33ft(10.1 ml

The Boeing 707 became the

transport. The plane began
and entered airline service

Wingspan-130ft 10 in (39.88 ml
Length-144 ft 6 in (44.04 ml

sengers at 100 mph (160 kph) or more. In 1927, the Lock- The Ford Tri-Motor and the Lockheed Vega were
eling.
heed Company (now Lockheed Martin Corporation) pro- among the most popular transport planes of the late
duced the Vega, a single-engine transport that carried 1920s and early 1930s.
up to six passengers. It could fly 1 35 mph (21 7 kph) and Races helped encourage improvements in airplane
travel 500 miles (800 kilometers) or farther without refu- design during the 1920s and 1930s. Important races in

Notable airplane flights

1908 Henri Farman of France made the first official circular flight tralia, with stops at Honolulu, Hawaii, and Suva, Fiji.

of kilometer (0.6 mile). He also flew 16.75 miles (27.0 kilome-

1
1929 Richard E. Byrd of the United States and his crew made the
ters) in the first cross-country flight
first flight over the South Pole.

1908 Glenn H. Curtiss made the first official public flight of more
1931 Two U.S. pilots, Clyde Pangborn and Hugh Herndon, made
than 1 kilometer in the United States.
the first nonstop airplane flight across the Pacific. They flew
1911 Calbraith P. Rodgers made the first flight across the United from Tokyo to Wenatchee, Washington.
States. He flew from Sheepshead Bay, New York, to Long
1932 Amelia Earhart of the United States was the first woman to
Beach, California, in a series of short flights that took 84 days.
fly across the Atlantic Ocean alone. She flew from Harbour

1919 Two John Alcock and Arthur Whitten Brown,

British fliers, Grace, Newfoundland, to a pasture near Londonderry, North-
made nonstop transatlantic flight They flew 1,950
the first ern Ireland, in 15 hours 18 minutes.
miles (3,138 kilometers) from St. John s, Newfoundland, to Clif-
1933 Wiley Post, a U.S. pilot, made the first solo round-the-world
den, Ireland.
flight, traveling 15,596 miles (25,099 kilometers) in 7 days 18
1924 Two U.S. Army planes made the first round-the-world hours 49 minutes.
flight. They took nearly six months to complete the 26,345-mile
1949 A U.S. Air Force crew made the first nonstop round-the-
(42,398-kilometer) journey.
world flight, covering 23,452 miles (37,742 kilometers) in 3
1926 American explorers Richard E. Byrd and Floyd Bennett days 22 hours 1 minute.
claimed the first airplane flight over the North Pole.
1992 French pilots Claude Delorme and Jean Boye flew an Air
1927 Charles A Lindbergh, a U.S. pilot, made the first solo non- France Concorde around the world in a record 32 hours 49
stop transatlantic flight He flew 3,610 miles (5,810 kilometers) minutes 3 seconds.
from Garden City, New York, to Paris in 33 hours 31 minutes.
2001 A
solar-powered, propeller-driven airplane set an unoffi-
1928 Charles Kingsford Smith and his crew made the first flight record of 96.500 feet (155,302 meters). The craft,
cial altitude
across the Pacific— from Oakland, California, to Brisbane, Aus- owned by NASA, was remotely piloted from the ground.
 Airplane 237

The Convair B-58 Hustler, built for the U.S.

Air Force, was the supersonic bomber. It
first
flew for the first time in 1956 and set several
world speed, altitude, and distance records.

Wingspan -56 ft 10 in. II 7.32 m)

Length-96 ft 9 in. (29.49 m)
The Boeing 747, the first jumbo jet, began
airline service in 1970. Its long, wide body
had room for more than 400 passengers.

F» A.ZST A. m.
y^V.^. . ! ii ^i i ii iMi iii iM i iit ii ii ti i i iirrrrtntTTTiiii i ii ia

The Concorde, designed by Britain and

France, was one two supersonic transports
of
(SST's) that began commercial service in the
mid-1 970' s. The other one was the Tupolev
Tu-144, built by the Soviet Union.

Wingspan-83 ft 10 in. (25.6 ml

Length-203 ft 9 in. 162.1 ml

eluded the Pulitzer Trophy races for small planes and farther,and higher— and could carry heavier loads. Ad-
the Schneider Trophy races for seaplanes. In 1 920, the vances aerodynamics helped engineers streamline
in

winner of the Schneider Trophy race flew at 1 07 mph planes so they could cut through the air with as little
(172 kph). The 1931 winner reached 340 mph (547 kph). drag as possible. Engineers designed controllable-pitch
Fliers of the golden age. A number of American pi- propellers, with which pilots could set the propeller
lots daring long-distance flights during the 1920s
made blade at the best angle for a particular air speed or alti-
and early 1930s. Richard E. Byrd and Floyd Bennett are tude. Improved radio equipment enabled pilots to re-
credited with flying the first plane to the North Pole, in ceive flight directions from the ground. Automatic pilot
May 1926. They flew a trimotor plane designed by the devices also came into use during the 1930s. These de-
Dutch engineer Anthony Fokker. Fokker had built planes vices made possible more accurate navigation and en-
in Germany during World War but moved his plant to
I abled pilots to take rest breaks during long flights.
the Netherlands after the war. In 1929, Byrd and Bernt All the major advances in airplane design went into

Balchen made the first flight over the South Pole, in a making the Douglas DC-3. This twin-engine transport
Ford Tri-Motor. In 1927, Charles A. Lindbergh made the made its first passenger flights in 1936. The DC-3 could
solo nonstop flight across the Atlantic Ocean. His
first carry 21 passengers and fly smoothly at 200 mph (320
3,610-mile (5,810-kilometer) flight-from Garden City, kph). It soon became the most widely used airliner.

New York, to Paris-took 33 \ hours. Lindbergh's plane, During the 1930s, many airline passengers traveled
the Spirit of St Louis, was a specially built Ryan mono- on flying boats, large, watertight seaplanes that could
plane with a Wright engine. It was a little larger than the float in the water like the hull of a ship. Flying boats
Wright brothers' first airplane. It also had the most ad- were used mainly for flights across oceans. One of the
vanced aircraft instruments of the day, which helped largest commercial flying boats was an enormous 12-

Lindbergh find his way across the ocean without a radio. engine plane built in Germany- the Dornier Do-X. It flew
In 1931, Hugh Herndon and Clyde Pangborn made for the first time in 1929 but never became a popular air-

the first nonstop flight across the Pacific. The next year, liner. One of the last and most famous flying boats was

Amelia Earhart, flying an improved Lockheed Vega, be- the Boeing 314 Clipper, which could carry up to 74 pas-

came the first woman to cross the Atlantic solo and non- sengers. In 1939, 314s started the first regular passenger
stop. In 1933, a former parachute jumper named Wiley service across the Atlantic Ocean. But the development

Post flew a Vega in the first solo round-the-world flight. of more powerful landplanes and of more airports

Engineering improvements during the 1930s made wild runways long enough to handle them— ended the
it possible to build bigger planes thai could fly faster, day of the flying boats in most pails of the world.
238 Airplane

As planes flew higher and higher, pilots and passen- separate accidents in January and April 1954, Comets
gers had increased difficulty breathing in the thin air at tore apart in the air, killing everyone aboard. The fault
high altitudes. So engineers designed pressurized cab- proved to be in the plane's metal skin, which was too
ins, in which the air inside is compressed at high alti- weak to withstand the stress of pressurization. The disas-
tudes to make breathing easier. Pressurized cabins be- ters led to the development of fuselage designs and
came common in the late 1940s. structures more suited to pressurization in all airliners,

During World War II (1939-1945), Britain, Germany, including new Comets. Meanwhile, Britain had also pro-
Japan, the United States, and other countries turned out duced the Vickers Viscount, a transport plane with pro-
thousands of military planes. As in World War I, engi- pellers driven by jet engines. These turboprop planes
neers made great advances in the design of bombers began to carry passengers in 1953.
and fighters. Bombers developed during World War II By the mid-1950s, U.S. engineers were also designing
could carry twice as heavy a load and travel nearly twice commercial jet airliners. In 958, the Boeing 707, a four-
1

as far without refueling as prewar bombers could. Early engine jetliner, began passenger service between the
in the war, fighter planes could reach a top speed of 300 United States and Europe. By 1960, two other U.S. jet
mph (480 kphl and climb to about 30,000 feet (9,100 me- transports the Douglas DC-8 and the Convair 880— had
ters). By the end of the war, they were flying more than begun passenger service. United States manufacturers
400 mph (640 kph) and climbing to over 40,000 feet also began to design a large jet that could carry several
(1 2,000 meters). Jet fighters could fly even faster, though hundred passengers or 50 to 00 short tons (45 to 90
1

they were not used until late in the war. In 1939, Ger- metric tons) of cargo. The first of these giants, the Lock-
many made the first successful jet plane flight. The heed C-5A Galaxy military transport, began service in the
Messerschmitt Me 262 was the first jet to fly combat U.S. Air Force in 1969. The world's first commercial jum-
missions. It flew them over Europe in 1 944 and 1 945. bo jet, the Boeing 747, began service in 1970. It could
This fighter could fly nearly 550 mph (885 kph). The Bell carry more than 400 passengers. Newer versions of the
Aircraft Company (now a division of Textron Incor- Boeing 747 can travel longer distances, flying 14 hours
porated) built the first U.S. jet plane in 1942. ormore without refueling.
German scientists had experimented with rocket Supersonic airplanes are among the newest devel-
planes as far back as 1928. Early in World War II, they de- opments in air transportation. These planes can fly faster
veloped the prototype Messerschmitt Me 163. This rock- than sound. At sea level, sound has a speed of about 760
et-powered plane could fly at over 600 mph (970 kph). mph (1 ,225 kph). But the speed of sound declines with al-
German engineers used it as a model for a fighter, the titude. At about 50,000 feet (1 5,250 meters), for example,
Me 163 Komet, which flew missions late in the war. sound normally travels at about 660 mph (1 ,060 kph). No
Transoceanic transports. Near the end of World early jet plane was powerful enough or sturdy enough
War II, manufacturers began to develop nonstop trans- to fly faster than sound. A few approached this speed.
oceanic transports for commercial airlines. Four-engine When they did, shock waves tore the planes apart.
transports developed during the war, such as the pres- About 1943, U.S. engineers began work on rocket re-
surized Douglas DC-4 and the Lockheed Constellation, search planes for supersonic flight. These planes had to
were widely used for long-distance commercial passen- withstand the terrific air pressures at Mach 1 (the speed
ger service after the war. But they had to stop for refuel- of sound). In 1947, the Bell X-1 rocket plane, piloted by
ing on the longest ocean flights. Nonstop transoceanic Charles E. Yeager, a U.S. Air Force captain, made the first

flights required more powerful engines. By 1945, jet en- supersonic flight in history. In 1962, the North American
gines had the necessary power, but they used so much X-1 5 rocketplane soared 314,750 feet (95,936 meters)—
fuel that a jet plane could fly only a short distance with- over 50 miles (80 kilometers) above the earth. Robert H.
out refueling. Instead of waiting for improved jet en- White, an Air Force major, piloted the plane. White thus
gines, the airlines built more powerful reciprocating en- became the first pilot to qualify as an astronaut by flying
gines. Two U.S. manufacturers created reciprocating an airplane into space. In 1963, the X-1 5 raised the alti-
engines of more than 3,000 horsepower (2,200 kilowatts) tude record to 354,200 feet (107,960 metersl-about 67
for the new transoceanic transports. These engines were miles (108 kilometers) above the earth. Later, it flew faster
used in the Douglas DC-7, the Lockheed Super Constel- than Mach 6 (six times the speed of sound). Speeds of
lation, and the Boeing 377 Stratocruiser. Each plane Mach 5 (five times the speed of sound) or higher are
could carry about 100 passengers nonstop between called hypersonic.
New York City and Paris at over 300 mph (480 kph). Meanwhile, engineers had developed jet engines ca-
The jet age. During the late 1940s, engineers worked pable of supersonic speeds. In 1953, the North American
to improve the crude jet engines built during World F-100 Super Sabre jet fighter became the first jet that
War II. The Soviet Union and the United States wanted could be operated at supersonic speeds in level flight
jet engines to increase the power and speed of their The first supersonic bomber was the U.S. Air Force's

bombers and fighters. By the time of the Korean War Convair B-58 Hustler. It flew for the first time in 1956.
(1950-1953), both countries had highly effective jet At first, all the new supersonic jets were military
planes. These planes included two famous fighters— the planes. Then in 1968, Soviet test pilots flew the world's
U.S. Air Force F-86 Sabre and the Soviet MiG-15. first supersonic transport (SST), the Tupolev Tu-144.

In Britain, engineers produced the world s first large Britain and France cooperated to build an SST, the
commercial jet airliner, the de Havilland Comet. Comets Concorde, which made its first test flight in 1969.
began passenger service in 1952. They flew at nearly 500 The Soviet Union began cargo service with the
mph (800 kph) with little vibration or noise.The cabin Tupolev Tu-144 in 1975 and started passenger service in
was pressurized for safety and comfort. Then, in two 1977. But in 1983, the Soviet Union withdrew the plane
 Airplane 239

from service because of technical and operational prob- General aviation planes
B.

lems. Britain and France began passenger service to the C

Military planes

United States with the Concorde in 1976. But all flights D. Seaplanes
E. Special-purpose planes
were suspended in 2000 after the crash of a Concorde in
II. The parts of an airplane
France following take-off. Traveling by supersonic airlin- A The wing
er has been very expensive because the planes have car- B. The fuselage
ried few passengers and have used large amounts of C The tail
fuel. The planes were also very noisy, so some coun- D. The landing gear
E. The controls and instruments
tries, including the United States, had restricted the
F. Propellers
Concorde to oceanic flights only. Ml Power for flight
Future developments. Engineers continue to search A Reciprocating engines
for ways to make airplanes faster, safer, quieter, and engines
B. Jet

more efficient One possible type of future airplane, C

Rocket engines
IV. Principles of flight
called a spaceplane or reusable launch vehicle (RLV),
would be powered by rocket engines. Spaceplanes
A Gravity and lift

Drag and thrust

B.
could be launched into Earth's orbit and return to Earth C Changing altitude
and land on a runway. While in orbit, they would cruise D. Changing direction
at speeds of up to Mach 15(15 times the speed of V. Flying an airplane

SOUnd). Drew Steketee and F. Robert van der Linden A. Basic movements and controls
B. Proper use of the controls
Related articles in World Book include:
C Stalling
Biographies D. Flying by instruments
E. Measuring flying speed
Alcock and Brown Hughes, Howard R.
Learning to fly
F.
Balchen, Bernt Langley, Samuel P.
VI Air navigation
Bennett, Floyd Leonardo da Vinci
A. Pilotage
Bianchard, Jean-Pierre Lindbergh, Charles A B. Dead reckoning
Bleriot, Louis Link, Edwin A C Radio navigation
Boeing, William E. Mitchell, Billy
D. Navigating across oceans
Byrd, Richard E. Montgolfier brothers
E. Safety
Cayley, Sir George Post, Wiley
VII Building an airplane
Coanda, Henri-Marie Saint-Exupery, Antoine de
A. Design and testing
Cochran, Jacqueline Santos-Dumont, Alberto
B. Mass production
Curtiss, Glenn H. Sikorsky, Igor I.
VIII History
De Seversky, Wilkins, Sir Hubert
Alexander P. Wright brothers Questions
Doolittle, James H. Yeager. Charles Elwood
What are ailerons'. What are they used for?
Earhart, Amelia Zeppelin, Ferdinand von
Who made the first solo nonstop flight across the Atlantic
Fokker, Anthony H. G.
Ocean?
Parts of an airplane What government agency sets standards for the design and
manufacture of airplanes in the United States?
Automatic flight control system
What three main types of engines are used to produce power
Gasoline engine
for airplane flight?
Gyroscope what ways did World War and World War contribute to
In I II

Jet propulsion
airplane development?
Magneto What four forces act on a plane in flight?
Propeller
What are an airplane s three basic movements?
Rocket What are the chief methods of air navigation?
Starter
Who was the first woman to fly solo across the Atlantic Ocean?
Other related articles What is a VSTOL plane?
Aerodynamics Global Positioning System Additional resources
Aerospace medicine Helicopter
Level I
Air force Hijacking
Inertial guidance
Harris, Nicholas. Rand McNally Airplanes: A Fold-Out Book.
Air Force, U.S.
Rand McNally, 1995.
Air turbulence Jet propulsion
Holland, Gini. Airplanes. Benchmark Bks., 1996.
Aircraft, Military Jet stream
Johnstone, Michael. Planes. Dorling Kindersley, 1994.
Aircraft carrier National Aeronautics and
Parker, Steve. l4//?afs/r?s/cfe/4/rp/a7?es/'Bedrick, 1995.
Airport Space Administration
The Story ot Flight Scholastic, 1995.
Airship Navigation
Weiss, Harvey. Strange and Wonderful Aircraft Houghton,
Autogiro Parachute
1995.
Aviation Radar
Balloon Starter (Airplane starters) Level II

Civil Air Patrol Streamlining Berk, William A and Frank Guide to Airport Airplanes. 2nd ed.
Contrail Test pilot Plymouth Pr.. 1996.
Ducted propeller VSTOL lanes All the World s Aircraft Janes, published annually.
Federal Aviation Weather (Measuring the Siuru, Bill, and Busick, D. Future Flight The Next Generation ot
J.

Administration weather) Aircraft Technology. 2nd ed. McGraw, 1994.

Glider Wind shear Tennekes, Henk. The Simple Science ot Flight: From Insects to
Jumbo Jets. MIT Pr., 19%.
Outline Welch. John F ed. Van Sickles Modem Airmanship. 7th ed. TAB.
Types of airplanes 1995.

A Commercial transport planes

240 Airplane, Model

Control-line model airplanes, above, have long wires attached to them. A person controls the
flight of such a plane by holding onto the wires as the model whirls around.

Airplane, Model, is a miniature airplane. It may be a planes can be purchased assembled and ready to fly.
copy of a full-sized plane or have an original design. There are five main kinds of model airplanes. They
Building model airplanes is a popular hobby. There are are (1) display, (2) indoor, (3) free-flight, (4) control-line,
flying and nonflying miniature aircraft of all types, in- and (5) radio control.
cluding gliders, helicopters, and commercial and mili- Display models cannot fly. Hobbyists build them
tary planes. Scientists also use scale models of aircraft with the goal of duplicating the appearance of full-

for testing before full-sized planes are built. They test

the models in wind tunnels, which duplicate the air
pressure and weather conditions of actual flight. See
Airplane (Design and testing); Wind tunnel.
Models may be powered by twisted rubber bands,
electric motors, gas or diesel engines, carbon dioxide,
or compressed air. Most model planes take off under
their own power, but some are thrown into the air.
In the mid-1 980s, over 100,000 people and more than
1,900 model airplane clubs belonged to the Academy of
Model Aeronautics (AMA). This organization regulates
official model airplane contests in the United States. It

also certifies flying records. Contest events include com-

petitions for distance, height, speed, and time aloft.
Hobbyists generally build model airplanes from kits
sold by hobby stores. Most kits of nonflying models
consist of plastic parts that the modeler glues together.
Balsa wood ranks as the most popular material for flying
models because it is so light, strong, and easy to work
with. Various kinds of synthetic materials may be used
for parts of a model that require extra strength, such as
the propeller and engine mounts. Hobbyists also build WORLD BOOK photo
models from plans published in books and magazines. A free-flight model airplane, above, has no wires. A small en-
Advanced modelers may design their own planes. Some gine powers this and many other flying model planes.
 Airplane pilot 241

A radio control glider

called a sailplane is about to

go airborne, left. Radio con-

trol models are controlled by
a transmitter that sends radio
signals to a tiny receiver in
the model. The receiver de-
codes the signals and feeds
the information to electric
motors. The motors control
the surfaces on the wings and
tail assembly, allowing the

model to maneuver.

sized aircraft in every possible detail. Some display be towed at the end of a cord— 100 feet (30 meters) or
models have movable propellers, doors, and landing more— and released. Such gliders have remained air-
gear. Hobbyists take care in painting these models to borne for many hours by flying in rising thermals.
make them look authentic. The models are judged at ex- Control-line models have piston or jet engines and
hibitions on the basis of workmanship and accuracy of fly at the end of wires. Most control-line models have

detail. Display models make attractive decorations in a two Dacron or steel wires that measure from 25 to 75
home. Modelers may display their planes by arranging feet (8 to 23 meters) long. One end of each wire is at-
them on shelves, hanging them from the ceiling by tached to the model and moves the plane's elevator, a
wires, or exhibiting them in display cases. control surface on the tail assembly. The other end is
Indoor models are flown only inside a building. fastened to a handle that the modeler uses to control
They fly slowly, and some can stay aloft as long as 45 the plane's altitude and flight path. When the hobbyist
minutes. An indoor model is powered by twisted tilts the handle up, one wire raises the elevator, pointing
strands of rubber that turn the propeller as they unwind. the nose of the plane upward. Tilting the handle down
These airplanes have a balsa frame covered by thin causes the other wire to lower the elevator and point
paper or a substance called microfilm. Microfilm is the plane's nose downward.
made by mixing lacquer and castor oil and floating the Some control-line models have only one line, which
mixture on water to form a clear, thin film. The modeler both raises and lowers the elevator. Others have a third
removes the film with a wire loop and applies it to the line that controls the engine power and thus the speed
plane's frame. Such models weigh ± ounce (1 gram) or of the plane. )et-powered control-line models have
less. They are too fragile to be flown outdoors, where flown nearly 250 miles (400 kilometers) per hour.
they might collapse at the slightest movement of air. In- Radio control models are controlled by means of a
door gliders are typically made entirely of balsa. transmitter that sends radio signals to the airplane. The
Free-flight models may be powered by rubber model decodes the sig-
carries a tiny radio receiver that
strands or have a piston engine. Engine-powered free- nals and passes the information to motor de-
electric
flight models run on a mixture of methyl alcohol, ni- vices called servos. The servos move control surfaces on
tromethane, and a lubricant. Diesel engines, using a mix- the wings and tail assembly, enabling the model to rise,
ture of kerosene, ether, and castor oil, are also used and sink, or turn. Servos also control the speed of the plane's

so are electric motors with rechargeable batteries. Such engine, lift and lower the landing gear, and open
models built for competitive flying typically have wings hatches from which parachutes can be dropped.
from 3 to 6 feet (0.9 to .8 meters) long. After launching,
1 Some radio control gliders rank among the largest
a free-flight model climbs straight up for 5 to 5 sec- 1 model airplanes. Theirwings measure from 9 to 16 feet
onds. A timing device then turns the engine off, and the (3 to 4.9 meters) long. These long wings enable the

plane goes into a slow glide for 3 to 5 minutes. Some plane to stay aloft for extended periods when steered
engine-powered free-flight models that do not have a into rising air currents. Radio control is also used to

timing device can fly in a circular pattern for hours. Fly- pilot model helicopters and racing and acrobatic model

ing in rising air currents called thermals helps them re- aircraft. lotin Worth
main airborne. Airplane pilot. See Air Line Pilots Association; Air-
A free-flight glider may be hand-launched or it may plane (Flying an airplane).
242 Airport

A major airport, such as Los Angeles International, shown here, may handle more than 200 take-
offs and landings per hour at peak times. Thousands ot passengers pass through the airport daily.

Airport
Airport is a place where airplanes and other aircraft emergencies these services can become vital.
take off and land, and load ana unload passengers and Airports airtei trom other transportation terminals,
cargo. Air travel has become the chief means ot long- such as bus or train stations, in two important ways:
distance transportation, and modern aircraft provide the (1
1 airports require more land, and (2) most airports are
safest means world s airports
of travel. Every day, the far from the centers of the cities they serve. An airport
handle millions of passengers flying on thousands of needs much more land to accommodate the same num-
commercial airplanes for business and leisure travel. ber of passengers as a bus or train station. A medium-
Airports are exciting places to see commercial airlin- sized city airport needs from 700 to 3,000 acres (280 to
ers, general aviation aircraft, and sometimes even mili- 1,200 hectaresl. The largest airport in the world in area—
tary aircraft Overhead, planes approach or depart. On King Khaiid International Airport near Riyadh, Saudi Ara-
the ground, one plane after another takes oft or lands. bia—covers 55,510 acres 122,464 hectares). The largest
Automobiles, buses, taxis, and even trains carry travelers airport in the United States,Denver International Air-
to and from the passenger terminal. Thousands of peo- port, has an area of approximately 34,000 acres (14,000
ple fill the terminal area. Most of them are passengers. hectares).
Others are employees of the airport, airlines, or com- National governments, state sponsored bodies, local
mercial establishments operating in the airport governments, and corporations own most of the world s

The largest airports resemble small cities. Many have large airports. Many small airports are privately owned.
hotels, restaurants, banks post offices, and shops, as In most countries, one or more federal agencies over-
well as their own police force, fire departments medical see airport certification, air safety pilot qualifications,
facilities, and utility plants and facilities. These services and the certification and inspection of aircraft. In the
and facilities are important and useful for passengers United States for example, those agencies are the
and employees at an airport. In addition, some of them Transportation Security Administration iTSAl and the
help produce the income necessary for the airport to Federal Aviation Administration irAAl. In Canada, the
operate successfully. During lengthy flight delays or agency is the Ministry of Transport; in India, the Min-
istry of Civil Aviation; and in the United Kingdom, the
Civil Aviation Authority. More than 160 countries, in-
Paul P. Bollinger )r the contributor ot this article is Vice Pres- cluding Australia Canada, India, South Africa, the Unit-
ident of Aviation Client S< rvit to HNTBCorpo ation ,i ofl-
<•.•.

ed Kingdom and the United States belong to the Inter-

,

sulting firm that plan*, and df.Hin< facilities

national Civil Aviation Organization ICAOl of the United
 Airport 243

Nations. The ICAO establishes standards for its mem-

bers in such areas as airport safety, operations, and air
traffic control.
In addition to licensing U.S. aircraft and pilots and cer-
tifying airports and airlines, the FAA regulates safety and
sets design and operations standards for airports. The
FAA also operates air navigational aids and controls air
traffic. The TSA, an organization within the U.S. Depart-
ment of Transportation, responsible for airport and
is

airline security in the United States.

Kinds of airports
Airports are classified in different ways in different
AP/Wide World
countries. The FAA classifies United States civilian air-
Airline personnel helping travelers at the check-in counter
ports as either commercial service airports or general
aviation airports. Military airfields make up a third classi-
fication.
Commercial service airports, also called air carrier
airports, serve planes of commercial airlines They may
also serve such small aircraft as business, charter, or pri-
vate planes. Nearly all major civilian airports are com-
mercial service airports.
A commercial service airport may serve regional, na-
tional,or major airlines— or a combination of these
types. Regional airlines generally fly short routes using
smaller aircraft and connect small communities with
one or two large airports. However, some regional jets
flyroutes of up to 1,000 miles (1,600 kilometers). National
airlines fly from large airports as well as smaller ones,
and they use both large and small jet aircraft Major air-
revenues Kent The Slock Market
lines Are large air carriers that generate annual
of more than $1 billion in U.S. dollars. They generally Workers loading food for passengers' meals
provide both national and international flights.
Most airports that handle international flights have the ians, aircraft that can land and take off on water or land.

word international \n their names. International airports Seaplane bases may be on bays, lakes, or rivers. Most
serve airlines of both their own country and other coun- seaplane bases have onshore facilities to service the air-
tries. craft. The world's busiest seaplane base is in Anchorage,

General aviation airports serve all types of aircraft Alaska.

except scheduled airliners—planes that operate over Military airfields are airports operated by the armed
specified routes on a timetable. They serve business, forces. Some such as the U.S. Air National
military units,
charter, and private aircraft as well as scheduled air Guard, share facilities at commercial airports. Military
taxis,which carry passengers between towns and to and airfields range in size from small fields for light planes

from commercial service airports. In addition, general to huge airports for heavy jet bombers.
aviation airports handle small aircraft used for aerial sur-
Airport facilities
veys, crop-dusting, and flight instruction. Airports that
handle only specialized aircraft, such as helicopters or An airport s facilities depend on the size of the com-
seaplanes, also fall into this category. munity it serves, the area of land it covers, and the type
There are thousands of general aviation airports rang-
ing from small grass or gravel strips to large, busy air-
ports that handle huge corporate jets. The FAA classifies
all general aviation airports— except those that serve
only specialized aircraft-in four groups. The classifica-
tions are based on the size of the planes the airports can
handle. Basic utility airports serve single-engine and
some small twin-engine, propeller-driven planes. Gener-
al utility airports can handle slightly heavier propeller
aircraft. Basic transport airports can accommodate small
jet airplanes. General transport airports handle all types
of aircraft.
Special classifications of general aviation airports in
elude heliports and seaplane bases Heliports are areas
where helicopters land and take off. A heliport may be
on the ground, the roof of a building, or the deck ol ,i i hns Sorensen

ship. Seaplane bases are used by seaplanes and amphib- Air traffic controllers directing aircraft movements
244 Airport

An overview of Airports provide facilities for aircraft and their crews, passengers, and cargo. The airport dia-

an airport gramed below is designed on the satellite plan. In this plan, departing passengers enter the main
terminal, then go to separate terminals called satellite terminalsXo board their planes.The control
tower is a navigation center from which air traffic controllers direct aircraft movements. The airport
also has hangars in which aircraft are stored and repaired, runways where the planes take off and
land, and cargo areas.
WORLD BOOK diagram by Russ Coombs, Steven Edsey and Sons

Runway

Runway

of air service it provides. This section deals chiefly with Passengers board and leave aircraft from openings
the numerous provided by most large commer-
facilities most large airports, an enclosed walk-
called gates. At
cial service airports. The subsection Planning and build- way called a boarding bridge— or, under a common
ing an airport later in this article discusses different trade name, a /eftva^connects the terminal gate with
types of designs for airport passenger terminals. the aircraft during boarding. Arriving passengers pick
The passenger terminal. Passengers begin and end up their luggage at a baggage claim area in the passen-
their flights at the passenger terminal. Airports may have ger terminal.
one or more terminal buildings. At airline ticket coun- Many of the activities in the passenger terminal take
ters, departing passengers purchase tickets, have their place behind the walls or under the floor. These activi-
tickets checked, and receive boarding passes. They also ties include the transport of baggage and cargo from
can leave their baggage to be loaded into the airplane's the ticket counter to the aircraft. In addition, airlines
cargo hold. Loudspeakers, flight monitors, and electron- maintain offices in these areas.
ic message boards announce flight arrivals and depar- Each airline has a briefing room, where pilots receive
tures. Boarding lounges provide seats for waiting travel- flight information. The briefing room includes a dispatch
ers and airline crews. office, which handles communications with the airline's

W IK! I) BOOK diagrams In Linbecker Butler & Associates

The terminal area many airports has three main levels that handle a variety of activities. An
of ad-
ditional underground level may provide links with mass transportation and intra-airport trains.
 Airport 245

operations center and with its airplanes, both on the apron to the runways and from the runways to the
ground and in flight The airport manager and the man- hangars. Many large airports have double taxiways so
agement staff, who oversee the operation of the airport, aircraft can move to and from the runways and hangars
also have offices at the airport atthe same time. At night, the taxiways are marked with
Hangars are buildings in which aircraft are stored blue lights. Red lights are used to mark any barriers or
and repaired. Most airlines have their own hangars. other dangers.
Some hangars can hold several large jets at one time. Ground transportation and parking. Large airports
Most airports locate hangars far enough from the termi- provide roadways alongside the terminal buildings
nal building to avoid interference with aircraft traffic on where airport buses, hotel vans, private automobiles,
the ground. limousines, and taxis can pick up and drop off passen-
The control tower is the air traffic nerve center. In gers. Some
airports are connected to the city center by
the tower, air traffic controllers use radar, radio, signal light railsystems or subways.
lights, and other equipment to direct air traffic near the All airports maintain parking facilities. Most large air-
airport as well as movements of aircraft on the ground. ports have multistory parking garages, which take less
Control towers at the busiest airports may handle more land than parking lots do to hold the same number of
than 200 landings and take-offs an hour during peak pe- cars. Parking provides a major source of revenue for
riods. Large, tinted windows enable controllers to see many airports.
all the aircraft in motion at the airport Some control
Airport operations
towers are over 200 feet (60 meters) tall.
Runways must be long enough and wide enough to The airport manager and the management staff direct
handle the largest planes using the airport They must the maintenance, operation, and safety of the entire air-

be as level as possible. However, runways slope slightly port In some may be responsible for sev-
regions, they
from the center toward each side to provide good eral airports. The management staff at a large airport is
drainage. A government body usually sets minimum divided into several departments, such as administra-
runway lengths for different types of aircraft Many small
airports use only strips of mowed grass called landing
strips. Some of these strips are only 2,000 to 2,500 feet
(610 to 760 meters) long. The runways of large airports VVorld s 25 busiest airports
are paved with concrete or asphalt These runways may
Aircraft
be as long as 13,000 to 14,000 feet (4,000 to 4,300 meters) Passenger take-offs
to handle the biggest planes. Runways must have a clear departures and
Airport and arrivals' landings
zone at each end to give aircraft additional space to take
off or land without endangering people or property on 1. Hartsfield International
the ground. (Atlanta) 80,171,000 916,000
Lines painted down
the center and sides and across 2. O Hare International (Chicago) 72,135,000 908,000
the ends of runways guide pilots in the air and on the 3. Los Angeles International 68,478,000 561,000
ground. Numbers painted on each end of a runway tell 4. Heathrow (London) 64,607,000 467,000

pilots the compass direction in which the runway is laid 5. Dallas/Fort Worth
International 60,687,000 838,000
out For example, the numbers 18 and 36 indicate a
6. Tokyo International 56,402,000 256,000
north-south runway. The number 18 (an abbreviation for
7. Frankfurt 49,360,000 459,000
180°) is painted on the north end of the runway, and the
8. Charles de Gaulle (Paris) 48,240,000 518,000
number 36 (360°) appears on the south end. Most air- 9. San Francisco International 41,174,000 429,000
ports design runways in at least two directions so 10. Schiphol (Amsterdam) 39,605,000 432,000
planes can take off and land as nearly as possible into 11. Denver International 38,749,000 509,000
the wind. 12. McCarran International
At night and other periods of low visibility, white (Las Vegas) 35,856,000 515,000
lights outline each runway, and green lights mark the 13. Kimpo International (Seoul) 36,727,000 236,000
beginning of a runway. Red and white approach lights 14. Minneapolis-SL Paul
International 36,688,000 523,000
shine just in front of the area where a plane should
15. Sky Harbor (Phoenix) 35,890,000 637,000
touch down.
16. Detroit Metropolitan
Loading aprons and taxiways. The aircraft parking
Wayne County 35,535,000 555.000
area the gates of the passenger terminal is called a
at
17. Houston Intercontinental 35,246,000 484,000
loading apron or tarmac. Although the word tarmac 18. Newark International 34,195,000 449,000
originally referred to a paving material made of crushed 19. Miami International 33,570,000 517,000
rock and tar, the apron is actually made of concrete or 20. John F. Kennedy International
asphalt because these materials better resist damage (New York City) 32,779,000 345,000
from heat and fuel leaks. While an airplane is on the 21. Barajas (Madrid) 32,766,000 358,000
apron, workers refuel it and load baggage, cargo, and 22. Hong Kong International 32,747,000 194,000

meals for the passengers. The crew and passengers 23. Gatwick (London) 32,057,000 261,000

board airplanes on the loading apron. A small airport 24. Orlando International 30,823,000 368,000
25. Lambert-SL Louis
may service only 1 or 2 aircraft on the apron at one time.
International 30,547,000 481,000
Large airports may accommodate more than 100 planes
.i jiHine tr^mi
at once. - drf lor 2000

Aircraft use lanes called taxiways to taxi from the Soun «• Airt,K>rtN I ouixil Intrrruttorul. Geneva.
246 Airport

WORLD BOOK photo

Cargo handling is major airport activity. Many airlines have special cargo planes
a Refueling is one of the important activities
like the one above. Workers pack small cargo items in containers shaped to fit the carried out while a plane stands outside the
airplane s interior. They load the cargo through the planes wide door. terminal between flights.

tion, finance, operations, maintenance, planning, engi- Cargo handling. Most airports use the term cargo
neering, safety, security, and public The airport
affairs. for mail and all other freight carried by aircraft except
staff worksto ensure that the airport operates safely and baggage. Much air cargo includes items that spoil rapid-
efficiently.Every day, the staff checks the safety of the ly, such as flowers, fruits, vegetables, seafood, and med-

airport s terminal, taxiways and runways, parking areas, ical supplies, including organs for transplant. Other typi-

and roadways. cal air cargo includes such products as electronic

An airport must operate like a business. Airports rent products and machinery parts. Both cargo aircraft and
space to the airlines for offices, check-in counters, and passenger aircraft carry cargo.
baggage areas. In addition, airports give leases to Large airports have several separate terminals for car-
restaurants, gift shops, hotels, and car rental agencies. go processing. Cargo brought in from the surrounding

The leases provide revenue to pay for the operation and area is often sorted at the airport for various flights.
development of the airport. In addition, the airport re- Postal workers sort any mail. Carts, towed by small vehi-
ceives income from parking lots, telephones and adver- cles called tugs, then carry the cargo to the apron,
tisements in the terminal, and landing fees paid by the where workers load it into passenger or cargo aircraft
airlines. Most commercial service airports also get in- Small aircraft services. Commercial service airports
come from a passenger facility charge, a small fee as- must provide many services for small planes that are not
sessed on each passenger's ticket operated by commercial airlines. In the United States,
Airline passenger services. Airline workers provide these small planes account for about 1 percent of the
many services for passengers at commercial airports. most large commercial service airports and ap-
traffic at

Ticket counter employees sell tickets, check

passen-
in proximately 65 percent of the flights at small commercial
gers who already have tickets, and provide information service airports. A Fixed Base Operator provides these
about the times and gates for flight arrivals and depar- small aircraft with such services as fuel, hangars, me-
tures. A passenger's ticket may be a printed ticket or an chanical maintenance, ground transportation, and food.
e-ticket, a ticket purchased over the telephone or the In- Air traffic control. In the control tower, the air traffic
ternet and recorded electronically with the airline. Ticket controllers guide aircraft as they land, take and taxi.
off,

counter agents use airline computer systems to quickly The controllers see that the traffic keeps moving
print boarding passes and baggage tags. Ticket kiosks at smoothly, rapidly, and safely. They must have good eye-
some airports enable passengers to check themselves in sight, speak clearly over the radio, and think quickly The
without the aid of a ticket agent. controllers must also remain calm during periods of
Ticket counter workers also check in passengers' bag- heavy air traffic. Their job becomes especially difficult
gage. Baggage handlers and ramp agents (workers that when fog or other weather conditions reduce visibility.
service aircraft between flights) see that baggage is In such situations, the controllers must rely entirely on
loaded on the correct flights. After a plane reaches its radar to locate and guide aircraft in flight.
destination, handlers unload bags and transport them to Planes approach or depart on assigned routes called
the baggage claim area. Instruments in aircraft cockpits electroni-
traffic patterns.
Other airline workers include an airline station man- cally displayan airport's traffic patterns for pilots to fol-
ager, who oversees passenger services, and reserva- low. When necessary, a pilot can safely fly without in-
tions agents, who keep records of flight reservations. struments if the weather is clear enough to see other
The dispatch staff maintains contact with planes in the aircraftand the airport.
air and with other airports that the airline serves. The control tower has several types of electronic all-
 Airport 247

Airport terms helps controllers prevent midair collisions by choosing

the safest route for pilots to follow.
Air carrier airport an airport that serves planes ot commer-
is
The MLS is a precision landing aid similar to the ILS.
cial airlines. may also serve other types of air-
Air carrier airports
craft, such as business, charter, or private planes.
The MLS provides additional information to help the pi-
Cargo is all freight, except baggage, carried by an airplane. lot select the most appropriate approach path for each

Closed in means an airport is closed to air traffic because of type of aircraft. Pilots of helicopters and small aircraft
bad weather. are thus able to select shorter and steeper approaches
Control tower is a glass-enclosed booth equipped with radar, to the runway than those selected by pilots of larger air-
radio, lights, and other navigation aids for directing aircraft
craft
movements on the ground and in the air. Air traffic controllers
work in the tower or in buildings called air route traffic control The GPS uses a network of navigation satellites to en-
centers. able pilots anywhere on earth to determine their loca-
Gate is the airport terminal entryway passengers use when tion.These satellites send out radio signals that are
boarding or leaving planes. Each airliner is assigned a gate posi- picked up by receivers on the aircraft. GPS equipment
tionior loading or unloading passengers.
can compute an aircraft's position, speed, and time
General aviation airport is an airport that does not serve
scheduled airlines. General aviation airports serve mostly air
every second. The system bases the calculations on the
taxis and business, charter, and private planes. distances between the satellites and the receiver. See
General aviation traffic is all air traffic except scheduled airline Global Positioning System.
flights. Airport security. Commercial service airports world-
Loading apron is the paved area around the terminal where wide maintain a high level of security to prevent such
passengers board and leave planes, and
aircraft are serviced,
dangerous activity as terrorist hijackings and bombings.
baggage and cargo are loaded and unloaded.
Taxiway is a paved lane aircraft use to move between the TSA personnel search airplanes for hidden weapons
apron, hangars, and runways. Aircraft follow a taxi route to reach and explosives. They also inspect passengers' baggage
a take-off point or parking area. before it goes onto the plane. Passengers must pass
Terminal is the main airport building for passenger services. It
through electronic scanners that detect guns, knives,
also houses employees and the airport man-
offices of airline
and other metal objects.
agement staff.
The federal government has established security reg-
ulations for all the United States.
air carrier airports in
The regulations include rules on inspection of planes,
weather landing equipment to help bring planes down baggage, and passengers. The airports are required to
safely. Most commercial airports have an electronic aid have law enforcement personnel on the premises as
called an Instrument Landing System (ILS). The ILS sends part of their security programs. Federal legislation
radio signals to receivers on an airplane. The airplane passed after terrorist attacks in the United States in Sep-
receivers show the pilot whether the plane is to the left, tember 2001 set deadlines for increased security meas-
right, above, below, or directly on the correct approach ures at airports. These measures include screening all
path to the airport. checked baggage for explosives. The new law also
Other navigation aids include Airport Surveillance transferred responsibility for passenger and baggage
Radar (ASR), the Microwave Landing System (MLS), and screening from personnel employed by private security
the Global Positioning System (GPS). The ASR gives traf- firms to federal employees.
fic controllers a view of all aircraft activity within about Other operations. Some airline and privately con-
50 miles (80 kilometers) of the airport. This information tracted employees work in the hangars. There, trained

Making instrument The Instrument Landing 5y5fe/77(ILS) sends radio signals to receivers on a plane. A vertical localizer

landings beam guides the plane to the runway. A glide-slope beam shows the angle on which the plane
should descend. Marker beacons or special signals indicate the distance to the runway.
WORLD BOOK diagram by Einbecker-Butler & Associates

•
Outer marker beacon Middle marker beacon

Localizer transmitter
Localizer beam
and antenna

Flight
path End of runway

Clide-slope beam Touchdown

•
End of runway

Approach lights
mile (0.8 kilometer) to runway

5 miles (8 kilometers) to runway

248 Airport

© Tim Boyle. Getty Image;

Security checks at airports help prevent hijacking of planes. Passengers walk An airline mechanic works to keep aircraft
through a device that detects metal objects. Security personnel may also use a hand- in Mechanics perform
safe flying condition.
held scanner, shown here, to be certain a passenger carries no concealed weapons. routine checks and make needed repairs.

mechanics repair planes and other employees keep about the site that has been chosen.
records of spare parts needed for urgent repairs. Many Following approval by the community and the federal
airline employees work in the apron area. Some direct government, funding for the airport must be arranged.
aircraft into parking spaces. Mechanics check the en- Voters may be asked to approve a bond issue to help
gines and other equipment Some employees clean the pay for the new facility. The governmental body then
interior of airplanes between flights. After all the work contracts with an architectural firm, an engineering firm,
has been completed, the captain of an aircraft notifies contractors and suppliers, and perhaps a project man-
the dispatch office that the flight is ready to leave. agement firm to design and build the airport The actual
Airlines contract with commercial flight kitchens to construction of a major airport usually takes three to five
prepare food for passengers on some flights. Dietitians years.
plan the menus, chefs do the cooking, and food han- Few cities build new airports. Instead, most cities ex-
dlers transport the meals to waiting aircraft pand or renovate their existing airports. Planners pre-
At most U.S. airports, FAA employees operate the pare a document called an airport master plan. The plan
control tower and maintain electronic equipment in the shows the airport's present facilities and describes how
tower. The workers who do passenger and baggage in- the airport should be developed to meet future needs.
spection in U.S. airports are also federal employees. These plans generally show the location of new run-
Other federal workers at airports include postal work- ways and terminal buildings so these areas can be pro-
ers, Customs Service and Immigration Service person- tected for future development. The nation's government
nel, and security personnel. often funds such plans.
Many large commercial service airports have a station As cities allow homes and businesses to be built near
for their national weather service. Airports and airlines an airport, they decrease the ability of the airport to
typically use private weather services to check condi- grow in the future. Airports, airlines, the federal govern-
tions in specific areas of interest Such services provide ment, and local communities must all work together to
airlines, pilots, and airport operators with world and na- ensure that airports operate safely and efficiently.
tional weather information. Terminal designs. Designs for airport passenger ter-
minals use one of three types of plans. These plans are:
Airport development
(1) linear, (2) pier, and (3) satellite.

Planning and building an airport takes a long time In a linear plan, arriving and departing passengers en-
because of the environmental and economic issues that ter and exit the terminal at various points along the
must be considered. When a governmental body wishes building s curb. Aircraft also park along the length of the
to build an airport, it may take several years and many building. This arrangement results in short walking dis-
studies before construction can begin. The first step is tances for passengers. Linear plans work best for pas-
to hire an airport planning firm to select the best site for sengers beginning or ending their trips. Such plans are
the new airport The planners evaluate each potential less efficient, however, for passengers or baggage
site for many factors, including environmental impact, transferring between flights.
distance to the city, homes and businesses that must be A pier plan has a central terminal building with a pier
moved, and difficulty of building on the terrain. The gov- or passageway called a concourse that extends onto the
ernmental body then holds public hearings where elect- apron where the airplanes park. Although this type of
ed officials and the public can express their opinions plan may create longer walking distances, it allows
 '

Airport 249

Types of airport Common terminal designs include linear, pier, and satellite plans. In a linear plan, passengers ar-
passenger terminals rive at pointsalong the length of the building, and the planes park along the other side. A pier plan
has a central terminal with piers that extend onto the apron where the aircraft park. In a satellite
plan, people board and leave planes from separate satellite terminals.

Passenger

-Taxiway
terminals
Passenger Taxiway s^
+ terminals
Apron
Apron

Parking

Control Parking
tower %
Passenger
Control
terminal
tower

Parking
Runways

Passenger
terminal

WORLD BOOK diagrams by Russ Coombs. Steven Edsey and Sons

Linear plan Pier plan Satellite plan

more aircraft to park near the building. It also centralizes Outline

such functions as baggage handling, ticketing, and I. Kinds of airports
check-in. Many modern pier terminals have moving A Commercial service airports
sidewalks to help passengers who have to walk long B. General aviation airports
distances. C Military airfields
II. Airport facilities
In a satellite plan, passengers board aircraft from ter-
A The passenger terminal
minals called satellite terminals. Passengers travel from B. Hangars
the main terminal to a satellite terminal by riding a shut- C The control tower
tle or a driverless electric rail car called a people mover. D. Runways
Shuttles and people movers run at ground level, over- E. Loading aprons and taxiways
F. Ground transportation and parking
head, or underground from the main terminal. The satel-
III. Airport operations
lite plan enables a greater number of aircraft to park at a
A Airline passenger services
terminal and shortens walking distances. B. Cargo handling
Airport noise. When airports were built years ago, C Small aircraft services
they lay far from cities and people s homes. However, as D. Air traffic control
Airport security
cities have grown, more people have come to live near
E.

Other operations
F.
airports. As a result, aircraft noise has become an in-
IV. Airport development
creasing problem. In the United States, federal noise A Planning and building an airport
laws have resulted in airlines phasing out old, noisy air- B. Terminal designs
craft and purchasing quieter new planes, or replacing C Airport noise

engine parts on existing aircraft. In addition, airports

Questions
sometimes obtain federal funds to buy homes affected What security regulations do airports follow to prevent hijack-
by noise or to pay for the soundproofing of schools, li- ing attempts?
braries, and homes. At many airports, pilots must follow What things are shown in an airport master plan?
specific approach and departure patterns to reduce the What do the numbers on runways mean?
impact of noise on populated areas. How do commercial service airports differ from general aviation
airports?
Paul P. Bollinger, |r.
What are some functions of federal employees at airports?
Related articles. See the Transportation section in the vari-
What is the job of the airport management staff?
ous city, country, state, and province articles. See also: What are some of the navigation aids used by air traffic con-
Airmail trollers?
Airplane \\ hat are some major sources of revenue at commercial air-
Aviation ports
Federal Aviation Administration \\ hat are some
of the responsibilities of the FAA?
Radar What Is the largest airport in the world? In the United States?
 Goodyear

During the 1920"s and 1930s, the United States Navy airship Today's airships are often used for commercial purposes. The
Los Angeles, shown here, performed such military tasks as es- Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company operates several blimps,
corting ships and patrolling coastal waters. which serve mainly as advertising or public relations craft

Airship is a lighter-than-air aircraft with an engine that 46 meters) in length. They cruise at approximately 35 to
moves it through the air. Airships also normally have 40 miles (56 to 65 kilometers) per hour at heights reach-
equipment for steering. The main body of a typical air- ing about 10,000 feet (3,050 meters).
ship is a huge, cigar-shaped balloon filled with a lighter- The U.S. Navy's B-class nonrigid airships, built in 1917,
than-air gas.The gas raises the craft and keeps it aloft gave rise to the term blimp for nonrigid craft The term
An from a free-floating balloon, which
airship differs came from B-nonrigid, or Blimp.
is neither powered nor steered. Airships also differ from Rigid airships, the largest airships, have a greater
helicopters and airplanes, which are heavier than air. carrying capacity than nonrigid craft But few are flown
Helicopters and airplanes use their engines and blades today. The main body of a rigid airship is called the hull.
or wings to lift them and keep them aloft Most early rigid craft had a hull consisting of a wooden
Airships were introduced in the 1800s as the first fly- or metal framework that supported the outer skin. To-
ing machines capable of prolonged flight and of being day, composite materials can be used. The most famous
steered. This feature led to the craft being called dirigi- rigid airships were called zeppelins, after Count Ferdi-
bles, which comes from the Latin word mean-
dirigere, nand von Zeppelin, a German airship pioneer.
ing to direct In World War I were
(1914-1918), airships Zeppelins were cigar-shaped and ranged from about
used as bombers, for protecting ships against subma- 400 feet (1 20 meters) to over 800 feet (240 meters) long.
rine attack, and for other duties. Before and after the Advanced models could reach speeds of about 80 miles
war, they were used to carry passengers. Airship pas- (130 kilometers) per hour. Inside the hulls were several
senger services reached their height in the 1930s, but a compartments, called gas cells, that held the lifting gas.

series of disastrous crashes and the increasing populari- Many hulls contained corridors along which cargo,
ty and long-range capability of the airplane brought air- crew quarters, and the fuel tanks were located
ship passenger services to an end. Today, several coun- Semirigid airships became fairly common in the ear-
tries have shown a renewed interest in airships for ly 1900s. They often resembled nonrigid ships, except

advertising, cargo operations, passenger transport, that a support ran along most of the length of the enve-
recreational flying, and surveillance. lope and helped maintain its shape and distribute loads.
Semirigid airships were often larger than nonrigid craft
Types of airships
A few semirigid craft are being developed and flown to-
There are three main types of airships: (1 nonrigid air-
) day, but they are far less common than nonrigid craft
ships,(2) rigid airships, and (3) semirigid airships.

Nonrigid airships were the first airships and are the

How airships fly
most popular type today. They have no major internal Lift is the force that raises an airship off the ground
structures and no outer framework. Gas pressure causes and keeps it aloft. Airships generate lift because the gas
the outer skin, called the envelope, to keep its shape. they contain has a lower density than the air outside the
Modern envelopes are made of synthetic materials. craft. Airships hold enough of this lighter-than-air gas to

The smallest airships have been nonrigid craft Some overcome their own weight and rise from the ground.
have measured less than 75 feet (23 metersl long. The Early airships contained hydrogen, the lightest of all

largest nonrigid airships were the United States Navy's gases. But hydrogen is highly flammable, which was an
ZPC-3W airships. These craft were flown from 1958 to important factor in a number of airship disasters. As a
1962 and were used for airborne early-warning duties. result, helium replaced hydrogen for use in airships.
Each ZPC-3W measured about 403 feet (1 23 meters) Thrust is the force that moves an airship through the
long. Today's nonrigid airships average about 1 50 feet air. Most airships use engines and propellers to obtain
 Airship 251

thrust On large rigid airships of the early 1900s, the en- lowed airships a limited amount of movement to help
gines and propellers were in gondolas (cars) attached to them survive high winds. To enter rigid craft, the crew
the hull. Such craft had separate gondolas for the pas- and passengers passed up a staircase within the mast
sengers and crew. On most nonrigid and semirigid air- Low mooring masts were developed to secure non-
ships, engines are mounted on a gondola that also rigid airships close to the ground. The crew and passen-
holds the crew and passengers. gers can board these craft directly into the gondola.
Control. Most airships have tail structures that in- Some modern airships do not require masts at all.
clude fins, rudders, and elevators. Fins are large, fixed
History
surfaces. Typically, four fins are set equally distant from
one another around the ship's stern (rear). The smaller, The first airships evolved from balloons. Henri Gif-
movable rudders and elevators are surfaces attached to fard, a French engineer, built and piloted the first pow-
the fins. A pilot moves the rudders to steer and the ele- ered airship. As with many balloons, ropes covered the
vators to raise or lower the ship's nose. envelope and hung down to support an open gondola.
For improved control, many early airships carried But unlike the ball-shaped balloons, Giffard's airship was
weight called ballast, usually water. If rain or other cigar-shaped, and the gondola supported a 3-horsepow-
weather conditions made the craft heavier in flight, the er (2.2-kilowatt) steam engine. A saillike rudder was car-
pilot could release ballast to lighten the craft and thus ried in the gondola.
maintain altitude. Some modern airships carry ballast On Sept 24, 1852, Giffard flew his craft about 17 miles
Bailonets are air-filled bags or compartments inside (27 kilometers) from Paris to Trappes, near Versailles, at
the envelope of nonrigid and semirigid craft. Bailonets an average speed of 5 miles (8 kilometers) per hour. The
help maintain the shape of the envelope. If gas pressure small rudder and engine enabled him to alter his
in the envelope decreases, air is pumped into the bai- course, but the craft was not properly steerable.
lonets so that the envelope will not sag. Bailonets can In 1884, Charles Renard and Arthur Krebs, two French
also be used to stiffen the envelope of a rigid airship. inventors, completed La France. This airship had a
Storage. Early airships were kept in huge hangars or battery-powered electric motor that produced about 9
sheds, but moving the craft in and out of these shelters horsepower (7 kilowatts). It also had an efficient rudder
sometimes proved disastrous. Engineers partly solved and elevator. Renard and Krebs flew La France around a
the problem when they developed the mooring mast, a 5-mile (8-kilometer) circular course near Paris at speeds
high, stable tower to which an airship could be an- over 14 miles (23 kilometers) per hour. In 1901, the
chored without touching the ground. The bow of the Brazilian-born inventor Alberto Santos-Dumont com-
airship was secured to the tower. Mooring masts al- pleted a controlled journey around the Eiffel Tower in

Kinds of airships There are three main types of airships. A nonrigid airship has no framework supporting its gas-
filled envelope (outer skin). In a semirigid airship, supports brace the craft's gas-filled bag. An
extensive inner framework, usually of wood or metal, supports the gas bags of a rigid airship.
WORLD BOOK illustrations by Tony Cibbons. Linden Artists Ltd-

Gas bag
" r "^^
Nonrigid Airship

Envelope

Sraang' "Si*'*•• -

Supports /
7
>*TTj

Main "^^ I

frame Gondola
Engine
gondolas
Semirigid Airship

Fins
Main
Gas ba 9 Engines . A ***IJ~ Gondola
frame
Outer 'raming

Catwalk
Control
Rigid Airship
gondola
252 Airship

Paris. His adventures won him great popularity.

David Schwarz of Austria designed the first truly rigid
airship. His craft flew on Nov. 3, 1897. But due to windy
conditions, mechanical problems, and an inexperienced
pilot, the craft crashed.
The zeppelins. Count Ferdinand von Zeppe-
In 1900,
lin flew his first It was 420 feet (128 me-
airship, the LZ-1.
ters) long and could reach a top speed of about 1 7 miles
(27 kilometers)per hour. It made only three flights be-
cause it was underpowered and lacked proper control.
Zeppelin completed the LZ-2 in 1905, and he launched
the LZ-3 in 1906. The German Army later made the LZ-3
the first military zeppelin.
In 1909, Zeppelin helped establish the world's first
commercial airline, known as DELAG. The Deutschland,
DELAG's first airship, was over 485 feet (148 meters) long
and had three 120-horsepower (90-kilowatt) engines.
From 1910 to 1913, over 34,000 passengers flew by zep-
pelin airships on DELAG flights.
World War I. During World War Germany used I,

zeppelins and other airships to patrol the North Sea and \p.\s SvndKdte Co, Inc.

scout enemy craft and positions. Germany was also the The Hindenburg explosion marked the end of regular passen-
only country to make major use of rigid airships for ger service on airships. In 1937, this German airship, one of the
largest ever built, burst into flames while approaching its dock in
strategic bombing. But the frequent raids over England
Lakehurst, New jersey. The envelope and hydrogen gas ig-
ship's
caused little damage. The largest user of rigid airships nited, causing an explosion. Thirty-six people died in the disaster.
during the war was the German Naval Airship Division.
It received about 70 zeppelin and Schiitte-Lanz craft

Due to accidents, bad weather, and enemy fire, 53 of The Hindenburg. Construction and operation of
these airships were lost The capabilities of zeppelins rigid airships in Germany came to a swift end following
improved dramatically. For example, the L-59 once flew the destruction of the Hindenburg. One of the largest
4,200 miles (6,800 kilometers) nonstop. Its five engines airships ever built, the Hindenburg was about 804 feet
could produce speeds of over 60 miles (95 kilometers) (245 meters) long and 135 feet (41 meters) wide. It had a
per hour. volume of 7,062,100 cubic feet (199,980 cubic meters)
The United Kingdom built and operated a large num- and cruised at 78 miles (126 kilometers) per hour. On
ber of nonrigid airships during the war. British airships May 6, 1937, while approaching its docking in Lakehurst,
primarily protected ships from submarine attack. The New Jersey, the Hindenburg exploded. Of the 97 people
United States used nonrigid airships for some overwa- on board, 35 were killed. In addition, one member of the
ter patrol duties and antisubmarine warfare. Other coun- ground crew was killed. The ship's envelope material
tries that used airships during the war included France and hydrogen gas had ignited, leading to an explosion.
and Italy. The Hindenburg disaster marked the end of the use of
Between world wars. After World War airships I, airships for regular passenger services. In addition, de-
became bigger, faster, and stronger. For example, in velopment of rigid airships ended.
1919, the United Kingdom s rigid R-34 made the first World War II to the present The evolution of the
transatlantic crossing by an airship. In 1926, the Italian- airplane contributed greatly to the decreased use of the
built semirigid Norge became the first airship to fly over military nonrigid airship during World War II (1939-
the North Pole. The replacement of hydrogen with heli- 1945). The U.S. Navy made the only significant use of
um to prevent airship disasters began in the 1920s, on nonrigid airships during the war, flying mainly its K-class
U.S. craft airships. Most of these craft patrolled U.S. coastal waters
In the 1920s and 1930s, the U.S. Navy experimented and escorted surface ships there.
with giant rigid airships. The Akron, launched in 1931, In the late 1950s, the Navy introduced its ZPG-3W
and the Macon, launched in 1933, carried fighter air- nonrigid airships. One ZPG-3W craft crashed at sea in

planes. While in flight, these airships could launch and everyone on board. This crash con-
1960, killing nearly
receive the planes. In April 1933, the Akron went down tributed to ending the use of nonrigid airships for mili-
in a storm off the coast of New Jersey, killing 73 people. tary operations.
In February 1935, bad weather forced the Macon into Today, there has been a significant revival of airships.
the sea off the coast of California, killing two people and Most airship companies produce nonrigid craft for
ending U.S. construction of rigid airships. commercial and recreational purposes. Some manufac-
The most successful rigid airship ever built was the turers also design and build large rigid airships for pas-
German LZ-127 Graf Zeppelin. Between 1928 and 1937, senger and heavy cargo operations. Other companies
the Graf Zeppelin flew more than 1 million miles (1.6 mil have created hybrid craft that rely on modified wings or
lion kilometers) and carried over 13,000 passengers, other devices to help produce lift in addition to that pro-
many of them overseas. In August 1929, it made the first vided by gas. Mil hael H, Taylor
I

<iir ship flight around the world. The Graf Zeppelin ranks Related articles in World Book include:
among the fastest rigid airships ever flown. Balloon Blimp
 .

Akita 253

Helium Santos-Dument, Alberto ganized new systems of coinage and taxation.

Hydrogen Zeppelin, Ferdinand von Akbar had a great interest in all religions and was
Additional resources known for his religious tolerance and his justice. Schol-
ars, priests, and mystics of all religions debated before
Botting, Douglas. Dr. Eckener's Dream Machine: The Great Zep-
pelin and the Dawn of Air Henry Holt, 2001
Travel.
him. Despite resistance from orthodox Muslims, he won
O Brien, Patrick. The Hindenburg. Henry Holt, 2000. Younger the support of many Hindus, including the Rajputs, who
readers. came from a tribal kingdom in northwestern India.
Aisne River, ayn, is a river in northeastern France. It Akbar was born on Nov. 23, 1542, in Umarkot in what
rises in the forests of Argonne near Ste. Menehould. It is now Pakistan. He was the grandson of Babur, the first

flows north and then west before joining the Oise River Mughal emperor. Akbar became emperor at the age of
near Compiegne. For location, see France (terrain map). 1 3 after the death of his father, Humayun. Patricia Risso

The Aisne is about 180 miles (290 kilometers) long. See also Babur; India (The Mughal Empire).
Canals join the Aisne to the Seine and Meuse rivers. Akhenaten, ah kuh NAH tehn, ruled ancient Egypt as
Three bitter battles of World War I (1914-1918) were pharaoh from about 1 367 to 1 350 B.C. He was married to
fought in the valley of the Aisne. Hugh d clout Queen Nefertiti. Akhena-
Aitken, William M. See Beaverbrook, Lord. ten was a religious re-
Aiun. See El Aaiun. former, devoted solely to
Aix-la-Chapelle. See Aachen. the worship of Aten, the
Aix-la-Chapelle, ayks lah shah PEHL, Congress of, sun god. During the early
met in Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle), Germany, in 1818. Its part of his reign, perhaps
purpose was to preserve the peace established by the while coregent with his fa-
Congress of Vienna in 1 81 5. Europe was still struggling ther, Amenhotep III, he
with problems that grew out of the Napoleonic Wars. abandoned the state reli-
Even with Napoleon in exile at St. Helena, fear of France gion of Amon. Akhenaten
had not disappeared. Alexander of Russia, Francis ofI I built a new capital at
Austria, and Frederick William III of Prussia attended the Amarna which he called
congress. England was represented by the Duke of Wel- Akhetaten, meaning hori-
lington and Lord Castlereagh, Austria by Prince von zon of Aten. Late in his Art Resource

Metternich, and France by the Due de Richelieu. Riche- reign, he attacked the old Akhenaten
lieu convinced the congress that France would keep the religion and removed the
peace, and all occupation troops were withdrawn. The name of the national god Amon from monuments. Akhe-
congress also discussed ways of stopping the slave naten was also known as a poet and a patron of the arts.
trade, ending sea raids by the Barbary States, and per- Leonard H. Lesko

suading Spain's American colonies to accept Spanish See also Egypt, Ancient (The New Kingdom); Nefertiti.
rule. Robert G. L Waite Akihito, ah kih HEE toh (1 933- ), became emperor
See also Vienna, Congress of. of Japan in 1989 upon the death of his father, Hirohito
Ajax the Greater, in Greek mythology, was one of the (see Hirohito). Heisei was
bravest Greek heroes who fought in the Trojan War. He chosen as Akihito's reign
is called Ajax the Greater to distinguish him from anoth- name, and he is known as
er Greek warrior, called Ajax the Lesser. After the Greek the Heisei Emperor.
hero Achilles was killed in the war, his armor was unfair- Akihito was born on
ly awarded to Odysseus (Ulysses in Latin). Ajax went mad Dec. 23, 1933, in Tokyo.
with despair at losing the prize and killed flocks of After World War 11(1 939-
sheep and cattle that he believed were his enemies. 1945) ended, the life of
When he regained his sanity, he committed suicide by Japan s imperial family
falling on his sword. A flower is said to have sprung changed. Akihito studied
from his blood. Ajax was the son of King Telamon. Ajax with an American tutor
is the Latin form of the Greek Aias. f. carter Philips and toured the West. His
Ajax the Lesser, in Greek mythology, was a great marriage to a commoner,
Greek hero during the Trojan War. He is called Ajax the MichikoShoda, in 1959
Lesser to distinguish him from another Greek hero of was considered symbolic Akihito

the Trojan War, called Ajax the Greater. Ajax had a sinful of Japan s new democracy.
character. By raping the Trojan princess Cassandra in The couple had two sons and a daughter. Crown Prince
the temple of the goddess Athena, he brought divine Naruhito, the oldest child, is heir to the throne.

wrath on the entire Greek force. Athena and the sea god Kenneth b i\U-

Poseidon destroyed the ships of Ajax and other Greeks Akita a breed of dog that originated in northern
is

in a fierce storm in which Ajax died for his defiance of Japan. was used to hunt bears and other large animals.
It

the gods. Ajax is the Latin form of the Greek Aias. Ajax Akitas were once owned by royalty in Japan, and the
was the son of King Oileus. f carter Philips dogs are still revered in that country. Akitas are known
Akbar, AK bahrtt 542 -1605), was the greatest ruler of for their loyalty.They are alert, responsive guard dogs,
the Mughal Empire of India. During his 49-year reign, and they are aggressive toward other dogs.
from 1556 until his death on Oct. 27, 1605, he controlled Akitas are large and powerful, with heavy bones.

most of north and central India and Afghanistan. He set Males stand from 26 to 28 inches (66 to 71 centimeters)
up the governmental framework of the empire and or- tall at the shoulder. The short coat of the Akita may be
254 Akiva ben Joseph

line. It stands more than 20 stories tall and covers

364,000 square feet (33,800 square meters) of floor

space. It is one of the world's largest buildings without
interior supports.
Akron's cultural attractions include the Akron Art Mu-
seum, which specializes in modern art, and the Akron

Civic Theatre, built in 1929. Stan Hywet Hall, a mansion

built by Goodyear founder F. A. Seiberling, is now used
for cultural events. The Akron Symphony Orchestra and
the Ohio Ballet perform at E. J. Thomas Performing Arts
Hall. Blossom Music Center, north of the city in Cuya-
hoga Falls, is the summer home of the Cleveland Or-
chestra and hosts other musical performances. Akron is

host each year to the Ail-American Soap Box Derby (see

Soap Box Derby).
The University of Akron is in downtown Akron. Kent
State University is northeast of Akron
in Kent The North-

east Ohio Universities College of Medicine is to the east

Joseph L Vogl
of Akron in Rootstown.
The Akita is a powerful dog that developed in Japan.
Economy. Akron is a center for the research and de-
velopment of rubber products. Service industries, such
any color, or it may be a mixture of colors. as health care and retail trade, are also important in
Critically reviewed by the Akita Club of America Akron. The city has several hospitals and serves as a
Akiva ben Joseph, ah KEE vah behn JOH zuhf (A.D. medical center for the region. It is also an important
507-135?), was a rabbi who
profoundly influenced the trucking center.
development of Jewish law. His name is also spelled Ak- Akron-Canton Regional Airport and Akron-Fulton Mu-
iba. He emphasized the importance for every Jew of Passenger trains and
nicipal Airport serve the city.
studying the Torah, the first five books of the Bible. Aki- freight trains also serve Akron.
va believed that each word and letter of the Bible was Government. Akron has a mayor-council form of
significant He sought lessons from the spelling itself as government The voters elect the mayor to a four-year
well as from the wording of the text He collected and term. They also elect 1 3 council members. Ten of the
explained legal traditions along with interpretations of members, representing different sections of the city,
the Bible. This work became the basis of the Mishnah, serve for two years. Three of the members represent the
the fundamental code of Jewish law. Akiva was known entire city and serve for four years. Akron is the seat of
for his modesty, optimism, concern for the poor, and Summit County.
love of Israel. He is the subject of many stories in Jewish History. Chippewa, Delaware, Erie, and several other
literature. groups of Indians lived in what is now the Akron area. In
Akiva was born in Judea in central Palestine. After the 1825, General Simon Perkins, a banker, developer, and
Roman rulers of Judea issued decrees forbidding the land agent, and settler Paul Williams founded Akron on
practice of Judaism, Akiva went to Rome on behalf of a ridge that rises 950 feet (290 meters) above sea level.
the Jewish community. However, the Romans did not re- The settlement was named after the Greek word akros,
lent In 1 Jews revolted under the leadership of
32, the meaning high point Akron became a thriving trade cen-
the warrior Bar Kokhba. The Romans crushed the revolt ter after the completion of the Ohio and Erie Canal in
in 35. They arrested Akiva and executed him for practic-
1 1832 and the Pennsylvania and Ohio Canal in 1840. The
ing his religion. Lawrence H. Schiffman canals opened the way for trade with cities in the east-
Akkad. See Sargon of Akkad. ern United States. Akron was incorporated in 1865.

Akron (pop. 217,074; met area pop. 694,960) is a city in In the 1 800 Akron was a center for the production of
s,

northeastern Ohio. It lies on the Cuyahoga and Little cereal, clay pipe, and farm equipment, but it was rubber
Cuyahoga rivers. For the location, see Ohio (politi-
city's that made
it famous. In 1870, Benjamin F. Goodrich, a

cal map). New York doctor and rubber manufacturer, moved to

Akron was once the world's largest producer of tires, Akron and established a rubber factory. Several other
and it was known as the Rubber Capita/ of the World. rubber companies later built factories in Akron, and the
Today, the city is a center for the research and develop- city grew rapidly. The development of the automobile
ment of rubber products. The Goodyear Tire & Rubber industry in the early 1900s created a huge demand for
Company— the largest rubber company in the United rubber tires. Akron became the world's leading tire pro-
States— has its main office in Akron. ducer. The city's population soared, rising from about
The city. Downtown Akron includes a federal court- 70,000 in 1910 to nearly 210,000 in 1920. Military needs
house and state government offices. A sports stadium is during World War II (1939-1945) led to an even greater
also located in the downtown area. A restaurant and en- demand for Akron's tires and other rubber products.
tertainment district has developed around the stadium. Rubber remained the city s main industry until about
A few blocks from the stadium is Inventure Place, the the 1970s. During the 1970s and 1980s, Akron , like oth-

home of the National Inventors Hall of Fame. er older cities of the North, lost many jobs and people
The Loral Airdock, the building where Goodyear once to newer factories in the South and Southwest In the
built blimps, is a well-known feature of the Akron sky- late 1900 s, the city worked to diversify its manufacturing
 Alabama 255

base and to redevelop its downtown. Today, many small Muslims. Aksum lost power and territory. However, as-
businesses occupy the buildings once dominated by the pects of Aksum's culture, particularly its Christian faith,
rubber industry. Kathleen M. Fraze survive today in Eritrea and Ethiopia. In addition, the ru-
Aksum, AHKsoom, also spelled Axum, was a powerful ins and monuments of Aksum's capital can still be seen
ancient kingdom in East Africa. It occupied lands that are in the present-day town of Aksum. Kevin c MacDonaid
now Eritrea, northern Ethiopia, parts of Sudan and Dji- ALA. See American Library Association.
bouti, and at times parts of southwest Arabia. Aksum Alabama was the most famous of the 20 Confederate
was the ancestor of Ethiopia. Aksum's capital, also called cruisers that preyed on Union merchant ships and
Aksum, stood on the site of what is now Aksum in whalers during the American Civil War (186T1 865). To-
Ethiopia. The kingdom became important about AD. 50 gether with the Florida, Shenandoah, and 1 7 other cruis-
and reached its greatest strength between the 300's and ers, the Alabama destroyed 257 Union ships. The Con-
600's. federate cruisers also forced more than 700 other Union
Aksum grew rich and powerful in part because of ships to travel under foreign flags to avoid attack. The
Adulis, its port on the Red Sea. Adulis was a world trad- raiders had little effect on the outcome of the Civil War.
ing center near what is now Massawa, Eritrea. Spices, But their actions disrupted trade and nearly destroyed
ivory, ebony, animal skins, and tortoise shells were ex- the United States Merchant Marine.
ported from Adulis in exchange for textiles, precious The Alabama was built in England in 1862. Under the
metal objects, wine, and olive oil. These imports came command Semmes,
of Confederate naval hero Raphael
principally from Egypt and the Mediterranean area. Ak- it two
sank, burned, or captured 64 ships in the next
sum's trade network also included Arabia and India and years. In June 1864, Union warships found the Alabama
may have stretched as far as China. in the harbor of Cherbourg, France, where it had gone

At its peak, Aksum conquered other kingdoms along for repairs. Captain John A Winslow of the U.S.S.
the Red Sea and the Blue Nile River. Aksumite kings Kearsarge stood ready to give battle when the Alabama
built impressive fortresses, palaces, and granite monu- sailed into the English Channel on June 19. Within an
ments. During the 300s, King Ezana conquered the king- hour, the Kearsarge sank the Alabama.
dom of Kush in what is now Sudan. Ezana also made Six years after the Civil War, the British expressed re-
Christianity the state religion of Aksum. gret in the Treaty of Washington for the escape of ships
During the 600's, Muslim conquests in Arabia, Egypt,
and along the Red Sea and east African coasts ended
Aksum's role as a trading power. Islam, the religion of
the Muslims, spread rapidly in Arabia and North Africa.
As a result, the Christians of Aksum found themselves
surrounded by Muslims and other non-Christians. From
the 600's to about the 900's, the Aksumites fought the

The kingdom of Aksum about A.D. 400

Aksum, shown in yellow, occupied lands that are now Eritrea,
northern Ethiopia, and parts of Sudan and Djibouti. By the mid-
dle of the AD. 300s, Aksum had gained control of the land and
sea routes from Africa to Europe and Asia Present-day bound-
aries are shown as gray lines.
WORLD BOOK map

Combat otrhe Kearsarge and the Alabama labout 1863). an oil painting on canvas by Edouard
G Johnson Collection
Manet, the Philadelphia Museum of Art. the John

The Confederate cruiser Alabama was sunk by the Union

warship Kearsarge in a battle in the English Channel in 1864.

out for the Confederacy in British ports. In

built or fitted
1 872, the Geneva Tribunal of Arbitration decided that

the United Kingdom had failed in its obligations of neu-

by aiding the Confederate Navy. The United King-
trality

dom was obliged to pay the United States SI 5 [ million

for damages that had been inflicted on Northern ship-
ping by the Alabama and other Confederate cruisers.
Cabot S Bonn
200 KiluMMtlf See also Washington, Treaty of.
256 Alabama

aid Harden Shostal

Forest-covered surround a swimming hole in Cheaha Mountain State Park, near Anniston.
hills
Scenic highlands cover much of northern Alabama. Low coastal plains lie to the south.

Alabama The Heart of Dixie

Alabama, one of the Southern States of the United three main raw materials used in making steel— coal,

States, is known Alabama occupies

as the Heart of Dixie. iron ore, and limestone. Blast furnaces for making iron
a central place in the history of the South. The Constitu- and steel began operating in Birmingham in the 1880s.
tion of the Confederacy was drawn up in Montgomery, After that, Birmingham grew rapidly. Today, it is Ala-
the state capital, in 1861. The Alabama Capitol served as bama's largest city, and one of the state's important cen-
the Confederate Capitol. There, Jefferson Davis took
first ters of service industries.
office as president of the Confederacy. For many years, "King Cotton" ruled Alabama's farm
Today, Alabama has a vital part in the nation's future. economy. When the cotton crop was poor, or when it
Huntsville, called Rocket City, USA., is the site of the sold at low prices, Alabama farmers suffered. But seri-
Redstone Arsenal and the George C Marshall Space ous crop failures during the early 190CTs taught the farm-
Flight Center. Scientists at Huntsville developed many ers that they should plant a variety of crops. Then they
important rockets and space vehicles, including the Sat- would not lose all their money if the cotton crop failed.
urn 5 rocket system that carried the first astronauts to Alabama is still a leading cotton producer. But much
land on the moon. livestock and poultry and large crops of corn, peanuts,
Most parts of the South did not become widely in- and soybeans are also raised in the state.
dustrialized until the lEKXTs. But heavy industry got a rel- Forest-covered hills and ridges spread over much of
atively early start in Alabama, mainly because of the northern Alabama. In places where the land has been
state's rich mineral resources. Northern Alabama had all cleared, bright red clay soils add splashes of color to
the landscape. Many dams along rivers and creeks help
prevent floods. Hydroelectric power stations at some of
The contributors of this article are William D. Barnard, Profes- the largerdams produce electricity for use in homes
sor of History Emeritus at the University of Alabama; and David and factories.
C Weaver, Chairman and Professor of Geography at the Univer- In the southern part of Alabama, the hills give way to
sity of Alabama.
thick pine forests, rolling grasslands, and low croplands.
 Alabama 257

Interesting facts about Alabama

The first electric trolley

streetcars in the United
States began operating in
Montgomery in 1866.

Little River, located on Look-

out Mountain in northeastern
Alabama, is the only river in
the United States that runs its
entire course on the top of a
mountain. It forms the Little
River Canyon. Known as the
"Grand Canyon of the South,"
it is the deepest gorge east of

the Mississippi River.

First trolley streetcars
A monument to the boll
weevil, erected in 1919, stands in the town of Enterprise. After
the insect destroyed their cotton crops, Alabama farmers were
forced to grow new and more diverse crops. As a result, the
farmers became more prosperous. Enterprise then put up the
monument "in profound appreciation of the boll weevil and
what it has done as the herald of prosperity
George Washington Carver
gained a reputation as one of
the world's greatest agricul-
tural scientists from the re-
search he conducted at Ala-
bama's Tuskegee Institute
(now Tuskegee University).
Among were
his discoveries
more than 300 new uses for
peanuts and more than 100
new uses for sweet potatoes. George Washington Carver
The black civil rights
movement began at the Dexter Avenue Baptist Church in
Terrence A. Lynch Montgomery in 1955. The church's minister, Martin Luther King,
)r., organized a nonviolent protest group to help carry out a boy-
Riverchase Galleria is a popular Birmingham shopping mall.
cott against the Montgomery bus system. This action came after
Birmingham is Alabama's largest city and an industrial center.
a black passenger was arrested for refusing to yield her seat to a
white person.

The Mobile Delta area in the southern part of the state

has many swamps and bayous (shallow channels filled
with slow-moving water). At the southern tip of Ala-
bama, sandy beaches border Mobile Bay and the Gulf of
Mexico.
Mobile, at the mouth of the Mobile River, is a busy
seaport. Oceangoing ships unload a wide variety of
goods at the Alabama State Docks in Mobile Bay. The
goods include minerals and other raw materials to be
made into manufactured goods in Alabama factories.
The ships carry away Alabama coal and a wide variety of
the state's products, including iron and steel, petroleum
products, pulp and other wood products, soybeans, and
wheat.
The name Alabama comes from the name of an Indian
tribe thatonce lived in the region. These Indians called
themselves the Alibamu, meaning / open (or / cleari the
thicket. One of Alabama's nicknames, the Yellowhammer
State, originated during the Civil War (1861-1865). A
company of Alabama troops paraded in uniforms
trimmed with bits of bright yellow cloth. The soldiers re- Mobile Dr partmenl ol Tourism
minded people of the birds called yellowhammers, The Port of Mobile, Alabama s only seaport, lies on Mobile
which have yellow patches under their wings. After that, Bay north of the Gulf of Mexico. Cargo passing through the port
Alabama soldiers were known as Yellowhammers. includes chemicals, textiles, foods, and metal products.
Alabama in brief
-
Symbols of Alabama
The state flag, adopted in 1895, bears a crim-
son cross on a white field. The flag s cross is
suggestive of the Confederate battle flag. The
state seal, first adopted in 1819, has a map of
Alabama that shows the state s rivers and bor-
dering states. The rivers served as important
shipping routes when Alabama had few good
roads. Today, the rivers remain vital to the
state as sources of hydroelectric power.

State flag State seal

Alabama (brownl ranks 29th in size among all the states

and 5th in size among the Southern States (yellow).

General information
Statehood: Dec. 14, 1819, the 22nd state.
State abbreviations: Ala. (traditional); AL (postal).
State motto: Audemus jura Nostra Defendere (We Dare
Defend Our Rights). Montgomery has housed the State Capitol since 1846. Earli-
State song: "Alabama." Words by Julia S. Tutwiler; music were St Stephens (1817-1819), Huntsville(1819-
er capitals
by Edna Goeckel Cussen. 1820), Cahaba (1820-1826), and Tuscaloosa (1826-1846).

Land and climate

Area: 51,718 sq. mi. (133,950 km'), including 968 sq. mi. Greatest east-
(2,507 km 2
) of inland water but excluding 519 sq. mi. west distance
210 mi. (338 km)
(1,343 km 2
) of coastal water.
Elevation: Highest—Cheaha Mountain, 2,407 ft (734 m)
above sea level. Lowest— sea level along the Gulf of
Highest •
Mexico. elevation
Coastline: 53 mi. (85 km).
Record high temperature: 1 12 °F (44 °C) at Centreville
on Sept 5, 1925.
Greatest
Record low temperature: -27 °F (-33 "O at New Mar- north-south
ket on )an. 30, 1966. distance
Average July temperature: 80 °F (27 °C). 329 mi.
(530 km)
Average January temperature: 46 "F (8 °Q.
Average yearly precipitation: 56 in. (142 cm).

^ Lowest
elevation
along coast

Important dates — French Canadians founded Fort Louis on the Mo- The state s first blast furnace began
bile River. In 1 71 1 the colony moved to Mobile.
, operating in Birmingham.

A 1519 O "°2 OT 1819 O 188°

'
—Alonso Alvarez de Fineda Alabama became the 22nd
sailed into Mobile Bay. state on December 14.
 Alabama 259

State tree
State bird Southern long-
Yellowhammer leaf pine

People Population trend Year Population

2000 4,447,100
Population: 4,447,100 12000 censusl Millions 1990 4,062,608
Rank among the states: 23rd 1980 3.893,978
1970 3,444.354
Density: 86 per mi (33 per km ; ), U.S. av-
;

1960 3,266,740
erage 78 per mi-' (30 per km 2 ) 1950 3,061,743
Distribution*: 60 percent urban, 40 per- 1940 2,832.961
1930 2,646.248
cent rural 1920 2,348,174
Largest cities in Alabama 1910 2,138,093
Birmingham 242,820 1900 1,828,697
1890 1.513,401
Montgomery 201,568 1880 1,262,505
Mobile 198,915 1870 996 392
158,216 1860 964,201
Huntsville
1850 771,623
Tuscaloosa 77,906 1840 590,756
Hoover 62,742 1830 309 ,527
1820 127501
1800 1820 1840 1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 20 w
,.
1810 109,046
Source: 2000 census, except for ' where figures are for 1990. Source: US- Census Bureau. 1800 101.250

Economy Gross state product

Chief products Value of goods and services pro-
duced in 1998: 5109,833,000,000.

Agriculture: broilers, beef cattle, cot- Services include community, busi

ton, eggs, hogs, peanuts. ness, and personal services; fi-
Manufacturing: chemicals, paper nance; government; trade; and
products, primary metals, transporta- transportation, communication,
tion equipment, food products, fabri- and utilities. Industry includes
cated metal products, wood prod- construction, manufacturing, and
ucts, clothing. mining. Agriculture includes agri-
Mining: coal, natural gas, petroleum, culture, fishing, and forestry.

crushed stone, limestone.

Source: Bureau of Economic Analysis. Agriculture 2%

Government Sources of information

State government For information about tourism, write to:
Governor 4-year term Alabama Bureau of Tourism & Travel, 401 Adams Avenue, Suite
State senators: 35; 4-year terms 126, Montgomery, AL 36104. The Web site at
State representatives: 105; 4-year terms www.touralabama.org also provides information.
Counties: 67 For information on the economy, write to:
Alabama Development Office, 401 Adams Avenue, Sixth Floor,
Federal government Montgomery, AL 36130-4106.
United States senators: 2 The state's official Web site at www.state.al.us also provides a gate-
United States representatives: 7 way to much information on Alabama s economy, government,
Electoral votes: 9 and history.

-The federal government created the -Martin Luther King, Jr., led a march from Selma to
Tennessee Valley Authority. Montgomery to protest discrimination in voter registration

1933 I960 1965 1985

The George C Marshall Space Flight Completion of the Tennessee- Tombigbee Waterway linked
Center was established in Huntsville. Alabama's port at Mobile with the Tennessee and Ohio rivers.
260 Alabama People
Population. The 2000 United States census reported Population density Persons per Persons per
sq. mi. km 2
that Alabama had 4,447,100 people. The state's popula- Most of Alabama's most
tion had increased 10 \ percent over the 1990 census densely populated areas lie in
More than 100 1 H More than 40
50 10 100 1 | 20 40 to
figure, 4,040,587. According to the 2000 census, Alaba- the east and north. Much of
50 P
ma ranks 23rd in population among the 50 states. the swampy Mobile River 25 to
J 20 10 to

Delta area of southwestern Less than 25 Less than 10

About 70 percent of the people of Alabama live in
Alabama is thinly populated.
metropolitan areas. These areas are Anniston, Auburn-
(
Opelika, Birmingham, Decatur, Dothan, Florence, Gads-
den, Huntsville, Mobile, Montgomery, and Tuscaloosa. |
5 ^^untsville
\
The Columbus (Georgia) metropolitan area extends into Decatur*^ W \
j
Alabama. For the populations of these metropolitan ar-
eas, see the Indexlo the political map of Alabama. See 1 ^Gadsden
Metropolitan area.
Alabama has 24 cities with populations of 20,000 or 1
# Birmingham \

more. Birmingham, the largest city, developed as a steel- J

'^^j^PJnoover \

making center. Today, Birmingham is an important cen- Tuscaloosa*

^^J^^^^^m
ter of service industries, particularly medical services.
Huntsville is the home of the U.S. Army's Redstone Ar-
senal and the National Aeronautics and Space Adminis-
tration's George C Marshall Space Flight Center. During
the 1950s, Huntsville's population grew by 340 percent
Thousands of people moved to the Huntsville area to
work on missile and space projects of the United States
government
Birmingham, Huntsville, Mobile, Montgomery, and
other cities have kept the attractiveness of small commu-
nities, in spite of their rapid growth. Huge oak trees arch
over wide boulevards, even in many downtown areas.
\ Tk\
Stately old homes add to the charm and dignity of these WORLD BOOK map: based on US Census Bureau data.

cities.

About a fourth of the people in Alabama are African todesegregate its public schools. By 1973, most of these
Americans. Other large population groups in the state schools had been integrated.
include people of Irish, English, German, and American Today, Alabama operates about 130 local public
Indian descent school systems. It also operates a system of secondary-
Schools. Alabama established its public school sys- level vocational technical training centers. The superin-
tem in 1854. Like most Southern States, Alabama had tendent of education heads the state's public school sys-
separate schools for whites and blacks. In 1954, the tem. The superintendent is appointed by the state board
Supreme Court of the United States ruled that school of education. The nine-member Board of Education es-
segregation is unconstitutional. In 1963, Alabama began tablishes policies for the public school system. The gov-

George Smith, Hillstrom Stock Photo Photo Options from Hillstrom Stock Photo

Alabama's Gulf Coast attracts many vacationers. This long, Auburn University has campuses at Auburn and Montgomery.
sandy peninsula extends into the Gulf of Mexico south of Mobile Samford shown here, was one of the first buildings
Hall, built on
Bay. It has warm, sunny weather most of the year. the Auburn campus. The campus was founded in 1856.
 Alabama 261

ernor serves as president of the board. The other eight public libraries are in Birmingham, Huntsville, Mobile,
members are elected by the voters to four-year terms. and Montgomery. The public library in Birmingham
Alabama law requires children from age 7 through 15 owns the Rucker Agee collection of rare maps, the
to attend school. For the number of students and teach- Tutwiler collection on Southern history and literature,
ers in Alabama, see Education (table). and a collection of civil rights documents. The University
Libraries. Alabama's first large library, the Supreme of Alabama's William Stanley Hoole Special Collections
Court Library in Montgomery, was created in 1828. In Library in Tuscaloosa has materials on the history of the
1901, the state legislature created the Department of region.
Archives and History— the first state-supported archives Museums. The Anniston Museum of Natural History
in the United States. Today, the largest of Alabama's includes exhibits on the history of the earth and displays
of birds in their natural surroundings. The George
Washington Carver Museum at the Tuskegee University
Universities and colleges National Historic Site features exhibits that illustrate con-
This table lists the universities and colleges in Alabama that tributions of blacks to U.S. history. It also displays art-
grant bachelor's or advanced degrees and are accredited by the work by African and African American artists. The Uni-
Southern Association of Colleges and Schools. versity of Alabama State Museum of Natural History
exhibits a large collection of Indian items. The collection
Name Mailing address
Advanced Airpower Studies, includes prehistoric items found at Mound State Monu-
School of Maxwell Air Force Base
Alabama, University of
• ment The Mobile Preservation Society has dis-
Historic
Alabama Agricultural and plays on the American Civil War period.
Mechanical University Normal
Alabama State University Montgomery The Birmingham Museum of Art, the Mobile Muse-
Athens State University Athens um of Art, the Huntsville Museum of Art, and the Mont-
Auburn University t
Birmingham-Southern College Birmingham gomery Museum of Fine Arts exhibit chiefly works of
Concordia College Selma art. The U.S. Army Aviation Museum at Fort Rucker has
Faulkner University Montgomery
Huntingdon College Montgomery one of the largest collections of helicopters in the world.
Jacksonville State University lacksonville
judson College Marion
Miles College Birmingham
Mobile, University of Mobile
Montevallo, University of Montevallo
North Alabama, University of Florence
Oakwood College Huntsville
Samford University Birmingham
South College Montgomery
South Alabama, University of Mobile
Southern Christian University Montgomery
Spring Hill College Mobile
Srillman College Tuscaloosa
Talladega College Talladega
Troy State University *
Tuskegee University Tuskegee
U.S. Sports Academy Daphne
West Alabama, University of Livingston

"For campuses, see Alabama, University of.

tFor campuses, see Auburn University
?Campuses at Dolhan, Montgomery, and Troy

on Sports Alabama Bureau ot Tounsm and Travel

The University of Alabama football team plays some of its The George Washington Carver Museum Tuskegee Uni-
at
home games at Legion Field in Birmingham. College football is a versity has exhibits dealing with Carver and other famous blacks.
popular spectator sport throughout Alabama. Carver won acclaim for his work in agricultural science.
264 Alabama

Alabama map index

Metropolitan areas Ardmore 1,034 A 6 Carolina' 248 M 7 Dixie M 6 Good Hope 1366. C 6
Argo 1 780 E 7 Carrollton 387 F 3 Dixons Mills | 4 Good Springs A 5
Anniston 112,249 Anton 772 K 9 Carrville H 8 Dora 2413 E 5 Goodman 1 8
Auburn-Opelika 115.092 Arley 290 D 5 Castleberry 590 L b Doster K 9 Goodsprings E 5
Birmingham 921.106 Arlington J 4 Catherine I 4 Dothan 37,737 . 10 Goodwater 1.633..G 8
Columbus IGaJ 274,624 Armstrong I 9 Cecil I 8 Double Goodway L 4
1224,868 in Ga; Ashby G 6 Cedar Bluff 1.467 C 9 Springs 1 ,003 D 5 Gordo 1,677 F 3
49,756 in Ala.1 Ashford 1.853 L 10 Center Hill JJ 6 Douglas 330 D 7 Gordon 408 1 10
Decatur 145,867 Ashland 1 <K.5 . .F 8 Center Pointt 11 784 E 6 Dozier 391 K 7 Gordonsville I 6
Dolhan 1 57316 Ashridge C 4 Centre 3.216 D 9 Dublin .
| 8 Gorgas E 5
Florence 42,950
1 Ashville 2260 D . 7 Centreville 2,466 G 5 Dudleyville C 9 Gosnen 300 K 8
Gadsden 103,459 Athens 18367 B 6 Chalkvillet 3.829 E 6 Duke D 8 Grady | 8
Huntsville 342.376 Atmore 7.676 M 4 Chance . . .K 4 Duncanville G 4 Graham F 10
Mobile 510.258 Attalla 6.592 D 8 Chancellor L 8 Dutton 310 . B 8 Grand Bayt 3 918 N 2
Montgomery 333.035 Auburn 42387 H 9 Chandler EastBrewton 2,496 M 5 Grant 665 B 7
Tuscaloosa 164,875 Autaugaville 820 I 6 Springs E 8 Eastaboga E 8 Grayson C 5
Avon 466 10 Chapman K 6 Eastern Graysville 2.344 E 6
Ml
. .

Counties Axis Chase B 7 Valley F 6 Green Hill A 4

Babbie 627 1 7 Chastang M 3 Echo K 'l Green Pond F 5
Autauga 43.671 H 6 Baileyton 684 C 6 Chatom'' ...1,193.1 2 Echola F 4 Greenbrier B 6
Baldwin 140415..N 4 Baker Hill K 10 Chelseat 2,949 F 6 Eclectic 1,037 H 8 Greensboro .2,731 H 4
Barbour 29,038 J 9 . Bangor D 6 Cherokee 1 ,237 B 3 Eddy C 7 Greenville 7.228 | 7
Bibb 20,826 C 5 Banks 224 K 8 Chickasaw 6,364 . N 3 Edwardsville 186 9E Crimes 459 1 9
Blount 31,024 D 6 Bankston . .E 4 Childersburg 4 927 F 7 Edwin K 10 Grove Hill 1438 K 4
Bullock 11,714.1 9 Barfield F 'l China Grove | 8 Elamville K 9 Groveoak C 8
Butler .... 21,399.. K 6 Barlow Bend L 4 Choccolocco E 9 Elba 4.185 1 8 Cuin 2,389 D 3
Ml
. . .

Calhoun 112,249 D 8 Barton B 3 Choctaw I 3 Elberta 552 O 4 Gulf Crest

Chambers 36.583 C 10 Bashi 3 Choctaw Bluff L 4 Eldridge 184 D 4 Gulf Shores 3.044 O 4
14
.
I

Cherokee 23388 D 9 BattlesWharf N 3 Chrysler Elgin A 3 Cuntersville 7 395 C 7

Chilton 39,593 H 6 Bay Minette .7,820 . M 4 Chunchula M 2 Elkmont 470 A 6 Gurley 876 B 7
Choctaw 15,922 I 2 Bay View C 6 Citronelle 3,659 M 2 Elmore 199 H 7 Cu Win 204 D 3
Clarke 27,867 K 3 Bayou La Claiborne K 4 Elrod F 4 Harkleburg 1.527..C 4
day 14 254 F 9 Batre 2 ,313 O 2 Canton 7,800 . G 6 Fmelle 31 .H 2 Harkneyviife G 8
Cleburne 14 123 D 9 Bazemore D 4 Clarence D 7 Empire E 6 Hacoda M 8
Coffee 43,615 L 8 Bear Creek 1.053 C 4 Clayhatchee 501 1 9 Enon I 9 Haleburg 108 . L 10
Colbert 54384 B 3 Beatrice 412 K 5 Clayton 1,475 ..J 9 Enterprise 21 178 1 8 Haleyville 4.182 C 4
Conecuh 14,089. L 6 Beaverton 226 D l Cleveland 1 241 D 7 Eoline G 5 Halltown ( i

Coosa 12.202 G 7 Belgreen .C 3 Clinton G 1 Epes 206 H 3 Halsell I 2

Covington 37,631 , .L 7 Belt 214 E 1 Clio 2,206 K 9 Equality H 8 ilamilton 6 786 D 3
Crenshaw 1 3,665 .K 7 Bellamy I 3 Clopton K 10 Estillfork A 8 Hammondville 486 B 9
Cullman 77.483 D 6 Belle Mina B 6 Cloverdale A 4 Ethelsville 81 F 3 Hamner H 2
Dale ... 49,129.. 9 Bellwood 19 Coal Fire F 3 Eufaula 13308.) 10 Hanceville 2351 D 6
Dallas 46.365 . I 5 Benton 47 I 6 Coal Valley I 5 Eulaton E 8 Hannon 19
De Kalb .64 .452 B 9 Berry 1,238. E 4 Coaling 1,115. C 5 Eunola 182 . M 9 Hardaway I 8
Elmore 65,874 H 8 Bessemer 29,672 . F 6 Coalmont F 6 Eutaw° 1,878 G 3 Harpersville 1 620 F 7
Escambia 38,440 1 5 Beulah H 10 Cobbtown, see Eva 491 C 6 Hartford 2.369 M 9
Etowah 103,459 D 8 Bexar C 3 West End Evergreen 3,630 . 1 6 Hartselle 12,019 C 6
Fayette 18,495 E 4 Bibbville F 5 l-Cobbtownl Excel 582 1 5 Harvestt 3.054 A 6
Franklin 31,223 B 3 Billingsley 116..H6 Coffee Springs 251 . 1 8 Fabius B 9 Hatche-
Geneva 25,764 M 8 Birmingham 242,820 6 E Coffeeville 360 K 3 Fackler B 8 chubbee 110
M
. .

Greene 3374 C 3 Black 202 9 . M Cohasset L 6 Fadette 9 Hatton B 5

Hale 17,185 H 4 Bladon Springs .K 2 . . Coker . 808 . F 4 Fairfield 12.381 ..E 6 Havana ( , J
Henry 16.310 K 10 Blanche C 9 Colbert Heights B 4 Fairhope 12 480 .N . 3 Hayden 470 D 6
Houston 88,787 M 10 Bleecker H 10 Cold Springs D 5 Fairview 522 C 6 Hayneville 1,177.1 7
lackson 53326 B 8 Blount Springs D 6 Collbran C 9 Falkville ... 1,202. .C 6 Hazel Creent 3,805 A 7
Jefferson 662,047 E 6 Blountsville 1.768..D 7 Collinsville 1,644 I 8 Farmersville I
6 Hazen I 5
Lamar 15304 D 3 Blue Mountain 233 E 8 Collirene I 6 Faunsdale 87 . I 4 Headland 152 3 L 10
Lauderdale 87366 A 4 BlueRidge't 1.331 H 8 Colony" 185 C 6 Fayette 4322 E 3 Healing
Lawrence 34.803 B 5 Blue Springs 121 K 9 Columbia 804 . 1 10 Fayetteville G 7 Springs K 2
Lee 115,092 H 10 Boaz 7.411 . C 8 Columbiana ...3,316 . F 7 Fembank ,,,E 3 Heath 249 1 7
Limestone 65.676 . A 5 Boligee 369 H 3 Columbus City . . C 7 Fitzpatrick I 8 Heflin 3,002 F ')

Lowndes 13 473 I
6 Bolinger . .K 2 Comer J 10 Five Points 146 C 10 Heiberger H 5
Macon 24,105 I 9 Boiling K 6 Cooks Springs E 7 Flat Creek 1 5 Helena 10,296 F 6
Madison 276,700 B 7 Bon Air 36 F 7 Cooper . .H 7 Flat Rock B 9 Henagar 2 400 B 9
Marengo 11 339 I 4 Bon Secour O 4 Coosada 1 182 I 7 Flatwood | 4 Henderson K 8
Marion 31,214 C 3 Booth H 7 Cordova 2 ,42 1 I 5 Flint City B 6 HirkoryFlat G 10
Marshall 82,231 C 7 Boyd H 2 Corona E 4 Flomaton 588 M 5 Higdon A 9
11
1

Mobile 399 843 M 2 Boykin I

5 Cortelyou Florala 1 964 M 7 High Point C 7
Monroe 24,324 . .K 5 Boykin jM 6 Cottage Grove . .G 8 Florence 36.264 B 4 Highland
Montgomery .223, 510. 1 7 Bradley M 6 Cottondale F 4 Foley 7390 O 4 Home | 7
Morgan 111,064 . C 6 Bradleyton J
7 Cottonton | 10 Forest Home I
6 Highland Lake' 408 D 7
Perry 11,861 . H 4 Braggs J 6 Cottonwood I 170jM10 Forestdalet 10,509 E 6 Hillsboro 608 B 5
Pickens 20.949 F 3 Branchville" 825 E 7 County Line 257 . .D 6 Forkland 629 H 3 Hobson City 878 E 8
Pike 29,605 . K 8 Brantley 320 K 7 Courtland 769 . B 5 Fort Davis I 9 Hodges 261 C 3
Randolph 22.380 F 9 Brantleyville .F 6 Covin . .E 3 Fort Deposit 1,270 ..) 7 Hokes Bluff 4 149 D 8
Russell 49 756 I 10 Brent 4.024 G 3 Cowarts 1 546 L 10 Fort Morgan O 3 Holland Gin A 6
SL Clair .64,742 E 7 Brewton" 5,498 M 5 Coy J 4 FortPayne 12.938 C 9 Hollins G 8
Shelby 143.293 F 7 Briar Hill J 8 Cragford F 9 FortRuckert 6 052 I

9 Holly Pond 645 D 6

Sumter 14,798 H 2 Brickyard I 11 Craig ..16 Fosters (, 4 Holtytree B 7
Talladega 80 321 F 7 Bridgeport 2 ,728 A 9 Crane Hill (J 5 Fostoria .
.J 6 Hollywood 950 B 8
Tallapoosa 41,475 H 8 Brierfield C 6 Crawford I 10 Fountain ... JC 4 Holf 4 103 F 4
Tuscaloosa . .164,875 . .F 4 Brighton 1 640 F 6 Creola 1 002 . JVI 3 Frankfort B 3 Holtville H 7
Walker 70,713 E 5 Brilliant 762 . D 4 Crews 1)1 Franklin 149 K 5 Holy Trinits I I I

Washington 18.097 L 2 Brooklyn 1 6 Cromwell .12 Frankville K 3 Homewood 25 043 F 6

Wilcox 13,183 | 5 Brooks I b Cropwell f 7 Freemanville .... jM 4 Honoraville J 7
Winston 24,843 D 4 Brookside' 1 19! f 6 Crossville 1 4 11 ..C 8 Frisco City 1,460 I 5 Hoover 62 742 E 6
Brookwood 1 ,483 F 5 Crossville 1 1 Fruitdale L 2 Hope Hull I 7

Cities and towns Browns 15 Cuba 161 I 1 Fruithurst 270 I 9 Horn Hill' 2 35 L 7
Brownsboro B 7 Cullman 13,995 C 6 Fulton 308.. 4 Horton (7
Abanda C 9 Brundidge 2.341 K 9 Cullomburg X 2 Fullondale 6 595 F >• Houston D 5
Abbeville 2387 K 10 Bucks Jvt 3 Curry f 8 Furman J 6 Howard I) 4
Abel E 9 Buena Vista K 5 Cusseta H 10 Fyffe 971 ( « Howton I 3
Aberfoil | 9 Buhl F 4 Cypress t l Gadsden 38.978 1) « Hueytown 1 3 lb-l 1 i.

Acmar E 7 Burkville Darirville 3,212. G 9 Cainesville 220 Huqulev't 2 953 C 10

Adamsville 4.965 E 6 Bumsville H 6 Daleville 41.51 L 9 Gallant I) J Hufaco . C 7
Addison 71 1 ( 5 Burnt Corn K 5 Damascus .1 6 Gallion H l Huntsville 158216 B 7
Akron .21 C 4 Burnwell .E 5 Danville ( ) Ganer M 8 Hurricane M 1

Alabam.i Pun O 3 Butler 1,952 J 2 Daphne 16 581 . JN 3 Ganlt 241 L 7 Hurtsboro 592 I 10
Alabaster 22.619 F 6 Bynum't 1 86 1 E 8 Darlington I
5 Gantls Quarry ( Huxford I 4
Alberta I 4 Caddo B 5 Dauphin Garden City 564 P 6 Hyban k 3
Albertville 17.247 C 8 Caffee (unction I 5 Island 1,371 ..O 3 Gardendale 11621. I E Hytop 315 A 8
Aldrich C 6 Cahaba Davenport I
Garland K 6 Ider 664 B 9
Alexander Heights' 5,203 E 6 Daviston Z67 G 9 Gastonburg I 4 Inverness | 9
City 15.008. C 8 Calcis F 7 Dawson . .C 8 Caylesville 140 C 9 Iron City E 9
Alexandriat 3,692 . E 8 Calera 1 l
.'
Dayton .60 .1 4 Celger 1 1,1 G 2 lion. ilon F 8
Aliceville 2.567 C 3 Calhoun ,| 7 DeArmanville 1 9 Geneva" 4 IRK \1 K Irondale' 3.813. F 6
Allen k > Calvert I
Deatsville H
140 7 Georgetown .M 2 Irvington N 2
Allenton J 6 Camden 2 257 J 5 Decatui 53329.. B 6 Georqiana ... 1,737. JX 6 Isbell ( 4
Allqood 629 1 Camp Hill i 27 3 H 9 Deer Park . . 1 2 Gerafdine "Kb ( H fachin I 3
Alpine Campbell I
1 Delmal . .C 4 Gilheilown 187 | 1 lack k 8
Altoona 384 . D 7 Canoe M l Delt.i F 9 Glen Allen 117 II 1 lackson 5 419 K 3
Andalusia 8.794 1 7 Capshaw B 6 Demopolis 7 540 H 1 Clem oe i
i2 D 8 jacksnns Gap 761 (, 9
Anderson 154 A 5 Carbon Hill 2 071 I) 4 Detroit 1 II l Glenville I
10 Jacksonville 8 404..E 9
Anniston 24,276 I K Cardiff ft Dicker! i 9 Glenwood I'll K H jamestowri ( 9
Arab 7,174 I CarlowYlllf J 5 Dickinson K 4 Goldville" 37 G 9 Jasper 14.052. D 5
 1 .

Alabama 265

Jefferson I 3 Meadow- Pearson G 5 St Clair I 7 Texasville K 10

jemison 2,248 . -C 6 brook't 4 697 F 7 Pelham 14.369 F 6 SL Clair Tharptown B 4
Jena . . .G 4 Megargel 1 4 Pell City 3,565 E 7 Springs E 7 Theodoret 6,81 1 . .N 3
Jones H 6 Mellow Valley F 9 Pennington 353 . I 3 SI Elmo N 2 Thomaston 383 I 4
Jones Chapel C 5 Melton H 4 Perdido M 4 St. Florian i 15 . A 4 Thomasville 4,649 J 4
Joppa C 7 Melvin .
,J 2 Perdido Beach O 4 SL Stephens K 3 Thorsby 1,820 G 6
Jordan X 2 Memphis 33 . .G 3 Perdue Hill X 4
-
Saks t 10.698 E 8 Three Notch | 9
Jordan H 8 Mentone 431 B 9 Peterman K 5 Salem H 10 Threet A 4
Kansas 260 D 4 Meridianvillet ..4.117..A 7 Peterson F 4 Salitpa K 3 Tibbie 1 2
Kellerman F 5 Mexia X 5 Petersville, see Samantha F 4 Tlllmans
Kellyton C 8 Middleton E 8 Underwood Samson .2,071 M 8 Corner-t 15,685 N 2
Kennedy 541 .E 3 Midfield 5 b2b F 6 l-Petersvillel Sand Rock 309 C 9 Titus H 7
Kent H 8 Midland City 1,703 1 9 Petrey 63 .
J 8 Sandy Ridge I
7 Toney A 6
Killen 1.119 A 4 Midway 4 57 | 9 Phenix City 28 ,265 H 11 Sanford 269 . 1 7 TownCreek 1216. B 5
Kilpalrick C 8 Mignont 1 348 F 7 Phil Campbell 1,091 .C 4 Saragossa . .E 5 Townley E 4
Kimberty 1,801 E 6 Millbrook 10.386 I 7 Pickensvllle 662 F 2 Sarafand 12288 M 3 Toxey 152 I 2
Kimbrell F 5 Miller 14 Piedmont 5 120 D 9 Sardis 1,438. 6 1 Trafford 323 E 6
Kimbrough I
4 Millers Ferry | 5 Pike Road 310 I 8 Satsuma 5,687 .M 3 . Trenton B 7
-
Kinsey 1,796.1 10 Millerville F 8 Pinckard 667 . 1 9 Sawyerville H 4 Triana 458 . B 6
Kinston . . . .602 . 8 Millport 1 16(1 E 3 Pine Apple 145 | 6 Sayre E 6 Trinity 1.841 . B 5
Kirkland L 5 Millry .615 X 2 Pine Hill 966 I 4 Schuster ] 5 Troyrf 1 3 935 K 8
Knoxville C 4 Milstead I 8 Pine Level
-
J 8 Scottsboro 14,762 B 8 Trussville 12.924 E 7
Laceys Spring B 7 Minor-t 1 116 E 6 Pine Ridge 243 C 9 Seale I 10 Tunnel
I Ht t>P ( 6 Minter .
.J 6 Pinsont 3,033 E 6 Sealy Springs K 5
Ladoniat .3,229 1 10 Mobile 198.915. N 3 Pisgah 706 B 8 Springs M 10 Tuscaloosa 77,906 F 4
Ufayette
-
3.234 (. m Monroeville 6,862 X 5 Pittsview 110 Searight L 7 Tuscumbia 7,856 . B 4
Lake Forest N I Montevallo 4823 C 6 Plantersville H 6 Searles F 5 Tuskegee 1 1 846 I 9
Uke Purdy-t 5 799 . F 7 Mont- Pleasant Crave 3,983 E 6 Section 769 B 8 Twin D 3
Lakeview* 163 C 8 gomery 201 568 I 7 Pleasant Hill I 6 Sellers I 7 Tyler I 6
Lamison .
.| 4 Montrose N 3 Pleasant Ridge C 4 Selma° 20 512 I 5 Underwood
-
Land J 2 Moody 8,053 E 7 Pleasant Site B 3 Selmont l-West l-Petersvillelt 3.137..C 6
Unett 7.897 . C 10 MooresMill't 5 178 B 6 Plelcher H 6 Selmontlt 3,502 I 6 Underwood
Langston 254 . B 8 Mooresville 59 . .B 6 Poan h Creek Seman H 8 Crossroads B 4
Lapine J 7 Morris 1,827 E 6 Reservation" 208 M 4 Seminole N 4 Union 227 . .C 3
Larkinsville B 8 Morvin J 3 Point Cleart 1,876 O 3 Semmes N 2 Union Grove 34 . .C 7
Lavaca . . .
J 3 Mosses - 1.101 I 6 Pollard 120 M 5 Shady Grove J 8 Union Springs 3.670 J 9
Lawley C 6 Moulton 3,260 C 5 Pope J 4 Sheffield 3,652 B 4 Uniontown 1 .636 I 4
Lebanon
-
. .C 8 Moundville 1 809 C 4 Portersville C 8 Shelby C 7 Uriah L 4
Leeds 1 0,455. E 7 Mount Andrew .
.J 9 Potash F 10 Shellhom J 8 Valhermoso
-
Leesburg 799 . .C 9 Mount Carmel J
7 Powell 926 B 8 Shiloh 289 C 8 Springs C 6
Leighlon 849 B 4 Mount Hope C 4 Powers C 4 Shopton ) 8 Valley 3,198 C 10
Lenox L ->
Mount Meigs I 8 Prairie I 4 Shorter . . 355 . .1 8 Valley Head 611 . B 9
Leroy K 3 Mount Olive G 8 Prairieville H 4 Shorterville K 10 Vance 300 . F 5
Lester . 107 A 5 Mount Rozell A 5 Prattville 24.303 I 7 Silas 529 K 2 Vandiver F 7
Letohatchee J 7 Mount Sterling J 3 Prices D 9 Silver Run E 8 Verbena H 7
Level Plains 1 544 1 9 Mount Vernon 844 .M . 3 Priceville 1,631 . B 6 Silverhill 616. N 4 Vemon° 2,143 . E 3
Lewiston G 3 Mountain Prichard 28 633 N 3 Sipsey 552 . .E 5 Vestavia Hills 24.476 . F 6
Lexington 840 A 5 Brook 20.604 E 6 Princeton B 7 Skipperville K 9 Village Springs E 6
Libertyville' 106.1 7 Mountain Prospect D 4 Skyline 843 ..B 8 Vina 400 . .C 3
Lillian O 4 Creek H 7 Providence 31 1 . .1 4 Slocomb 2,052 M 9 Vincent 1,853 . F 7
Lincoln .4377 E 8 Mountainboro 338 D 8 . Pushmataha I 2 Smithst 21,756. H 10 Vinegar Bend L 2
- -
Linden 2.424 . I 4 Mulga 973 E 6 Putnam J 3 Smoke Rise t .... 1,750. JJ 7 Vinnette E 8
Lineville 2,401 F 9 Munford E 8 Pyriton F 8 Snead 748 . .D 7 Vredenhurgh 327.. K 5
Lipscomb 2.458 . .F 6 Muscle Shoals 11 ,924 B 4 Quinton E d Snow Hill I 6 Wadley 640 . C 9
Lisman 653 I 2 Myrtlewood 139 I 3 Rabun Jvl 4 Snowdoun I 7 Wagarville L 3
-
Little Nanafalia J 3 Ragland 1918 E 8 Society Hill I 9 Waldo 281 F 8
Shawmuf C 10 Napier Field
-
404 L 9 Rainbow City 8 428 D 8 Somerville 347 . .C 6 Walker
Littleville 378 B 4 Natural Bridge 28 D 4 Rainsville 4.499 C 8 South L 7 Springs K 4
Livingston 3.297 . H 3 Nauvoo 284 D 4 Ralph G 4 South Wallace L 5
Loachapoka 165 . .H 9 Nectar 372 . D 6 Ramer ) 8 Vinemont 42:> C 6 Walnut Grove 710 .D 7
Lockhart 548 .M 7 Needham 37 .
J 2 Ranburne 459 E 10 Southside 7,036 D 8 Walter X) 6
Locust Fork 1 016 D 7 Neel i > Randolph G 6 Spanish Fortt 5.423 . N 3 Ward I 2
Logan D 6 New Brockton 1250.1 8 Range L d Speigner .H 7 Warrenton C 7
Lomax C 6 New Hope 2339 B 7 Red Bay 3,374 C 3 Sprague J 7 Warrior 3 169..E 6
Louisville 612 K 9 NewMarkett ., .1,864 .A 7 Red Hill H 8 Spring Garden D 9 Warsaw G 2
Lower New Site 848 . G 9 Red Level 556 . 1 7 Spring Valley B 4 Waterloo 208. A 3
Peach Tree ] 4 Newbem ill H 1 Redstone Springville 2 521 ..E 7 Wattsville E 7
Lowery L 8 Newell F 9 Arsenalt 2,365 B 7 Spratt H 5 Waveriy 184 H 9
Lowndesboro 140 I 7 Newton 1.708 L 9 Reece City b 34 D 8 Spruce Pine C 4 Weaver 2,619. E 9
Loxley 1.348 N 4 Newtonville E 4 Reeltown H 9 Standing Rock G 10 Webb 1.298 L 10
Lucille G 5 Newville 553.1 10 Reform 1.978 F 3 Stanton H 6 Wedowee 818 F 9
Luverne 2,635 X 7 Nicholsville ] 3 Remlap £ 7 Stapleton N 4 Wellington E 8
Lynn 597 D 4 North Rendalia F 8 Steele 1,093. D 8 Weogufka G 7
-
Madison 29.329 B 6 Courtland 799 B 5 Renfrae F 8 Sterrett F 7 West Bend J 3
Madrid 303 M10 North Johns 142 ..F 5 Repton 280 L 5 Stevenson 1770 A 8 WestBlorton 1372 G 5
Magnolia I
4 Northport 19.435 . F 4 Riderville H 6 Stewart G 4 West End
Magnolia Notasulga 316 H 9 Riderwood .. J 2 Stewartville G 7 l-Cobbtownlt 3324 ..E 8
Springs O 4 Oak Grove «57 f 5 Ridgeville
-
158 D 8 Stockton M 3 West Greene G 3
Magnolia Oak Hill 37 | 5 River Falls bib L 7 Stroud C 10 West Jefferson - 344 E 5
Terminal J
4 Oak Ridge ...C 6 Riverside 1 364 E 8 Sulligent 2 151 D 3 West Point* 295 . C 6
Malcolm 1 3 Oakland .A 4 Riverton A 3 Sumiton 2,665. X 5 Weston -
D 3
Malone I
'1 Oakman .944 1 5 Riverview* 39 . M 5 Summerdale 655 . .N 4 Westover F 7
Malvern 1,215 .M 9 Odenville 1 131 E 7 Roanoke 6363 F 10 Summerfield H 5 Wetumpka 5,726 H 8
Manchester D 5 Ohatchee 1,215. 1 8 Roba 19 Summit . .C 7 Whatley
.

K 4
Maplesville 672 H 6 Old Spring Hill I 4 Robertsdale 3 782 N 4 Sumterville H 2 Wheeler B 5
Marburv H 7 Oneonta 5.576 . D 7 Robinson Sunny South J 4 White Hall 1 014 I 6
Margaret 1 169 E 7 Onycha 208 1 7 Springs H 7 Surginer J 4 White Plains ...G 10
Margerum .B 3 Opelika 23,498 H 10 Rock City D 4 Susan Moore - ...721 . .D 7 Whites Chapel
-

.E. 7
Marion 3 311 H 5 Opp 6 607 I 7 Rock Mills ...F 10 Suttle H 5 Whitfield I i

Marion Orange Beach 1 784 i

) 1 Rorktord 428. G 7 Sweet Water 234 | 3 Whiton C 8
M
. .

Junction I Orion I
8 Rnrklerige U 8 Sycamore f 8 Wilmer 2
Mariow .0 3 Orrville 2 vU I 5 Ro« kvvood I 1 Sylaeauga 12 611. F Wilsonville 1 551 . .F 7
Martling C 8 Owassa X 6 Rodentown .. . C 8 Svlvan Wilton 580 G b
Marvel I E Owens Roeton X 9 Springs' 465
1 F b Winfield 4 540 D 4
Marvyn I 10 Cross Roads 1,124 B 7 Rogersville 1 199 B 5 Sylvania 8b
1 1 B 8 Wing M 7
Maylene . f 6 Oxford 11592 t 8 Roosevelt
-
Talladega 13 143 F 8 Winterboro F 8
Maytown' 4 *5 I (> Ozark 15,119 I 8 City I
E Talladega Woodland 192 . .F10
McCalla I 6 Paint Rock 185 B 7 Rosa 313 D 7 Springs 124 C 7 Woods Bluff J 3
McCullough I 4 Palestine Rosalie B 9 Tallassee 4334 H 8 Woodstock F 5
Mcintosh 244 I 1 Palmerdale E 6 Royal D 7 Tanner . B 6 Woodville 761 . B 7
McKenzie M-l K i, Panola G 2 Russellville 8.971 B 4 Tarentum k 8 Wren C 5
McKinlev I 4 Pansey 1 10 Rutledqe 476 X 7
~
Tarrant 7.022 . E 6 Yantley J 2
McMullen E6 I Parrish 1 >>* I S RvlanrT B Taylor 1,898.1 9 Varbo X 2
McShan Paul I 6 Saco | 9 Tenant . . J 9 Yellow Bluff 181 ] 4
McVille C 8 Pea Ridge C 6 Safiond i
S lennille ...X 9 Yellow Pine 2
MrWilliams I 5 Peachburg 19 Saginaw F 6 Tensaw 1 3 York 2 854
I

H 2

"Does not appeal itJon

fCensus designated plai e unincorporated but n im/.-.i ,.n .. slgnlfii am setded i ommunliy i>\ ilu- 1 s t ensus Bureau
°Counly seal
Source ZOOOcensus Places without population figures are unincorporated a
266 Alabama Visitors guide
The beaches and hotels along Alabama's Gulf Coast ful parades through the streets both during the day and
are among the state's major attractions. Many vacation- in the evening.
ers visit the area each year. Many enjoy saltwater fishing During late March and early April, blossoms begin to
in the Gulf of Mexico and freshwater fishing on inland appear on shrubs along Mobile's famous Azalea Trail.
come to see Alabama's historic
lakes. Tourists also This trail is an automobile route, about 35 miles (56 kilo-
homes and beautiful gardens. meters) long, through the city. The trail passes many of
One of Alabama's outstanding annual events is the Mobile's most beautiful homes and gardens. The azaleas
Mardi Gras celebration in Mobile. The festivities begin and other flowering shrubs are usually loveliest during
two weeks before Shrove Tuesday. They include color- late March.

Bellingrath Gardens
in Mobile

lingrafh Gardens

Places to visit

Following are brief descriptions of some of Alabama s many mations and clear, shining lakes. Lighting inside the caverns
interesting places to visit creates interesting reflections of the formations in the water.
U.S. Space and Rocket Center, at Tranquility Base in
Ave Maria Grotto, in Cullman, features more than 1 25 minia- Huntsville, houses a large collection of spacecraft, rockets,
ture replicas of famous buildings and religious shrines con- and hands-on astronaut training exhibits.
on a hillside. Joseph Zoettl, a Benedictine monk, con-
structed National forests, parks, and monuments. Alabama has four
structedmost of the buildings. national forests: Talladega, William B. Bankhead, Conecuh,
Battleship Alabama was presented to Alabama by the U.S. gov- and Tuskegee. Talladega, the largest, has two divisions— one
ernment in 1964. Alabamians raised money to restore the in central Alabama and the other in eastern Alabama.
35,000-long-ton (35,600-metric-ton) ship, which served in Horseshoe Bend National Military Park, near Dadeville,
World War II 11939-1945). The battleship is now anchored in marks the site where Andrew Jackson defeated the Creek In-
Mobile Bay. dians in 1814. Natchez Trace Parkway between Natchez, Mis-
Bellingrath Gardens, in Mobile, is world famous for its dis- sissippi, and Nashville. Tennessee, runs across northwestern
plays of azaleas in the spring and chrysanthemums in the au- Alabama This parkway, which is administered by the National
tumn. Flowers bloom in the gardens the year around. Many Park Service, follows a route that was used by pioneers to re-
waterfowl populate the gardens turn north after floating goods down the Mississippi River on
Dexter Avenue King Memorial Baptist Church, in Mont- flatboats (see Natchez Trace).
gomery, was the site at which Martin Luther King, Jr., first At Russell Cave National Monument near Bridgeport, ar-
preached his message of peace and brotherhood. A huge chaeologists have found tools and other items used by prehis-
mural in the basement of the church depicts important events toric people. These items show that people lived in the cave
in King's life. as early as 7000 B.C, and that the cave was used as a shelter
First White House of the Confederacy, in Montgomery, was until about A.D. 1650.
the home and Mrs. Jefferson Davis during the
of President State parks. Alabama has 24 state parks and 2 state historical
first months of the Confederacy. Tfie white frame house was ironworks parks. The Alabama Historical Commission oper-
built in 1835. ates Fort Morgan on Mobile Bay. For further information on
McWane Center, in Birmingham, is a science center. It features Alabama s state parks and lakes, write to Commissioner, State
exhibits that allow visitors to interact with energy, motion, Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, Mont-
light, sound, electricity, and magnetism gomery, AL 36130.
Sequoyah Caverns, at Valley Head, contain beautiful rock for-
 Alabama 267

Alabama Bureau of Tourism aod Travel Sequoyah Caven

Jefferson Davis Home in Montgomery Rainbow Falls in Sequoyah Caverns at Valley Head

United States Space and

Rocket Center in Huntsville

Debra Schulke, Black Star

Annual events

January-May
Mardi Cras in Mobile (February-March); Zoo Weekend in
Montgomery (March); Selma Pilgrimage Weekend (March);
Eufaula Pilgrimage (April); Birmingham Festival of Arts (April);
Panoply, a festival of the visual and performing arts, in Hunts-
ville (May); Jubilee Cityfest, Montgomery (May).

June-August
City Stages in Birmingham (June); America's Junior Miss in
Mobile (late June); Chilton County Peach Festival in Clanton
(June); W. C Handy Music Festival in Florence (early August).
September-December
Big Spring Jam in Huntsville (September); South Alabama Na-
tional Fair in Montgomery (October); National Shrimp Festival
inGulf Shores (October); Winston 500 in Talladega (October);
National Peanut Festival in Dothan (November); Annual
Thanksgiving Day Pow Wow
in Atmore (November); Victorian
Front Porch Christmas in Opelike (December).
It) M.illi- HilUtrom Stork Photo

Mardi Gras in Mobile

268 Alabama Land and climate
Land regions. Most of southernAlabama lies less meters) above sea level in the northeast The land slopes
than 500 feet (150 meters) above sea level. The surface of toabout 500 feet (1 50 meters) where it meets the East
the state rises gradually toward the northeast Alabama Gulf Coastal Plain in the southwest Farmers could not
has sixmain land regions: (1) the East Gulf Coastal Plain, grow large crops in the plateau's sandy soils until the
(2) the Black Belt, (3) the Piedmont, (4) the Appalachian 1880s, when commercial fertilizers came into common
Ridge and Valley Region, (5) the Cumberland Plateau, hogs and poultry there, and
use. Today, farmers raise
and (6) the Interior Low Plateau. grow cotton, hay, potatoes, and vegetables.
The East Gulf Coastal Plain is Alabama's largest land The Interior Low Plateau lies in the northwestern
region. It covers the entire southern two-thirds of the part of the state. Much of the land is in the valley of the
state, except for a narrow strip of land called the Black Tennessee River. Farmers in the region grow corn, cot-
Belt. In western Alabama, the plain extends north almost ton, and hay. The plateau has water transportation and
to Tennessee. hydroelectric power, which encourage manufacturing
The plain has several sections. The low, swampy land there. Decatur and "The Shoals," the area of Muscle
of the Mobile RiverDelta makes up the southwestern Shoals, Florence, Sheffield, and Tuscumbia, are indus-
section. The southeastern part is called the Wiregrass trial centers.
area. It is named for a tough grass that once grew there Coastline. Alabama's general coastline extends for 53
in pine forests. Today, the Wiregrass area is an impor- miles (85 kilometers) along the Gulf of Mexico. The tidal
tant farming region. The northern part of the plain is shoreline, which includes small bays and inlets, is 607
often called the Central Pine Belt because many pine miles (977 kilometers) long. Mobile Bay, at the mouth of
forests cover its low, rolling hills. In the western part of the Mobile River, is the chief feature of the Alabama
this section, the soils are gravelly and sandy, and are not coastline. It is an important harbor area. Mississippi
good for growing crops. Sound borders the coast west of Mobile Bay. Perdido
The Black Belt is a narrow strip of rolling prairie Bay is at the border between Alabama and Florida. The
wedged between the northern and southern parts of the long, sandy peninsula between Mobile and Perdido
East Gulf Coastal Plain. The Black Belt was named for the bays is known as the Gulf Coast. Dauphin Island, Ala-
sticky black clay soils of its rolling uplands. Early in Ala- bama s largest coastal island, lies at the entrance to Mo-
bama's history, farmers developed large plantations in bile Bay. An overseas highway connects the island with
this region. Boll weevils came to the Black Belt in 1915, the mainland.
and damaged the cotton crop. Some farmers then
changed from growing cotton to raising livestock.
The Piedmont in east-central Alabama, is an area of
low hills and ridges separated by sandy valleys. The clay
soils of these hills and ridges have been badly eroded.
Most of the land is forested. Cheaha Mountain, the high-
est point in Alabama, rises 2,407 feet (734 meters) on the
northwestern edge of the Piedmont
Deposits of coal, iron ore, limestone, and marble, to-
gether with electric power from projects on the Coosa
and Tallapoosa rivers, make the Piedmont an important
manufacturing area. Textile production is the main in-
dustry in many small cities of the region.
The Appalachian Ridge and Valley Region is an area
of sandstone ridges and fertile limestone valleys. It lies
northwest of the Piedmont. The region has coal, iron
ore, and limestone— the three basic minerals used in
making iron and steel. For this reason, Birmingham and
other large cities in the region developed as centers of
iron and steel production.
The Cumberland Plateau, also known as the Appala-
Land regions of Alabama
chian Plateau, lies northwest of the Appalachian Ridge
and Valley Region. The surface varies from flat to gently
rolling land. It reaches a height of about 1 ,800 feet (549

Map index
Alabama R. O 2 Cheaha Mountains LakeEuiaula D 4 Mobile R. E 1 Sand Mountain A 3
Appalachian Mts. A 3 (highest point in Lake Harding C 4 Monte Sano SipsevR. B 2
Ami Herbes (Isl.l E 1 Alabama) B 4 Lake Lay B 3 (Mountain) A 3 Talladega Mountain B 3
Bankhead Lake B 2 Choctawhatchee R. D 4 Lake Lewis Smith B 2 Seely Henry Lake B 3 Tallapoosa R. 8 4. C 3
BartJetts Ferry Claiborne Lake D 2 Lake Mitchell C 3 Oak Mountain B 3 Tennessee R. A 2. A 4
Dam C 4 Coivin Mountains B 4 Lake Tholocco D 4 PeaR. D 4 Tennessee- Tom-
BearCreek -A 1 Conecuh R. D 3 Lake Tuscaloosa B 2 Penitentiary biqbee Waterway- C 1

Beaver Creek Coosa R C 3 Lay Dam C 3 Mountain ...... A 2 Tomblgbee R D 4

Mountains B 3 Cumberland Plateau ... A 3 Little Tallapoosa R. B 4 Perdido R. E 2 Walter F
Big Creek Lake E 1 Dauphin Isl. E 1 Locust Foci B 3 Pickwick Lake A 2 George Lake -D 4
Big Spring Demopolis Lake C 2 Logan Martin Lake B 3 Piedmont Plateau B 4 Weisner Mountain A 4
Valley A 3 Escambia R. E 2 Lookout Mountain A 4 Pigeon Creek D 3 Weiss Lake A 4
Black Beh CI Flagg Mountain .C 3 Uuapalila Creek B 1 Red Hills D 1 West Point Lake B
A
4
Black Warrior R. C 2 Guntersville Lake A 3 Martin Dam C 4 Red Mountain ...... Jl 3 Wheeler Lake 2
Browns Valley A 3 Inland Lake B 3 Martin Lake C 4 Rock Mountain B 2 William 3iir
Buttahatchie R. B 1 lackson Lake D 2 Mississippi Sound .E 1 Russell Cave Dannelry Res. C 3
CahabaR C 2 lordan Dam C 3 Mitchell Dam C 3 NaflMon. A 4 Wilson Lake A 2
Chattahoochee H D 4 Jordan Lake C 3 Mobile Bay E 1 Ryan Creek A 3 Yellow R. X) 3
 T~ 8S°

nm)sset.L CAVE
O NAT'L. VON -fo\

Wilson Lake:
MONTE SANO
'Florence ' Huntsvjlle . iS"^ f
I Lake y '
*

Decatur
I
fitter «v
PENITENTIARY MTN
+ 1.074 FT 327 M)

Rome •
0„
$,
\ ! Coo.a*
«• o
V
WEISNER MTN
894 FT
I \
+ 577 M )1
j£
Lake N Gadsden I

A/ee/y Henry L.-^ MW. chjgoown mtH

Smith J^
Jasper -«
I
^

•0i...v,;r,,rU.,~. Lo«'" 1
_.JEAHA MTN.
2.407 FT (734 M)
K^ o
Birmingham Martin
Ifnrtin + i I
Bessemer.
tait
I-*-"
6 f HIGHEST POINT
ALABAMA %>
.$ '.
V
IN ',

J>
<u J.

/,. Lav

Selma

-W^f\
&

Eufaultt

*4

c^
«/
**
•
i ® a 2 o ® a

Alabama physical map \

Distance scale
5 10 15 20 25 30 ® State capital

cola 1
' .

20 30 40
— I 1

Kilometers • City or town

SANTA R6SA I

Gulf I o/ Mf/iro .mgitudc West ol G'eenmch

_i£_
—
i

3 4
Spci >iiK < rated '>' FAe HtortVABal fiwyi hpedbb) RindM
270 Alabama

Colorful wildflowers bloom

on Dauphin Island, off the
coast of Alabama south of
Mobile Bay. The island has
beautiful beaches that attract
many visitors.

Heteti Kittinoer Hillstrom Stock Photo

Rivers and lakes. Navigable rivers flow through al-

most every part of Alabama. The Mobile River and its
tributaries flow south to the Gulf of Mexico. They form
the most important river system in the state. The Ala- Average monthly weather
bama and the Tombigbee, Alabama's longest rivers,
meet about 45 miles (72 kilometers) north of Mobile and Mobile Birmingham
form the Mobile River. The Alabama River begins where
Tetnpe ratures Days of Temperatures Days ot
the Coosa and Tallapoosa rivers meet, just north of F c- rain or F C- rain or
Montgomery. The Tombigbee starts in Mississippi and High Low High Low snow High Low rflgh Low snow
flows southeast into Alabama. Its main tributary in Ala- Jan. 62 43 17 6 )an. 56 35 13 2 11
bama is the Black Warrior. Feb. 65 45 18 7 Feb. 58 37 14 3 11

The Chattahoochee River forms much of the border Mar. 69 50 21 10 Mar. 65 42 18 6 11

Apr. 24 14 Apr. "4 23 10

between Alabama and Georgia. The Tennessee River is 76 57 50
May 83 64 28 18 May 82 58 28 14
the most important river in northern Alabama. It flows
June 89 71 32 22 June 89 66 32 19
west across almost the entire width of the state. 32 22
-
32 21
fury 89 72 Jury 90 69
Alabama has no large natural lakes, but dams on riv- Aug. 90 72 32 22 Aug. 90 68 32 20 11

ers have created many artificial lakes. The largest of

-
Sept 87 69 31 21 Sept 86 63 30 17

these, Guntersville Lake, covers 110 square miles (285 Oct 79 59 26 15 Oct 25 11

Nov. Nov. 40 18 4
square kilometers). It is formed by Guntersville Dam on 69 48 21 9 64
Dec 63 44 17 7 Dec. 56 35 13 2
the Tennessee River. Other large artificially created

Average January temperatures Average July temperatures Average yearly precipitation

In winter, winds from the Gulf of Mexico Summers in Alabama are long, hot, and Alabama receives much rainfall, espe-

bring mild air to southern Alabama. Win- humid. Higher elevations make the north- cially near the Gulf coast. Snowfall is light
ters are a little colder in the north. east slightly cooler. in the north and rare in the south.
WORLD BOOK maps

Degrees Degrees
Fohrenheit Celsius

Above 82 I1 Above 28
81 to 82 11 27 to 28

80 to 81 H1 26 lo 27

Belo- aopn &e'o- 26

i
i

Birmingham
[^ 8mningham
\

\
/
#

Tuscaloosa TuscalooM \

Montgomery / Montgomery

\
Oothan

Mobil?

K 1
 Alabama 271

lakes, in order of size, include Wheeler on the Ten- geese, and other water birds that fly north in the spring.
nessee River, Martin on the Tallapoosa River, and Weiss Freshwater fish in Alabama streams include bass,
on the Coosa River. bream, buffalo fish, catfish, crappies, garfish, and shad.
Plant and animal life. Forests cover about two-thirds Drumfish, flounder, mackerel, mullet, red snapper, and
of Alabama. Pine forests are the most common type of tarpon are common in the Gulf of Mexico along Alaba-
forest. Besides pines, other trees in the state include ma's coast Shellfish found in the Gulf include crabs, oys-
cedars, cypresses, hemlocks, and oaks. ters,and shrimps.
In the spring, blooming shrubs and trees cover the Al- Climate. Alabama has a mild climate. January temper-
abama countryside. The state is famous for its azaleas. It atures average about 52 °F (1 °C) in the southern part of
1

also has flowering dogwood, mountain laurel, and the state, and about 46 °F (8 C) in the north. July temper-
rhododendrons. Alabama's wildflowers include asters, atures average about 80 °F (27 'Q throughout the state.
Dutchman's-breeches, goldenrods, orchids, pinks, and Alabama's lowest temperature, -27 °F (-33 °C), oc-
southern camasses. curred at New Market on Jan. 30, 1966. The highest tem-
Bobcats, deer, red and gray foxes, minks, opossums, perature, 1 12 T (44 C), was at Centreville on Sept 5,
rabbits, raccoons, skunks, squirrels, and wild turkeys 1925. Alabama's annual precipitation (rain, melted snow,
live in many parts of Alabama. Beaver colonies thrive in and other moisture) averages from about 65 inches (165
the swamps and lowlands. Some alligators can be found centimeters) on the coast to 53 inches (1 35 centimeters)
in the state's southern swamps and bayous (see Bayou). in the north. Snow falls in the north, but is rare on the

These areas also provide winter shelter for ducks, coast

Economy

As in many states, Alabama's economy is changing. Al-

abama has long been known for its manufacturing in- Production and workers by economic activities
Manufacturing remains the state's single most
dustries.
Percent
Employed workers
important economic activity in terms of the gross state of GSr Number Percent
Economic activities produced of people of total
product— the total value of all goods and services pro-
duced in a state in a year. However, the number of man- Manufacturing 20 391 ,500 16

ufacturing jobs in the state declined during the 1990s. Community, business,
Service industries, taken together, make up the largest & personal services 17 609,700 25

portion of Alabama's gross state product. In the 1990s, Wholesale & retail trade 17 511,000 21

these industries had significant job growth. Government 16 384,200 16

Mining and farming also contribute to Alabama's eco- Finance, insurance,
nomic output The state is an important producer of coal & real estate 14 133,000 6
and natural gas. Much of its agricultural income is pro- Transportation, communi-
duced by farms that raise livestock. cation, & utilities 9 108,200 5
Natural resources of Alabama include thick pine Construction 4 150,100 6
forests, areas of fertile soil, valuable mineral deposits,
Agriculture 2 86,700 4
and deep rivers.
Mining 1 12,100 1
Soil Alabama's Black Belt is known for its black clay
Total 100 2,386,500 100
soils. Parts of the East Gulf Coastal Plain have sandy soils.

Red soils cover most other parts of the state. In many ar- "CSP = gross state product, the total value of goods and services produced in a year.
Figures are for 1998.
eas, these r ed soils were once covered by gray or yel- Source* World Book estimates based on data from U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis
and U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.

low topsoil. Much of the fertile topsoil was carried away

by erosion after farmers cut down trees and plowed the
land. Today, many Alabama farmers help save fertile
soils by contour plowing, terracing, and other conserva- Ranking first among Alabama's service industries are
tion methods. community, business, and personal services and (2)
(1)

Minerals. Valuable deposits of coal and limestone lie wholesale and retail trade. Each contributes an equal
fairly close together in the Birmingham area of Alabama. amount toward the gross state product
These materials are used in the production of iron and Community, business, and personal services consist
steel. Alabamas most important coal beds are located in of a variety of establishments, including private health
the north-central part of the state. Major deposits of care, law firms, software developers, and engineering
limestone are also found in northern Alabama. companies. Blount, an important construction engineer-
Alabama has important oil and natural gas fields in ing company, is based in Montgomery. Birmingham is a
Choctaw, Escambia, Mobile, and other southwestern center for high-tech and telecommunications services.
counties. Other mined products found in the state in- The wholesale trade of groceries, machinery, and
clude asphalt, bauxite, clay, dolomite, marble, mica, salt, mined products is important in Alabama. Mobile serves
sand and gravel, sandstone, and talc. as the state s major center of wholesale trade. Major
Service industries, as a group, contribute the great- types of retail businesses include automobile dealer-
est part of the gross state product in Alabama. Most of ships, discount stores, and food stores. Bruno's, one of
the service industries are concentrated in the state s the South s largest grocery store chains, is headquar-
metropolitan areas. tered in Birmingham.
272 Alabama

Government ranks next among the service industries yearly. This figure represents the increase in value of
of Alabama. Government services include the operation raw materials after they become finished products.
of public schools, public hospitals, and military estab- Chemicals are Alabama's leading manufactured
lishments. The public school system is a leading em- goods in terms of value added by manufacture. The
ployer Alabama. Major military bases located in the
in states most important chemical products are used by in-
state include Fort Rucker, near Dothan, and Maxwell Air dustry. Alabama factories also produce chemical fibers,
Force base and Gunter Annex, near Montgomery. The fertilizers, and insecticides. Chief chemical production
Huntsville area is home to the George G Marshall Space centers in the state include Decatur and Mobile.
Flight Center and the Redstone Arsenal. State govern- Paper products rank second in value added among
ment offices are based in Montgomery. Alabamas manufactured products. Pulp and paper are
Finance, insurance, and real estate forms Alabama's produced at mills in many parts of the state, including
fourth-ranking service industry. Birmingham is Alaba- the Mobile, Montgomery, and Childersburg areas. Oth-
ma's leading financial center.Two of the Souths largest er paper products manufactured in Alabama include
banking companies, Amsouth and SouthTrust, have cardboard, paper bags, and paper tissue.
their headquarters there. Large financial companies are Primary metals are Alabama's third-ranking manufac
also based in Montgomery. Real estate is a major part of tured product Primary metals manufacturing is based
the economy of Alabama because of the large sums of mainly on the steel industry, which is centered in Birm-
money involved in the buying and selling of homes. The ingham, Decatur, and Gadsden.
leasing of buildings is also part of the real estate sector. Transportation equipment is Alabama's fourth-ranking
Transportation, communication, and utilities ranks manufactured product Motor vehicles, aircraft engines,
fifth among Alabama. Many ship-
service industries in and military and space equipment are produced here.
ping companies are based in Mobile, which has one of Food products rank fifth in terms of value added by
the busiest ports in the United States. Ships transport manufacture. The state's major food processing activities
the state's mined products and many other types of include bread baking and meat packing.
freight Trucking and shipping companies also transport Other goods made in Alabama include clothing, com-
much of Alabama's freight Pipeline companies transport puter and electronic equipment, fabricated metal prod-
petroleum and natural gas. Telephone companies are ucts, machinery, rubber and plastic products, textiles,
the most important part of the communications sector. and wood products. Much of the clothing made in Al-

The Alabama headquarters of BellSouth are in Birming- abama manufactured in small towns, including An-
is

ham. Utility companies provide electric, gas, and water dalusia, Bay Minette, Elba, Haleyville, Jasper, and Scotts-
service. More information about transportation and boro. Computer components and communications
communication appears later in this section. equipment are the leading types of electronic equip-
Manufacturing. Goods manufactured in Alabama ment made in Alabama. The state's fabricated metal
have a value added by manufacture of about S30 billion products include hardware, containers, and architectur-
al metals. Factories in Birmingham and Montgomery

manufacture heating and air conditioning units. Flo-

rence is a center for the manufacture of metalworking
machinery. Huntsville, Opelika, and Tuscaloosa have
large tire factories. Plants near Birmingham and
Huntsville make a variety of plastic products. Fabric,
thread, yarn, and other textile products are made in
many parts of Alabama. Lumber, plywood, and veneers
are among the state's chief wood products.
Agriculture. Farms cover about 30 percent of Alaba-
ma s land area. The state has approximately 49,000 farms.
Livestock products account for about three-fourths of
Alabamas farm income. Alabama ranks among the lead-
ing states in the production of broilers (chickens 5 to 12
weeks old). Broilers are the most valuable farm product
in the state. They provide more than 40 percent of the

farm income. Counties in the northern part of the state

produce the most broilers.
Beef cattle are Alabama s second most valuable farm
product. Cattle graze on grasslands throughout the
but especially in the Black Belt in central Alabama.
state,
Eggs and milk are also leading livestock products in the
state. Hogs are raised in all parts of the state, but espe-
cially in the Wiregrass area. Catfish farming and bee-
keeping are also important in Alabama.
Until the early 1900 s, cotton production employed
many farmworkers and provided almost all of Alabama's
d Mallev Hillstrom Stork Phnln
agricultural wealth. Today, cotton is still Alabama s lead-
f

Paper mills operate in many parts of Alabama. Paper products

ing crop, and the state is a leading cotton producer. Me-
rank among Alabama's leading manufactured goods. The state is

a major U.S. producer of forest products. chanical pickers harvest much of the cotton crop.
 —

Alabama 273

Economy of Alabama gas from coal is a major activity in west-central Alabama.

This map shows the economic uses of land in Alabama and Large limestone quarries lie near Birmingham and

where the state's leading farm, mineral, and forest products are Limestone
Huntsville. is used primarily to make cement
produced. Major manufacturing centers are shown in red. and roadbeds.
Alabama is among the leading states in mining baux-
Mostly cropland Urban area iteand marble. The state's other mined products include
Woodland mixed with Manufacturing center clays, salt,and sand and gravel.
cropland and grazing
Fishing industry. Alabama has an annual fish catch
Mineral deposit
Mostly forest land valued at about S50 million. The Gulf of Mexico provides
WORLD BOOK map most of the catch. Shrimp are the most valuable product
of Alabama's saltwater fishing industry. Blue crabs rank

Floirenfe--^ev«eai»-^heat
Hon "V Poi*M second in value, followed by oysters. Buffalo fish, cat-
'_£om i-orton - . ^Huntsville ' fish, and mussels are caught commercially in freshwater
Stone>— Poultry
/ \
/ Hogs \
,

Beef
streams in Alabama. Grain-fed catfish, raised in artificial
—Decatur Milk Corp/ \
cattle, \
ponds on farms, are an important new food crop.
Poultry
\ Electric power. Plants that burn coal provide about
two-thirds of Alabama's electric power. Nuclear plants
Forest
products
Clay^
(—
iLpGgVri
—^yegetables provide about 25 percent of the state's electric power.
Hydroelectric plants supply almost all of the remaining
<f^/
^aturaigas.
(55aT. -?Coal

^Birmingham ^ power. The Tennessee Valley Authority, a government

corporation, operates hydroelectric and nuclear plants
.Corf Undone. / 1*?> Beef

•-
-

Soybeans l
„
Beef
~
cattle
Poultry
in northern Alabama.

Transportation. Alabama has about 94,000 miles

Clay. Forest
Poultry ~V
lyoit
products (151,000 kilometers) of roads and highways. Four major
Vegetables rsj rail lines provide freight service in Alabama. Passenger

Sand3
l3y
«" trains serve Birmingham and two other cities in the
Soybeans— gravel -—-, 1 ^3^--0pelika
V •-— —
state. Most of Alabama's air traffic goes in and out of air-
-\

. ^^ZT^— i
" .Montgomery ~-^^
^6eef cattle — clay*/ -^ Honey—_~ ports at Birmingham, Huntsville, and Mobile.
Forest "S Cotton
P?£4"s )
About 1,350 miles (2,170 kilometers) of navigable wa-
products rNBeef cattle^ Eo(iltry_^
terways cross the state. They include a section of the
Baux*e.
Gulf Intracoastal Waterway between Brownsville, Texas,
Beef cattle
\_^~•*_ Pecans and Carrabelle, Florida. This section is about 60 miles (97
Sand, Gravel_^ -^~> „
/-S,, /* ~~^~^ Peanuts kilometers) long. The Black Warrior-Tombigbee-Mobile
Sand. Gravel.
Sal.' J* ^°
"_/
n °n
I
£"7 Pecans
Lq "v
H_
H °9 S
Poultry Ho S=
Cotton
river system,453 miles (729 kilometers) long, is the
Peanuts Vegetable longest navigable waterway in Alabama. The Tennessee
( ^ J Petroleum
Vageiab les *»Natural gas Corn Beef catt e |

Clay. River connects northern Alabama with the Mississippi

Petrdletim* I
River system. The 234-mile- (377-kilometer-) long Ten-
Soybean?
vTMobile nessee-Tombigbee Waterway was completed in 1985.
This waterway helps link the port at Mobile with inland
ports on the Tennessee and Ohio rivers. Alabama has
•Natural i
built dock facilities at Decatur, Eufaula, Huntsville,
Phenix City, and other towns along waterways.
Mobile, on Mobile Bay, is Alabama's only seaport The
Greenhouse and nursery products are an important Alabama State Docks at Mobile are among the finest
source of farm income. Peanuts, which are grown in the port facilities in the United States. They can handle
Wiregrass region, are another important crop. Other about 35 oceangoing vessels at a time.
valuable field crops include corn, soybeans, and wheat. Communication. The Mobile Register, founded in
Peaches are produced mainly in Chilton county. Al- 1813, is Alabama's oldest newspaper. Today, about 130
abama farmers also grow apples, nectarines, plums, newspapers, including about 25 dailies, are published in
grapes, strawberries, and blueberries. The state's lead- Alabama. The Birmingham News has the largest circula-
ing vegetable crops include potatoes, sweet potatoes, tion. Other leading papers include the Birmingham Post-

sweet corn, tomatoes, and watermelons. Most of the Herald, The Huntsville Times, the Mobile Register, and
potatoes and sweet potatoes are produced in Baldwin, The Montgomery Advertiser. About 90 periodicals are
Chilton, Cullman, DeKalb, and Jackson counties. Pecans also published in Alabama.
are another valuable farm product, produced mainly in WAPI Birmingham is Alabamas oldest commercial
of
the southern part of the state. radio station. It began in 1922 in Auburn as WMAV.

Mining. Alabama's most valuable mined products are WVTM-TV, the state s first television station, was estab-
coal, natural gas, petroleum, crushed stone, and lime- lished in Birmingham in 949 as WABT-TV. The Alabama
1

stone. Jefferson, Tuscaloosa, and Walker counties in Public Television Network began operating in 1955. It
north-central Alabama produce most of the state's coal. was the first state-owned educational television system
The coal is a bituminous (soft) variety that is taken from in the nation. This system has stations in several cities

both underground and surface mines. Natural gas and and reaches every county in the state. Alabama has
petroleum are obtained mainly from wells in the south- about 225 radio stations and 35 television stations. Cable
western part of the state. The production of methane TV systems and Internet providers serve most areas.
274 Alabama Government
Constitution of Alabama was adopted in 1901. The and in April during the fourth year.
third years,
statehad five earlier constitutions, adopted in 1819, Courts. The highest court in Alabama is the state
1861, 1865, 1868, and 1875. An amendment may be pro- Supreme Court. It has a chief justice and eight associate
posed either by the Alabama Legislature or by a consti- justices, and they are all elected to six-year terms. The
tutional convention. An amendment proposed by the Court of Criminal Appeals has five judges, and the Court
Legislature must be approved by three-fifths of the of Civil Appeals has five judges. These judges also are
members in each house. Then it must get the approval all elected to six-year terms. Lower courts in Alabama in-

of a majority of the electors voting on the issue. Alaba- clude a circuit court, district court, probate court, and
ma's Constitution has been amended over 600 times, the municipal courts.
most of any state constitution. Local government Alabama has 67 counties. Each is
A majority of the members of each house of the legis- governed by a board of commissioners. The boards are
lature and a majority of the voters must approve calling
a constitutional convention. An amendment proposed
by the convention must be approved by a majority of
the people voting on the issue in an election.
Executive. The governor of Alabama is elected to a
•
four-year term. This official can serve more than one
term. However, the governor is not allowed to serve
three terms in a row. Alabama's other top executive offi-

cials include the lieutenant governor, secretary of state,

attorney general, auditor, treasurer, and commissioner
BW **- n jW
of agriculture and industries. Each of these officials is

elected to a four-year term.

Legislature consists of a Senate of 35 members and a
105-member House of Representatives. Each of Alaba- 1 It
•"^^fii^^p.- _ _ ^^B _^
*"f j—
ma's 35 senatorial districts elects one senator. Each of
the state's 105 representative districts elects one mem-
ber to the House of Representatives. Senators and rep-
resentatives serve four-year terms.
The Legislature holds regular sessions each year. Ses-
sions may not last longer than 105 days, and the Legisla-
ture may not meet as a whole on more than 30 of these
days. Sessions begin in January during the
the legislative term, in
first

February during the second and

year of
v»-
The Alabama Senate meets in
m *mState Legislature

the State Capitol in Montgom-

ery. Each of Alabama's 35 state senators serves a four-year term.

The governors of Alabama

Party Term Party Term
William Wyatt Bibb * Dem.-Rep. 1819-1820 William Calvin Oates Democratic 1894-1896
Thomas Bibb Dem.-Rep. 1820-1821 Joseph Forney Johnston Democratic 1896-1900
Israel Pickens Dem.-Rep. 1821-1825 William James Samford Democratic 1900-1901
John Murphy Dem.-Rep. 1825-1829 William Dorsey Jelks Democratic 19011907
Gabriel Moore Democratic 1829-1831 Braxton Bragg Comer Democratic 1907-1911
Samuel B. Moore Democratic 1831 Emmett O'Neal Democratic 1911-1915
John Gayle Democratic 1831-1835 Charles Henderson Democratic 1915-1919
Clement Comer Clay Democratic 1835-1837 Thomas Erby Kilby Democratic 1919-1923
Hugh McVay Democratic 1837 William W. Brandon Democratic 1923-1927
Arthur P. Bagby Democratic 1837-1841 Bibb Graves Democratic 1927-1931
Benjamin Fitzpatrick Democratic 1841-1845 Benjamin Meek Miller Democratic 19311935
Joshua Lanier Martin Democratic 1845-1847 Bibb Graves Democratic 1935-1939
Reuben Chapman Democratic 1847-1849 Frank M. Dixon Democratic 1939-1943
Henry Watkins Collier Democratic 1849-1853 Chauncey Sparks Democratic 1943-1947
John Anthony Winston Democratic 1853-1857 James E. Folsom Democratic 1947-1951
Andrew Barry Moore Democratic 1857-1861 Gordon Persons Democratic 1951-1955
John Gill Shorter Democratic 1861-1863 James E. Folsom Democratic 1955-1959
Thomas Hill Watts Democratic 1863-1865 John M. Patterson Democratic 1959-1963
Lewis F_ Parsons Democratic 1865 George G Wallace Democratic 1963-1967
Robert Miller Patton Republican 18651867 Lurleen Wallace Democratic 1967-1968
Military rule 1867-1868 AlbertP. Brewer Democratic 1968-1971
William Hugh Smith Republican 1868-1870 George G Wallace Democratic 1971-1979
Robert Bums Lindsay Democratic 1870-1872 Forrest H. James, Jr. Democratic 1979-1983
David Peter Lewis Republican 18721874 George G Wallace Democratic 1983-1987
George Smith Houston Democratic 1874-1878 Guy Hunt Republican 1987-1993
Rufus W. Cobb Democratic 1878-1882 Jim Folsom Democratic 1993-1995
Edward Asbury O'Neal Democratic 1882-1886 Fob James, Jr. Republican 1995-1999
Thomas Seay Democratic 1886-1890 Donald Siegelman Democratic 1999-
Thomas Goode Jones Democratic 1890-1894

'Democratic-Republican
 Alabama 275

known county commissions. In most coun-

officially as Politics. As in other Southern states, most candidates
ties, the chief the probate judge. The probate
official is elected to national, state, and local offices in Alabama
judge is elected to a six-year term. Other county officials have been Democrats. Most of Alabama's major state
include the sheriff, district attorney, superintendent of and local political battles have traditionally been waged
education, engineer, tax assessor, and tax collector. in primary elections for the Democratic nomination. But

Most Alabama municipalities have a mayor-council since the mid-1900's, Alabamians have elected a number
form of government A few cities operate under a city- of Republican candidates to local offices and to the Con-
manager plan. Birmingham, Huntsville, Montgomery, gress of the United States. In 1986, Guy Hunt became the
and Tuscaloosa have mayor-council governments. Most first Republican to be elected governor of Alabama

small cities and towns also operate under the mayor- since the early 1 870's.
council plan. Until the 1960s,Alabama voters usually supported
Revenue. Taxation provides about half of Alabama's Democratic presidential candidates. But in 1964, the
general revenue (income). Most of the rest comes from state voted for Senator Barry M. Goldwater of Arizona,
federal grants and interest earned on public accounts. the Republican candidate. It was the first time since 1 872
The main sources of tax revenue are personal and cor- that the state of Alabama supported a Republican presi-
porate income taxes, and general sales and use taxes. dential candidate. Since 1980, the Republican candidate
Other major sources of tax revenue include taxes on al- has won Alabama's electoral votes in each presidential
coholic beverages, insurance premiums, motor fuels, election. For Alabama's electoral votes and voting
and public utilities. Taxes are also assessed for motor record in presidential elections since 1820, see Electoral
vehicle licenses and business licenses. College (table).

History

Indian days. Cliff-dwelling Indians lived in the Alaba- ed the French and Indian War. The Mobile area became
ma region 8,000 years ago. Excavations in Russell Cave, part of West Florida, under British control. Northern Al-
in northeastern Jackson County, have revealed details of abama was included in the Illinois country, a region in
their lives. Later the Cherokee, Creek, Choctaw, and what is now the central United States.
Chickasaw Indians lived in the region. Whites called In 1779, Spain declared war on Britain. In 1780,
these groups the Civilized Tribes because they adopted Bernardo de Galvez captured Mobile from the British. In
many European customs. See Five Civilized Tribes. the Treaty of Paris signed in 1 783, Britain gave the Mo-
Exploration and setdement. Alonso Alvarez de bile region to Spain.
Pineda, a Spanish explorer, sailed into Mobile Bay in Territorial days.
In 795, Thomas Pinckney, a U.S.
1

1519. In 1528, an expedition led by Panfilo de Narvaez statesman, negotiated the Treaty of San Lorenzo. This
passed through Alabama coastal waters. Alvar Nunez treaty, also called the Pinckney Treaty, fixed the southern
Cabeza de Vaca, the first European to cross North Amer- boundary of the United States along the 31st parallel of
ica, was a member of this expedition. Hernando de Soto, north latitude. All of present-day Alabama except the
another Spaniard, led an expedition into the Alabama re- Mobile area lay north of the line and became part of the
gion from the northeast in 1540. He became the first United States. In 1798, the Alabama region, except the
white person to explore the interior. De Soto (also called Mobile area, became part of the Mississippi Territory
Soto) and the Indians fought a bloody battle at Mabila, organized by the U.S. Congress.
north of present-day Mobile. De Soto's forces defeated During the War of 1812 against Britain, the United
Chief Tuscaloosa and his warriors. States seized the Mobile area from Spain. On April 15,
In 1559, Tristan de Luna, a Spanish adventurer from 181 3, the Stars and Stripes flew over the entire Alabama
Mexico, searched for gold in the Alabama region. He or- region for the first time. Also in 1 81 3, the Creek Indians
ganized small settlements on Mobile Bay and at the pre- massacred several hundred pioneers at Fort Mims near
sent site of Claiborne. In 1561, he was removed from his Tensaw. In 1814, U.S. forces under General Andrew Jack-
command and was forced to return to Mexico. son defeated the Creek in the Battle of Horseshoe Bend.
The first permanent group of white settlers in the Al- The Creek then surrendered their land to the United
abama region were French. In 1699, two French-Canadi- States. William Weatherford, a Creek chief also known
an brothers, Pierre Le Moyne, Sieur d'lberville, and Jean as Red Eagle, led the tribe in its bitter fight against Jack-
Baptiste Le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville, sailed to Dauphin son's troops.
Island in Mobile Bay. In 1 702, they founded Fort Louis In 1817, the Alabama Territory was organized. St

nearby along the Mobile River. Fort Louis became the Stephens, on the Tombigbee River, was the capital.
capital of the French colony known as Louisiana. In 1711, Early statehood. A constitutional convention met in
river floods forced the French to move 27 miles (43 kilo- Huntsville in 1819 and drew up the territory's first Con-
meters) south to the present site of Mobile. This settle- stitution. On Dec. 14, 1819, Alabama entered the Union
ment, also called Fort Louis, became the first permanent as the 22nd state. Huntsville served as the capital of Al-
white settlement in Alabama. It was renamed Fort abama for a little more than a year. William Wyatt Bibb,
Conde in 1720. The settlement was the capital of French who had been governor of the Alabama Territory, be-
Louisiana until 1 722, when New Orleans became the came the new state's first governor. Cahaba became the
capital. capital in 1820. In 1825, floods from the Alabama River
In 1 763, the French gave most of their colony of caused great damage to Cahaba. Because of the floods,
Louisiana to Britain in the Treaty of Paris. This treaty end- the capital was moved to Tuscaloosa in 1826.
276 Alabama
The most important Civil War action in the state was
the Battle of Mobile Bay in 1864, won by Union forces
under Rear Admiral David C. Farragut (see Farragut,
David G.I. Union forces also made several raids into Ala-
bama during the war. In 1863, Confederate forces led by
General Nathan Bedford Forrest captured a much larger
group of Union raiders at Cedar Bluffs. In 1865, Union
General James H. Wilson led the largest raid into Ala-
bama and won victories at Selma and Montgomery.
Most of Alabama escaped the ruin that spread across
the South during the Civil War. However, Florence,
Huntsville, Montgomery, Selma, and other cities in the
northern and central parts of the state suffered destruc-
tion and looting.
Alabama faced mounting financial problems during
the Reconstruction period that followed the war. The
state debt increased from 58 million to more than S32
million from 1866 to 1873. The state government came
under the control of former Northerners called carpet-
baggers and Southerners called scalawags. On June 25,
Fort Mims, near Tensaw, was the site of a bloody battle. On
1868, Alabama was readmitted to the Union. In 1874,
Aug. 30, 1 81 3, the Creek Indians led by Chief Red Eagle attacked
conservative Democrats succeeded in electing most
the fort and killed several hundred pioneers.
state officials. The government was reformed, and
state
a new constitution was adopted in 1875.
In 1838, federal troops marched into the remaining State prosperity followed the Reconstruction pe-
Indian territory of Alabama, in the northeast section of riod. During the 1870s, several railroads were com-
the state. They demanded that all the Indians move to pleted. Also during the 1870"s, Alabamians proved they
the west. By 1840, all but a few scattered tribes had could make iron by burning iron ore with coke, rather
moved west beyond the Mississippi River. than with charcoal. This was important because north-
Alabama suffered severe financial troubles during the central Alabama had large deposits of coal, from which
1840s and 185fJs. The state bank, created during the coke made. The same region also had vast supplies of
is

182CTs, was poorly managed. The bank issued too much iron ore and limestone, the two other minerals needed
money and, as a result, the money decreased in value. to make iron and steel. In 1880, Alabama s first blast fur-
The bank also loaned large amounts of money for politi- nace, Alice No. 1, began operating in Birmingham.
cal reasons. In 1837, a financial panic and depression Within a few years, Birmingham became a great iron
swept across the United States. The Alabama state bank and steel center. Important iron and steel works were
could not afford to pay back the money it owed to its also built in Anniston, Bessemer, Decatur, Russellvilie,
depositors. For this reason, Governor Benjamin Fitzpat- and Talladega. By 1890, iron and steel making had be-
rick began to liquidate (close) the bank during the early come Alabama's most important manufacturing industry.
1840s. Many Alabamians lost all their savings. The state The lumber industry and the textile industry also grew
also suffered from a drought that ruined crops, and rapidly in the late 1800"s.
from several epidemics of yellow fever. World War and the Great Depression. Alabama's
I

During the 1840"s, many people in the North wanted industry and commerce grew after the United States en-
the federal government to outlaw slavery in the nation s tered World War in 1917. Shipbuilding became an im-
I

western territories. In 1848, a Democratic state conven- portant industry Mobile. Alabama farmers increased
in

tion in Alabama adopted the Alabama Platform" sup- production of cotton and food to meet the demands of
ported by William L Yancey, a prominent statesman. the war effort. In the mid-1920s, the Alabama State
This platform declared that the federal government did Docks agency built new port facilities at Mobile. Ala-
not have the right to bar slaves from the territories. bama's trade with other countries increased greatly as a
The Civil War and Reconstruction. Disagreements result. In 1929, the Alabama-Tombigbee river system
over slavery continued during the 1850s. Economic ri- flooded large areas in southern Alabama, causing about
valries between the agricultural South and the industrial S6 million damage.
North and disagreements about the rights of states also Many Alabamians suffered financial setbacks during
created conflicts (see States' rights). These conflicts the Great Depression of the 1930"s. Between 1929 and
deepened after Abraham Lincoln was elected President 1931 more than 60 Alabama banks failed, with a loss of
,

in 1860. Alabama seceded (withdrew) from the Union on more than S16 million. During the early 1930's, Alabama
Jan. 1, 1861, and declared itself the Republic of Ala-
1 passed a state income tax law and the Budget Control
bama. The Alabama secession convention invited other Act to help save the state from bankruptcy.
Southern States to send delegates to Montgomery. On In 1933, the federal government created the Tennes-

February 8, the convention established the Confederate see Valley Authority (TVA). The TVA was given the re-
States of America, with Montgomery as its capital. For sponsibility of building flood-control and electric-power
this reason, Montgomery is known as the Cradle of the projects on the Tennessee River. The TVA took over
Confederacy. The capital of the Confederate States was Wilson Dam and two nitrate plants at Muscle Shoals.
moved to Richmond, Va., in May 1861. The dam and plants had been built by the government
 Alabama 277

'historic c/^labama
• Bridgeport
Huntsville

Russell Cave, in northeastern Jackson

County, was the home of cliff-dwelling Indi-
ans 8,000 years ago. Excavations at the cave,
now part of Russell Cave National Monu-
ment, have revealed details of their lives. Horseshoe Bend

Montgomery

Redstone Arsenal, near Huntsville, was es-

tablished in 1941. It is the headquarters of the
U.S. Army Aviation and Missile Command and
the George C Marshall Space Flight Center.

The first Confederate Capital was Mont-

gomery, from Feb. 8 to May 21, 1861. Jeffer-
son Davis was inaugurated there.
The Union won an important Civil War bat-
tle atMobile Bay on Aug. 5, 1864. During the
battle, Union Commander David C. Farragut
reportedly cried, "Damn the torpedoes! Full
speed ahead!'

The Creek Indians were defeated by U.S. troops led by

General Andrew Jackson in the Battle of Horseshoe Bend in
1814. The Creek then surrendered their Alabama land.

Important dates in Alabama WORLD 800K illustrations by Kevin Chadwirk

1519 Alotiso Alvarez de Pineda sailed into Mobile Bay. 1868 Alabama was readmitted to the Union on June 25.
1540 Hernando de Soto explored much of what is now Ala- 1880 The state's first blast furnace began operating in Bir-
bama. mingham.
1559 de Luna established several temporary settle-
Tristan 1901 The present state constitution was adopted.
ments in what is now Alabama. 1933 The federal government created the Tennessee Valley
1702 French Canadians founded Fort Louis on the Mobile Authority.
River. In 1711, the colony moved to what is now Mo- 1940s The Redstone Arsenal at Huntsville became a center
bile. of rocketand spacecraft research.
1763 France gave the Alabama region to Britain. 1956 A federal court ordered Montgomery to desegregate
1783 Britain gave the United States much of what is now Al- its public bus system.

abama. It gave the Mobile region to Spain. 1960 The George C Marshall Space Flight Center was es-
1795 The United States and Spain signed the Treaty of San tablished in Huntsville.

Lorenzo, setting the southern boundary of the United 1965 Civil rights leader Martin Luther King, Jr., led a march
States at the 31 st parallel, across Alabama. from Selma to Montgomery to demonstrate the de-
1813 The United States captured Mobile Bay from Spain. mands of blacks for an end to discrimination in voter
1814 The Creek Indians surrendered nearly half the present registration.
state of Alabama to the United States. 1974 George C Wallace became the first Alabama gover-
1817 The Alabama Territory was created. nor to be elected to a third term. He won a fourth term
1819 Alabama became the 22nd state on Dec. 14. in 1982.

1861 Alabama seceded from the Union on Jan. 1 and be- 1 1985 Completion of the Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway
came the Republic of Alabama until Feb. 8, when it Alabama port of Mobile with ports on the
linked the
joined the Confederacy. Tennessee and Ohio rivers.
278 Alabama

during World War and the 1920s. The TVA later built
I and the troops enforced the law. In September, Wallace
Wheeler and Guntersville dams on the Tennessee River. tried to prevent the integration of public elementary and
The Alabama Power Company, a private firm, also built secondary schools in several cities. President Kennedy
dams and hydroelectric plants during the 1930s. These again called in the National Guard, and the black stu-
plants provided inexpensive power for Alabama facto- dents were admitted. Since 1963, Alabama has gradually
ries, and so boosted the state's industrial growth. integrated most of its public schools. In March 1965,

The mid-1900's. During World War II (1939-1945), Al- King led a five-day march from Selma to Montgomery to
abama's agricultural and industrial production expanded protest discrimination in voter registration. In August,
greatly. The government established the Redstone Arse- Congress passed the Voting Rights Act, which made
nal in Huntsville in 1941. The arsenal developed the thousands of Alabama blacks eligible to vote.
rockets, satellites, and spacecraft that launched the Unit- Republicans gained increasing success in Alabama, a
ed States into the space age. traditionally Democratic state. In 1964, Barry M. Goldwa-
After the war, Alabama became an important produc- ter became the first Republican presidential candidate
er of chemicals, minerals, rubber products, and textiles. to carryAlabama since 1872.
Alabama's industrial growth slowed down during the the government established the George C
In 1960,

1950s, and many Alabamians left the state to find jobs in Marshall Space Flight Center at Huntsville. The Saturn 5
the North and West Iron ore production in Alabama rocket system, which powered the first missions that
dropped sharply during the 1950s. By the early 1960s, landed astronauts on the moon, was developed at
most of Alabama's iron ore mines had closed. Huntsville during the 1960s.
During the 1950s and 1960s, Alabama farmers be- Recent developments. Alabama, like other states,
came less dependent on cotton. Farm income came in- faced financial problems in the 1980s and early 1990s.
creasingly from broiler chickens, cattle, hogs, peanuts, The state government sought ways to provide sufficient
and soybeans. As agricultural methods and products funds for such services as state-supported nursing
changed, fewer farmworkers were needed. Many homes and public education. In 1980, the state legisla-
moved to the cities, and Alabama became mainly an ur- ture increased taxes on cigarettes and alcohol to in-

ban state. crease funds for government services.

Like many other states, Alabama faced serious racial The rising costs of petroleum and natural gas have led
problems in the 1950s and 1960s. In 1955 and 1956, civil to increased use of coal. This action has spurred further
rights leader Martin Luther King, Jr., directed the Mont- development of Alabama's coal deposits.
gomery bus boycott Many blacks refused to ride in Industry continues to grow in the state, and the popu-
public buses in Montgomery because the law required lation has been rising steadily. African Americans are
them to sit in the rear. In 1956, a federal court ordered playing an increasingly important role in local and state

Montgomery to desegregate its buses. politics. Republicans have also been gaining strength in
In 1954, the Supreme Court of the United States had local and state governments. In 1986, Guy Hunt became
ruled that compulsory segregation in public schools the first Republican to be elected governor of Alabama
was unconstitutional. But in 1963, Governor George C since Reconstruction. But he was removed from office in
Wallace personally tried to halt the integration of Alaba- 1 993, following his conviction for felony ethics viola-
ma's public schools. In doorway of
June, he stood in the tions. He was sentenced to pay fines and to perform
Foster Auditorium at the University of Alabama in 1,000 hours of community service. In 1998, Hunt was
Tuscaloosa and refused to admit two blacks. President pardoned by a state parole board.
John F. Kennedy called the National Guard to active duty, William D Barnard and David C Weaver

AP Wide World

Martin Luther King, Jr., or-

ganized a boycott of the
Montgomery bus system in
1955. Many blacks stopped
riding buses because the law
required them to sit in the
rear. In 1956, a federal court
ordered Montgomery to de-
segregate its buses.
 5

Study aids Alabama River 279

Related articles in World Book include: Why is USA.?

Huntsville called Rocket City,
What Alabama s chief manufacturing industries?
are
Biographies Why did Alabama suffer more during Reconstruction than it did
Barkley, Charles Lee, Harper during the Civil War?
Bienville, Sieur de Owens, Jesse What the Black Belt?
is

Black, Hugo L Parks,Rosa Louise Why did the Birmingham area become a major center of iron
Carver,George Washington Sparkman, John ). and steel production?
Curry, ]abezL M. Walker, Leroy P. Why is Montgomery called the Cradle of the Confederacy?
De Soto, Hernando Wallace, George C What is Alabama s only seaport?
Forrest, Nathan B. Washington, Booker T.
Additional resources
Corgas, William C Wheeler, Joseph
Iberville, Sieur d Yancey, William L Level I

Keller, Helen A. Brown, Dottie. Alabama. 2nd ed. Lerner, 2001.

Davis, Lucile. Alabama. Children s Pr., 1999.
Cities
Alabama. Benchmark Bks., 2000.
Shirley, David.
Birmingham Mobile Thompson, Kathleen. Alabama. 2nd ed. Raintree Steck-Vaughn,
Huntsville Montgomery 1996.

History
Wills, Charles A A Historical Album of Alabama. Millbrook, 1995.
Level II
Civil War Indian, American Tennessee Valley
Barnard, William D. Dixiecrats and Democrats: Alabama Politics,
Confederate States Reconstruction Authority
1942-1950. 1974. Reprint Univ. of Ala. Pr., 1985.
of America States rights
Cronenberg, Allen. Forth to the Mighty Conflict Alabama and
Physical features World War II.Ala Pr., 1 995.
Univ. of
Jakeman, Robert The Divided Skies: Establishing Segregated
J.
Appalachian Mountains Muscle Shoals
Flight Training at Tuskegee, Alabama, 1934-1942. 1992. Reprint
Gulf of Mexico Piedmont Region
Univ. of Ala. Pr., 1996.
Gulf Stream Tennessee River
Newton, Wesley P. Montgomery in the Good War. Portrait of a
Mobile River Tombigbee River
Southern City, 1939-1946. Univ. of Ala. Pr., 2000.
Other related articles Rogers, William W., and others. Alabama. Univ. of Ala Pr., 1994.
Thomas, Mary M., ed. Stepping Out of the Shadows: Alabama
Fort McClellan
Women, 181 91 990. Univ. of Ala Pr., 1995.
Fort Rucker
Walthall, John A Prehistoric Indians of the Southeast Archaeolo-
Redstone Arsenal
gy of Alabama and the Middle South. 1980. Reprint Univ. of
Outline Ala. Pr., 1990.
Wiggins, Sarah W., comp. From Civil War to Civil Rights, Alaba-
I. People ma, 1860-1960. Univ. of Ala Pr., 1987.
A Population Willoughby, Lynn. Flowing Through Time: A History of the Lower
B. Schools
Chattahoochee River. Univ. of Ala Pr., 1999.
C Libraries
D. Museums Alabama, University of, is a coeducational state-
II. Visitor's guide supported educational system. Its official name is the
A Places to visit University of Alabama System. It consists of three uni-
B. Annual events
versities. The original campus is the University of Ala-
III. Land and climate
A Land regions bama in Tuscaloosa. The system includes the University
B. Coastline of Alabama at Birmingham (UAB) and the University of
C Rivers and lakes Alabama in Huntsville (UAH). Each school offers bache-
D. Plant and animal life
lor's, master s, and doctor s degrees. The schools at Tus-
E. Climate
caloosa and Birmingham have professional programs.
IV. Economy
A Natural resources The University of Alabama was founded in 1831. UAB
B. Service industries and UAH were established as branches in the mid-1960s
C Manufacturing and began operating independently in 1969. In 1975, the
D. Mining system was established.
E. Agriculture Critically reviewed by the University of Alabama
F. Fishing industry
G. Electric power
Alabama River flows through the East Gulf Coastal

H. Transportation
Plain of Alabama. It is formed where the Coosa and Tal-
I. Communication lapoosa rivers join north of Montgomery in the central
V. Government part of the state (see Alabama (physical map)). The Al-
A Constitution abama follows a winding course southwest for 31
B. Executive
miles (507 kilometers). At a point about 45 miles (72 kilo-
C Legislature meters) north of Mobile, it unites with the Tombigbee
D. Courts
E. Localgovernment River to form the Mobile River.
F. Revenue The Alabama River is navigable for its entire length.

G. Politics Three dams along the river. They create three bodies
lie
VI. History of water— R E. Bob Woodruff Lake, William Dannelly
Questions Reservoir, and Claiborne Lake. Power stations generated

Who led the U.S. forces that defeated the Creek Indians in the by the dams provide electric power. The lakes and res-
Battle of Horseshoe Bend? ervoir are used for recreation. They also release water,
Why did the production of iron ore decline sharply in Alabama as needed, to maintain a 9-foot (2.7-meter) navigation
during the 1950 s? Channel. Howard A. tlonls |r

What is the Azalea Trail? See also Mobile River

280 Alabaster

as the Arabian Nights. His story is told by the Princess

Scheherazade to her husband.
According to the tale, Aladdin is a poor Chinese boy

who comes possession of a magic lamp. By rub-

into the
bing the lamp, he can make a genie (spirit) appear who
obeys Aladdin's every command. The boy becomes
enormously rich and marries the sultan's daughter. But a
magician plots against their happiness and tricks Alad-
din's wife into giving up the lamp. Eventually, Aladdin re-
gains the lamp, his prosperity, and his bride. When the
sultan dies, Aladdin succeeds him. The charm of the sto-
ry lies as much in Aladdin's humor and good will as in
the description of fabulous events. Dick Davis

See also Arabian Nights; Genie.

Alamein, El. See El Alamein.
Alamo, AL uh moh, is a historic structure in the center
of San Antonio. A famous battle was fought there from
Feb. 23 to March 6, 836, during the war for Texan inde-
1

pendence. The Alamo is sometimes called the Ther-

mopylae of America, after the famous battle in which the
ancient Greeks held off a large Persian force. No Texans
escaped from the Alamo after the night of March 5. The
Alamo is now a restored historic site.

Early days. The Alamo was built as a Roman Catholic

SCALA Art Resource
mission. Padre Antonio Olivares, a Spanish missionary,
An alabaster bust of King Tutankhamen dates back to the
established it at San Antonio in 1718. The mission con-
1300s B.C Many ancient Egyptian sculptors used alabaster.
sisted of a monastery and church enclosed by high
walls. The mission was originally called San Antonio de
Alabaster, AL uh bas Valero. It was later called Alamo, the Spanish name for
tuhr, is the name of two the Cottonwood trees surrounding the mission. The Tex-
types of fine-grained ans occasionally used the mission as a fort.
white rocks that look simi- During the winter of 1835-1836, the people of Texas
lar but have different decided to sever their relations with Mexico because of
chemical compositions. dissatisfaction with the Mexican government To prevent
Both types are used for or the success of this independence movement, General
namental purposes. Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna, in command of the Mexi-
Today, the word al- can Army, approached San Antonio with his troops.
abaster commonly refers Lieutenant Colonel William Barret Travis and a force of
to a type of rock com- about 1 50 Texans sought to defend the city. The compa-
The Metropolitan Museum of Art. New
posed of the mineral gyp- York City Rogers Fund. 192b ny included the famous frontiersmen James Bowie and
sum. Gypsum is an ex- An alabaster headrest was Davy Crockett. The quick arrival of the Mexicans took
tremely soft mineral made part of the rich furnishings of the Texans by surprise. They retreated to the Alamo to
of calcium sulfate and wa- an ancient Egyptian tomb. hold off the Mexican force of approximately 4,000
ter. Its chemical formula is troops. Travis sent out a plea for help, declaring, shall "I

CaSO, 2FLO and its crys- never surrender or retreat" A relief party from Gonzales,
tals are monoclinicisee Crystal (Classifying crystals]). Texas, passed through the Mexican lines and entered
Craftworkers make vases, statues, and building stone the Alamo, increasing the Alamo forces to 189 men.
from gypsum alabaster. It is soft, and workers can carve Colonel ). W. Fannin left Goliad, Texas, with most of his
it without special tools. Deposits of this type of alabaster 400 men to relieve the Alamo, but he had equipment
occur in many parts of the world. trouble on the way and returned to Goliad.
In ancient times, the word alabaster referred to a type The siege of the Alamo lasted 3 days. By March
1 5,

of rock from which carvers made vases called alabas- the garrison could not return Mexican fire because am-
ters. People kept ointments and perfumes in these vases. munition was low. This convinced Santa Anna that the
Carvers shaped alabasters from cave formations called fortcould be assaulted. Early the next morning, the Mex-
stalactites and stalagmites. These formations are com- icans succeeded in scaling the walls. At the end, the Tex-
posed of calcite (CaCO,), which is harder than gypsum. ans fought using their rifles as clubs. Some historians
Calcite crystals are hexagonal. One kind of calcite al- believe that a few defenders, perhaps including Crock-
abaster, called oriental alabaster, is mined mainly near ett, survived the battle only to be executed at Santa

Florence, Italy. Another kind, Egyptian alabaster, was Annas orders. Other historians accept the more familiar
mined in ancient times near Thebes, Egypt story that all the Texans who fought died in the battle. At
Kenneth J De Nault Mexican general reported his victory to his
8 a.m., the
See also Calcite; Gypsum. government. Survivors of the battle included Susanna
Aladdin, uh LAD uhn, is the hero of one of the most fa- Dickinson, the wife of an officer; her baby; her Mexican
mous tales of the Thousand and One Nights, also known nurse; and Colonel Travis's black slave Joe.
 Alaric 281

The Battle of the Alamo

took place in a mission in San
Antonio. On the morning of
March 6, 1836, Mexican
troops under General Santa
Anna successfully stormed
the mission and killed all the
defenders.

at the Alamo by H A McArdle, Texas State Library, Austin. Texas. WORLD BOOK photo by William Malone

"Remember the Alamo" became a battle cry. The de- anonymity. Al-Anon groups work to follow AA's 1 2 sug-
termined defense of the Alamo gave General Sam Hous- gestions for better living, the Twelve Steps.
ton time to gather the forces he needed to save the in- Al-Anon has about 500,000 members in more than
dependence movement of Texas. He retreated eastward, 30,000 local groups. It collects no dues but accepts con-
pursued by Santa Anna. At San Jacinto, Texas, he turned tributions from members to cover expenses. It is not
on the Mexicans, surprised them during an afternoon connected with any religious or other group. Al-Anon's
siesta, and on April 21, in just 18 minutes, captured or world service office, the Al-Anon Family Group Head-
killed most of the Mexican army of over 1 ,200 men. quarters, Inc., is located in New York City.
Houston s army captured Santa Anna the following day Critically reviewed by Al-Anon
and forced him to sign a treaty granting Texas its inde- See also Alcoholics Anonymous; Alcoholism.
pendence. Joseph A. Stout, )r. Alarcon, ah lahr KOHN, Pedro Antonio de (1 833-
Related articles in World Book include: 1 891 ), was a Spanish author. He is best known today for
Bowie, James Mexico (War with Texas and his short novel The Three-Cornered Hat (1 874), one of
Crockett, Davy the United States) the most popular works in Spanish literature. In 1919,
Houston, Sam Santa Anna, Antonio Lopez de
Travis, William B.
the Spanish composer Manuel de Falla adapted Alar-
con's tale into a famous ballet of the same name.
Additional resources Alarcon based The Three-Cornered Hat on a tradition-
Bredeson, Carmen. The Battle of the Alamo. Millbrook, 1996. alSpanish ballad. His humorous story describes the
Younger readers. confusion that occurs when a miller believes his wife
Nelson, George. The Alamo: An Illustrated History. Aldine, 1998.
has been having an affair with the mayor of the village.
Sorrels, Roy. The Alamo in American History. Enslow, 1996.
Younger readers.
The story provides a lively picture of village life in Alar-
con's native region of Andalusia. Alarcon wrote another
Alanbrooke, Lord was one of Britain's
(1883-1963), popular short novel, Captain Venom (1881 One of his ).

military leaders during World War (1939-1945). He

II four novels, The Scandal (1875), became noted for its
won special distinction for his leadership during the re- keen psychological insights. Alarcon also wrote travel
treatto— and, later, from— Dunkerque, France, after Bel- books and short stories and essays.
gium fell to Germany in May 1940. Alanbrooke served as Alarcon was born in Guadix, near Granada. In 1859, he
chief of the Imperial General Staff from 1941 to 1946. He served in a Spanish military operation in Morocco. He
also fought in World War (1914-1918). I gained his first literary recognition with A Witness' Diary
Alanbrooke was born near Lourdes, France, of British of the African War (1859-1 860), a patriotic account of the
parents. His given and family name was Alan Francis Campaign. David Thatcher Cies

Brooke. In 1945, he became a nobleman and changed Alaric, AL uhr ihk (AD. 370F-410), was a king of the Visi-
his name to Alanbrooke. ian w. Beckett f. goths. He invaded Italy and captured Rome in the early
Al-Anon, AL uh nahn, is a worldwide fellowship of the A.D. 400 s. In 395, the declining Roman Empire split per-
families and friends of alcoholics. Members learn that al- manently into Eastern and Western empires. Alaric then
coholism is a disease and how it affects family life. They led the Visigoths in a revolt against the Eastern Empire.
use this information to solve their own problems and to He invaded Italy in 401, and began a series of attacks on
understand problem drinkers. Al-Anon has a teen-age the Western Empire. He attacked Rome in 408 and in
division called Alateen. 409, but accepted huge ransoms to end both sieges. In
Al-Anon cooperates with Alcoholics Anonymous 410, he captured and looted Rome, but spared its
(A.A.),an organization for alcoholics, but is not a branch churches. Alaric planned to settle in Africa, but a storm
of A.A. Al-Anon was incorporated in 1954. Its members, forced him to stop at Cosenza in southern Italy. He died
like AA members, use only their first names to ensure there, late in 410. See also Goths. William g smnigen
282 Alaska

^W^». \ewman Tom Slack & Assoc

Mount McKinley, in central Alaska, has the highest North America Its South Peak rises
summit in
20,320 feet (6,194 metersi above sea level. Alaska's majestic mountains and vast areas of unspoiled
wilderness attract many people who love the outdoors.

Alaska The Last Frontier

Alaska is the largest state of the United States in area. It Creek, British Columbia, Canada, connects Alaska with
is almost a fifth as large as all the rest of the United the road systems of the other states as well as with
States, and more than twice the size of Texas, the sec- Canada.
ond largest state. But Alaska has a relatively small popu- The Alaskan mainland's most western point is only 51
lation. According 2000 census, Alaska ranks 48th
to the miles (82 kilometers) from Russia. Alaska's Little Dio-
among all the states in population. Only Wyoming and mede Island, in the Bering Strait, is about 2 | miles (4

Vermont have fewer people than Alaska. Alaska is often kilometers) from Russias Big Diomede Island. No other
called the Last Frontier because much of the state is not part of North America is closer to Asia.
fully settled. Juneau is Alaska's capital. Anchorage is the Almost a third of Alaska lies north of the Arctic Circle.
state's largest city in terms of population. However, Point Barrow, the northernmost point, is al-
When Alaska entered the Union in 1959, it was the most 1,300 miles (2,090 kilometers) south of the North
first new state in 47 years. About 500 miles (800 kilome- Pole. The state has a wide range of temperatures— as
ters) of Canadian territory separate Alaska from Wash- low as -80 F(-62 C), and as high as 100 F (38 Q.The
ington. Alaskans often refer to the rest of the continental climate and soil as far north as the Arctic Circle permit
United States as the "lower 48." The Alaska Highway, farmers to raise livestock and grow barley, potatoes,
which runs between Delta Junction, Alaska, and Dawson and other crops. The summer sun shines about 20 hours
a day in Alaska, and crops grow rapidly there. At Point
Barrow, from May 10 to August 2, the sun never sets.
The contributors of this article are F. Patrick Fitzgerald, Profes- Alaska is famous for its towering mountains and beau-
sor of Geography and Histon at the University of Alaska South- tiful scenery. Mount McKinley, which rises 20,320 feet
east at Juneau, and Claus-M. Naske, Executive Director, Universi- (6,194 meters) above sea level, is the nation's highest
ty of Alaska Press, and coauthor oMIaska: A History of the 49th
peak. Alaska also has the 15 next highest peaks and al-
State.
most all of the active volcanoes in the United States.
 Alaska 283

Interesting facts about Alaska

WORLD BOOK illustrations by Kevin Chadwick

Alaska has more inland water than any other state —20,1 71
square miles (52,243 square kilometers). Inland water covers an
area in Alaska larger than the area of Vermont and New Hamp-
shire combined.
Alaska has the longest general coastline of any state. It meas-
The Aleutian islands of Attu and Kiska were the only parts of ures 6,640 miles (10,686 kilometers), a distance greater than that
North America occupied by Japanese troops during World War of all the other states' coastlines combined. The coastline of the
II. The islands were captured in 1942 and recovered by the Alaskan mainland and all the major islands washed by tidewater
United States in 1943. measures 33,904 miles (54,563
kilometers).

Bald eagles gather in greater

numbers along the Chilkat River
just north of Haines than at any
other place in the world. Each
year, more than 3,500 of the
birds come to this site to feed
on late runs of salmon. The
salmon are accessible because
an unusual upwelling of warm
water keeps the river free of ice.
Japanese-occupied islands during World War II Bald eagles

Juneau, the capital of Alaska,

is situated between steep

mountains and a fine, deep

harbor. In addition to govern-
ment operations, the city's
main industries are fishing,
mining, and tourism.

Keith Cunnar. West Stock

Denali National Park, the site of Mount McKinley, is

one of a number of national parks in the state. Wrangell-

St Park in Alaska is the nation's largest na-
Elias National
tional park. covers more than 8 million acres (3 million
It

hectares). Alaska also has the nation's largest wildlife

refuge. The Yukon Delta National Wildlife Refuge covers
nearly 20 million acres (8 million hectares).
Inuits, Aleuts, and Indians were living in Alaska when
Russian explorers arrived. A Russian trader established
the first white settlement, on Kodiak Island, in 1784.
United States Secretary of State William H. Seward
bought Alaska from Russia in 1867 for $7,200,0O0-only
about 2 cents per acre (5 cents per hectare). Some Amer-
icans thought the region was a wasteland of ice and
snow. They called it Seward's Folly, Seward's Icebox, and
Icebergia. However, Alaska proved to be rich in fish,
minerals, timber, and potential water power. The value
of resources taken from the region has paid back the
© lane Cnass. West Stock
purchase price hundreds of times. Huge oil reserves at Downtown Anchorage includes a log cabin visitor information
Prudhoe Bay along the Arctic coast rank as Alaska's chief center, shown here. Anchorage is Alaska's largest city and the
source of wealth. state's chiefcenter of commerce and transportation.
Alaska in brief

Symbols of Alaska
The state flag, adopted in 1927, was designed
SjLlS.
by a 13-year-old schoolboy. Seven gold stars,
representing Alaska's gold resources, form
the Big Dipper. An eighth star in the corner is
the North Star, symbolizing Alaska's location
in the Far North. The state seal was adopted in
1913. has symbols, relating to Alaska's econ-
It

omy, for agriculture, fishing, forestry, mining,

and transportation. The rays above the moun-
tains represent the northern lights. State flag State seal

Alaska (brown) is the largest

state in the United States.

General information
Statehood: Jan. 3, 1959, the 49th state.
State abbreviation: AK (postal).
State motto: North to the Future.
State song: "Alaska's Flag." Words by Marie Drake; mu-
The State Capitol is in Juneau, the capital of Alaska since
sic by Elinor Dusenbury.
1900. Sitka served as capital from 1884 to 1900.

Land and climate

Area: 587,878 mi' (1,522,596 km'), including 17,502 mi'
(45,329 km') of inland water but excluding 27,355 mi'
(70,848 km') of coastal water.
Elevation: Highest-Mount McKinley, 20,320 ft (6,194 m)
above sea level. Lowest— sea level. Lowest
Coastline: 6,640 mi (10,686 km). elevation

Record high temperature: 100 F (38 °C) at Fort Yukon

along coast ^
on June 27, 1915.
Record low temperature: 80 F (62 °C) at Prospect
Creek, near Stevens Village, on Jan. 23, 1971.
Average July temperature: 55 °F (1 3 "Q
Average January temperature: 5 "F (— 13 C).
Average yearly precipitation: 55 in (140 cm).
Greatest east
west distance
2,350 mi (3800 km)

Important dates Russians established the first white The Klondike and Alaska
settlement in Alaska on Kodiak Island. gold rush started.

1741
:m 1784
Captain Vitus Bering, a Danish navigator,
¥ 1867

The United States purchased

fl| 1897 1898

landed on what is now Kayak Island. Alaska from Russia.

 Alaska 285

State bird State flower State tree

Willow ptarmigan Forget-me-not Sitka spruce

People Population trend Year Population

2000 626,932
Population: 626,932 (2000 census) Thousands
1990 551,947
Rank among the states: 48th 1980 401,851
Density: 107 per 100 mi (41 per 100 km'),
;
1970 302,583
U.S. average 78 per mi' (30 per km
;
) 1960 226.167
Distribution*: 67 percent urban, 33 per- 1950 128,643
1940 72,524
cent rural
Largest cities
Anchorage
in Alaska
260,283
/ 1930
1920
1910
59,278
55,036
64,356
Juneau 30,711 1900 63,592
Fairbanks 30,224 1890 32,052
Colleget 11,402 1880 33,426
Sitka 8,835
Ketchikan 7,922
tUnincorporated plate
Source: 2000 census, except for where figures are for t990 1800 1820 1840 1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020
Source: U.S. Census Bureau

Economy Gross state product ^ Services 74%

//
Chief products Value of goods and services pro-
duced in 1998: $24,235,000,000. Sen/-
Fishing industry: cod, crab, flounder,
ices include community, business, /
salmon.
and personal services; finance; gov- /
Manufacturing: food products, petro-
ernment; trade; and transportation,
leum products.
Mining: petroleum, natural gas, gold,
communication, and utilities. Industry 1 / ]

includes construction, manufacturing, \ /

zinc, silver.
and mining. Agriculture includes agri- \ y
culture, fishing, and forestry. \ ^f
Source: US. Bureau of Economic Analysis. / ^"---^^_ __^--^\
Agriculture 2% Industry 24%

Government Sources of information

State government For information about tourism, write to: Alaska Division of
Governor 4-year term Tourism, P.O. Box 1 10801, Juneau, AK 9981 1-0801. The Web site at

State senators: 20; 4-year terms

www.dced.state.akus 'tourism also provides information.
State representatives: 40; 2-year terms
For information on the economy, write to: Legislative Affairs
Organized boroughs: 16 Agency, State Capitol, Juneau, AK 99801 -11 82.
The state's official Web site at www.state.ak.us also provides a
Federal government gateway to much information on Alaska's economy, government,
United States senators: 2 and history.

United States representatives: 1

Electoral votes: 3

Congress established Large oil reserves were dis The Trans-Alaska Pipeline Tanker in Prince William Sound
Alaska as a U.S. territory covered near Prudhoe Bay. was completed caused largest oil spill in U.S. history.

1912

Alaska became the 49th

1959 1968

The Alaska Native Claims

hi i I.
1971 1977
* 1980 M 1989

Congress passed the Alaska Nation- Most oil-spill cleanup completed

1992
3
state on January 3. Settlement Act passed. al Interest Lands Conservation Act at cost of more than $2 billion.
286 Alaska People
Population. The 2000 United States census reported Population density
that Alaska had 626,932 people. The population had in- Alaskais the most thinly populated state. Most Alaskans live in

creased 14 percent over the 1990 figure of 550,043. Ac- Anchorage or along the southeastern coast. Anchorage is the
cording to the 2000 census, Alaska ranks 48th in popula- state's largest city in terms of population.
tion among the 50 states. Only Wyoming and Vermont
have fewer people than Alaska. O Ocean ~ ea
About a third of Alaska's people were born in Alaska.
V/
Many of those who were born in other states are mem-
bers of the United States armed forces that are assigned
to Alaska. Alaska has about 98,000 natives. Of this figure,
about two-thirds are Inuit and one-third are Indians.
Most Inuit live in the north and west. About 10,000 of the ^ ^
College^-
Inuit are Aleuts. Aleuts live on the Alaska Peninsula and
^|W|airbanks 1

the Aleutian Islands. Haida, Tlingit, and Tsimshian Indi-

ans live in the southeast. Athabaskan Indians live mainly
in Alaska's interior.
Anchorag^^^?
L. ^
i
Most of the white population lives in or near Anchor-
age, Alaska's largest city; in Fairbanks; and in the south-
\jf Q
eastern coastal cities. Anchorage is Alaska's only metro- 'J
?
^^ Juneau
politan area (see Metropolitan area). 1 • K I IM'.I:

SitkaV
Schools. The commissioner of education heads Alas- Persons per Persons per
'V-~v

ka's education department. The commissioner is ap- ** sq. mi. km'

Ketchilfcri*
pointed by the State Board of Education and Early Devel- More than 5 H H More than 2

opment subject to the governor's approval. Seven voting Pacific 2 to 5 f_ _j 1 to 2

Ocean
members of the board are appointed by the state's gov- Less than 2 Less than 1

ernor. Two nonvoting members, representing students WORLD BOOK map based on US Census Bureau data.

and the military, also sit on the board. The board estab-
lishes policies for Alaska's public school system.
Childrenin Alaska must attend school from the ages Juneau, includes a historical section and state archives
of 7 through 15. Each organized borough is a school dis- and records management services section. Academic li-
trict and has a school board. Cities that lie outside the braries are located at the University of Alaska Fairbanks,
organized boroughs have city school boards. Regional the University of Alaska Anchorage, and the University
school boards operate schools in rural areas outside the of Alaska Southeast in Juneau.
organized boroughs. The Alaska State Museum in Juneau features exhibits
Alaska has three schools that grant bachelor's or ad- and Indian objects. It also has displays dealing
of Inuit
vanced degrees and are accredited by the Northwest with animals and minerals in the state. A branch of the
Association of Schools and Colleges. The University of state museum, the Sheldon Jackson Museum in Sitka,
Alaska has several campuses throughout the state (see has Inuit and Indian collections. The University of Alaska
Alaska, University of). The state's two other colleges are Museum in Fairbanks focuses on the state's cultural and
Sheldon Jackson College in Sitka and Alaska Pacific Uni- natural history. Other include
cities that have museums
versity in Anchorage. Anchorage, Bethel, Haines, Homer, Kenai, Ketchikan, Ko-
Libraries and museums. Alaska's State Library, in diak, Nome, Palmer, Petersburg, Skagway, and Wasilla.

University of Alaska, Fairbanks

The University of Alaska

has several campuses. The
Gruening Building on the
Fairbanks campus, shown
here, was named for Ernest
Gruening, known as "the fa-
ther of Alaskan statehood." He
was governor of the Alaska
Territory from 1939 to 1953
and a US senator from the
state from 1959 to 1969.
 5
2
11
1 1 .

Alaska 287

Alaska map index

Metropolitan area Eagle 129 I) 13 Kenai 6342 F 11 Nikolskit 39 I 6 Station" 1 4
Eagle Villaget 68 D 13 Ketchikan 7.922 H 16 Ninilchikt 772 G 11 Shishmarel 562 C 8
Anchorage 260.283 Edna Bayt 49 H 15 Ketchikan Noatakt 428 C 9 Shungnak .256 C 10
Eek 280 F 8 East" H 16 Nome 3.505 D 8 Sitka 8.835 H 15
Boroughs* Egegikt 116 G 9 Kiana 388 C 9 Nondalton 221 G 10 Skagway 862 F 15
Eielson AFBt 5 400 D 12 King Cove 792 1 8 Noorvik 634 C 9 Slanat 124 E 12
Aleutians East 2.697 . I 6 Ekuk G 9 King Salmont 442 G 9 North Pole 1,570 D 12 Sleetmutet 100 F 9
Anchorage 260 283 F II Ekwok I G 9 Kipnukt 644 F 8 North Tongass Soldotna 3.759 F 11
Bristol Bay 1 258 C 9 Elfin Covet 12 G 14 Kivalina 377 ( 8 Highway" H 16 South Naknekt 137 G 9
Denali 1,893 D 11 Elim 113 D 8 Klawock 854 H 16 North Whale Sparrevohn
Fairbanks Emmoruk 767 E 8 Klukwant 139 F 14 Pass" H 16 Station" F 10
North Star 82.840 D 12 English Bay G 10 Kobuk 109 C 10 Northwayt 95 E 13 Stebbins 547 E 8
Haines 2.392 G 15 F 11 Kodiak 6334 H 10 Northway . 4.705 F 11
kjneau 30.711 C 15 Estert I 680 D 11 Kodiak Villaget 107 E 13 Stevens
Kenai Evansvillet 28 D 11 Station"t 1.840 H 10 Nuiqsut 433 B 11 Villaget 87 D 11
Peninsula 49.691 F 1 Eyak" F 12 Kokhonak* 174 G 10 Nulato 336 D 9 Stony Rtvert 61 F 9
Ketchikan Fairbanks 30,224 D 11 Kokrines n in Old Harbor 237 H 10 Suntrana E 11
Gateway 14,070 H 16 False F"ass 64 1 7 Koliganekt 182 G 9 Oscarvillet 61 F 8 Susitnat 37 F 11
Kodiak Flatt 4 E 9 Kongiganak't 359 F 8 Ouzinkie 225 H 10 F 11
Island 13313 H 10 Fort Creeh/t 461 E 12 Kotlik 591 F 8 Palmer 4 533 F 11 Takotnat 50 E 10
Lake and Fort Kotzebue 3.082 C 9 Paxsont 43 E 12 Talkeetnat 772 E 11
Peninsula 1,823 H 8 Wainwright D 12 Koyuk 297 D 9 Pedro Bayt 50 G 10 Tanacrosst 140 E 12
Matanuska- Fort Yukon 595 C 12 Koyukuk 101 D 9 Pelican 163 C 14 Tanana 308 D 11
Susitna 59.322 Ell Fox"t 300 D 11 Kupreanol 23 H 15 Pennock Tatalina
North Slope .... 7 385 B 10 Creekt
Fritz 1 ,603 G 11 Kwethluk 713 F 8 Island" H 16 Station' E 9
Northwest Gakonat 215 E 12 Kwigillingokt 318 F 8 Perkinsville' D 8 Tatitlekt 107 F 12
Arctic 7208 C 9 Galena 675 D 10 Larsen Bay 115 H III Perryvillet 107 H 8 Tazlinat 149 F 1?
Sitka 8.835 H 15 Gambell 649 D 6 Levelockt 122 r, 9 Petersburg 3.224 H 15 Telida" E 10
Yakutat 808 G 13 Glennallent 554 F 12 Lime Villaget 6 F 10 Pilot Pointt 100 H 9 Teller 268 D 8
Golovin 144 D 8 Livengoodt 29 D 11 Pilot Station 550 E 8 Teller Mission
Cities and towns Goodnews Bay 230 G 8 Lower Pitkas Pointt 125 .E 8 IBrevig
Grayling 194 E 9 Kalskag 267 F 9 Platinum 41 G 8 Missionl . . D 8
Adak Station* I 3 Culkanat 88 E 12 Lower Tonsina' E U Point Bakert 35 H 16 Tenakee
Akhiok 80 H
10 Gustavust 429 C 15 Manley Point Hope . 757 B 8 Springs 104 G 15
Akiachakt 585 F 8 Haines I 811 C 15 Hot Springst 72 11 Point Layt 247 B 9 Tetlint .117 E 13
Akiak 309 F 8 Halibut Covet 35 C 11 Manokotak 399 (, 9 Port Alexander 81 H 15 Thome Bay* 557 H 16
Akutan 713 17 Harding Lake" D 11 Marshall 349 E 8 Port Clarencet 21 D 8 Togiak 809 C 8
Alakanuk 652 E 8 Heah/t 1 000 E 11 McGrath 401 . F 10 PortGrahamt 171 Gil Tokt 1.393 F 13
Aleknagik 221 ..C 9 Healy Laket 37 E 12 McKinley Parkt 142 E 11 PortHeident 119 H 9 Toksook Bay" 532 F 7
Allakaket 37 C 10 Herring Cove H 16 E 10 Port Lions 256 H 10 Tonsinat 32 F 12
Ambler 309 C 9 Hollist 139 H 16 Mekoryuk 210 F 7 Portage Creekt 36 C 9 Tuluksakt 428 F 8
Anaktuvuk Holy Cross 227 E 9 Mentasta Laket 142 E- 12 Portlock" Gil Tuntutuliakt 370 F 8
Pass 282.
. . C 11 Homer 3346 C 11 Metlakatlat 1,375 H 16 PrudhoeBayt 5 B 11 Tununakt 325 F 7
Anchor Pointt 1845 G 11 Hoonah 860 C 15 Mintot 258 r> ii Quinhagak 555 I 8 Twin Hillst 69 G 8
Anchorage* 260283 F 11 Hooper Bay 1014 E 7 Montana . - F 11 Rampartt 45 Oil Two Riverst 482 D 11
Anderson 367 D 11 Hopet 137 F 11 Moose Creekt 542 D 11 Red Devilt 48 F 9 Tyonekt 193 F 11
Angoon 572 . ,G 1 Houston" 1,202 F 11 Moose Passt . - 206 F 11 Ruby 188 D 10 Ugashikt 11 H 9
Aniak 572 . F 9 Hughes 78 D 10 Mountain Russian B 11
Annette H 16 Huslia 293 D 10 Point H 16 Mission 2% E 8 Unalakleet 747 D 9
Anvik 104 E 9 Hydaburg 382 H 16 Mountain St George 152 C 6 Unalaska 4.283 1 6
Arctic Villaget 152 C 12 Hydert .37 H 16 Village 755 F 8 St Marys 500 E 8 1 8
Atka 32 I 4 jgiugigt 53 G 10 Murphy Dome' 11 St Michael 368 E 8 Usibelli E 11
Atkasook 228 A 10 lliamnat 102 G 10 Myers Chuck H 16 St Paul 532 C 6 D 11
Atmauduakt 294 F 8 Indian Naknekt 678 (. 9 Salamatoft 354 F 11 Valdez 4,036 F 1?
Attu G 1 Mountain' D 10 Napakiak 353 F 8 Salchat 854 D 1 Venetiet 202 C 12
Barrow 4381 A 10 Ivanof Bayt 22 H 8 Napaskiak 390 F 8 Sand Point 952 8 Wainwright 346 A 9
M
I

Beavert . C 12 Jakolof Bay" C 11 Nelson Savoonga 643 D 7 Wales 152 C 7

Bethel 5 471 F 8 Juneau 30.711 C 15 Lagoont 83 1 8 Saxmari* 431 H 16 Wasilla 5.469 F 11
BigDeltat 749 F 12 Kachemak* 431 G 11 Nenana 402 I) II Saxman East" H 16 White
Big Horn" D 1 Kake 710 H 15 Nenana Native Scammon Bay 465 E 7 Mountain 203 D 8
Big Lake C 1 Kaktovik 293 B 12 Village D 11 Selawik 772 C 9 Whittier 182 F 11
BigLaket 2.635 F 11 Kalrfonskyt 5.846 F 11 New Stuyahok 471 G 9 Seldovia 286 Gil Willowt 1,658 F 11
Birch Creekt 28 D 12 Kalskag 230 F 9 Newhalen 160 (, III Seward 2.830 C 11 Wisemant 21 C 11
Bodenburg Kahag 230 D 9 Newtokt 321 F 8 Shageluk 129 E 9 Wrangell 2,308 H 16
-
Butte . .F 11 Karlukt 27 H 10 Nightmute ... 208 F 8 Shaktoolik 230 D 9 Yakutatt 680 G 13
Buckland 406 . C 9 Kasaan 39 H 16 Nifoskit .4.327 F 11 Sheldon Point 164 E 8
Buttet 2 561 F II Kasiloft 471 F 11 Nikolai 100 E 10 Shemya
Campion
Station' D 10
Candle D 9 'Borough names and names ot cities marked with an asterisk do no! appear on the map, key shows general location
Cantwell 222 E II
tCensus designated place unincorporated but recognized as a significant settled community by the U.S Census Bureau
iCrty and metropolitan area have same boundary and population
Cape Lisburne B 8
Places without population figures are unincorporated areas
Cape
Newenham" Source: 2000 census.
G 8
Cape Pole H 15
Cape Yakataga . .F 13
Centralt 134 D 12
Chalkyitsikt 83 C 12
Chefomak 394 F 8
Chevak 765 E 7
Chickaloont 213 F II
Chickent 1 7 . E 13
Chignik 79 H 9
Chignik
Lagoon- 103 H 9
Chignik Laket 145 H 9
Chistochinat 33 E 12
Chitinat 123 F 12
Ovjathbaluk" 119 F 9
Circlet 100 D 12
Qrcle
Hot Springs 1

Clam Gulch"? 173 F 11

darks Pointt 75 C 9
Clover Pass" H 16
CoffmanCove" 199 H 16
Cohoet 1 168 F II
Cold Bay 88 I 7
Colleger 11,402 D 11
Cooper
Landingt VS F I!
Copper
Centert 362 F 12
Cordova 2 454 F 12
Craig 1 197 H 16
Crooked
Creekt 137 F 9
Curry E II
Deadhorse B 1

Deering 1 36 C 8
Delta Junction 840 E 12
Dillingham 2 466 (. 9
Diomede" 146 .C 1

Donnelly E 12 Harold I Wilson Warden & Assonaie-

Dot Laket 19 F 12
Dunbar" D II Atka is the Andreanof Islands The Andreanof Islands are part of the Aleutian
a remote Alaskan village in
Dutch Harbor I h
chain, which extends westward from the tip of the Alaska Peninsula.
 RUSSIA O'r"

Chukchi
Sea
2
CAPEUSBURNE
iCape Lisburne*
SIBERIA ALASKA
i„ „, u „„ -» MARmMS
Hope
Point mwr

.Anadyr

CHUKCHI PENINSULA
CAPEESPENBERG

•
.a.e,

Benngovskty Wales Dewing,!

UfWALES Telle. Mission
POINT SPENCEP *
f&mG
Telle
CAPEOt'UTORSKri KING ISLAND '[ ^"gg;
CAPE RODNEY I PRESERVE
bell WhVM 0lJ n, a
n
""'•
,

Savoonga Nome*
me* • Eiim
E

SEWARD PENINSULA Golown* "

SIKNIlt CAPE TTHEASTCAPE

ST LAWRENCE ISLAND
Stebbins.
St Michael*
Emmonak. * ,

y •

^
Kotlllt
Sheldon Point. Alakanuk

Mountain Village
'
HALL ISLAND Scammon Bay*p „ kas Pol r
Hooper Bay. Pilot Static
c ST MATTHEW ISLAND
Chevak* Marshall" .-
VUKON DELTA NATIONAL Russian MiStiOn
WILDUFEREFUGE Tuluksak
Newtok» Ajt
/a
Akiak f.
A,maU
NUNIVAK ISLAND unak. ...-
«&.
1&" Meioryuk* _,uve *
-fe5, el
Napakiak* .

«S«&
#9*
Si* Bering Sea
'Nig?*
NWR '
!

Chefornak*
Napas.
.
^-* Kwethluk
Kipnuk* \.f *Eek
.

*'rt*
#gr TOOAjr.
o^ nv,Y,
NWR
Goodnews 8ay. fy/s
Platinum* ••
CAPENEWENHAM Togiak

ATTU ISLAND St Paul

ALASKA MARITIME NWR
PRIBILOf ISLANDS
SHEMVA ISLAND
Brist
NEAR ISLANDS St George
Bay

KISKA ISLAND ALASKA PENINSULA

ALASKA PENINSULA NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGE tvanhot Bav

RAT ISLANDS *X I2EMBEK NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGE*

.
'
PerTVvlL
•wile'

AMCHrTKA ISLAND
*^ ALEUTIAN ISLANDS UNIMM ISLAND
False Pass.
Cold Bay ^ Sand Point

UNGA
""X^ Akutan ISLAND
*
Dutch Harbor
" <&&
ADAH
Atka * «E
ft

*ATKA ISLAND
10 Unalaska
FOX ISLANDS
SANAK
CSLANO ^. <*

ISLAND ANORtANOFISLANOS
HE*****
AMJA ISLANOSOFTHE NikolSki ISLAND5
ISLAND FOUR MOUNTAINS
ALEUTIAN

North Pacific Ocean

5
50 300 400 500 600 700
_J I I
_!_
700 1300 1400
loatak K0BUK valley
NATIONAL PARK
KoOebue
•Kiana •
orvik
Shungnak* »*obuk
SELAWIK NATIONAL
WILDUFE REFUGE
Candle
Buckland Hughes
Huslia.
koyukuk national Rampart
VflLDUFE REFUGE
Koyuk Koyukuk Koknnes •

Shaktoohk Galena* Ruby Hot Springs

# Fairbanks'
Kallag. innoko
1-
.Unaiakleet J*™*
REFUGE

**YV ,
'>e/iy

Takotna* .Nikolai 'SummitVfl^^^^

Anv.k . Pax
McGratri mount
ChfistocB
•Flat
Holy Cross ALASKA PIPELINE -iVGakona
Crooked Creek GlennaileJfGulkana
p.r..ak
* .Wed 0^" Palmer ^^-^ IVCopper Center
va o Chitma
a mitj>teetmute
,

McCarthJ
*alskag.
Z
^n^S^T « J^
NAT10NALFORES\«^'
WRANGELL-STEUAs\
NATIONAL PARK
LAKE CLARK Portage .TaTTtlek and preserve
NATIONAL PARK .Cordova
AND PRESERVE Wh.ttier
JKloose Pass • 'point Whitshed Cape Yakataga
Port Alsworth Landing
Cohoe^Kasilo^oW ^oswell
Koliganek Nondalton #
'liamna " " " Seward KiN W Bay
mctor Point/
•£ ' „ ° '<_
Fkwnk
Ekw 0kj
Nevvhalen.*
^
ew Stuyahot „,„ Pedro Bay
,

.Kakhonak
H |lbm c
H omer T
N «"
'eknaoik '•

eve 0Ck
Eng°shBay.£eldov,a\
'

< . ^-'w.1b
%*? * *S4 knek
."t'f Vo^EVing Salmon
'
%* <>«, '"5 KATMAJ NATIONAL PARK
ut
INSTANTINE
*" •
Egegjk
°f
%
4/^ ANDPRESERVE
e Po7t t ,
AFOGNAK ISLAND

am Point ""ViKodiak
Karluk 1JZink ' e
Ugashik'BECHAROf P arsen O KOCHAKCoASTGUARDSUPPORTCENTER
N WR Lar en
I Rav
oav
Port Heiden KODIAK f
• aniakchak ISLAND 'Old Harbor
NATIONAL MONUMENT . K 0OIAK NATKJNAL WILDUFE REFUGE
ANO PRESERVE Akhiok
.Chignik Lagoon
\ •Chianik
<-nigniK
™ NnY
\
ChignikLake
\%\jtm% ^9*
N
,<aM»0S

CHIRIKOf ISLAND N O T t fl P3

Alaska political map

I | Park or other recreation area n Military or other federal area

+ Point of interest
I ] Forest or other conservation area

» ** Oil pipeline
_j Military or other federal area
Railroad
i-a-ar International boundary

North «mm Provincial boundary Highways:

*£> State or territorial capital Road

• City or town CD State or territorial

Porytonu projection
WORLD BOOK map

10 11 12 13 14 15 16
1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
I
_J
1800 2700 Kilometers
290 Alaska Visitors guide
Alaska's vast wilderness attracts many people who Alaska offers interesting activities for everyone. These
love the outdoors. Expert mountain climbers tackle activitiesinclude white water kayaking, bird watching,
Alaskan peaks that rank as the highest in North America. and photographic tours of the famous "northern lights."
People fish for record-sized salmon, trout, and halibut Perhaps the most popular winter evpnt in Alaska is the
Thousands of tourists come to see Alaska's magnifi- Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race Sl^d drivers called mush-
cent mountain scenery and historic coastal towns Many ers and their teams of dogs race over a rugged course
vacationers from the "lower 48" drive to the state on the from Anchorage to Nome. Held each March, the course
Alaska Highway or take a scenic cruise along the Inside is about 1 ,200 miles (1 ,930 kilometers) long and usually

Passage of Alaska's southeastern coast takes about 12 days to complete.

J^:^f!^r^V:=5P^^

: let) Schultz Alaska Stock

Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race between Anchorage and Nome

Places to visit

Following are brief descriptions of some of Alaska's many in- close-up views of the Mendenhall Glacier. Visitors to the gla-
teresting places to visit cier can hike nearby trails or raft down the Mendenhall River
Alaska Highway extends 1,397 miles (2,248 kilometersl be- The Haines Highway connects the northern end of the ferry-
tween Dawson Creek, B.C, and Delta Junction. Unking high- liner route with the Alaska Highway. In south-central Alaska,
ways go north to Fairbanks, in gold rush country, and south to ferryliners operate between Cordova and Kodiak, with stops
Anchorage and other cities. See Alaska Highway. at Valdez, Whittier, Seward, Homer, and Seldovia.

"Marine Highway" is Oceango-

Alaska's state ferryliner system. National parklands in Alaska include Denali National Park,
ing ferryliners carry carsand passengers along this route which features the highest peak in North America, majestic
from Prince Rupert, B.C, and Bellingham, Wash., to southeast- Mount McKinley 120,320 feet or 6. '94 meters, above sea
ern coastal cities. The ferryliners follow the Inside Passage Ip\ ell Alaska is also the site of Gate? of the Arctic National
running between forested islands and the steep, inlet-cut Park, Glacier Bay National Park, Katmai National Park, Klondike
mainland coast Each town located along this scenic route of- Gold Rush National Historical Park, Sitka National Historical
fers special attractions to visitors. Saxman, near Ketchikan, for Park and Wrangell-St Elias National Park For more informa-
example, has the world's largest collection of authentic Indian tion, see the map and tables in the World Book article on Na-
totem poles. Ketchikan also has a large collection of authentic tional Park System.
totem poles. Sitka, which was the capital when Alaska be- National forests. Alaska has two national forests. They are Chu-
longed to Russia, includes historic St Michael's Cathedral, a gach. along the southern central coast, and Tongass, along
Russian Orthodox church. Juneau, the state capital, offers
the southeastern coast
 Alaska 291

Annual events

January-June
Russian Christmas, across the state (early January);
in cities
Winter Sunrise in Barrow Fur Rendezvous in
(late January);

Anchorage (February); Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race (March);

Pillar Mountain Coif Classic in Kodiak (March); Alaska Folk
Festival in Juneau (April); Jazz and Classics
Festival in Juneau
(May); Little Norway Petersburg (May); Kodiak Crab
Festival in
Festival (May); The Midnight Sun in Barrow (mid-May); Sitka
Summer Music Festival (June).

July-December
World Eskimo-Indian Olympics in Fairbanks (July); State Fair in
Palmer (August-September); Equinox Marathon Run in Fair-
banks (September); Alaska Day Celebration in Sitka, commem-
orating the transfer of Alaska from Russia to the United States
in 1867 (October); Athabascan Fiddling Festival in Fairbanks
(November); Great Alaska Shootout in Anchorage, featuring
college basketball teams from throughout the United States
Warden & Associates (November).
Totem pole and tribal house near Ketchikan

© Wolfgang. Kaehlei Corbis Alaska Slate Fair

St. Michael's Cathedral in downtown Sitka Alaska State Fair in Palmer

Chamber Millei Services

Ferry line in Ketchikan Harbor

292 Alaska Land and climate
Land regions. Alaska has four main land regions: (1)

the Pacific Mountain System, (2) the Central Uplands and

Lowlands, (3) the Rocky Mountain System, and (4) the
Arctic Coastal Plain.
The Pacific Mountain System of Alaska is part of a
group of ranges that extends down the Pacific Coast to
southern California. In Alaska, the ranges curve from the
Aleutian Islands in the west through south-central Alas-
ka and along the coast in the southeast
The region has many subdivisions. The strip of coastal
land 400 miles (640 kilometers) long in the southeast is

called the Alaska Panhandle. It is 10 to 150 miles (16 to

241 kilometers) wide, and includes tall mountains and

ice fields. The Saint Elias Range extends northwestward

from the Panhandle. Mount Saint Elias rises 18,008 feet
(5,489 meters) in this range. The Wrangell Mountains,
northwest of the Saint Elias Range, include Mount Bona
(16,421 feet, or 5,005 meters) and three tall peaks-
Mount Blackburn (16,390 feet, or 4,996 meters), Mount
Sanford (16,208 or 4,940 meters), and Mount
feet,
Wrangell (14,005 feet, or 4,269 meters). Mount Wrangell
is an active volcano. The Chugach and Kenai mountains

border the coast from the Saint Elias Range west to the
Kenai Peninsula and Kodiak Island. Mount Fairweather,
in Chugach Mountains, is 15,300 feet (4,663 meters)
the
high. The Talkeetna Mountains, north of Anchorage, are
a low range of rugged, glacier-cut peaks. The Alaska
Range is the most inland section of the Pacific Mountain 3 lane Cnass. West Stock

System. From the Canadian border, it curves west and The Matanuska Valley produces mcfst of Alaska's farm prod-
ucts. On the farm shown above, caps protect squash plants from
southwest to the Alaska Peninsula. The Alaska Range in-
frost The Chugach Mountains tower in the background.
cludes Mount McKinley (20,320 feet, or 6,194 meters),
the highest peak in North America, and Mount Foraker
Land regions of Alaska
(17,400 feet, or 5,304 meters).
The Alaska Peninsula and the Aleutian Islands extend
ARCTIC
southwest in a long chain from the Alaska Range. The ^COASTAL
J'LAIN
Aleutians include 14 large islands, about 55 small is-

lands, and many islets. The largest islands are Unimak,

Unalaska, and Umnak. The Aleutian Range forms the
"backbone" of the peninsula and islands. It extends 1,600
miles (2,570 kilometers), from Mount Spurr, across Cook
Inlet from Anchorage, to Attu Island near the Asian con-

WORLD BOOK map

Map index
Adak Island G 2 Cape Newenham E 5 Kanaga Island G 2 Mt Katmai I I. St George island JF 4
Agattu Island F 1 Cape Prince of Wales . . .C 4 Katmai Natl. Park Mt McKinley St Lawrence Island C 4
Alaska Peninsula I 6 Cape Romanzof D 5 and Preserve E 6 (highest point in St Matthew Island D 4
Alaska Range D 7 Cape St Elias E 8 Kiska Island F I North America) D 7 St. Paul Island £ 4
Aleutian Islands -G 3 Chandalar R. B 7 Kobuk k BE Mt. Michelson B 7 Sanak Island F 5
Aleutian Range E 6 Chichigol Island E 9 Kodiak Island F 6 Mt St Elias D 8 Selawik Lake C 6
Alexander Chirikof Island F 6 Korovin Volcano G 3 Mt Veniaminof F 5 Seward Peninsula .C 5
Archipelago .F 9 Chukchi Sea B 4 Kotzebue Sound C 5 Mt Vsevidof C 4 Sheenjek R. B 7
Amchrtka Island G 1 Coast Mts E 10 Koyukuk R. C 6 Near Islands F 1 Shelikof Strait F 6
Amchitka Pass G 2 ColvilleR. B 6 Kuskokwim Bay E 5 Noatak R. B 5 Shishaldin Volcano F 5
Amlia Island G 3 Cook Inlet E 7 Kuskokwim Mts D 6 North Pacific Ocean C 8 Shumagin Islands F 5
Amukta Pass G 3 Copper R. D 8 Kuskokwim R. D 5 Norton Sound C 5 Tanaga Island G 2
Andreanof Islands C 2 Oenali Natl Park Lake Clark E 6 Nunivak Island E 4 I a '.in.
1 i R. ,C 7
Arctic Ocean A 6 and Preserve C 7 I nil.- Diomede Island C 4 Pavlol Volcano F 5 Teshekpuk Lake A 6
Ail, Island
.j G 3 Dixon Entrance F 10 Makushin Volcano C 4 PI. Barrow A b Tikchik Lakes C 7
Attu Island F 1 Etolin Strait U 5 Montague Island E 7 Pt Hope B 5 Tingmerkpuk
Baird Inlet D 5 Four Mountains, Mt. Bendelehen C 5 Porcupine R. B 8 Mountain B 5
Baird Mts B 5 Islands ol the G 3 Ml Blackburn D 8 Pribilof Islands E 4 Trinity Islands F 6
Baranof Island E 9 Fox Islands G 4 Mt Chamberlin B 7 Prince of Wales Unalaska Island G 4
Becharof Lake 6 Glacier Bav Natl. Mt Doonerak B Island A Unimak Island 5
Bering Sea
Bering Strait
E
E
C
2
4
Park ana Preserve
Gull ol Alaska
— E
E
9
8
Mt Fairweather
Mt Foraker
E
D
7
9
7
Prince William
Sound A
7

7
Unimak Pass
West Point Imountain)
F
F
C
4
8
Bristol Bay F 5 Hagerneister Island . .E 5 Mt Hamilton D 5 Prudhoe Bay A 7 Wrangell Mts JJ 8
Brooks Range B 6 Icy Cape . A 5 Mt. Hayes C 7 Rat Islands I I Yakutat Bay E 8
Cape Usbume B 5 illamna lake 6 Mt. Hubbard D 8 St. Elias Mts O 8 Yukon R. .C 6
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294 Alaska

tinent. The range has many active volcanoes. The great- tional Wildlife Refuge System, established by the U.S.
est eruptions occurred in 1912, at what
Katmai
is now government to protect and increase wildlife and their
National Park. A new volcano, Novarupta, hurled tons of habitat The system is managed by the U.S. Fish and
rocks and ashes into the air. The top of Mount Katmai Wildlife Service. Alaska s refuges make up more than 80
collapsed and formed a caldera (basin) 3 miles (5 kilome percent of the land in the system. The Yukon Delta Na-
ters) wide and 3,700 feet (1,130 meters) deep. The lava tional Wildlife Refuge, in western Alaska, ranks as the
and ash from the volcano formed the Valley of Ten nation's largest refuge. It covers nearly 20 million acres
Thousand Smokes, an area of fumaroles (holes from (8 million hectares). *
which hot gas steams up). The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, in northeastern
Two important lowlands lie within the Pacific Moun- Alaska, has become debate between environ-
a topic of
tain System. These are the Copper River Basin and the mentalists and the and gas industry. Oil companies
oil

Susitna-Cook Inlet lowland. The Copper River Basin, a have sought the right to drill for oil on the coastal plain
forested lowland with river canyons, extends between in the northern part of the refuge. Environmentalists
the Chugach and Wrangell mountains. During the Pleis have protested that the drilling would damage the
tocene Epoch, a time marked by a succession of ice refuge. The federal government has not allowed drilling
ages, it was the site of a large lake. The most recent ice to take place. See National Wildlife Refuge System.
age ended about 1 1 ,500 years ago. The Susitna-Cook In- Coastline. Alaska's general coastline is 6,640 miles
let lowland extends north and east from Anchorage. (10,686 kilometers) long. About 5,580 miles (8,980 kilome-
Most of the area is forested. But it has a few towns and ters) are along the Pacific Ocean, and about 1,060 miles
includes the fertile farmland of the Matanuska Valley. (1 Ocean. All the
,706 kilometers) are along the Arctic
The Central Uplands and Lowlands make up the coastline of the mainland and major islands washed by
largest Alaskan land region. This region lies between tidewater measures 33,904 miles (54,563 kilometers). The
the Alaska Range on the south and the Brooks Range on main features of the coast in the south are the Gulf of
the north. It extends westward from the Canadian bor- Alaska, Prince William Sound, and Cook Inlet Bristol
der and includes the Seward Peninsula and the Kuskok- Bay and Norton Sound open into the Bering Sea in the
wim River area of southwestern Alaska. The region has southwest. Kotzebue Sound faces the Chukchi Sea in the
low, rolling hills. It also has broad, swampy river valleys, northwest The Arctic Ocean and the Beaufort Sea bor-
including the valleys of the Koyukuk, Kuskokwim, der the northern coast
Tanana, and Yukon rivers. The southern coast is cut by hundreds of small bays,
The Rocky Mountain System of Alaska consists of the channels, and narrow, steep-sided inlets called fiords.
Brooks Range and its foothills. The Brooks Range has The islands of the Alexander Archipelago rise from the
steep, glacier-cut peaks that rise to 9,000 feet (2,700 me- Pacific off the shore of the Alaska Panhandle. Prince of
ters) in the east, but are lower in the west. It includes the Wales Island, the largest of the group, is the home of
Baird, De Long, and Endicott mountains. most of Alaska's Haida Indians. Ketchikan is on Revil-
The Arctic Coastal Plain is the most northern region. lagigedo Island, and Sitka is on Baranof Island. Other
It rises gradually from the Arctic Ocean to a height of large islands in the group include Admiralty, Chichagof,
about 600 feet (180 meters) in the south. Permafrost (per- and Kupreanof. Kodiak, Afognak, and several smaller is-
manently frozen ground) 1,000 feet (300 meters) thick lies lands liesouthwest of the Kenai Peninsula in the Gulf of
under the plain. No trees can grow there. But the surface Alaska. The Pribilof Islands in the Bering Sea are the
of the ground thaws during summer and becomes summer home of the world's largest fur seal herd. Nuni-
thickly carpeted with low grasses and wild flowers. This vak Island, northeast of the Pribilofs, is the home of
grassy, treeless area is called the tundra. many musk oxen. Saint Lawrence Island is located at the
Federally protected lands. Alaska includes 16 na southern end of the Bering Strait. Little Diomede Island
tional wildlife refuges. These lands are part of the Na- and Big Diomede Island are located in the Bering Strait.

Mendenhall Glacier near Ju-

neau fills a valley with ice and
rock This glacier is one of
several in Alaska that can be
reached by highway.
 Alaska 295

Little Diomede is part of Alaska. Big Diomede belongs to

Russia.
Rivers and lakes. The Yukon River, Alaska's chief wa-
terway, is the fifth-longest river in North America. It

flows 1,979 miles (3,185 kilometers) through Alaska and

parts of Canada. From June to October, the river is free
of ice. Small boats and barges can travel from its mouth
on the Bering Sea across Alaska and into Canada. The
Yukon's main tributaries are the Koyukuk and the Tanana
rivers. See Yukon River.
Alaska's second-longest river, the Kuskokwim, emp-
ties into the Bering Sea at Kuskokwim Bay. The Colville
River flows into the Arctic Ocean, and the Noatak and
Kobuk rivers flow into the Chukchi Sea at Kotzebue
Sound. The Susitna and Matanuska rivers flow into Cook
Inlet, and the Copper River empties into the Gulf of Alas- Northern fur seals spend the summer on islands off Alaska's
ka. Several rivers, including the Alsek, Stikine, and Taku, coast The world's largest herd lives on the Pribilof Islands.

begin in Canada and flow south or west across the Alas-

ka Panhandle to the Pacific.
Alaska has thousands of lakes. The largest, lliamna
Lake on the Alaska Peninsula, is 80 miles (1 30 kilometers)
Average monthly weather long and 20 miles (32 kilometers) wide. Other lakes in-
clude Aleknagik, Becharof, Clark, Minchumina, Naknek,
Anchorage Barrow Selawik, Skilak, Teshekpuk, and Tustumena.

Days of Days ol
Glaciers. Thousands of glaciers from 1 to 30 miles (1.6
Tempe ratures Tempe ratures
C rain or rain 01 to 48 kilometers) long fill Alaska's mountain valleys and
High Low High Low
High Low snow High Low SIIUW
canyons. The greatest number of glaciers are along the
Jan.
20 6
-7 -14 Jan.
-9 -22
-23 -30 coast in the south and southeast Malaspina, in the Saint
27 10 •11 -24
Feb. -3 -12 Feb -24 -31 Elias Range, is North America's largest glacier. It is an
34 16 -8 -22
Mar. 1 -9 Mar -22 -30 ice sheet almost 50 miles (80 kilometers) wide. Many
44 27 7 -8
Apr. 7 -3 Apr. -14 -22
55 36 24 13
Alaska glaciers are easy to reach, and scientists from all
May 13 2 May -4 -11
63 45 39 79 parts of NorthAmerica come to study them. Columbia
June 17 7 June 4 -2
65 49 46 ii
8
Glacier can be reached by boat from Cordova. This huge
July 18 9 July 1

64 47 44 33
Aug. 18 8 Aug. 7 1
ice sheet ends in an ice cliff in the sea. Glaciers that can
56 40 34 27
Sept 13 4 Sept 1 -3 be reached by highway include Black Rapids, Canwell,
43 29 22 12
Oct 6 -2 Oct -6 -11 Castner, Gulkana, Matanuska, Mendenhall, Portage, and
29 16
Nov. -2 -9 Nov. -14 -21
20 7 Worthington.
Dec. -7 -14 Dec. -20 -27
Plant and animal life. Forests cover about a third of

Average January temperatures Average July temperatures Average yearly precipitation

The southern coastal areas generally re- Alaska has short, cool summers with big The southern coastal areas receive heavy
main above freezing in winter. The rest of variations in temperature between the precipitation. The rest of the state gener-
the state car. be extremely cold. cold north and milder southern areas. ally is extremely dry.
WORLD BOOK maps

Degrees Degrees Degrees Degrees

Fahrenheit Celsius Fahrenheit Celsius Inches Cent meters
Above 32 Above Above 60 1 Above M More than 64 More than 163
10 lo 32 -1 2 lo 55 to 60 13 lo 16 32 to 64 81 to 163

lo 10 -18 to -12 50 to 55 10 lo 13 16 to 32 41 lo 81

10 lo -23 to 18 45 lo 50 7 to 10 8 to 16 20 to 41

Below -10 Below 23 Below 45 Below 7 Less than 8 less t lan 20

Jtafrow Barrow

.Nome Nome
^^^^1 .Fairbanks
j
Fairbanks 1

.Anchorage 1
AnchoraMj

^-i
. Juneau JuneaV^
Kodiak
*
f^^^ ^Kodiak
S*
296 Alaska

Alaska. The most important trees are birches, Sitka Climate. Alaska has a great variety of climates. Winds
spruces, western hemlocks, and white spruces. Other that blow eastward over the warm Kuroshio (Japan Cur-
trees include aspens, black spruces, cottonwoods, tama- rent) give southern Alaska a fairly mild climate. Near the
racks, and willows. southern coast, temperatures average 28 °F — 2 °C) in (

Grasses, mosses sedges, and plantlike organisms January and 55 F (13 C) in July. Precipitation (rain, melt-
called lichens are found in many parts of Alaska. In the ed snow, and other moisture) averages 20 inches (51
far north, they provide food for caribou and other ani- centimeters) at Cook Inlet and 92 inches (234 centime-
mals. Wild flowers also grow throughout the state. Wild ters) in the Panhandle. Parts of the southeast coast get
flowers on the tundra include asters, cinquefoils, fire- heavy precipitation. Port Walter, on Baranof Island, has
weeds, forget-me-nots, larkspurs, and mountain laurels. the highest average yearly precipitation in the continen-
Arctic daisies, bog laurels, cowslips, violets, wild hy- tal United States— 221 inches (561 centimeters).

acinths, and wood nymphs bloom in the mountains. In the inland parts of Alaska, temperatures average
The waters off Alaska's shores are rich in salmon and about -9 F (-23 °C) in January, and about 59 °F (15 °C) in
halibut. They also contain great quantities of clams, cod, July. The annual precipitation averages about 13 inches

crabs, herring, and shrimp. The world s largest herd of (33 centimeters). Fort Yukon recorded Alaska's highest
fur seals is found on the Pribilof Islands in summer. A temperature, 100 F (38 °C), on June 27, 1915. The record
herd of musk oxen lives on Nunivak Island. Brown bears low, -80 °F (-62 C), was set at Prospect Creek, near
live on Kodiak Island and in other parts of south-central Stevens Village, on Jan. 23, 1971. This ranks as the lowest
and southeast Alaska. Polar bears live along the Arctic temperature ever recorded in the United States.
Coast. Other animals include caribou, deer, elk, grizzly The Alaskan Arctic has an average January tempera-
bears, moose, mountain goats, and mountain sheep. ture of 1 1 °F (-24 °C). Its average July temperature is

Game birds include ducks, geese, and grouse. 47 °F (8 C). Annual precipitation is very low.

Economy

Alaska's economy relies heavily on government activi-

tiesand petroleum production. The huge amounts of
petroleum produced by Alaska's oil industry are
shipped to other states in oil tankers and through the
Trans-Alaska Pipeline. While mining remains one of
Alaska's most important economic activities, other in-
dustries have helped diversify the state's economy.
Service industries, which include such activities as
government operations, transportation, and real estate,
are also important to the state. Tourism benefits many
businesses in Alaska, including hotels, shops, restau-
rants, and tour organizers. More than 1 million tourists
visit the state annually, spending about $1 billion.

Fishing is the dominant industry in many parts of the

state. Alaska catches more fish than any other state.

Production and workers by economic activities

Percent
Employed workers
of GSP* Number Percent
Economic activities produced of people of total

Government 21 92,900 24
Transportation, communi-
cation, & utilities 18 29,900 8
Mining 15 11,900 3
Community, business,
& personal services 13 104,400 27
Finance, insurance,
& real estate 12 22,600 6 Mount Roberts Tramway is a popular tourist attraction in
)uneau. It carries passengers to the top of Mount Roberts.
Wholesale & retail trade 10 70,900 19
Tourism contributes greatly to Alaska's economy.
Manufacturing 5 17,000 4

Construction 4 20,800 5
Land use is a difficult problem in Alaska, as economic
Agriculture, forestry, development and environmental protection interests
& fishing 2 14,500 4
often clash. The federal government owns and controls
Total 100 384,900 100 most of the state's land, and it has set aside large areas
gross state product ilu- loial val te of goods and services produced in a yeai for wildlife conservation and national parklands.
Figures are for 1998
ft/Aoaft estimates based o i data from U.S Bureau of EconomU Analysis Natural resources of Alaska include rich soils, valu-
nulls Bureau of Laboi Statistics
able minerals, and plentiful water, fish, and forests.
 Alaska 297

Soil. Most interior valley soils in Alaska are composed in mining, construction, and aerospace technology are
of loess (coarse particles of dust deposited by me wind). especially important
These soils resemble the soils found in the western Ranking fourth among Alaska's service industries is fi-

United States, China, and other highly productive farm nance, insurance, and real estate. Anchorage is Alaska's
areas. Although Alaska's soils are naturally productive, chief financial center. The buying and selling of build-
they need much fertilizer. ings and other property is the major real estate activity.

Minerals. Oil and natural gas have been found on the Wholesale and retail trade rank fifth among Alaska's
Kenai Peninsula and in Cook Inlet in south-central Alas- service industries in terms of the gross state product
ka. Large reserves of oil and natural gas lie near Prudhoe The wholesale trade of petroleum products, groceries,
Bay on the state's Arctic coast Whether to tap these re- and motor vehicles is important in Alaska. Major types
serves has become a major source of debate. Some of of retail businesses include automobile dealerships,
these reserves lie beneath the Arctic National Wildlife food stores, and hardware stores.
Range, a key breeding ground for many of Alaska's wild Mining. Petroleum provides about 95 percent of Alas-
creatures. Natural gas also has been found near Point ka's mining income. The Prudhoe Bay area is one of the
Barrow in the Arctic Coastal Plain. Coal is found in the world's major petroleum-producing regions. Prudhoe
Kenai Peninsula, the Matanuska Valley, the Arctic Bay also contains vast natural gas reserves. Petroleum is
Coastal Plain, and along the Healy andYukon rivers. transported south from Prudhoe Bay by the Trans-Alaska
Much of Alaska's gold is found
streambeds in the
in Pipeline. Petroleum is also pumped from oil fields in the
Yukon River Basin near Fairbanks and the Seward Penin- Kenai Peninsula-Cook Inlet area.
sula near Nome. Gold also is found in combination with For many years, gold was Alaska's major mined prod-
other precious metals in underground deposits on uct Alaska is still an important gold-mining state. Most
many islands in southeastern Alaska. of the gold is obtained from placer deposits- particles
A major zinc deposit northwest of Kotzebue. One
lies of gold in streambeds— near Fairbanks and Nome.
of the largest molybdenum deposits in the world is near Alaska's mines also produce major amounts of zinc
Ketchikan. Widespread deposits of sand and gravel are and silver. The Red Dog Mine, near Kotzebue, is the
a valuable resource for the construction industry. In ad- largest zinc mine in the United States. Greens Creek
dition, Alaska has deposits of antimony, chromite, cop- Mine, near Juneau, is a leading producer of both zinc
per, gemstones, granite, limestone, nickel, platinum, sil- and silver. Alaska's other mined products include coal,
ver,and tungsten. crushed stone, lead, molybdenum, and sand and gravel.
Service industries, taken together, account for the Manufacturing. Goods manufactured in Alaska have
largest portion of Alaska's gross state product-the total a value added by manufacture of about $1 \ million a
value of goods and services produced in a state in a year. This figure represents the increase in value of raw
year. Most of the service industries are concentrated in materials after they become finished products.
the urban areas of the state. Food processing is Alaska's leading manufacturing ac-

Government services contribute more to the gross terms of value added by manufacture. Fish prod-
tivity in

state product than any other service industry. Govern- ucts are the main source of food-processing income.
ment services include the operation of public schools, Many coastal cities process salmon. The processing of
public hospitals, and military bases. An extensive net- crab, halibut, herring, pollock, sablefish, and other
work of government services is necessary because the groundfish is also important to the economy of Alaska.
people are spread over a large area. The federal
state's
government controls much of the state's land. Military
bases are located near Anchorage and Fairbanks.
Transportation, communication, and utilities form
Alaska's second-ranked service industry in terms of the
gross state product. Transportation is essential to Alas-
ka's economy because the state from major mar-
lies far

kets. Pipeline and shipping companies transport petrole-

um to processors. Ships also bring such essential goods
as automobiles and groceries to Alaska from other
states. Alaska's location between Asia and the continen-
tal United States has also helped make it an air freight

transfer hub for such companies as FedEx and United

Parcel Service. At Kodiak Island, the Alaska Aerospace
Development Corporation created the nation's first pri-
vately operated rocket launch complex. Telephone com-
panies are the biggest part of the communications sec-
tor. Utilities provide gas, electric, and water service.
More information about transportation and communica-
tion appears later in this section.
Next among service industries in Alaska is communi-
ty, business, and personal services. This industry con-
DJefl 5< hufti Uasfca Stock images
sists of a wide variety of establishments, including pri-
The Red Dog Mine, the largest zinr mine in the United States, is
vate health care, hotels, law firms, engineering compa- in northwestern Alaska, near Kotzebue. A truck hauls zinc from
nies, and repair shops Engineering companies involved the mine. dbo\r Zinc is an important mineral product of Alaska.
298 Alaska

Petroleum products rank second in terms of value minks, wolves, and wolverines. The yearly value of the
added. The Fairbanks and Kenai areas have large oil re- animals' pelts ranges from S5 million to S10 million.
fineries. Refineries also operate at Prudhoe Bay. Many Alaskans, most of them natives, hunt and fish
Fishing industry. Alaska leads the states in the annu- for food. They also use animal skins in making clothing
al value of fish caught by the commercial fishing indus- and other items for daily living.
try. The state has a yearly fish catch valued at about SI j Electric power. Power
plants that burn natural gas
billion. Workers in the industry catch cod, flounder, provide about 55 percent of the electric power generat-
groundfish, halibut, pollock, rockfish, sablefish, salmon, ed in Alaska. Hydroelectric plants generate about 25
and smelt. Dungeness crab, king crab, scallops, sea percent of the state's power. Only a small fraction of the
urchins, shrimp, and tanner crab (also known as snow state's potential hydroelectric power has been devel-
crab) are also harvested, as are herring eggs. Kodiak and oped. The rest of the state's power comes from coal-
Unalaska/Dutch Harbor are the chief fishing ports. burning and petroleum-burning plants.
Forestry is an important component of Alaskan clou Transportation. It is difficult and expensive to build
omy. Forest products exports top S200 million each year. roads and railroads in Alaska. The land is rugged, and
Alaska has over 25 million acres (10 million hectares) of the construction season is short
commercial forestland. The southern Panhandle has During World War II (1939-1945), the federal govern-
many log-processing camps and sawmills. ment built the Alaska Highway— the only major land
Agriculture. Farms cover well under 1 percent of route between Alaska, Canada, and the "lower 48." The
Alaska's land area only 880,000 acres (356,000 hectares). highway extends between Dawson Creek, British Co-
The fertile Matanuska Valley northeast of Anchorage lumbia, and Delta Junction, where it joins the Richard-
produces about three-fourths of Alaska's farm products. son Highway to Fairbanks. The Alaska Highway, together
Alaska has about 550 farms. with the Richardson Highway, extends 1,495 miles (2,405
Milk is Alaska s most valuable livestock product, fol- kilometers). Alaska has about 13,000 miles (20,900 kilo-
lowed by eggs and beef cattle. Alaskan farmers also meters) of roads and highways. Most of the state's roads
raise chickens, hogs, sheep, and lambs. Inuit keep herds link the Alaska Highway with the Kenai Peninsula, An-
of reindeer as a source of meat and hides. chorage, Valdez, and Fairbanks.
The growing season in Alaska is very short. However, The state-owned Alaska Railroad provides freight
the summer sun shines about 20 hours a day in the cen- service from Seward and Whittier to Anchorage and
tral part of the state, and crops ripen quickly there. All Fairbanks. This railroad also operates passenger trains.
fruits and vegetables that grow in a cool climate can be Small planes flown by "bush pilots" provide the prima-
raised in Alaska as far north as the Arctic Circle. Green- ry link between about 200 remote villages and the out-
house and nursery products are the leading source of side world. These pilots carry passengers, supplies, and
agriculturalincome in Alaska. In addition, Alaskan farm- mail across thousands of miles of rugged, remote coun-
ers grow such crops as barley, hay, oats, and potatoes. try. Anchorage is a major air terminal. It serves as one of

Timber is also important in the state. the world's busiest cargo hubs. Other major airports are
Fur industry. Alaska trappers catch many kinds of at Juneau and Fairbanks.
fur-bearing animals, including beavers, lynxes, martens, Alaska depends on container ship service for most of

Economy of Alaska
# Natural gas
This map shows the econom-
ic uses of land in Alaska and Petroleum
where the state's leading
Natural gas*
farm, mineral, and forest
products are produced. Ma-
jor manufacturing centers are
shown in red .

G °r
<o£ V^M
Farmland mixed with
grazing

Sparse vegetation mixed

with grazing
Anchora«e_„ H °9S
Mostly forest land
,

, •Pouhry ^

Mostly tundra ^ > Petroleum

Trans-Alaska pipeline

• Manufacturing center

• Mineral deposit

WORLD BOOK map

 5

Alaska 299

A salmon catch is unloaded

atAnnette Island. Fish prod-
ucts rank among Alaska's
leading manufactured goods.
Alaska leads the states in the
value of fish caught by the
commercial fishing industry.

Terry Domico, Earth Images

its trade with the "lower 48." The state's chief ports in- Communication. The first public newspaper in Alas-

clude Anchorage, Seward, Unalaska/Dutch Harbor, ka,the Sitka Times, began publication in Sitka in 1868.
Valdez, and ports near Ketchikan and Kodiak. Nome, the Today, Alaska has about 35 newspapers, of which 6 are
main port on the Bering Sea, is blocked by ice in winter. dailies.The leading daily newspapers published in Alas-
Alaska has an outstanding ferryliner system owned by ka include the Anchorage Daily News, Fairbanks Daily
the state. Three main routes serve coastal areas. In the News-Miner, and Juneau Empire.
southeast, huge ferryliners, each carrying as many as The first radio station in Alaska, KFQD, started broad-
108 cars, stop at several cities between Haines and Skag- casting from Anchorage in 1924. The state's first televi-
way in the north and Bellingham, Washington, and sion stations, KTVA-TV and KFIA-TV (now KENI-TV), be-
Prince Rupert, British Columbia, in the south. The Kodiak gan operating in 1953, also in Anchorage. Today, the
Island Ferry connects Seward, Kodiak, Homer, Valdez, state has about 75 radio stations and 5 television sta-
1

and Cordova. The Prince William Sound ferryliner serv- tions. Cable television systems and Internet providers
ice links Valdez, Cordova, and Whittier. serve most of Alaska's communities.

Government

Constitution. Alaska's present Constitution was eral, who heads the Department of Law, and an adjutant
adopted in 1956, three years before the territory became general, who heads the Department of Military and Vet-
a state.A constitutional amendment must be approved erans Affairs. The governor appoints these two officials
by two-thirds of the members of each house of the state and the 1 3 commissioners with the approval of a majori-
legislature. Then it must be approved by a majority of ty of the legislators voting in a joint session.
voters in a statewide election. Legislature consists of a 20-member Senate and a 40-
Amendments may also be proposed by a constitution- member House of Representatives. One senator is elect-
alconvention. The convention must be approved by a ed from each senatorial Each representative dis-
district
majority of each house of the legislature. It must then be trict elects one representative. Each senator serves a

approved by a majority of the people who vote on the four-year term. Each representative serves a two-year
issue in an election. All amendments proposed by the term.
convention must be approved by the voters. If no con- The legislature holds a regular session every year. The
vention has been held in a 10-year period, the question sessions begin on the second Monday in January, ex-
of calling a convention must be put to the voters. cept in years following gubernatorial elections— when
Executive. The governor of Alaska is elected to a they begin on the third Monday in January. The length
four-year term and cannot serve more than two terms in of the sessions is limited to 1 20 days. The legislature or
a row. Alaska's lieutenant governor is the only other governor may call a 30-day special session.
elected state official. He or she is elected to a four-year Courts. The highest court in Alaska is the state
term and can be reelected any number of times. Supreme Court. has five justices, one of whom is cho-
It

The state's other top executive officials include 13 sen by the other justices to serve a three-year term as
commissioners, each of whom heads one of Alaska s 1 The Supreme Court concentrates on
chief justice. civil
executive departments. Alaska also has an attorney gen- matters but has ultimate authority in all cases.
300 Alaska

The Court of Appeals, which has three judges, is the

second-highest court for criminal matters. The Superior
The governors of Alaska
Court, Alaska's second-highest court for civil cases, has Party Term
32 judges. It is divided into four districts. District courts William A. Egan Democratic 1959-1966
handle some civil and criminal cases. Seventeen district Walter j. Hickel Republican 1966-1969
Keith Miller Republican 1969-1970
court judges serve in Alaska's four judicial districts. The
William A. Egan Democratic 1970-1974
Court of Appeals has jurisdiction to review district court Jay S. Hammond Republican 1974-1982
decisions. Bill Sheffield Democratic 1982-1986
The governor appoints the Supreme Court justices Steve Cowper Democratic 1986-1990
and the Superior Court and Court of Appeals judges Walter J. Hickel Independent 1990-1994

from people nominated by the Alaska Judicial Council. Tony Knowles Democratic 1994-

This council consists of the chief justice and six private

three years, a Supreme Court jus-
citizens. After serving
tice or Superior Court or Court of Appeals judge must the stateis called the unorganized borough. It is gov-

be approved by the voters in the next general election. erned by the Legislature.
Each Supreme Court justice must be reapproved every Alaska's cities use a mayor-council or city-manager
10 years. Superior Court judges must be reapproved form of government. All of the cities have elected city
every 6 years, and Court of Appeals judges every 8 councils.
years. Revenue. Much of the income of Alaska's govern-
The governor appoints district court judges from can- ment comes directly from oil and gas production. Petro-
didates recommended by the Alaska Judicial Council. leum companies pay the state production taxes and roy-
Voters must approve such judges in the first general alties, a share of their profits. In addition, the state
election held more than two years after their appoint- receives revenue from taxes on corporate income, mo-
ment, and every four years thereafter. tor fuels, and property. Alaska also gets money from
Local government. Alaska is divided into 16 local federal grants and other U.S. government programs. The
government units called organized boroughs. Organ- state has no personal income tax or sales tax
ized boroughs are incorporated areas that may include Politics. Fewer contests take place between political
cities, suburbs, and rural areas. They are equivalent to parties in Alaska than in most other states. Almost all of
counties in other states. Each borough is governed by Alaska's state and local government officials are appoint-
an assembly of from 5 to 1 members. In most bor-
1 ed or are elected on a nonpartisan (no-party) basis. The
oughs, the top administrative officer is a mayor elected state's elections for governor have resulted in several
by the people. A borough may instead have a manager victories for both Democrats and Republicans. In elec-
appointed by the assembly. Other borough officials are tions for president, Alaska's voters have favored the Re-
appointed by the mayor or the manager. Organized bor- publican candidate almost every time. For Alaska's elec-
oughs cover only about 44 percent of Alaska. However, toral votes and voting record in presidential elections,

they have about 85 percent of the population. The rest of see Electoral College (table).

History

Early days. No one knows exactly how long human

beings have lived in America. But most scientists believe
that the first Americans walked across a land bridge
from Asia into what is now Alaska about 1 5,000 years
ago. In the 1700s, when whites first arrived in the Alas-
kan region, three groups of people— Inuit, Aleuts, and
Indians— were living there.
The Inuit lived in the Far North and West. From Alas-
ka's north coast to Greenland, Inuit hunted such large
sea mammals as whales, seals, and polar bears. Some
small groups of Inuit inhabited inland areas and hunted
caribou.
The Aleuts, closely related to the Inuit, lived on the
Aleutian Islands and the Alaska Peninsula. The Aleuts
were skillful sea hunters.
The largest Indian groups, the Tlingit and Haida, lived
along the coast, where fish and game were plentiful.
Some Tsimshian Indians also lived there. The Athabas-
kan Indians lived in the interior, a rugged region with-
out the rich natural resources of the coast. The Athabas-
kans fished and hunted caribou. Anchorage Museum of Hislory and Art
European exploration. The Russians were the first Totem poles carved by the Haida Indians stand at Kasaan, on
Europeans to become interested in the Alaskan region. Prim e of Wales Island. Totem poles are a traditional Indian art
In 1648, a group of Russians, led by Semen I. Dezhnev, form in the Pacific Northwest They symbolize tribes or families.
 Alaska 301

sailed through the strait separating northeastern Asia by the War Department, next by the Treasury Depart-
and northwestern North America. In 1725, Czar Peter the ment, and then by the Navy Department. These three
Great of Russia commissioned Vitus Bering, a Danish agencies had little interest in the local problems of the
navigator, to explore the North Pacific region. Bering region.
and crew traveled more than 6,000 miles (9,700 kilo-
his A few American companies became interested in
meters) across Russia and Asia. Then they built a ship Alaska's rich salmon fisheries. In 1878, they built the first
and in 1728 sailed through the strait navigated earlier by canneries in Alaska.
Dezhnev. This body of water later became known as the In 1884, Congress passed the first Organic Act. This
Bering Strait. But Bering did not sight the North Ameri- act established Alaska as a "civil and judicial district." It

can mainland because of fog. provided for a governor, a code of laws, and a federal
In 1741, Bering and Aleksei Chirikov, a Russian ex- court. But the laws were the laws of Oregon, and they
plorer, led a second expedition to the region. Bering's were not adapted to Alaskan conditions. Congress kept
party sighted Mount St. Elias in southeastern Alaska and the power to make laws for Alaska.
landed on what is now Kayak Island. The gold rush. In 1880, Joseph Juneau and Richard T
Expeditions from England, France, and Spain soon Harris discovered gold deposits along Gastineau Chan-
reached Alaskan waters. Most of these explorers sought nel in southeastern Alaska. This discovery led to the
a sea route between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. founding of the city of Juneau. In 1 896, prospectors
The Russian era. Members of the second Bering ex- found rich gold deposits in the Klondike district of Cana-
pedition returned to Russia with sea otter furs. Russian da's Yukon region, just across the border from Alaska.
traders and hunters then developed a brisk fur trade on The discovery led to the Klondike and Alaska gold rush
the Aleutian Islands and later on the mainland. Fur trad- of 1897-1898. Miners discovered gold at what is now
ers enslaved the Aleuts and, by overhunting, nearly de- Nome in 1898 and in the Fairbanks area in 1902. The
stroyed populations of fur-bearing animals in the Aleu- three gold discoveries attracted thousands of people
tians. In 1784, Gregory Shelikof, a trader, established the hoping to strike it rich and aroused nationwide interest
first white settlement in Alaska, then called Russian in Alaska. Alaska's population nearly doubled in 10
America, on Kodiak Island. years, reaching 63,592 by 1900.
In 1799, Russia chartered the Russian-American Com- The early 1900's. The gold discoveries focused con-
pany, a trading firm. Alexander Baranof became the gressional attention on Alaska. In 1903, a group of U.S.
firm's chief manager. Baranof moved the company's senators toured the territory to learn of Alaska's needs.
headquarters to Novo Arkhangelsk (New Archangel, They recommended that the government construct a
now Sitka), which he captured from the Tlingit Indians. system of transportation routes there. Congress then
Novo Arkhangelsk became the largest town in Russian created a Board of Road Commissioners for Alaska,
America. Baranof managed company affairs profitably which built and maintained wagon roads, trails, bridges,
for the stockholders, and he established good relations and ferries throughout the territory.
with many native groups. The Russian-American Com- In 1906, Congress allowed Alaskans to elect their own
pany sent Russian Orthodox priests to convert the native delegate to Congress. They chose Frank H. Waskey, a
Alaskans to Christianity. Democrat. He could speak in the House of Representa-
In 1818, Baranof retired, and the company began to tives but was not allowed to vote. During this period,
lose money. Russian naval commanders then ruled the James W. Wickersham, a federal judge, rallied Alaskans
colony. to the cause of more self-government for Alaska. In
In 1824 and 1825, Russia signed separate treaties with 1908, Wickersham was elected Alaska's delegate to Con-
the United States and Great Britain. These pacts recog- gress. In 1912, Congress passed the second Organic Act,
nized latitude 54°40' as the southern boundary of Rus- which gave Alaska a territorial legislature with limited
sian territory in America. As part of the agreements, powers.
Russia gave the United States and Britain trading rights The Alaska Native Brotherhood (ANB) was formed in
along Alaska's Pacific Coast. 1913. It was joined by the Alaska Native Sisterhood two

American purchase. The Russians tried to develop years later. These organizations sought to unite the na-
several industries, including coal mining, shipbuilding, tive communities of the region and fought for the politi-
and whale hunting. But by the 1850s the fur trade had cal interests of its members. The groups helped achieve
declined and the company's other enterprises had voting rights, integrated classrooms, and other civil
begun to fail. After the Crimean War (1 853-1 856) weak- rights for Alaska's native peoples.
ened Russia, the country became eager to sell Alaska. In 1929, the ANB enlisted Wickersham to pursue a

United States Secretary of State William H. Seward settlement for native lands seized by the federal govern-
agreed to buy the region for $7,200,000, about 2 cents ment. Wickersham failed to persuade Congress to rec-
per acre (5 cents per hectare). On March 30, 1867, he ognize native land claims. But the work of his succes-
signed the Treaty of Cession of Russian America to the sors and native groups eventually led to the Alaska
United States. Some Americans opposed the purchase. Native Claims Settlement Act of 1971.
They called Alaska such names as Seward's Folly, Sew- World War II (1939-1945) caused great changes in
ard's Icebox, and Icebergia. But many Americans fa- Alaska. The United States recognized the military impor-
vored the acquisition. Congress approved the purchase, tance of the territory, which lay close to Asia, and sent
and American troops raised the U.S. flag at Sitka on Oct. thousands of workers there to build and maintain mili-
18,1867. Japanese bombed Dutch
tary installations. In 1942, the
Congress did not provide for an Alaskan government Harbor in the Aleutian Islands and occupied Kiska and
during the next 17 years. Alaska was administered first Attu, two islands in the chain These islands were the
302 Alaska

historic Alaska
•Nome
Fairbanks

1 ....
Sitka

The Bering Strait, which separates Alaska

from Russia, was named after Danish naviga-
tor Captain Vitus Bering, who explored the
The U.S. bought Alaska
waters around Alaska in the early 1 700s.
from Russia in 1867. Secretary
of State William H. Seward
paid $7,200,000 for the region.

The Gold Rush of 1897 and 1898

began after thediscovery of gold
in the Yukon, just across the bor-
der from Alaska. Cold was later
found near what are now Nome
and Fairbanks.

The Alaska National Interest Lands Conser-

vation Act of 1980 set aside about 104 million
acres 142 million hectares) as national parks,
The Russian-American Company, chartered in 1799, pros-
wildlife refuges, and other conservation areas.
pered in the fur trade under Alexander Baranof, its first man-
ager. The company was based in what is today Sitka.

Important dates in Alaska

WORLD BOOK Illustrations B) Kevin Oudwick

1741 The second Vitus Bering expedition landed on what is 1959 Alaska became the 49th state on January 3.
now Kayak Island. 1968 Large oil reserves were discovered near Prudhoe Bay.
1784 Russians established the first white settlement in Alas- 1971 Congress passed the Alaska Native Claims Settlement
ka, on Kodiak Island. Act, giving 44 million acres (18 million hectares) of land
1824-1825 Russia agreed to recognize latitude 54'40' as the to native Alaskans.
southern boundary of Alaska. 1977 Workers completed construction of a pipeline to carry
1867 The United States purchased Alaska from Russia. oil from Prudhoe Bay to Valdez.

1884 Congress gave Alaska laws and a federal court 1980 Congress passed the Alaska National Interest Lands
1897-1898 The Klondike and Alaska gold rush started. Conservation Act, which placed about a fourth of the
1906 Alaskans elected their first delegate to the U.S. Con- state's land in the National Park System.
gress. 1989 The Exxon Valdez dumped nearly 1 1 million gallons (42
1912 Congress established Alaska as a U.S. territory. million liters) of oil into Prince William Sound in the
1942 The (apanese bombed Dutch Harbor and invaded the largest United States history.
oil spill in

Aleutians. The Alaska Highway was completed. 1992 Most of the Exxon Valdez oil-spill cleanup was com-
1958 Congress approved Alaskan statehood on June 30. pleted at a cost of more than $2 billion.
 Alaska 303

< &lmtr8%r;it $ o
A U.S. Treasury warrant for
//////// ' ^ " $7,200,000 was used to pur-
chase Alaska from Russia in
* /: 1867. The price came to about
2 cents per acre (5 cents per
,,„/. 'Iiol. hectare).

.///„.//>

National Archives

only part of North America invaded during World War Alaska found its first years of statehood difficult and

II. The government built the Alaska Highway in 1942, costly. had to take over the expenses of public serv-
It

mainly as a military supply road. In 1943, about 152,000 ices that the federal government had provided. Con-
military personnel were stationed in Alaska. United gress helped by giving Alaska some buildings, transition
States troops recovered Kiska and Attu later that year, grants, and other funding. Alaska also received funds
and the war in Alaska ended. But the military impact al- from the lease of public lands and the right to claim
tered the territory forever. 103.5 million acres (41.9 million hectares) of federal land
Statehood. The war led to demands that Congress over a 25-year period. State selection of lands began
admit the territory to statehood. The first Alaskan state- soon afterward. Alaska's Inuit and Indians, however, pro-
hood bill was introduced in Congress in 1916, but it did tested the selection process. They charged that the
not receive a hearing. Other statehood bills were intro- process did not recognize their claims of ownership or
duced from the mid-1 940s until 1958. In 1958, Congress their traditional way of life, in which small bands moved
voted to admit Alaska to the Union. On ]an. 3, 1959, Pres- over large areas hunting, fishing, and gathering food.
ident Dwight D. Eisenhower signed the proclamation These and other issues spurred the formation of the
declaring Alaska the 49th state. Alaska became the first Alaska Federation of Natives (AFN) in 1966. The organiza-
new state since 1912. William A. Egan, a Democrat, be- tion included representatives from nearly every group
came the first elected governor of Alaska. of native people and helped lead the fight for a full set-

Marshal Lockman. Black Star

A massive earthquake
rocked Alaska on March 27,
1964. In Anchorage, the city
hit hardest by the quake,
buildings crumbled and pave-
ment fell 30 feet (9 meters) in
a few seconds. The earth-
quake was one of the most
powerful ever recorded on
the North American continent
304 Alaska

six months or more began receiving dividend payments

from the Alaska Permanent Fund. Each year, 50 percent

of the fund's earnings, averaged over a 5-year period,
are distributed equally to eligible Alaskans.
Land-use issues. From 1971 to 1980, the federal gov-
ernment set aside large amounts of land for native Alas-
kans and for conservation purposes. In 1971, President
Richard M. Nixon signed the Alaska Native Claims Settle-
ment Act This revolutionary measure gave $962.5 mil-
lion and about 44 million acres (1 8 million hectares) of
land to the state's Inuit and Indians. The act created 12
regional corporations to administer the money and the
land. A 13th corporation was added later. Every Alaskan
Inuit and Indian received shares in the corporations.
In 1978, 56 million acres (23 million hectares) of Alas-
kan land were set aside as national monuments. In 1980,
Congress passed the Alaska National Interest Lands
Conservation Act. This act added more than 104 million
acres (42 million hectares) to the conservation system in
Alaska. The measure established the boundaries for a
widespread network of federal, state, native, and private
lands.
The 1980 conservation act gave rural Alaskans priority
inhunting and fishing for food on federal lands. Many
urban Alaskans who hunt and fish for sport complained
that these provisions discriminated against them. Dis-

Construction of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline began in 1974 and putes over hunting and fishing rights led to increasing
was completed in 1977. The pipeline carries oil from Prudhoe racial tensions between urban whites and rural native
Bay to the port of Valdez, a distance of about 800 miles (1 ,300 people. During the 1990s, when Alaskans still failed to
kilometers). It cost about $8 billion to build. comply with the provisions of the act, the federal gov-
ernment took over fish and game management on these
tlement of Alaska native land claims. lands.
During the 1960s, the state improved its transporta- Recent developments. In 1989, an oil tanker, the
tion facilities. It developed a state ferry system, the "Ma- Exxon Valdez, struck a reef in Prince William Sound in

rine Highway," to serve coastal cities. southeastern Alaska, causing the largest oil spill in
In 1964, one of the biggest earthquakes ever known to United States history. Nearly 1 1 million gallons (42 mil-
hit North America shook the area around Anchorage lion liters) of crude oil spilled into the sound. The oil
and Valdez. It measured 8.3 on the Richter scale. The polluted beaches and fishing waters and destroyed
quake and tsunamis (huge, destructive waves) that it wildlife. Most of the cleanup work at the sound was
caused killed 131 people and resulted in more than completed in 1992 at a cost of more than $2 billion. But
$400 million in property damage. scientists continue to work toward restoring the ecolog-
The discovery of oil. In 1968, the Atlantic Richfield ical balance of the area. In 1998, the Alaska SeaLife Cen-

Company announced the discovery of a giant oil field at ter opened in Seward, Alaska. Much of the center's con-
Prudhoe Bay on the Arctic Coastal Plain. It was one of struction was funded by money from a settlement in the
the greatest oil discoveries in history. This oil field has Exxon Valdez Case. F Patrick Fitzgerald and Claus-M. Naske

the largest reserves of oil in North America. In 1969, Related articles in Wodd Book include:
Alaska auctioned oil and gas leases on the field's 450,000
Biographies
acres (182,000 hectares) and earned over $900 million.
Bartlett, Edward L Gruening, Ernest Seward,
Construction of a pipeline to carry oil about 800 miles
Bering, Vitus Muir, )ohi l William H.
(1,300 kilometers) across the state, from Prudhoe Bay to
the port of Valdez, began in 1974. The pipeline was com- Cities and towns
pleted in 1977 at a total cost of about $8 billion, and oil Anchorage Juneau Nome
production began. Fairbanks Ketchikan Sitka

The development of the Prudhoe Bay oil field provid- History

ed new jobs and greatly increased state revenues dur- Gold rush State, Department of (picture
ing the late 1970s and early 1980s. In 1976, Alaska's vot- Haida Indians Secretary of State William
ers had approved an amendment to the state Constitu- Klondike H. Seward)
tion that created the Alaska Permanent Fund, a savings Tlingit Indians

account that belongs to all the people of Alaska. The Physical eatures
amendment calls for at least 25 percent of all money Aleutian Islands Mount McKinley
earned by mineral development to be deposited into Arctic Ocean Pacific Ocean
this fund. In 1980, the high revenues created by the oil Bering Sea Pribtlof Islands
boom enabled the state government to abolish individ- Coast Ranges Saint Elias Mountains

ual state income taxes. In 1982, every Alaskan resident of Inside Passage Yukon River
 Albacore 305

Other related articles ties offerdevelopmental, vocational, certificate, associ-

Alaska Highway Iditarod ate, undergraduate, and graduate degree programs.
Aleuts Inuit
These schools are the University of Alaska Anchorage,
Arctic Kenai Fjords National Park
Denali National Park Kobuk Valley National Park
which includes Kenai Peninsula College, Kodiak College,
Gates of the Arctic National Lake Clark National Park Matanuska-Susitna College, and Prince William Sound
Park Wrangell-St Elias National Community College; the University of Alaska Fairbanks,
Glacier (picture) Park with campuses in Bethel, Dillingham, Fairbanks, Kotze-
Outline bue, and Nome; and the University of Alaska Southeast,
I. People with campuses in Juneau, Ketchikan, and Sitka. The uni-
A Population C Libraries and museums versity was founded in 1917 in Fairbanks.
B. Schools
Critically reviewed by the University of Alaska
II. Visitor's guide
A Places to visit B. Annual events
Alaska Highway is a 1,397-mile (2,248-kilometer) road
III. Land and climate that runs between Dawson Creek, Columbia, and
British
A Land regions D. Rivers and lakes Delta Junction, Alaska. The Richardson Highway links
B. Federally protected E. Glaciers Delta Junction and nearby Fairbanks. The Alaska High-
lands F. Plant and animal life
way is the only highway that connects Alaska with the
C Coastline G. Climate
road systems of the other states and Canada.
IV. Economy
A Natural resources G. Agriculture
United States Army engineers and civilian contractors
B. Service industries H. Fur industry built the Alaska Highway as a military supply route in
C Mining I. Electric power 1942 and 1943, when the United States was fighting in
D. Manufacturing J. Transportation World War II. The highway was originally known as the
E. Fishing industry K. Communication
Alcan Highway. The highway's original length was 1,422
F. Forestry
V. Government miles (2,288 kilometers). The southern 1,221 miles (1,965
A Constitution E. Localgovernment kilometers) of the road that crosses Canada became the
B. Executive F. Revenue property of Canada on April 1, 1946. Reconstruction has
C Legislature G. Politics shortened the length in Canada to 1,196 miles (1,925 kilo-
D. Courts
meters). Some of the highway has a gravel surface, but
VI. History
most of it now has a higher grade of pavement
Questions John C Hudson
What is Alaska's "Marine Highway"? Alaskan malamute is a strong, rugged sled dog that

What are the basic units of local government? came originally from Alaska. The dog is large and com-
Why do summer crops ripen quickly in central Alaska? and its thick coat usually is wolf-gray or
pactly built,
What is Alaska's most valuable mineral? What had been the
black and white, with darker markings on the head. The
state's most valuable mineral for many years?
What three groups of people lived in Alaska before Europeans malamute bushy tail over its back. When it
carries its

arrived? sleeps, the Alaskan malamute curls up so that its tail cov-
What part in Alaskan history was played by Vitus Bering? By ers its nose. Most malamutes weigh from 75 to 85
William H. Seward? pounds (34 to 39 kilograms). A group of Inuit people
What is the highest peak in North America? How high above sea called Malemiuts developed the breed. The Inuit are
level does it reach?
also known as Eskimos. See also Dog (picture: Working
What part of Alaska was the only part of North America invaded
during World War II? dogs); Sled dog. Critically reviewed by the American Kennel Club

Why did Alaska abolish its state income tax in 1980? Alateen. See Al-Anon.
Al-Azhar University is one of the oldest universities
Additional resources
in the world. The university was founded about AD. 970
Level I
in Cairo, Egypt, and is a center of Islamic learning. Al-
Brown, Tricia. Iditarod Country: Exploring the Route of the Last
Great Race. Epicenter Pr, 1998.
Azhar University offers courses in Islamic theology, Is-
Cohen, Daniel. The Alaska Purchase. Millbrook, 1996. lamic law, Arabic studies, medicine, engineering, and
Jones, Charlotte F. Yukon Cold: The Story of the Klondike Cold agriculture. About 90,000 students attend the university,
Rush. Holiday Hse., 1999. which has two major campuses in the Cairo area and
Miller, Debbie S. River of Life. Clarion, 2000. Describes life in and
four campuses in other cities of Egypt p. a. McCiniey
around an Alaskan river.
Alba, AL buh or AHL bah, Duke of (15087-1 582?), also
Staub, Frank ). Children of the Tlingit Carolrhoda, 1998.
Walsh Shepherd, Donna. Alaska. Children's Pr., 1999. called the Duke of Alva, was a Spanish general and dip-
lomat who served Kings Charles and Philip II of Spain.
I

Level II

DeLorme Mapping, In 1 567, Philip made Alba governor of the Netherlands

Alaska Atlas & Gazetteer. 2nd ed. 1998.
Andrews, Susan B., and Creed, John, eds. Authentic Alaska: Voic- and ordered him to crush a revolt that had broken out
es of Its Native Writers. Univ. of Neb. Pr, 1998. there against Spain. Albas court sentenced about 1,200
Haycox, Stephen W., and Mangusso, M. C, eds. Alaska Antholo- rebels to death and was called the Council of Blood. His
gy: Interpreting the Past Univ. of Wash. Pr., 1996.
brutality and harsh taxes only made Netherlanders more
Naske, Claus-M., and Slotnick, H. E. Alaska. 2nd ed. 1987. Reprint
Univ. of Okla. Pr., 1994.
determined to be free. Patriots seized the major coast
Wolfe, Art, and Jans, Nick. Alaska Sasquatch Bks., 2000. towns and attacked Spanish shipping. They cut the
dikes, and the floodwaters stopped Albas army. Alba re-
Alaska, University of, is a state-supported system of turned to Spain in disgrace. But in 1580, he helped Philip
higher education. The system includes three multicam- conquer Portugal. The duke's full name was Fernando
pus universities, one community college, and a network Alvarez de Toledo. Carla Rahn Phillips and William D. Phillips, |r

of services for rural Alaska. The multicampus universi- Albacore. See Tuna.
306 Albania

Albania is mountainous nation in the Balkan

a small, Albania's parliament, which is called the National As-
Peninsula of southeastern Europe. It is one of the least sembly, has one house of 140 members. The National
developed countries in Europe. Most of the people Assembly elects the president, who then appoints the
make their living through agriculture. prime minister and the cabinet. Members of the Nation-
Albania's name in Albanian, the official language, is alAssembly are elected by the people to four-year
Shqiperia, which means The Land of the Eagle. The terms.
country's full, official name is Republika e Shqiperise The country is divided into 27 rrethe (districts). These
(Republic of Albania). Tirane and largest city.
is its capital districts are further divided into qytete (towns) and, in
Albania was part of the Ottoman Empire for over 400 the rural areas, fshatra te bashkuara (united villages). A
years. It gained its independence in 1912. From 1944 un- people's council governs each of Albania's districts,
til the early 1990s, Albania was a Communist country. towns, and united villages.
Government. A president serves as the head of state People. Albanians are divided into two major
inAlbania and is the nation's most powerful official. A groups the Ghegs and the Tosks— according to which
prime minister serves as head of government and pre- Albanian dialect they speak. Most of the Ghegs live
sides over a cabinet, which helps carry out the functions north of the Shkumbin (also spelled Shkumbf) River, and
of the government most of the Tosks live south of the river. A few Greeks
the regions that adjoin Greece.
live in
of the people live on farms or in rural villages. A
Most
few Albanians along the Adriatic coast earn their living
Albania
by fishing. There are only 12 cities in Albania that have
populations of more than 20,000.
Living standards in Albania are extremely low com-
pared with those of other European countries. The in-
comes of most Albanians are small, but health care, so-
cial services, and education are free. Bread, vegetables,

and such dairy products as cheese and milk make up

the daily diet of most of the people.
Many Albanians are Muslims. Others belong to East-
ern Orthodox Churches, and some are Roman Catholics.
All of Albania's children must complete eight years of
school. The University of Tirane is the country's largest
university. For Albania's literacy rate, see Literacy (Litera-
cy rates for selected countries).
Land. Mountains cover most of Albania. The North
Albanian Alps tower about 8,500 feet (2,590 meters)
above sea level. Mount Korabit (9,026 feet, or 2,751 me-
ters), in the northeastern part of the country, is Albania's

highest point A coastal plain lies along the Adriatic Sea.

Scrub forests cover about 30 percent of the country.
Albania's major rivers, the Bune, Drin, Shkumbin, and
Vjose, all empty into the Adriatic Sea. However, the
Bune is the only river that can be used for shipping. Al-
bania shares Lake Scutari (also called Lake Skhodra) with
Yugoslavia, Lake Ohrid with Macedonia, and Lake Pres-
pa with Macedonia and Greece.
Along the Adriatic, the climate is mild, with hot, dry
summers and rainy winters. The mountains have a mod-

Facts in brief

Capital: Tirane.
Official language: Albanian.
Area: 1 1,100 mi- (28,748 km'). Greatest distances— north-south,
215 mi (346 km); east-west, 90 mi (145 km). Coastline--175 mi
(282 km).
Population: Estimated 2002 po/ju/atfon -3, 152,000; density, 284
per mi' (1 10 per km'); distribution, 54 percent rural, 46 percent
urban. 1989 census 3,182,400.
Chief products: Agriculture—corn, potatoes, sugar beets,
wheat /VJ/n/ny^chromite, copper, petroleum.
Manufacturing— cement, fertilizers, food products, textiles.
Flag: A two-headed black eagle appears on a red field. See Flag
(picture; Flags of Europel.
Money: Basic unit—\ek. One hundred qindarka equal one lek
WOR1I) BOOK maps
 Albania 307

erate climate.The country s average annual rainfall tween the 300 and 1000s, Goths, Bulgarians, Slavs, and
s

varies from 40 to 60 inches (100 to 150 centimeters). Normans invaded Albania. Southern Albania was part of
Economy. The government owns many businesses in the Byzantine Empire until 1204. During the 1300s, much
Albania, especially mines and large factories. But most of Albania became part of the Serbian Empire.
farms and small businesses are privately owned. Ottoman rule. The Albanians long resisted attempts
Agriculture employs more Albanians than any other by the Ottoman Empire to take over the country. The
economic activity. The country's chief crops include most distinguished leader against the Ottomans was
corn, grapes, olives, potatoes, sugar beets, and wheat Scanderbeg (also spelled Skanderbeg or Skenderbeg),
Farmers also raise such livestock as cattle, goats, poultry, who became Albania s national hero. After Scanderbeg's
and sheep. death in 1468, the Ottomans conquered Albania, and it
Albania is rich in mineral resources, and mining ranks became part of the Ottoman Empire. However, during
as the country's leading industrial activity. Albania's more than 400 years of Ottoman rule, Albanian chiefs
mines produce chromite, copper, lignite, nickel, and controlled most local matters. Many Albanians became
other minerals. The country also produces natural gas Muslims during this period.
and petroleum. Albania has relatively few factories. Its Independence. A number of local uprisings took
factory products include cement, fertilizers, food prod- place in Albania during the Ottoman rule, but a national-
ucts, and textiles. ist movement did not develop in the country until the

Albania s exports include chromite, copper ore, fruits 1800s. In 1878, a group of Albanian leaders organized
and vegetables, nickel, and petroleum. Farm and indus- the League of Prizren, which called for Albanian self-
trial machinery and mining equipment are among its government within the Ottoman Empire. But Albania re-
chief imports. mained under Ottoman rule until 1912, when it gained
Buses, bicycles, and trains are common means of independence during the First Balkan War. In 1 91 3, the
transportation in automo-
Albania. Private ownership of great European powers established Albania's borders,
biles was illegal until 1991. Albania s railroad network and the country became a self-governing principality.
connects Tirane and Durres— the country s chief port— The European powers selected William of Wied, a Ger-
with such important industrial centers as Elbasan, Fier, man prince, as ruler. But he ruled for only a few months.
Shkoder, and Vlore. A small airport outside Tirane links Austro-Hungarians, Italians, Serbs, and French occu-
Albania with several European countries. pied Albania during World War (1914-1918). The Italians
I

History. About 300 B.C, the lllyrian kingdom covered remained until 1920, when Albania insisted on its inde-
much of what is now Albania. Greece also had colonies pendence. Ahmed Beg Zogu seized power in 1925, pro-
in Albania then, and Greek civilization influenced the II- claimed Albania a republic, and became the country's
lyrians. In 167 B.C, Roman forces conquered the lllyrians first president In 1928, Zogu made himself King Zog I.

and spread Roman civilization into Albania. When the He ruled until 1939.
Roman Empire split in A.D. 395, much of Albania became World War II. Italy invaded Albania in April 1939 and
part of the Eastern Roman, or Byzantine, Empire. Be- made the nation part of the Italian Empire. World War II

Ferdinando Scianna. Magnum

Tirane is Albanias largest city.

It has been the country's capi-

tal since 1920. Tiranes central

has many
district, left, modern
stone buildings.
308 Albania

began later that year. When Italy surrendered to the Al- China provided Albania with technical assistance and
lies in 1943, during the war, German troops occupied other aid from the 1960s to the late 1970s. Albania then
Albania. became China's only ally in Europe. Albanian delegates
During World War II, there were three main resist- at the United Nations (UN) played a leading role in the
ance movements in Albania: (Da nationalist movement efforts that led to China's admission to the UN in 1971.
called Balli Kombetar, led by Midhat Frasheri; (2) a royal- Relations between Albania and China became
ist group called the Legality Movement, headed by Abas strained during the late 1970s. Albania's leaders ac-
Kupi; and (3) a Communist organization called the Na- cused China of abandoning Communist principles. They
tional Liberation Front (NLF), led by Enver Hoxha. These criticized China for improving relations with Yugoslavia
groups fought against one another as well as against the and the United States. In 1978, China responded to these
German occupation forces. attacks by cutting off all aid to Albania. In the early
Communist control. In 1944, the Germans were driven 1990s, Albania restored relations with the United States,
out of Albania, and the Communists gained control of improved relations with China, and increased its contact
the country. Hoxha established a Communist govern- with other nations. In addition, Albania restored rela-
ment Tirane during that year, and he began ruling the
at tions with the Soviet Union prior to that country's
country as first secretary of the Communist Party. The breakup in 1991.

Communists greatly restricted the freedom of the peo- Hoxha died in 1985, after ruling Albania for more than
ple. 40 years. Ramiz Alia succeeded Hoxha as first secretary
The Communist Party in Yugoslavia had helped the of the Communist Party. Alia had been elected president
Communists of Albania organize the NLF, and relations of Albania in 1982, and he continued to serve as presi-
with Albania remained close until 1948. But in that year, dent Alias government introduced some social and
a split developed between the Soviet Union and Yugo- economic reforms in an attempt to avoid the downfall
slavia. The split resulted in the expulsion of Yugoslavia suffered by other Communist governments in Eastern
from the Cominform, a Soviet-dominated organization Europe in 1989. The government again allowed the pub-
of European Communist parties. The people of Albania lic practice of religion. In 1967, the government had out-

supported the Soviet Union to free themselves from lawed all religious groups and seized their property. In
Yugoslav influence. They also hoped to obtain Soviet aid 1990, however, places of worship began to reopen. An-
in gaining control of a part of Yugoslavia where Albani- other reform called for paying workers bonuses to work
ans lived. harder and produce more goods as a way to ease short-
Albania's close relations with the Soviet Union ended ages.
in the early 1960s. At that time, a break occurred be- But the people felt that the reforms did not go far
tween the Soviet Union and China over the interpreta- enough. In December 1990, Albanians staged protests to
tions of certain Communist teachings. In particular, Chi- Communists from power. As a result, the
try to force the
na rejected the Soviet Union's policy of coexistence with Communists allowed the formation of new political par-
non-Communist countries. Albania supported China in ties.

the dispute. In 1961, Albania and the Soviet Union broke End of Communist rule. March 1991, multiparty na-
In

off relations. At about the same time, Albania limited its tional elections were The Communists won a ma-
held.
contact with most other nations. jority of seats in the National Assembly and remained in

Coleman Lid

Albanian peasants meet at a

livestock market in a rural
area. Farmers raise such live-

stock as goats, shown here,

and sheep. Al-
cattle, poultry,
bania s farm crops include
corn, grapes, olives, potatoes,
sugar beets, and wheat
 Albany 309

leader Rexhep Meidani became president. Some meas-

ure of calm returned, and the UN force left in August
Recent developments. In 1998 and 1999, almost half a
million ethnic Albanian refugees streamed into Albania
from the Yugoslav province of Kosovo. They were flee-
ing attacks by Serbian forces. With help from interna-
tional organizations, Albania housed the refugees for
several months until it was safe for them to return.
In 1998, Albania adopted a new constitution. Meidani
signed the constitution into law in November of that
year. The Socialist Party retained control of parliament in
elections in 2001. Sharon L Wolchik
Related articles in World Book include:
Adriatic Sea Hoxha, Enver Tirane
Balkans Ionian Sea Warsaw Pact

Albany (pop. 95,6581 is the capital of New York and one

of the oldest cities in the United States. It was first set-

tled in 1624 and became Albany lies on the

a city in 1686.
Hudson River in eastern New York and has an active
port, though it is 50 miles (241 kilometers) from the At-
1

lantic Ocean. The Hudson River has been cleaned out

and deepened so that ocean ships can reach the city.
For the location of Albany, see New York (political map).
Description. Albany, the seat of Albany County, cov-
ers 22 square miles (57 square kilometers) on the west
bank of the Hudson The business district lies on a
River.
Hulchison Ljbran
slope leading down to the river. The historic and inner-
A statue of Scanderbeg, Albania s national hero, stands in
city neighborhoods cluster around the downtown area.
Scanderbeg led a resistance movement against the Ot-
Tirane.
toman Empire during the 1400s. In the 1900s, the city expanded westward, and newer,

more prosperous neighborhoods lie mainly to the west

and southwest Albany and two other cities— Schenec-
power. But protests against Communist rule continued, tady and Troy— form a metropolitan area of 875,583 peo-
and the Communist prime minister and his cabinet were ple. The area is often called the Capital Region.
forced to resign in June. A temporary government made The State University of New York (SUNY) has its sys-
up of Communists and non-Communists, who had given tem headquarters downtown at SUNY Plaza. The Univer-
up their party affiliations, was formed. Thousands of Al- sity at Albany, SUNY, has two campuses in the city.

banians fled the country to gain more freedom and es- Other colleges include Albany College of Pharmacy, Al-
cape severe economic hardships. bany Law School, Albany Medical College, the College
Parliamentary elections in March 1992 gave the Dem- of St Rose, and Russell Sage College.
ocratic Party a majority of seats. In April, Alia resigned as Points of interest in the city include the Albany Insti-
president The Assembly then elected Sali Berisha of the tute of History and Art; the Ten Broeck, Schuyler, and
Democratic Party as president. Berisha supported the Cherry Hill mansions, all built in the 1 700s; the State
creation of a free-enterprise economy, and his govern- Capitol; and the Empire State Plaza, a large complex of
ment introduced a program for economic reform. government office towers and other buildings. The
In parliamentary elections held in 1996, the Democrat- plaza includes the New York State Museum; the New
ic Party again won a majority of seats in the National As- York State Library; the Egg, an oval-shaped building with
sembly. However, international observers criticized the two theaters; and the 44-story Corning Tower, the tallest
elections for ballot fraud and other irregularities. building in the state outside of New York City.
In January 1997, tens of thousands of Albanians staged Economy. Albany is a center of government, educa-
violent protests across the country against Berisha s tion, health care, banking, insurance, and other service
government. The protests began after the collapse of in- industries. The city is also an important transportation
vestment schemes in which hundreds of thousands of center. Many of Albany s workers commute, mainly by
people lost their savings. Most investors blamed the automobile, from other cities and towns in the Capital
government for not warning them against the risky in- Region. The region is sometimes called Tech Valley be-
vestments, and they claimed that the government profit- cause of the research universities and high-technology
ed from the funds. Many people demanded Berisha s companies located there. Albany International Airport,
resignation. He remained in office but formed a coali- northwest of the city, serves the region.
tion government and announced that elections would Government and history. Albany has a mayor-
be held in June. But unrest continued to spread, and Al- council form of government. The voters elect the mayor
bania fell into disorder. Thousands left the country. and 16 council members to four-year terms.
In April, the UN
sent an international force to oversee Iroquois Indians lived in what is now the Albany area
relief efforts and help restore order. In parliamentary before European settlers arrived. In 1609, the English ex-
elections held in June and July, the Socialist Party defeat- plorer Henry Hudson and his crew became the first Eu-
ed Berisha s Democratic Party by a landslide. Socialist ropeans to reach the site, during a voyage for the Dutch
31 Albany Congress

East India Company, a trading firm. In 1624, Dutch set- also a chief Iraqi port. Al Basrah stands along the Shatt al

tlers established Fort Orange on the west bank of the Arab, a waterway that connects the Tigris and Euphrates
Hudson River in what is now downtown Albany. The set- rivers and links Al Basrah with the Persian Gulf. The city
tlement around the fort became the Village of Bever- liesabout 55 miles (90 kilometers) from the Persian Gulf.
wyck in 1652. In 1664, the English claimed the region, For location, see Iraq (map).
and the settlement was renamed Albany for the Duke of was founded by Arabs in A.D. 636 as a mili-
Al Basrah
York and Albany, the English king's brother. On July 27, tary outpost. It became an important trading center. The

1686, Albany received a charter incorporating it as a city. city was ruled by the Ottoman Empire from 1534 to 1918.
Albany played a significant role in the American Colo- It declined in importance under Ottoman rule. The Unit-

nies as an important river port, a fur-trading center, and ed Kingdom gained control of the city in 1918, at the end
a military post. The city has the nickname Cradle of the of World War The city served as a military center un-
I.

Union because American statesman Benjamin Franklin der British rule until Iraq gained independence in 1932.
presented his Plan of Union there at the Albany Con- Al Basrah became the main port for exporting Iraqi oil
gress in 1754. His plan was the first formal proposal to and other products. A war took place between Iraq and
unite the American Colonies. In 1 797, Albany was cho- Iran from 1980 until 1988, when the two countries
sen as the state capital. agreed to a cease-fire. During that time, much of Al Bas-
Albany's most rapid period of growth followed the rah was destroyed. The city was quickly built up after
completion of the Erie Canal in 1825. The canal opened the war. But in 1991, the city was again heavily damaged
the way for barge traffic between Albany and Buffalo by bombing in the Persian Gulf War. Later in the year, Al
and connected the Hudson River to the Great Lakes. Al- Basrah suffered more damage during fighting between
bany's population increased from 12,630 in 1820 to Shiite rebels and the government of Iraq. Michel Le Call
24,209 in 1830. New York's first railroad, the Mohawk Albatross, AL buh traws, any one of
is the name for
and Hudson, began to operate between Albany and several kinds of large sea birds. Albatrosses are found
Schenectady in 1831. The city was a major railroad cen- over nearly all oceans, except the North Atlantic. The
ter during the last half of the 1 800s. Transportation, best-known albatross is the wandering albatross of
commerce, and industry flourished during the late southern seas. It has a white body and darker wings and
1800s and early 1900s. Albany had 94,151 people in tail. The spread wings may be up to 1 1 \ feet (3.5 meters)

1900, and 1 34,995 by 1 950. from tip to tip. Its bill is long, heavy, and powerful.
During the last half of the 1900s, Albany, like many The albatross sometimes follows a ship for days, but
U.S. cities, lost population to the suburbs, and many re- isseldom seen resting. It feeds on scraps of food
tail stores moved to suburban shopping malls. Manufac- thrown from the ship, or on fish and squid. On such
turing declined, and service industries became increas- food-gathering flights, the wandering albatross has
ingly important to the economy. The Empire State Plaza been known to cover more than 9,300 miles (15,000 kilo-
was completed during this period, as part of a down- meters) and to maintain an average speed of 35 miles (56
town renewal program. Ray Bromley kilometers) per hour for 500 miles (800 kilometers).
See also Albany Congress; New York. Albatrosses come to land only to breed. Thousands of
Albany Congress was a meeting that adopted the these birds gather on remote islands. The female alba-
first formal proposal for a political union of the Ameri- tross's single white with brown spots. It is laid on
egg is

can Colonies. It was held in Albany, New York, in June bare ground or shallow nest and hatches after about
in a
1754. Representatives from Massachusetts, New Hamp- 81 days. The young bird has dark, fluffy down. Two spe-
shire, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New York, Pennsylva-
nia,and Maryland met with representatives of the Iro-
quois tribes at the request of the British government.
The purpose of the meeting was to win the loyalty of the HflP^ ^^^B
Iroquois in view of a threatening war with France, and to
work out some form of agreement with them. Colonial
representatives included James DeLancey (New York),
'
Oil
k
ISSr,
Thomas Hutchinson (Massachusetts), Stephen Hopkins I
.^^flfl^^^S
(Rhode Island), William Pitkin (Connecticut), John Penn *9^Bhj Jjtrt ^^^
(Pennsylvania), and Benjamin Franklin (Pennsylvania). ~^Xj v»
^yt
w^^KUr
The delegates realized the real problem was to unify
the colonies, and several plans were proposed. The con-
'41
gress adopted Franklin's proposal, often called the Al- WL '.

bany Plan of Union. Under this plan, each colony would ^^J i*
send from two to seven representatives to a Grand WrjT^m
Council. This council would levy taxes, raise troops, and
regulate trade with the Indians. Neither Britain nor the
colonies seriously considered the plan. Eleven years lat-
f ~***'
*jl
^f!|
er, the Stamp Act Congress of 1765 marked the colonies
next major step toward an American union (see Revolu-
tionary War in America (The Quartering and Stamp
Bnjce Coleman Inc
actsl). lack N Rakove
Wandering albatrosses have body with darker wings
a white
Al Basrah, al BAHS ruh or al BUHS ruh (pop. 678,000),
and tail. Like other kinds of albatrosses, they breed on remote is-
also called Basra, is one of the largest cities in Iraq. It is
lands, where the female lays a single egg on bare ground.
 1

Albert, Prince 31

cies of albatrosses are commonly found along the Pacif- Albert I (1875-1934), king of the Belgians from 1909 to
ic Coast Of North America. George L Hunt, Jr. 1934, was a heroic military leader during World War I

Scientific classification. Albatrosses are in the albatross (1914-1918). As commander in chief of the Belgian army,
family, Diomedeidae. The scientific name for the wandering al- he helped stop the German advance in September 1914.
batross is Diomedea exulans.
Albert remained in active command of the army until the
See also Animal (picture: The courtship ritual). end of the war. After the war, he helped his country with
Albee, Edward (1928- is a major American play-
), the problems of reconstruction. In a few years, Belgium
wright who uses a wide variety of styles ranging from had largely recovered from the effects of the war.
realism to fantasy. He writes about the need for human Albert was born on April 8, 1875, in Brussels. He was
contact and the illusions his characters embrace to face the grandson of King Leopold the German prince I,

the meaninglessness of existence. Albee gained interna- elected king of the Belgians in 1831. Albert succeeded
tionalfame with Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? (1962), a his uncle, Leopold II, in 1909. He married Elizabeth,
moving examination of power struggles and the combi- Duchess of Bavaria, in 1900. As king, Albert was known
nation of cruelty and love in marriage. for his liberal views and democratic sympathies. A noted
Albee won the 1967 Pulitzer Prize for A Delicate Bal- sportsman, he died while mountain climbing near Na-
ance (1966), a study of family relationships and friend- mur, Belgium. His eldest son succeeded him as Leopold
ships set in an emotionally sterile suburban atmosphere. III. Jane K. Miller

He won the 1975 Pulitzer Prize for Seascape (1975), a fan- Albert, Carl Bert (1908-2000), an Oklahoma Democrat,
tasy about a middle-aged couple's ability to move be- was speaker of the United States House of Representa-
yond a fear of change and the unknown. He received a tives from 1971 until he retired in 1977. He had been ma-
third Pulitzer Prize in 1994 for Three Tall Women (world leader of the House since 1962. Albert played an
jority
premiere in Vienna in 1991), about an aged woman's en- important role in the passage of President Lyndon B.
counter with mortality. Johnson's domestic program in the mid-1960s. He
Albee's first plays were short, probing dramas about backed Johnson's civil rights proposals even though his
the materialism, complacency, and alienation he saw in district generally opposed such legislation.
American society. They were influenced by the Theater Albert was born on May 10, 1908, in McAlester, Okla-
of the Absurd, a 1950s European drama movement homa. He graduated from the University of Oklahoma
These plays include The Zoo Storyl 1959), The Death of and studied at Oxford University in England on a Rhodes
Bessie Smith (1960), The Sandbox 1960), and The Ameri-
( scholarship. He began his first House term in 1947 and
can Dream(1961). Among his other plays were Tiny Alice was majority whip from 1955 to 1962. Albert was chair-
(1964), a symbolic religious drama, and The Play About man of the platform committee of the 1964 Democratic
the Baby(1998), in which an older couple strips away the National Convention and was permanent chairman of
illusions of a younger couple. The Goat, or Who Is Syl- the party's 1968 national convention. Charles Bartiett

viaF(2002) is a dark comedy about a man who falls in Albert, Lake. See Lake Albert
love with a goat Edward Franklin Albee was born on Albert, Prince (1819-1861), married his first cousin,
March 12, 1928, in Washington, D.C Thomas p Adier Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom, in 1 840. As
Albeniz, ahl BAY nees or ahl VAYneeth, Isaac (1860- prince consort, he was respected for his industry and
1909), a Spanish composer and pianist, was one of the business sense. Some distrusted him as the queen's ad-
creators of a national style for Spanish music. His most viser, because he was not born in England. See Victoria
famous composition, Iberia 11908), consists of four Albert was born on Aug. 26, 1819, nearCoburg, Ger-
books of solo piano music. His orchestral works include many. His father, Ernest, was the Duke of Saxe-Coburg
Spanish Rhapsody (1 887) and Catalonia (1899). From 1893 and Saalfeld (from 1826, of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha). Al-
to 1900, he lived in Paris, where his music influenced the bert's full given name was Francis Charles Augustus Al-
French composers Claude Debussy and Maurice Ravel. bert Emmanuel. He was educated as a possible consort
Isaac Manuel Frescesco Albeniz was born on May 29, (husband) to Victoria. Victoria ascended to the throne in
1860, in Camprodon in Catalonia. He gave his first piano 1837 and was crowned in 1838. In 1839, Albert visited
recital at the age of 4. He was a respected concert pi- her. They were married in 1840.
anist throughout his life. Vincent MtDermott Albert became the adviser and private secretary to the
Albers, Josef (1888-1976), was a German-born painter queen. He reorganized the royal household and started
and teacher. Albers focused on the way colors are made a study of politics. In 1 841 he was appointed head of a
,

to perform by their relationship within a picture. He lim- commission to encourage the fine arts in the United
ited himself for years to one form: the square. By paint- Kingdom. He spent his leisure time in museums and art
ing squares within squares, he explored color relation- studios, and in parts of London where conditions were
ships with more freedom since he was relieved of the either being improved or in need of it. His speeches to
problem of form. He called his series of square paint- the working people showed his ability and tact.
ings Homage to the Square. In 1847, Cambridge University elected Albert chancel-

Albers was born on March 19, 1888, in Bottrop. He lor. His ideas on education helped alter the academic

taught color theory and abstract art at the Bauhaus program, which was soon imitated by Oxford University.
school of design from 1923 to 1933, then moved to the At the request of the Duke of Wellington, he helped re-
United States. Albers taught at Black Mountain College organize the army training plan during the Crimean
from 1933 to 1939 and at Yale from 1950 to 1960. Albers War. He was interested in agricultural improvements,
became partly responsible for the Bauhaus influence on and he planned and landscaped Victoria s winter home
American design. He became a U.S. citizen in 1939. See on the Isle of Wight. Late in 1861, Albert's health failed.
also Corcoran Gallery of Art (picture). Dore Ashmn He died of typhoid fever. Rirhard W Davis
312 Alberta

Cameramann International, Ltd

The majestic Canadian Rocky Mountains rise along Alberta's southwestern border.

Alberta
Alberta, the westernmost Prairie Province of Canada, Alberta also has other resources, including more than
is one of the greatest oil-producing regions in North half of the known coal deposits of Canada. Other miner-
America. About 70 percent of Canada's petroleum als found in the province include natural gas liquids,
comes from oil wells on Alberta's rolling plains. About sand and gravel, and sulfur. Alberta's mining production
80 percent of Canada's natural gas comes from huge de- accounts for about three-fifths of the national total.
posits that lie near the oil fields. Pipelines carry Alberta's Alberta is a leading province in agriculture. In many
oiland natural gas throughout Canada and into the Unit- areas of the province, vast fields of golden wheat can be
ed States. Alberta's major oil fields lie in the central and seen extending to the horizon. Among the provinces, Al-
northern parts of the province. berta ranks behind only Saskatchewan in its production
Petroleum has helped make Alberta prosperous. Oil of wheat, barley, and canola. Alberta also produces
and natural gas production fees and leases make up the more beef cattle than all the other provinces combined.
provincial government's greatest source of income. The production of chemicals is the leading manufac-
They have paid much of the cost of Alberta's hospitals, turing activity in Alberta. Petrochemicals (chemicals
roads, schools, and other public works. Petroleum and made from petroleum) and fertilizer are the province's
natural gas production and related industries provide a chief chemicals. Edmonton is Alberta's capital and sec-
large share of the personal income of Alberta s people. ond largest city. Calgary is the largest city.

Service industries, however, provide the greatest Millions of tourists visit the province yearly. The most
sources of income to the province's people. The prov- popular attractions are the majestic, snow-capped Cana-
ince's standard of living is among the highest in Canada. dian Rockies along the province's southwestern border.
There lie three of Alberta's five national parks— Banff,
Jasper, and Waterton Lakes. Lake Louise, which is sur-
The contributors of this article are G Peter Kershaw, Professor rounded by the Canadian Rockies in Banff National Park,
of Geography at the University of Alberta; and Roderick C
is one of the most popular attractions in Canada. Many
Macleod, Professor of History at the University of Alberta.
vacationers go to the province's northern forests to hunt
 Alberta 313

Interesting facts about Alberta

WORLD BOOK illustrations by Kevin Chadwick

The world's largest Easter Head-SmashetHn Buffalo Jump, near Fort Macleod, is a cliff
egg is located in Vegreville. It that Indians used to kill large numbers of buffalo. Archaeological
is 26 feet 17.9 meters) long, 18 evidence shows that the cliff was used for this purpose during
feet (5.5 meters) wide, stands different periods between about 3,600 B.C and the mid-1 800s.
31 feet (9.4 meters) high on its Indians stampeded buffaloes over the 33-foot (IOmeter) cliff
base, and weighs about 5,000 while hunters waited below to butcher the animals for meat,
pounds (2,300 kilograms). It is hide, and bone. Blackfoot Indians gave the site its present name
known as the Pysanka, the after a young brave's skull was crushed while he watched from
Ukrainian term for Easter egg. below as buffaloes were being driven over the cliff. They called
The computer-designed egg the place Estipah-Sikikini-kots, meaning "where he got his head
has a shell composed of multi- smashed in."
colored aluminum pieces
joined together to form a col-
orful pattern. World's largest Easter egg

The world'slargest shopping center is the West Edmonton

Mall. more than 800 shops, the world's largest indoor
It has
amusement park, 20 movie theaters, and an ice arena.

The world's foremost dinosaur museum is the Royal Tyrrell

Museum of Palaeontology in Drumheller. Opened in 1985, has it

dinosaur fossils from throughout the provinces. The museum is

named after Joseph Burr Tyrrell, a Canadian geologist who dis-
covered rich beds of dinosaur fossils in Alberta in 1844.
Head-SmashetHn Buffalo Jump

Pedestrian mall in down-

town Calgary

Cameramann International. Ltd.

bears, caribou, deer, elk, and moose, or to fish in the

sparkling lakes and streams. Others stay at dude ranches
in Alberta's cattle country. Hikers visit the forts, mis-
sions, and trading posts that were built during Alberta's
fur-trading days. Winter skiing in the Canadian Rockies
is also an attraction. Unusually clear skies give Alberta
more hours of sunshine throughout the year than any
other Canadian province, and earned it the nickname
Sunny Alberta.
The name of the province dates from 1882. During
that time, the Canadian government decided to divide
the region of land lying between Manitoba and British
Columbia into four territorial districts- Alberta, Assini-
boia, Athabaska, and Saskatchewan. The Alberta district

was named after Princess Louise Caroline Alberta, a

daughter of Queen The princess was married
Victoria.
to the Marquess Lome, the Canadian governor gener
of
al. The princess' first name was given to what is now Al-

berta's most famous lake, Lake Louise in Banff National

Park
For Alberta's relationship to the other provinces of
Canada, see the World Book articles on Canada; Cana- Cameramann International. Ltd

da, Government of; Canada, History of Oil refinery near Edmonton

Alberta in brief

Symbols of Alberta
The provincial flag, adopted in 1968, bears
the shield from the coat of arms. The shield
has a cross of St George, which represents
Alberta s link with the United Kingdom, and a

landscape with mountains, hills, a prairie,

and a field of wheat. The shield was adopted
as the provincial coat ofarms in 1907. A lion
and a pronghorn supporting the shield and a
crest including a helmet, a beaver, and a
Provincial flag
crown were added in 1980.

Alberta (brownl is the fourth largest province and the

largest of the Prairie Provinces (yellow).

General information
Entered the Dominion: Sept 1, IS
Saskatchewan, as the 8th and 9th provinces.
Provincial abbreviation: AB (postal).
Provincial motto: Fortis et Liber Strong and i Free). The Legislature Building is in Edmonton, the capital of
Alberta since it entered the Dominion in 1905.

Land and climate

Area: 255,287 mi' 1661,190 km 2
), including 6,490 mi 1 '

\ Lowest
(16,800 km 2
) of inland water. i elevation
Elevation: Highest-Mount Columbia, 1 2,294 ft (3,747 m)
above sea level. Lowest— 557 ft 1170 m) above sea level west distance
along the Slave River in northern Alberta. 400 mi (645 km)
Record high temperature: 1 10 F (43 at Bassano O I

Dam on July 21, 1931, and at Fort Macleod on July 18,

1941.
Record low temperature: 78 F (-61 °G at Fort Ver-
(
milion on Jan. 11, 1911. S

Average Jury temperature: 63 F (17 O. V.

Average January temperature: 9 F (-1 3 O. he? t

Average yearly precipitation: 16 in (41 cm).

V-!22
^« eJevaoon
Greatest \
north-south \^
distance ^
760 mi \
(1,225 kml (
r

Important dates Peter Pond of the United States established The North -West Mounted The Canadian Pacific
a trading post near Lake Athabasca. Police established Fort Macleod. Railway reached Calgary.

1 1754-1755 ^1778 11874 1 1876-1877 11883

Anthony Henday of England explored the Indians surrender central and southern
Alberta region. Alberta to the government through two treaties.
 Alberta 315

Provincial Provincial Floral emblem

coat of arms seal Wild rose

People Population trend Year Population

Population: 2,974,807 (2001 census) Millions
2001 2,974,807
1996 2,696,826
Rank among the provinces: 4th 1991 2,545,553
Density: 1 2 persons per mi' (4 per km 2 ), 1986 2,375,278
provinces average 1 3 per mi ; (5 per 1981 2,237,724
1976 1 ,838,037
km :
)
1971 1,627,874
Distribution: 81 percent urban, 19 per- 1966 1,463,203
cent rural 1961 1,331,944
1951 939,501
Largest cities and towns* 1941 796,169
Calgary 878,866 1931 731,605
Edmonton 666,104 1921 588,454
1911 374,295
Red Deer 67,707
Lethbridge 67,374
St Albert 53,081
Medicine Hat 51,249
18 » 18 85 19 10 19 35 1960 1985 20 10
2001 (

Source: Statistics Canada. Sourc* ; Statistics C anada.

Economy Gross domestic product

Chief products Value of goods and services pro- ndustry 39%

Agriculture: beef cattle, wheat, canola,

duced in 2000: SI 14,512,000,000.*
Services include community, busi-
barley, hogs, milk.
ness, and personal services; fi-
Manufacturing: chemicals, food and
nance; government; trade; and
beverage products, printed materi-
als, fabricated metal products, wood
transportation and communica-
tion. //JtYi/sf/yincludes construc-
products.
tion, manufacturing, mining, and
Mining: Petroleum, natural gas.
utilities.. Agriculture includes agri-

culture, fishing, and forestry.

'Canadian dollars. Agriculture 3%

Source: Statistics Canada.

Government Sources of information

Provincial government For information on tourism and vacation planning in Alber-
Premier term of up to 5 years
ta, write to: Travel Alberta, Box 2500, Edmonton, AB T5)

Members of the Legislative Assembly 2Z4. Travel Alberta's Web site at www.travelalberta.com
also provides tourist information.The Provincial Archives
83; terms of up to 5 years
of Alberta handles requests for information about the prov-
ince's economy, government, and history. Write to: Provin-
Federal government
cialArchives of Alberta, 12845 102nd Avenue, Edmonton,
Members of the House of Commons; 26 AB T5N 0M6. The Alberta governments Web site at
Members of the Senate: 6 www.gov.ab.ca also serves as a useful gateway to informa-
tion on the province s economy, government, and history.

The province s first major oil discovery

was made in Turner Valley.

% 1905

Alkn.-
i 1914 A 1967

AlKor
became a province on Septembci
I

Alberta 1.
I

Albertas first plant to remove oil from

bituminous sands began operation.

316 Alberta People
Population. The 2001 Canadian census reported that Population density
Alberta had 2,974,807 people. The population had in- Most of Alberta s people live in the southern part of the
creased about 10 percent over the 1996 census figure of province— especially in and around Calgary and Edmonton, the
2,696,826 people. province s largest cities. The northern areas are thinly settled.
About 80 percent of Alberta s people live in cities,
towns, and villages. About two-thirds of them live in the
metropolitan areas of Calgary and Edmonton. These
two cities have Alberta's only Census Metropolitan Ar-
eas as defined by Statistics Canada. For the populations
of the province s cities, towns, and other populated
places, see the IndexXo the political map of Alberta.
Most of Alberta s people live in the southern part of
the province. Cold Lake and Grande Prairie are the only
cities in the northern half of the province with popula- Grande Pra

tions of over 10,000. Calgary is Alberta s largest city, fol-

lowed by the provinces capital, Edmonton. For further
information, see the separate articles on the cities and
towns of Alberta listed in the Related articles at the end
of this article.
About 84 of every 100 Albertans were born in Cana- Persons per Persons per
About a third of the rest of Alberta s people came to mi 2 km'
da.
the province from the United Kingdom or the United More than 25 1H More than 10

States. About 45 percent people have English an-

of the
12 to 25 1
[__
5 to 10 .Medicine Hat

cestors. Other large ethnic groups in the province, in

2 to 12
[_ n 1 to 5
^-afc^u-idge
Less than 2 Less than 1
order of size, are those of Scottish, German, Irish,
French, Ukrainian, Dutch, or Polish descent WORLD BOOK map hased on the National Atlas of Canada

Alberta map index

Blackie Jvl Chipman" 247 8 Dunmore \ Grande
Metropolitan areas Blood Indian Clainmont
. .1

t, 4 Eaglesham F Prairie 36383

Calgary 951395
Reserve 3.852 . O Clandonald I 10 East Coulee L Grandview" «5

Edmonton 937,845
Blue Ridge I Oaresholm 3,622 . N 8 EastPeace't 2.123. Granum 332
Bluesky I Clear Hills't 2 772 E 4 Eckville 1,019. J< Grassy Lake
Bluffton k Clearwater Edberg 150 K Green Court
Bon Accord 1 532 I County-t 11305 K b Edgerton 403 j Greenview't 5 4 39
Bone Town' H Clearwater Edmonton 666,104 Grimshaw 2 4 35
Cities,towns, and Bonrtyville 5,709 H Estates' | 7 Edson 7 5rt5 Grouard
other populated Bonnyville'T 4 47} H Clive 391 . K 8 tlkPoinl 1 440 Gull Uke 143
Botha 1 86 k Cluny Jvl 8 Elnora 290 Gunn
places Bow Island 1.704 N Clyde 491 I 8 Empress 171 .Jvl Hairy Hill
Bowden 1,174 ..L Coaldale .6,008 . .0 9 Enilda t, Half Moon Bay" 37
Acadia't 512 Mil Boyle 836 H Coalhurst 1,476 O 8 Entwistle I Halkirk 117
Acadia Valley Mil Bragg Creek U Cochrane 11,798. M 7 Erskine K Hanna 2386
Acme 648 L 8 Brazeau't 6.895 | Cold Lake 11 520 H 10 Evansburg .1 Hardistv 74 i

Airdrie 20.382 Jvl 7 Breton ... 573 I

Cold Lake Exshaw M Hav Uke
Alberta Brooks 11,604 M Indian Fabyan' .J
Indian
Beach I 7 Brownvale F Reserve 439 H 10 Fairview 3.150 . .F Reserve 915 B 4
Alder Flats J 7 Bruce I
Colinton H 8 Fairview*t 1 806 F Hay Lakes 146 I 8
Aldersyde .M 7 Bruderheim 1,202 .1 College Falher 1.109 C Heisler 181 K 9
Alix 825 Buck Lake |
Heights K 8 Faust G High Level l 444 ( 5
Alliance 171 K 9 Burden 264 \ Collingwood Fawcen H High Prairie 2.737 C 5
Amisk 181 K 10 Burmis .0 Cove' | 8 Ferintosh 150 K High River 9 145 N 8
Andrew 4H5 I 9 Cadomin J
Conklin G 9 Fleming Hinsdale' I 8
Antler Lake' I 8 Cadotte Lake F Consort 634 K 10 Park' |
Hillspring 193 8
Anzac .E 9 Calahoo I Coronation 902 . K 10 Foothills't 16.764 .N Hines Creek 4 17 F 4
Ardmore H 10 Calgary 878.866 M Conns 364 (1 9 Foremost 331 . .O Hinlon 3.405 1 4
Ardrossan' Calmar 1.902.. Cowley 225 () 7 Forestburg JJ70 . X Holden 174
Arrowwood 1 96 Campbell- Cremona 4 1 5 I Fort Hubbies
Ashmont I 9 town Crossfield ... 2,389 L 7 Assiniboine H Lake' I 7
Athabasca 2 415 H 8 Heights' I Crowsnest Fort Hughenden . . 235 K 10
BanH 1 l
15 M 6 Camrose 14 854 I Pass .6262 O 7 Chipewyan B Hunter Hill
Barnwell 548 9 Canmore 10,792 M Cypress Fort Kent H Estates' I 8
Barons 284 N 8 Canyon County"* 6,114 N 10 Fort MacKay D Hussar 181 Jvl 9
Barrhead J 7 Creek t Czar 205 K 10 Fort Macleod 2390 .0 . Hythe 382 G 3
Bashaw 82S K 8 Carbon 530. J Daysland 779 J 9 . Fori Mi Innislail 6928 L 8
Bassano 1 MO M 9 Carbondale' t) Debolt (. 4 Murray I Innisfree 219 9
Bawtf 1 9 Cardslon Delburne 719 K 8 Fort Saskat- Irma 4 15 I
10
Beaumont 7.006 I
8 Cardslon Delia 215.. L 9 chewan H121 I Irricana I 0VB M 8
Beaver Lake County" Dement 111 I 10 Fort Irvine N 11
Indian Carmangav Desmarais 1 Vermilion C Island Lake 139 H 8
Reserve 190 Caroline 556 k Devon 4369..) 8 l,.y I t.-,-k 2 137 H IsldV | 10
Beaverlodge 2 110 Carseland VI Devonshire lox Lake Janvier
Beiseker 838 Carstairs Meadows' K 8 Indian Indian
Benalto Castor 335 K Dewberry 200 . .1 10 Reserve 1254 C Reserve 232 F 10
Benlley 1,035 Caswellem* I Diamond Cadsby 40 k larvie H 7
Berwyn 546 Cayley N ( irv () 8 Cainford I lasper 4 180 I 4
Big Lakes'* 5 845 Central Park' k Dtdsbun 1112 .L 7 Galahad 161 K lohn rfOr
Big Valley WO Centre Dimaldd . 230 . K 9 Gibbons 2 654 I Prairie
Bighorn- Catling Donned) ... 377 .c 5 GntLafce Indian
Birch Hills Lake' (, Drayton (.irtiuwille 106 I Reserve . . .851 C 7
County*-) Cereal 187 I Valley 5 801 I 1 Glei< hen M (ohnson
Bittern Lake Champion . 355 . Jsl Dnh Pile River Glendon 45S H Addition' N 9
BUik Chain.ni Indian Clenwtiod 258 O Josephburg' I 8
Diamond 1866 Jvl 7 Cbesterinere Reseive Grand Centre H joussard C 6
Blaikl.ilds 1IU2 k 8 Chipewyan Drumheller 1 785 I <t Grande Kananaskis 462 Jvl 6
Bla< kloot I 10 lake' L Du. hess 836 Jvl 9 Cache 3.828 I Kikino H 9
 1 ) . J

Alberta 317

Alberta has approximately 70,000 people of Indian an- Universities and colleges
cestry, about 25,000 of whom live on reservations. The
tribes include the Blood, Cree, Piegan, and Siksika This tablelists the universities and colleges in Alberta that

grant bachelor s or advanced degrees and are members of

(North Blackfoot). About 40,000 metis (people of mixed
the Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada-
Indian and white descent) also live in the province.
About 7,000 Hutterites live in Alberta, more than in any Name Mailing address
other province. The members of this religious group are Alberta, University of Edmonton
Athabasca University Athabasca
successful farmers who lead simple lives. They live in Augustana University College Camrose
Calgary, University of Calgary
about 80 communities, most in southwestern Alberta or Concordia University College
northeast of Calgary. Many families include nine or of Alberta Edmonton
King's University College Edmonton
more children. The Hutterites came to Alberta from Lethbridge, University of Lethbridge
South Dakota in 1918. They had been persecuted in
South Dakota during World War (1914-1918) for refus- I

ing to bear arms for religious reasons. See Hutterites.

Schools. Missionaries established the first schools in Libraries and museums. Alberta has many public li-

the Alberta area during the mid-1800 s. A public school The University of Al-
braries throughout the province.
system was set up in the province in 1884. Today, Alber- berta in Edmonton, the University of Calgary, and the
ta has public, separate, and private schools. Elected University of Lethbridge have large academic libraries.
boards of trustees administer the public and separate The Glenbow Museum in Calgary features exhibits on
school systems. Private schools are organized by private the history of Alberta and western Canada. The Provin-
groups and offer a variety of academic, religious, or lan- cial Museum of Alberta in Edmonton also has exhibits

guage instruction. Public and separate schools are sup- on Alberta's history. The Royal Tyrrell Museum of
ported by taxes. Public education also offers fully funded Palaeontology, in Drumheller, has a large collection of
charter schools. These schools operate under local con- dinosaur fossils. The Odyssium, in Edmonton, has ex-
trol according to the terms of special contracts called hibits on science, as well as a planetarium, an observato-
charters. Private schools receive funding from private ry, and an IMAX theater. Fort Edmonton Park, in Edmon-

sources. Accredited private schools may qualify for par- ton, features re-creations of Edmonton streets from
tial provincial funding. Parents choose home may also different periods in the city's history. Heritage Park in
education programs supervised by a school board or an Calgary and Ukrainian Cultural Heritage Village near Ed-
accredited private school. monton are also pioneer villages. The Remington-Alber-
All Alberta schools are governed by the provincial ta Carriage Centre in Cardston has horse-drawn vehicles
Department which is headed by the minis-
of Learning, from the 1800s and early 1900s. The Reynolds-Alberta
law requires all children from the
ter of learning. Alberta Museum in Wetaskiwin exhibits old-time automobiles,
ages of 6tol6 to attend school. For the number of stu- farm equipment, and aircraft. Calgary, Edmonton, Leth-
dents and teachers, see Education (table). bridge, Medicine Hat, and Red Deer have art galleries.

Killam 1,004 | Millet .2.037 I 8 Provost 1 980 K Shaughnessy O 8 Vauxhall 1 112 N 9

Kinuso .231 . -G Milo 115 N 8 Provosft 2.635 K Slave Lake 6.600 G 7 Vegreville 5 376 . I 9
Kitscoty 671 | Minburn 88 .
I 9 Radway I Smith Vermilion 1,948 | 10
Kneehill Mirror 492 . K 8 Rainbow Lake ... 376 . .C Smoky Lake 1,011 Veteran 292 1 10
Counly*t 3,319 L Monarch 8 Ralston N Smoky River't 2379 Viking 1,052 J 9
Lac La Biche 2.776 H Morinville 6340 . 1 8 Ranchland't 36 N South Bailey" Vilna 269 . I 9
Lac Ste. Anne Morrin 252 L 8 Ranfurly J Spirit River 1,100 Vimy* I 7
County*t 8548 I Mulhurst Raymond 3 200 O Spirit River't 824 Vulcan 1,762 N 8
Lacombe 3.384 K Mundare" 653 . Red Deer .67.707 K Spruce Wabamun 601 | 7
LaCrete C Munson 222 . Redcliff 4,372 N Grove 15,983 Wabasca F 7
La Clace C Myrnam 322 . Redwater 2,172 .1 Spruce Wainwrighl 5,1 17.. 10
lakeview* J
Nacmine L 8 Rimbey 2,118 View* Wainwrighft .4,231 .
|
10
Lake Louise L Nampa 327 . F 5 Robb I Standard 389 Walsh Nil
Lakeland Nanton 1,841 N 8 Rochester Starland Wandering
County** .4359 C Neerlandia H 7 Rochfort County*t 2 21U L 9 River . G 8
Lamonl 1.692 I New Norway 292 .
) 8 Bridge Stavely 442 , N 8 Wanham F 4
Langdon M New Sarepta 382 I 8 Rocky Stettler 5215 Warburg 560 I
7
Lavoy J
Nobleford 615 Mountain Stirling 877 Warner 379 , O 9
Leduc 15.032 I Northern House .6,208 K Stony Plain 3,589 Waskatenau 252 I 8
Legal 1.058 I Lights't .4217. Rocky Rapids I
Strathmore . . .7,621 Water Valley ...1 7
Leslieville K Ohaton Rocky View*t 30.688 . M Strome 273 Waterton
Lesser Slave Okotoks 11.664. M 7 Rockyford 375 M Sturgeon Park O 7
River't 2,825 H Olds 6,607 L 7 Rolling Hills ........ JM County"t 18,067 Wayne L 8
Lethbridge 67,374 O Onoway . . .847 . I 7 Roily View" I Suffield ,N 10 Wembley 1 497 G 3
Linden 636 - Opportunity** 3,436 E 7 Rosalind 190 | Sundre 2,267 .1 7 West Cove" 105 I 7
-
Linn Valley K Oven 1.020 L 10 Rosedale L Swan Hills ...1.807 Westlock 4 819 7
M
I

Little Buffalo F Paddle Rosemary 366 Sylvan Lake 7 493 Westlock

Lloydminstert 13,148 | Prairie C 5 Round Hill | Taber 7 671 O 9 County*t 6,859 I 7
Lodgepole |
Paradise Rumsey L Taber*t 6,012 9 Westward Ho L 7
Lomond .171 N Vallev ...152 .
I
10 Ryrroft 609 Tangent F 4 Wetaskiwin 1 1 1 54 | 8
Longview 300 . .N Peace't F 4 Rylev 4 17 | Tees K 8 Whitecourt 8. 334.. I 6
Loon Lake E Peace River .6240 I 5 Saddle Hills Thorhild 462 1 8 Whitelaw F 4
Lougheed 228 K Peerless Lake E 7 County*t 2566 E Thorsby .799 I 7 Widevvater" G 7
Lundbreck Peers I 6 St Albert 53,081 I Three Hills 2302 L 8 Willingdon 287 . I 9
Magrath 1991 O Peigan Indian Si Isadore" I Tillev 4JJ ,N 9 Willow
Matiaig Reserve 8 St Paul 5 Obi I Tofield 1.818 I 8- Creek"t 5412. JM 8
Ma-Me-O Penh,. Id .1.729 K 7 Samson 137 Tomahawk I Winfield | 7
Beach 81 | 7 Pibroch 1 7 Indian Torrington L 8 Woking . . . G 4
Manning 129) E Pickardville I 7 Reserve" 3 069 K Trochu 1,033 L 8 Wood
Mannville 722 | Picture Butte .1.701 . N 9 Sangudo 177 I Tsuu Tina Buffalo"§ 41 466 D 10
Manyberries ( Pincher S, hulel \ Nation Woodlands
Marlboro 1 Creek 3,666 Scot Haven* | Indian County"t 3.818 I 6
Marwayne , .495 . I Pincher Seba Beach 109 | Reserve* I 982 Wrentham O 9
Mayertnorpe 1 570 I Creeks 3.197 O 8 Sedqewu k K5 | Turin Wyeclif 8
McLennan 804 C Plamondon H 9 Seebe M Turner Yellowhead
I

Medicine Hat 1 IVt \ Ponoka 6.330 Seven Valley 1,608 .M 7 County"t 9 881 | 5
Mettskou Poplar Persons' \ Two Hills 1,091 I 9 Youngstown 184 I 10
Milk Rivei Ridge' Sexsmhh 1,635 (. Valle>\1ew 1
856 (. 5 Zama Cits B 4

*Does not appeal on map k.-v shows genei Saskatchewan Iwude f loldl unptil,ition 2098ft §Regional Munii tpaUt)
Munli Ipal Distrti Source 10OT census Places wrtAoM poptiamons am unlnconpontted
^s*.
320 Alberta Visitors guide
Every year, millions of visitors come to Alberta from Banff, Jasper, and Kananaskis.
all over the world. Vacationers are especially attracted Trails for hikers lie throughout the province. Each
by the province s world-famous national parks in the year, many vacationers travel to northern Alberta to fish
majestic Canadian Rockies. Tourists may ride horseback in the province s sparkling lakes and streams for gray-
and may enjoy boating, golfing, swimming, and white and walleye. Many other tourists stay at
ling, trout, pike,
water rafting amid spectacular scenery. Mountain climb- guest ranches and farms. The Calgary Stampede is one
ers face the challenge of Alberta s jagged slopes. In win- of Alberta s most popular annual events. This 10-day
ter, skiers skim down mountain slopes in areas such as rodeo is held in Calgary each July.

T Klassen Hot Shots

Lake Louise, amid the snow-covered Canadian Rocky Mountains in Banff National Park

Places to visit

Following are brief descriptions of some of Alberta s many in- in 1874. The museum explores the history of American Indi-
teresting places to visit See also entries about other attractions ans, pioneers, and police in the region.
in the Interesting facts about Alberta section in the introduction Frank Slide Interpretive Centre, located near the southwest-
of this article. ern border of Alberta, is the site of a 1903 landslide. Visitors
Badlands, in the Red Deer River Valley, have weird and beauti- can explore the slide area and learn about the early coal min-
fulrock shapes— called koodoos— created by wind and water ers.
erosion. The rock layers contain fossils of dinosaurs and other National parks. Alberta has about 21,000 square miles (54,000
forms of life. square kilometers) of national parks, more than in any other
Calgary Zoo features natural habitat enclosures, a tropical avi- province. The first Canadian national park was established in
ary and conservatory, and life-sized dinosaur models. Alberta in 1885. This park is now known as Banff National
Columbia Icefield, between Banff and Jasper, consists of about Park Alberta has four other national parks— Elk Island, Jasper,
150 square miles 1390 square kilometers) of glacial ice. Tour- Waterton Lakes, and Wood Buffalo. See Canada (National
ride in a snowcoach over Athabasca Glacier.
ists park system).
Dinosaur Provincial Park, northeast of Brooks, was estab- Provincial parks. Alberta has 65 provincial parks and over 200
lished in 1955 to protect one of the most extensive dinosaur provincial recreation areas. For information, write to: Alberta
fields in the world. Visitors can tour the park Environment, 9915 108th Street, Edmonton, AB T5K 2C8. Al-
Fort Museum, in Fort Macleod, has a full-size replica of the Al- berta Environment s Web site at www.gov.ab.ca env parks
berta region s first North-West Mounted Police outpost, built also provides information on Alberta s provincial parks.
 Alberta 321

Annual events

January-June
Banff/Lake Louise Winter Festival (January); Calgary Winter
Festival (February); Northern Alberta International Children's
Festival in St Albert (late May); Banff Arts Festival (May-Au-
gust); Wainwright Stampede ()une); Jazz City International Mu-
sic Festival in Edmonton (June-July).

July-December
Calgary Stampede (July); Ukrainian Pysanka Festival in Vegre-

Calgary Folk Music Festival (July); Klondike Days in

ville (July);
Edmonton (July); Westerner Days in Red Deer (July); Fringe
Theatre Festival in Edmonton (August); Edmonton Heritage
Festival (August); Edmonton Folk Music Festival (August); Cal-
Keith Cunnar, West Stork
gary Highland Games (September); First Night festivals in
Athabasca Glacier in the Columbia Icefield Banff, Drayton Valley, Edmonton, and Red Deer (December).

Alberta Government Travel Bureau

Chuck wagon race at the Calgary Stampede Frank Slide near Alberta's southwestern border

Striking rock formations in the Badlands ?er River Valley near Drumheller
322 Alberta Land and climate
Land regions. Alberta has four main land regions. The Canadian Rockies have some of the most spectac-
They are (1 ) the Canadian Shield, (2) the Saskatchewan ular scenery in the world. The snow-capped peaks con-
Plain, (3) (4) the Rocky Mountains
the Alberta Plain, and sist of bare, jagged rock. Thick growths of aspens, bal-

and These regions increase in altitude toward

Foothills. sam tirs, pines, poplars, and spruces cover the northern
the Canadian Rockies in the southwest foothills. They provide much lumber and pulpwood for
The Canadian Shield \s a vast, horseshoe-shaped re- Albertas forest industries. The rugged Rockies attract
gion that covers almost half of Canada and extends into many mountain climbers. The Rockies also appeal to
the United States. This hilly section, made up of ancient people who enjoy sport fishing in the high lakes and
granites and other rocks, covers a small part of the streams or hunting mountain goats and sheep in desig-
northeastern corner of Alberta. Most of the region lies nated areas. Banff. Jasper, and Waterton Lakes national
less than 1 ,000 feet (300 meters) above sea level. The parks are in this beautiful region.
lowest point in Alberta, 557 feet (1 70 metersl above sea Rivers and lakes. Northern and north-central Alberta
level, is along the Slave River. The region has forests of are drained by the Athabasca, Hay, and Peace rivers and
coniferous (cone-bearing) trees and many lakes. It is their tributaries. In warm weather, barges and tugboats
thinly populated. See Canadian Shield. operate on the Athabasca River. They can travel as far as
The Saskatchewan Plain is part of the Western Interi- the Arctic. The North Saskatchewan River and its
or Plains, the Canadian section of the North American branches, including the Battle and Vermilion rivers,
Great Plains. Pine and spruce forests cover much of this drain the Parklands in south-central Alberta. The North
gently rolling region. Alberta's bituminous sands (sands Saskatchewan River rises in the Columbia Icefield,
that contain a substance from which oil can be obtained) which lies in Banff and Jasper national parks and in
are found along the lower Athabasca River. The British Columbia. This 100-square-mile (260-square-kilo-
Saskatchewan Plain lies less than 2,000 feet 1610 meters) meter) sheet of ice consists of glaciers made of ice that
above sea level. may be hundreds of years old. Most of Alberta's major
The Alberta Plain, another part of the Western Interi- rivers originate in the mountains. Their water comes
or Plains, is the provinces largest land region. It covers mostly from melting snow and glaciers.
about two-thirds of Alberta. Most of this region has an
altitude of more than 2,000 feet (610 meters). Pine and
spruce forests cover the northern part of the Alberta SASKATCHEWAN
PLAIN
Plain. Grasslands with some aspen groves lie near
-"1 CANADIAN
Grande Prairie and north of the Peace River between the "-"^SHIELD
North Saskatchewan River and Grimshaw. The area be-
tween the North Saskatchewan River and the Red Deer
River is called the Parklands. This area has groves of as-
pen trees within grasslands. It is Alberta s chief farming
region and one of the richest in Canada. It has rich soils
and regular rainfall. Parklands farms produce crops and
livestock. To the south, the Alberta Plain ranges from
gently rolling to flat grassland. There, wheat and other
grains grow well, and ranchers raise cattle and sheep.
The Rocky Mountains and Foothills extend through
western North America between Northern Alaska and
New Mexico in the United States. They are part of the
great Cordilleran mountain chain that reaches to the
southern tip of South America. In Alberta, the Canadian
Rockies rise along the Great Divide, which forms the
provinces southwestern border with British Columbia
(see Great Divide). Mount Columbia, the highest point
in Alberta, rises 12,294 feet (3,747 meters). The Twins

(north peak 12,085 feet or 3,684 meters, and south peak

11, 675 feet, or 3,559 meters) tower over Jasper National
Park. Thirty other mountains in the region are higher
than 10,000 feet (3,000 meters).
Land regions of Alberta WORLD BOOK map
Map index
Athabasca R. E 4 Christina R. D 6 Lesser Slave Lake D 4 North Saskatche- Sounding Creek C 7
Banff Natl Park C 4 dear Hills C 2 Little Bow R. H 5 wan R E 6 South VVabasca
Battle R. F 6 Clearwater R. C 7 Little Smoky R. E 3 North VVabasca Lake D 5 Lake D 3
Beaver R E 6 Clearwater R C 4 Lodge Creek . .1 7 Old Fori R. B 6 Sullivan Lake C 6
Birch Mts C 5 Cold Lake E 7 McLeod R. F 4 OwlR D 6 Swan Hills E 4
Birch R. B 5 Crowsnest Pass I 4 Middle Sand Hills. Peace R. C 3 Twins. The imts. G 3
Bistcho Lake A 3 Cypress Hills I 7 The H 7 Peerless Lake C 4 Utikuma Lake D 4
Blackfoot Hills F 7 Elk Island Natl Park f 6 MilkR J 7 Pelican Mountain ,D 5 Vermilion R. F 6
Bow R. H 6 Etzikom Coulee ...J 6 Ml Alberta C 3 Pembina R. F 4 WabascaR C 4
Brazeau R. F 4 Firebag R. B 6 Ml Allan H 4 Petttot R A > Waterton Lakes
Buffalo Head Hills B 4 Graham Lake C 5 Ml Assiniboine H 4 Primrose Lake E Natl Park I 3
Buffalo Lake C 6 Ha\ R. A 3 Ml Chown F 2 Red Deer R. C 5 Willmore
Buffalo R. A 5 lasper Natl Park F i Ml Columbia ihighest Richardson R B 6 Wilderness
Cameron Hills A 3 Kicking Horse Pass C 4 point in Alberta) C 3 Rocky Mts E 2 Park F 2
Caribou Mts. A 4 Lake Athabasca - A 7 Ml Jottre H 4 Simonette R E 3 Wood Buffalo
Charles Lake A 6 Lake Claire B 6 Ml Robson F . Sla\.eR. A 6 Natl Park A 3
Chinchaga R. B i Ieland Lakes A 6 Neutral Hills C 7 Smoky R D 3 Yellowhead Pass F 2
324 Alberta

:*• — '*».

Albena Agriculture

Vast wheat fields cover much of the southern Alberta Plain. Fertile soil and regular rainfall help
make the Alberta Plain the major farming region of the province. Wheat is Albertas chief crop. The
province is also an important producer of barley, oats, and rye.

Lake Athabasca is the largest lake in Alberta. A third ince. Some native people in this area make a living by
of this 3,064-square-mile 17,935-square-kilometer) lake trapping these animals for fur.
lies in northeastern Alberta, and the rest is in Saskatche- Important species of fish in the lakes and rivers of Al-
wan. Other large lakes in Alberta include Lake Claire in berta include grayling, pickerel, pike, trout, and white-
the northeast and Lesser Slave Lake in the central re- fish. Several species of reptiles are found in the south-
gion. Beautiful Lake Louise in Banff National Park is Al- ern parts of the province. But these animals are less
bertas most famous lake. common in the cooler northern areas.
Plant and animal life. Forests cover about half the Climate. Alberta has long, cold winters and short,
province. Important trees include balsam poplar, balsam warm summers. Temperatures in both summer and win-
Douglas-fir, jack pine, lodgepole pine, tamarack,
fir, ter are generally much lower in the north than in the
trembling aspen, and black, white, and Engelmann south. January temperatures in the province average 5 °F
spruce. Flowers in Alberta bloom from early spring, 1— 15 °Q, and July temperatures average 59 °F (15 °Q. Fort
when crocuses appear, to autumn, when frost withers Vermilion had the lowest recorded temperature, —78 °F
the goldenrods and asters. The provincial flower, the (-61 °C), on Jan. 11, 1911. Medicine Hat had the highest,
C
wild rose, grows throughout the province. Purple fire- 1 08 °F (42 C), on July 12, 1886. Precipitation (rain, melted
weeds, which thrive on scorched forest lands, quickly snow, and other forms of moisture) averages 1 2 to 21
cover the woodlands after a fire. Blueberries, chokeber- inches (30 to 53 centimeters) yearly. Annual snowfall
ries, highbush cranberries, raspberries, saskatoons, and ranges from about 70 inches (180 centimeters) in the
strawberries grow over much of the countryside. north to 30 inches (76 centimeters) in the south.
Albertaalong three of the major North American
lies

flyways used by birds migrating between their winter

and summer homes (see Bird (How birds migrate]). Average monthly weather
Many kinds of songbirds live in the river valleys. Game
birds, especially ducks and geese, nest on lakes and Edmonton Calgary
sloughs throughout the province. Many wetlands are Tempe ratures Days of Tempe ratures Days of
managed to improve nesting success. F c rain or F C rain or
rligh Low High Low snow High Low High Low snow
Alberta has manymammals. Several species of
native
ground squirrels live in the province. Snowshoe hares Ian. 17 -1 -8 -18 Ian. 26 5 -3 -15
are found throughout Alberta. Pronghorns and mule Feb 21 2 -6 -17 Feb. 28 6 -2 -14 8
Mar. 33 14 1 -10 Mar. 37 16 3 -9 11
and white-tailed deer are common in the grasslands. -3
Apr. 51 29 11 -2 Apr. 52 27 11 8
Black bears, caribou, chipmunks, elk, moose, mule deer, May 64 18 4 May 63 37 17 3 10
39
tree squirrels,and white-tailed deer can be found in the June 70 46 21 8 |une 68 44 20 7

forests. Bighorn sheep, elk, grizzly bears, mountain July 75 51 24 11 July 76 49 24 9

goats, mountain lions, and mule deer inhabit the moun- Aug. 72 47 22 8 Aug. 74 46 23 8

Sept 63 39 17 4 Sept 64 39 18 4
tains of Alberta. "
Oct 52 30 11 -1 Oct 54 30 12 -1
Bears, beavers, coyotes, ermines, fishers, foxes, -9 Nov. 18 3 -8 -
Nov. 33 16 1 38
lynxes, martens, minks, muskrats, squirrels, wolves, and Dec 20 4 -7 -16 Dec. 29 9 -2 -13
wolverines are common in the northern half of the prov-
 8

Alberta 325

Average January temperatures Average July temperatures Average yearly precipitation

Alberta has long, cold winters. The prov- The province has short, mild summers. Precipitation varies widely throughout the
ince'stemperatures decrease steadily The southeastern part of Alberta has the province. The north and southeast are
from the south to the far northern region. warmest summertime temperatures. much drier than the southwestern area.

Degrees Degrees Degrees Degrees

Fahrenheit Celsius Fahrenheit Celsius Inches Centimeters

Above 10 I Above 12 Above 64 1 Above 18 More than 32 1 More than 81

Olo 10 -lBto-12 59 to 64 1 5 to 1 20 to 32 51 to 81
~J
-eioo 22 to 18 50 to 59 10 to 15 16 to 20 41 to 51

Below 50 Below 10 Less than 16 Less than 41

t McMurray Fori McMurray Fori McMurray

1 \\
Grande Prairie Grande Prairie Grand Prairie_

K
Edmonton

Red Deer
W'
V :
Edmonton

Red Oeer
|

1 \_
^Edmonton

^Red Deer
1

algary \Calgary VCalgary

|
Medicine Hal I \ Medicine Hit ^V Medicine Hat 1

LethbridgeJ _
"lethbnd£j - V. Lethbndcie|

WORLD BOOK maps; based on the National Atlas ot Canada

Economy
In the early days, the economy of the Alberta region oil-sands deposits extend 54,000 square miles (140,000
was based chiefly on the fur trade. Agriculture became square kilometers) and contain as much as 1 \ trillion
important during the late 1800s. Petroleum and natural barrels of oil. These are among the world's largest
gas became important sources of income during the known reserves. About 95 trillion cubic feet (2.7 trillion
1950s. Today, Alberta has a diversified economy built on cubic meters) of natural gas lie underground, most of it
agriculture and resource-based industries. Service in- near oil fields.
dustries, taken together, account for the largest portion Most of Canada's known coal reserves lie in Alberta.
of Alberta's gross domestic product (GDP)—the total val- Coal beds cover 117,000 square miles (303,000 square
ue of all goods and services produced in the province in kilometers) from the foothills of the Rockies through
a year. Mining is Alberta's second most important eco- much of the central and southern plains. Most of Alber-
nomic activity. It accounts for about a fifth of the prov- deposits consist of soft forms of coal called bitumi-
ta's

ince's gross domestic product. nous coal and subbituminous coal.

Natural resources. Alberta's fertile soil helps pro- Sand and gravel are found throughout the province.
duce plentiful crops. Its vast mineral deposits supply im- Fine limestone occurs on the eastern slopes of the
portant industries. The provincial government owns Rocky Mountains, and clay and shale are plentiful in the
most of the mineral and forest resources, and enforces Medicine Hat area. Thick salt beds are found in the
strict regulations to protect them and the land. northeast and near Edmonton. Other mined products in-
Soil. The brown soil of the southeastern prairies, clude potash, quartz, sodium sulfate, and sulfur.
which gets little rain, is the only soil in Alberta that re- Service industries, taken together, account for the
quires irrigation. The rich, dark-brown or black soil of largest portion of Alberta's gross domestic product. The
the other prairies receives more rain and produces province's service industries are concentrated in the
much of Alberta's grain. The Parklands have the richest Calgary and Edmonton metropolitan areas.
topsoil, much of it 1 foot (30 centimeters) thick. The up- Community, business, and personal services is Alber-
lands and northern forests have gray soil. ta's most important economic activity in terms of gross

Minerals. Alberta has about 5 billion barrels of oil de- domestic product. This industry group is also the lead-
posits in underground pools. After an oil well has been ing employer in the province. These services include
drilled, provincial laws require the oil companies to re- such activities as education, health care, legal services,
move the drilling rig and restore the land to its former engineering services, and the operation of hotels, res-
state. In the Athabasca River Valley, bituminous sands taurants,and recreational facilities. This service group
are so soaked with oil that a person gets oily handling benefits heavilyfrom the thousands of tourists that visit
them. Indians and fur traders once used these sands to the province each year. Banff National Park in the Rocky
make their canoes watertight. Experts estimate that the Mountains and the cities of Calgary and Edmonton rank
326 Alberta

al gas. Pipelines carry petroleum and natural gas

Production and workers by economic activities
throughout Alberta and to the east, south, and west.
Percent
Employed workers Gathering lines transport the fuels within the province
ofCDP" Number Percent and feed them into cross-country lines. The Interprovin-
Economic activities produced of people of total cial Pipeline starts in Redwater, near Edmonton. It car-
Community, business, ries Alberta oil about 2,600 miles (4,100 kilometers) east
& personal services 20 601,900 38 to Quebec City. The Trans Mountain Pipeline carries oil
Miningt 19 83,300 5 718 miles (1,156 kilometers) west, from Edmonton to re-
Finance, insurance, fineries in Vancouver, British Columbia. Alberta pipe-
& real estate 16 79,000 5 lines feed natural gas into the Trans-Canada Pipeline,
Manufacturing 10 140,100 9 which extends over 2,300 miles (3,700 kilometers) from
Wholesale & retail trade 9 252,600 16 the Alberta-Saskatchewan border to Quebec City. All
these pipelines have branches into the United States. In
Transportation &
communication 9 159,300 10 addition, a network of pipelines 1,370 miles (2,200 kilo-
meters) long carries natural gas from Alberta to Califor-
Construction 7 128,300 8
nia. The Trans-Canada Pipeline, with all its branches, is
Government 4 61,900 4
the longest pipeline in Canada.
Agriculture 3 69,300 4 Petroleum and natural gas account for more than 90
Utilities 3 12,500 1 percent of Alberta's mining income. Of the province's
Total 100 1,588,200 100 other mined products, coal, sand and gravel, and sulfur
*GDP - gross domestic product, the total value of goods and services producec in a year. are most important. Vast deposits of coal lie in southern
TEmployment figures include forestry and fishing.
Figures are for 2000 Alberta. Most of the coal is obtainable by surface min-
Source: Statistics Canada.
ing. Major surface mining operations take place to the
west of Edmonton and to the east of Red Deer. Much of
Alberta s sand and gravel production occurs in the
south-central part of the province. Sand and gravel are
among Alberta s leading tourist destinations. used mainly for building roadbeds. Almost all of Alber-
Finance, insurance, and real estate form the second ta'ssulfur comes from processing natural gas. Sulfur is
most important service industry group in terms of gross used in the manufacture of paper and fertilizer.
domestic product. This group benefits greatly from in- Manufacturing. Goods produced in Alberta have a
come brought in by the province's petroleum and gas value added by manufacture of about 14 billion Canadi-
industries. For example, each year the provincial govern- an dollars yearly. This figure represents the difference
ment collects millions of dollars in royalties from petro- between the value of raw materials and the value of fin-
leum companies, which it invests in the province's finan- ished products manufactured from the raw materials.
cial institutions. The government sets aside money for The production of chemicals is the leading manufac-
investments so it will have money to draw on at times turing activity in Alberta. The province's main chemical
that oil and gas revenues decline. products are petrochemicals and fertilizers. Petrochemi-
Ranking next among Alberta's service industries are (1 cals are produced from petroleum and include such
wholesale and retail trade and (2) transportation and compounds as ethylene and methanol.
communication. Each of these groups accounts for an Food and beverage processing is Alberta s second
equal share of the province's gross domestic product. most important manufacturing activity in terms of annual
The province's wholesale trade is based mainly on the value added by manufacture. Meat packing is the lead-
distribution of food and mined products. Alberta ex- ing type of food processing in Alberta. The Calgary area
ports large amounts of petroleum and natural gas to the is a major center of Canada's meat-packing industry.

United States. Retail trade establishments include de- Other important products include animal feed, beer,
partment stores, grocery stores, and specialty shops. dairy products, and flour.
These businesses also benefit from tourist spending. Other leading products manufactured in Alberta in-
Telecommunications is a major part of the transporta- clude fabricated metal products, paper and allied prod-
tion and communication sector. More information on ucts, and wood products. Machine tools, metal contain-
this industry group appears later in this section. ers, and structural metal are the main fabricated metal
Government ranks fifth Many government activities products. Newsprint is the primary type of paper pro-
in Edmonton, Alberta's capital.
are centered duced in the province. Leading wood products include
Mining. Petroleum is Alberta's leading mineral prod- lumber, cabinets, doors, and window frames.
uct, and the province produces about 70 percent of Agriculture. Alberta has approximately 55,000 farms.
Canada s oil. About 55,000 wells in Alberta yield about Farmland covers about a third of the land area. Alberta
600 million barrels of petroleum each year. Alberta s ma- has about two-thirds of Canada s irrigated farmland.
jor oil fields are at Judy Creek, Pembina, Rainbow Lake, Beef cattle are the leading farm product in Alberta,
Redwater, and Swan Hills. The province has two large providing nearly half of the annual farm income The
plants that produce petroleum from oil sands. These heaviest concentration of cattle ranches lies in a wide
plants lie near Fort McMurray in the Athabasca River belt that begins north of Calgary and extends to the U.S.
Valley. Smaller plants operate at Cold Lake and Peace border Alberta has mote beef cattle than any other
River. Petroleum produced from oil sands accounts for province. Farmers in Alberta also raise large numbers of
about 40 percent of the province s total oil production. and sheep.
dairy cattle, hogs,
Alberta produces about 80 percent of Canada s natur- Wheat, the leading crop in Alberta, is grown through-
 Alberta 327

Economy of Alberta Softwoods, such as spruce and pine, are the most valu-
This map shows the economic uses Alberta and where
of land in able species. Aspen hardwoods are also important.
the province s leading farm, mineral, and forest products are Most timber used for lumber and for pulp and paper.
is

produced. Major manufacturing centers are shown in red. The provincial government regulates timber harvesting.
Mostly unproductive land
Electric power and utilities. Coal is the chief fuel for
Mostly cropland
with alpine vegetation power plants in the province. Three major stations have
been built near deposits of easily mined coal. Natural
Mostly grazing land Manufacturing and
service industry center gas is also used to fuel power plants. Several hydroelec-
Forest land Mineral deposit are on the Bow River and its branches, and
tric stations

on the Brazeau River. Utilities in the province also pro-

vide gas and water service.
Transportation. Alberta has a fine highway system.
Two transcontinental highways, the Yellowhead and the
Forest products Trans-Canada, cross Alberta from east to west. The
North/South Trade Corridor provides an important con-
nection between northern Alberta and markets in the
southern part of the province.
Forest products Major airports at Calgary and Edmonton offer both
domestic and international service. Alberta also has
# Oil sands
eight regional airports with scheduled service. Many
small airports handle important cargo traffic for north-
Forest products ern Alberta, the Northwest Territories, and Yukon Terri-
Forest
products tory. Alberta is the headquarters for Westjet, an airline
.Natural gas
that serves mainly western Canada.
, Petroleum, Alberta has an excellent system of railroads. Two
transcontinental rail lines, the Canadian National Railway
Petfo1eun-
#
Dteum
Petroleum
and the Canadian Pacific Railway, cross the province
Beef cattle -jSalt
cOr^Hogs .Salt from east to west They connect Alberta's exporters of
"^ CoST, • *$and and Grave
Oats
grain, coal, and forest and petroleum products with
Edmonton !s 1

Petroleum* •Natural gas

Milk
Wheat ' western ports. The head office of the Canadian Pacific is
CL^Xsi Barley .
-
f~Hfi& Whe?t JuLf in Calgary. Alberta is also home to the Central Western
Barley. ^5^, -i#fle
Railways, another important railroad system.
.
Forest Milk . r?
Coal
~ ^T
—-Sheep rural gas Water transportation declined after the province's fur-
Hural gas. Whl
XN ) 'Sulfur
trading days. However, the discovery of petroleum in
Beef cattle Alaska and the Northwest Territories renewed interest
''Calgary
in water transportation. In warm weather, barges carry
itural gas
Wheat'
Beef
freight on the Athabasca River and the Slave River,
Rattle- Potatoes which link northern regions of Alberta with the northern
atural gas
PCcanola^}^ Clay
part of the Northwest Territories. In winter, airplanes
Sheep _Wheat~~ ^ equipped with landing skis and other special equipment
are used to haul freight on frozen lakes and rivers.
WORLD BOOK map Communication. The first newspaper in the Alberta
region was the Edmonton Bulletin, published from 1880
to 1951. Alberta has 9 daily newspapers and about 110
outmuch of the province. Only Saskatchewan produces weeklies. The Edmonton journals the largest daily
more wheat. Other leading crops include canola, barley, newspaper. Alberta s first radio station, CFAC in Calgary,
and ornamental plants. Canola is used to make cooking began broadcasting in 1922. The provinces first televi-
oil,and barley is used mainly as livestock feed. sion station, CHCT-TV, also in Calgary, started in 1954.
Forestry. Alberta has vast timber resources. Forests Today, Alberta has about 60 radio stations and 1 1 televi-
cover about half of Alberta s land area. Forests grow pri- sion stations. Cable television systems and Internet
marily in the northern and western parts of the province. providers serve many Alberta communities.

Government

Lieutenant governor of Alberta represents the an elected member of the Legislative Assembly. The
British monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, in her role as the person who serves as Alberta s premier is usually the
queen of Canada. The lieutenant governor is appointed leader of the party holding the most seats in the Legisla-
by the governor general in council of Canada for a peri- tive Assembly.
od of at least five years. The position of lieutenant gover- The Executive Council includes ministers who are
nor is largely honorary. chosen by the premier from among members of the
Premier of Alberta is the actual head of the provincial premier s party in the Legislative Assembly. Each minis-
government. Alberta, like Canada itself, has a parliamen- ter directs one or more departments of the provincial
tary form of government. The premier of the province is government. The Executive Council, like the premier,
328 Alberta

to three-year terms. Every year, the councilors choose

one of their number as mayor. Voters in Alberta s coun-
ties and municipal districts also elect councilors to

fiitft three-year terms. Every year, these councilors choose

one of their number to serve as reeve (chief official). In
some cases, the council passes a bylaw that requires the
reeve to be elected by the people of the municipality.
Alberta also has eight unincorporated improvement
districts, three special areas, and two specialized munic-
ipalities. The provincial Department of Municipal Affairs

manages these units of local government. Elected coun-

cilors serve in advisory roles.
Revenue. Taxation accounts for the largest portion of
the provincial governments general revenue (income).
The comes from
next largest source of general revenue
the government s charges for rights to petroleum de-
Alberta Legislature
posits. In the past, some of this money was invested in a
Alberta's legislature, called the Legislative Assembly, has one special fund. Investments made with the fund s money
house. Its members serve terms of up to five years. continue to provide revenue. Like other provinces, Al-
berta receives financial aid from the federal govern-
resigns if it loses the support of a majority of the Legisla- ment. Alberta is the only province with no sales tax.
tive Assembly. Politics. Since Alberta became a province in 1905,
Legislative Assembly of Alberta is a one-house leg- four parties have controlled its political life. The Liberal
islature that makes the provincial laws. It has 83 mem- Partywas the first to control the provincial government.
bers, each of whom is elected from a separate electoral It power from 1905 until 1921. In 1921, the United
held
district called a constituency. The members terms may Farmers of Alberta came into office. It was formed dur-
last up to five years. However, the lieutenant governor, ing a period of low farm prices. During the Great De-
on the advice of the premier, may call for an election be- pression of the 1 930 s, the people of Alberta became
fore the end of the five-year period. If this is done, all dissatisfied with the government's failure to solve the
members of the Assembly must run again for office. province s economic problems. A new party, the Social
Courts. The highest court in Alberta is the Court of Credit Party, won government
control of the provincial
Appeal. It hears only appeals in civil and criminal cases. in 1935. The Progressive Conservative Party has con-
The Court of Appeal has the chief justice of Alberta and trolled Alberta s Legislative Assembly since 1971.
1 2 justices of appeal. The Court of Queen s Bench hears
all cases involving murder, treason, and other major

crimes. This court has a chief justice, an associate chief

justice, and 61 judges. The premiers of Alberta
judges of Alberta s Court of Appeal and the Court of
Party Term
Queen s Bench are appointed by the governor general Alexander C Rutherford Liberal 1905-1910
in council. They can serve until the age of 75. Provincial Arthur L Srfton Liberal 1910-1917
court judges hear provincial, civil, family, and youth cas- Charles Stewart Liberal 1917-1921
es and are appointed by the lieutenant governor in Herbert Greenfield United Farmers
of Alberta 1921-1925
council. The Provincial Court of Alberta consists of a
John E. Brownlee United Farmers
chief judge, 9 assistant chief judges, and 99 judges.
of Alberta 1925-1934
Local government Alberta has 64 rural municipali- Richard C. Reid United Farmers
ties, 1 5 cities, 1 1 towns, 1 05 villages, and 52 summer of Alberta 1934-1935
villages. Each of these incorporated units of local gov- William Aberhart Social Credit 1935-1943
ernment is self-regulated. A summer village is a commu- Ernest C
Manning Social Credit 1943-1968
Harry E. Strom Social Credit 1968-1971
nity or municipality in a resort area that provides munici-
Peter Lougheed Progressive
pal services throughout the year. Conservative 1971-1985
The voters of each city and town in Alberta elect a Donald R. Getty Progressive
mayor and council to three-year terms. The council con- Conservative 1985-1992
sists of seven councilors unless the council passes a by- Ralph Klein Progressive
Conservative 1992-
law that specifies a higher or lower odd number. Village
and summer village voters elect three or five councilors

History

Indian days. When Europeans first arrived in the Al- northern forests. Other Indians of the Alberta region in-
berta region, the Blackfoot Indian nation lived in the cluded the Beaver and Cros Ventre tribes, and the
southern prairies and foothills. It consisted of the Blood, Stonies, a branch of the Assiniboine tribe.
Piegan, and Siksika (North Blackfoot) tribes. The Sarcee, The fur trade. In 1670, King Charles II of England
their allies, also lived in the south. The Cree lived in the granted fur-trading rights in the Alberta region to the
 Alberta 329

Hudson's Bay Company. The region was part of a vast Calgary with cities in eastern Canada. The North West
The first white person
territory called Rupert's Land. Rebellion of 1885, an uprising of Indians and metis led
known to visit the Alberta region was Anthony Henday. by Louis Riel, caused great alarm in the Alberta region.
In 1 754, the Hudson's Bay Company sent Henday to pro- However, the only violence in the area was the killing of
mote trade with the Blackfoot Indians. He stayed with nine whites by Indians at Frog Lake. See North West Re-
the Blackfoot that winter and returned to York Factory, bellion.
on Hudson Bay, in 1755. See Henday, Anthony; Hud- A new province. Opportunities for settlement in the
son's Bay Company. Alberta region drew thousands of farmers from eastern
In 1778, Peter Pond, an American, built a fur-trading Canada, the United States, and northern and central Eu-
post near Lake Athabasca. During the 1780s, the North rope. In 1905, the Canadian government established the
West Company, formed by fur traders in Montreal, province of Alberta. Alexander C Rutherford, a Liberal,
began to compete with the Hudson's Bay Company. The became the first premier. Alberta's first major oil discov-
firms competed in the Alberta region until they com- ery was made in 1914, in Turner Valley.
bined in 1821. See North West Company. After World War (1914-1918), many farmers lost their
I

In 1788, Roderick Mackenzie, a fur trader, established land because of drought and low prices on farm prod-
Fort Chipewyan. His cousin, Sir Alexander Mackenzie, ucts. The United Farmers of Alberta, a new political
traveled from this post to the Arctic Ocean in 1 789 and party, won control of the provincial government from
to the Pacific Ocean in 1792-1793 (see Mackenzie, Sir the Liberal Party in 1921. The new party received sup-
Alexander). Between 1789 and 1812, the geographer port from the farmers, who felt it could best protect
DavidThompson made surveys that provided the first The provincial
their interests. Prosperity returned soon.
good map of the Canadian Northwest. government improved and expanded education, high-
The missionaries. During the mid-1 800s, most of ways, and public health programs.
the settlers in the Alberta region were traders and metis Low farm prices during the Great Depression of the
(people of mixed Indian and white descent). Missionar- 193CTS helped bring another new party to power in Al-

ies converted many Indians. They introduced schools berta. The Social Credit Party, led by William Aberhart,
and attempted to persuade Indians and metis to settle was elected in 1935. It had promised to solve the prob-

permanently and begin farming. lems of the depression. The new government did pass
Robert T Rundle, a Methodist, was the first mission- laws to control banking and credit, but the federal gov-
ary in the region. He arrived in 1 840 and stayed until ernment declared these laws unconstitutional.
1848. Two other Methodist leaders, George McDougall The mid-1900's. Alberta prospered during World
and his son, John McDougall, arrived in the Alberta re- War (1939-1945). Farmers raised grain and livestock to
II

gion in 1863. A priest named Jean Thibault established help meet the food needs of the Allies. Mining and man-
Alberta's first Roman Catholic mission in 1843 in Lac Ste. ufacturing increased with the production of war goods.
Anne. In 1852, Albert Lacombe, another Catholic priest, In 1947, petroleum and natural gas were discovered
began working among the Indians and metis. Lacombe at Leduc, near Edmonton. The discoveries led to wide-
founded the town of St. Albert in 1861. spread industrialization that changed Alberta's econ-
Early settlement. In 1870, the Hudson's Bay Com- omy. The province owned most of the mineral rights in
pany gave up Rupert's Land to the British government, the land and received income from leases, rentals, and
which then transferred it to the newly formed Dominion royalties (shares of the profits). Alberta used the money
of Canada. The dominion paid the company $1 \ million to expand its hospitals, roads, schools, and other public
and permitted it to keep large areas of the plains. Later works. the province paid its citizens a dividend
In 1957,

in 1870, Canada established the North West Territories, from income. Every adult who had lived in Alberta
its oil

which included the Alberta region and the rest of the for at least five years received $20. In 1958, the provin-
former Rupert's Land. cial government paid a dividend of $17.50.

At this time, traders from Montana were carrying on In 1954, for the first time, the combined value of Al-

an illegal liquor trade with the Indians in the North West berta mining and manufacturing became greater than
Territories. To stop this trade prepare the way for
and to that of agriculture. As industrialization increased, thou-
peaceful settlement of the region, the Canadian govern- sands of workers came to Alberta from other provinces,
ment organized the North-West Mounted Police (see Europe, and the United States. Alberta's population in-
Royal Canadian Mounted Police (History]). The Mount- creased greatly in the late 195ffs and became mostly
ies established their first post in the Alberta region in urban instead of rural. In 1 945, less than a fourth of the
1874 at Fort Macleod, and stopped the illegal trading. people lived in Calgary or Edmonton. By 1966, about half
The Mounties won the confidence and respect of the In- the people lived in those two cities.
dians. Within a few years, the Indians and the Canadian In 1958, James Gladstone of Alberta became the first

government signed three treaties. Treaty No. 6, signed Indian in the Canadian Senate. His appointment had
in 1876 and Treaty No. 7, signed in 1877, gave the Cana- been recommended by Prime Minister John G. Diefen-
dian government the central and southern parts of Al- baker.
berta in return for reservations, annual payments, and In 1962, coal production in Alberta dropped to a rec-

promises of future assistance for the Indians. Treaty No. ord low. The coal industry had begun to decline in the
8, signed in 1899, gave the northern half of Alberta to 1950s. For example, railroads switched from coal to die-
Canada on similar terms. locomotives replaced steam engines.
sel fuel as diesel

By 1 883, about 500 settlers, most of them cattle ranch- Also, natural gas and fuel oil replaced coal in many heat-

ers,were living in the Alberta region. That year, the Ca- ing systems. But in 1967, Japan became a new market for
nadian Pacific Railway (now called CP Rail System) linked coal, and coal production started to increase.
330 Alberta

historic ^lberta
Sir Alexander Mackenzie left
Fort Chipewyan in 1 789 on an ex-
pedition in which he discovered
the Mackenzie River, the longest
river in Canada.

Missionaries in Alberta during the

mid-1 BOOS converted many Indians and
metis (people of mixed white and Indian
descent) to settled ways of life on farms
and in permanent homes.

The North-West
Mounted Police came
The
to Alberta in 1874.
Mounties drove liquor
traders and outlaws
from the region.
Oiland natural gas discoveries in
Ranching began in the 188Cs when
Turner Valley in 1914 led to the devel-
Montana ranchers drove their cattle
opment of a petroleum and natural gas
across the Canadian border to the pas-
field that is still productive.
turelands of southern Alberta.

Important dates in Alberta WORLD BOOK illustrations by Kevin Chadwick

1670 King Charles England granted trading rights in

II of 1905 Alberta became a province on September 1

the Alberta region to the Hudson's Bay Company. 1914 A major oil discovery was made in Turner Valley.
1754-1755 Anthony Henday of the Hudson's Bay Company 1921 The United Farmers of Alberta, a new political party,
explored the Alberta region. came to power.
1778 Peter Pond of the United States established a trading 1935 The Social Credit Party, another new organization,
post near Lake Athabasca. took over the Alberta government.
1840 Robert T. Rundle became the first missionary in the 1947 The discovery of oil at Leduc started widespread in-
Alberta region. dustrialization in Alberta.
1874 The North-West Mounted Police established Fort 1954 The combined value of Alberta's mining and manufac-
Macleod. turing exceeded that of agriculture for the first time.
1876-1877 Indians signed two treaties surrendering central 1967 Alberta's first plant to remove oil from bituminous
and southern Alberta to the Canadian government. sands began operation.
1883 The Canadian Pacific Railway Inow CP Rail System) 1971 The Progressive Conservative Party came to power,
reached Calgary. ending 36 years of rule by the Social Credit Party.

1988 The Winter Olympic Games were held in Calgary.

 Alberti, Leon Battista 331

In 1967, Alberta s first plant to remove oil from the bi- C Libraries and museums
tuminous sands of the Athabasca River Valiey was com- II. Visitor's guide
pleted. The Alberta resources railway went into opera-
A Places to visit B. Annual events
III Land and climate
tion in 1969. This 235-mile (378-kilometer) line extends
A. Land regions C Plant and animal life
from Grande Prairie to Brule. It opened undeveloped B. Rivers and lakes D. Climate
land in northern Alberta so that industry could reach IV Econom>
mineral deposits and timber. The Alberta portions of the A. Natural resources F. Forestry

Trans-Canada Highway and the Yellowhead Highway B. Service industries G. Electric power
also were completed during the 1960s.
C Mining H. Transportation
D. Agriculture I. Communication
In 1971, voters gave control of Alberta s government E. Manufacturing
to the Progressive Conservative Party, ending 36 years of V. Government
Lougheed became pre-
Social Credit Party rule. Peter A. Lieutenant governor E. Localgovernment
mier. He resigned in 1985. Donald R. Getty, a Progressive B. Premier F. Revenue
Conservative, succeeded Lougheed as premier. Getty re-
G Legislative Assembly G. Politics
D. Courts
signed in 1992, and the Progressive Conservatives chose VI History
Ralph Klein as the new party leader and premier.
In the 1970s and early 1980 s, Alberta experienced
Questions

great industrial expansion. The province s vast oil de- What is Alberta s chief mineral product?
posits have attracted many new industries, and thou-
What are Alberta's two metropolitan areas?
Which three national parks are located in Alberta s Rocky
sands of people from other parts of Canada have come
Mountains?
to Alberta to find jobs in the new industries. A second Why are Alberta's bituminous sands important?
plant to remove oil from Alberta s bituminous sands What is Alberta's chief farming region?
opened in 1978. This plant is the largest industrial com- Which political party developed in Alberta during the Great De-
plex ever built in Alberta. pression of the 1930s?
What changes took place in Alberta in the 1950s?
Recent developments. Calgary and Edmonton grew
How do Alberta's juries differ from those of the other provinces?
rapidly due to the expansion of retail trade, tourism, and Why?
other service industries. The 1988 Winter Olympic What illegal activity first brought the North-West Mounted Po-
Games were held in Calgary. Calgary also became the lice to the Alberta region? When?
headquarters of the Reform Party of Canada, founded in What is the resources railway "?

1987. The Reform Party called for more attention to the Additional resources
western provinces and reform of Canada's constitution
Level I
to create an elected Senate. The party grew rapidly. In
Bakken, Edna. Alberta. Grolier, 1991.
the 1993 national election, it won
52 seats in the Canadi- Beckett, Harry. Alberta. Rourke, 1997.
an House of Commons. In the 1997 election, it won the LeVert, Suzanne. Alberta Chelsea Hse., 1991.

second largest number of seats and as a result became Yates, Sarah. Alberta Lerner, 1995.

the official opposition. In 2000, Reform members voted Level II

to dissolve the party and join a new conservative party Hempstead, Andrew, and Purdon, Nadina. Alberta and the
Northwest Territories Handbook. 3rd ed. Moon Pubns., 1999.
called the Canadian Reform Conservative Alliance. The
A travel guidebook.
new party, commonly known as the Canadian Alliance, Palmer, Howard and Tamara. Alberta. Hurtig, 1990.
thenbecame the official opposition in the House of Silverman, Eliane L The Last Best West Women on the Alberta
Commons. C. Peter Kershaw and Roderick C Macleod Frontier, 1880-1930. Rev. ed. Fifth Hse. Pubs., 1998.
Voisey, Paul. Vulcan: The flaking of a Prairie Community. Univ. of
Toronto Pr, 1988. Describes life in southern Alberta in the
Study aids early 1900 s.

Related articles in World Book include: Alberta, University of, is a government-supported,

Biographies coeducational university in Edmonton, Canada. The uni-
McLuhan, Mar- versity has undergraduate and graduate programs in
Bennett, Richard B. Henday, Anthony
Clark, Joe Mackenzie, Roder- shall agriculture and forestry, arts, business, dentistry, educa-
Crowfoot ick Michener, Roland tion, engineering, home economics, law, library sci-
Day, Stockwell Manning, Preston Murphy. Emily G. ence, medicine, nursing, pharmacy, physical education,
Cities and towns rehabilitation medicine, and science. Its School of Native
Studies offers programs that focus on issues affecting
Banff Edmonton Lethbridge
Calgary Canadian Inuit (formerly called Eskimos) and Indians.
The university has a French-language faculty (Faculte
Physical features
Saint-Jean), which offers degree programs in arts, sci-
Athabasca River Lake Louise Rocky Mountains ence, and education.
Lake Athabasca Peace River Saskatchewan River
The provincial legislature of Alberta established the
Other related articles university in 1906. The school opened in 1908.

Banff National Park Jasper National Park ( ntu <iil\ reviewed b) the University of Alberta
Hudson s Bay Company North West Company Alberti, ahl BEHR tee, Leon Battista, lay OHN baht
Outline
TEEStah (1404-1472), was an Italian Renaissance archi-
tect, painter, and scholar. He spent his early years study-
I. People
ing ancient Greek and Roman civilizations. During this
A. Population B. Schools
time, he gained a reputation as a humanist and learned
332 Albertus Magnus, Saint

Latin scholar as he wrote two influential books, On Dominic, Saint; Heresy. Eugene TeSeiie
Painting (1 435) and On Architecture (begun in the 1440s). Albino, al BY noh, is an animal or plant that is unable to
The work on painting was the first scientific study of produce pigment (coloring substance) in some or ail of
perspective (representing objects on a flat surface to its organs. As a result, the animal or plant has abnormal-

give the illusion of receding distance). ly light coloration. Albinism is caused by a change in the

From 1450 until his death, Alberti concentrated on ar- genes (units of heredity) and can be inherited. A person
chitecture. His best-known buildings include the church who is a true (complete) albino has milky-white skin,
of San Francesco (1450) in Rimini and the Rucellai Palace white hair, and pink eyes. The eyes are pink because the
(1452) in Florence, as well as the facade (front) of the blood in the tiny vessels of the iris (colored part of the
church of Santa Maria Novella (about 1456-1470) in Flo- eye) shows through the transparent parts. In normal
rence. Another of his masterpieces, the church of Sant' eyes, the hides the pinkness. Albinism occurs about
iris

Andrea Mantua, was completed in 1494, after his

in once in every 20,000 births.
death. Alberti was born in Genoa. (.William Rudd Albinism may vary from the complete absence of col-
See also Architecture (Early Renaissance architecture; or to the presence of nearly normal amounts of pigment
picture); Florence (picture: Santa Maria Novella). in some organs. Most white horses, chickens, ducks,

Albertus Magnus, Saint (1 206?- 1 280), was a Ger- and geese are only partial a\b\nos because these ani-
man-born Christian theologian, philosopher, and scien- mals have pigment in their eyes, beaks, or legs. Albino
tist His importance lies in his awareness of the differ- animals are rarely seen in the wild because their unusu-
ence between theology and philosophy and between al coloration makes them inviting prey.
revealed truth and experimental science. He believed In many partial albino plants, only the flowers have no
that different areas of knowledge follow different sets of pigment. But some albino plants also lack chlorophyll
laws and require different methods of investigation. and the leaves are also white. Such plants die unless
Albertus was advanced for his time in his knowledge they can get food from their surroundings, because
of the sciences. He wrote about many scientific subjects, plants need chlorophyll to make food. Lawrence cwrt
including astronomy, chemistry, geography, and physi- See also Heredity (diagram: The transmission of al-
ology, using his own scientific observations. He devoted binism); Horse (Color types; picture).
much of his time to popularizing the writings of the an- Albright, Madeleine Korbel (1937- served as ),

cient Greek philosopher Aristotle. Albertus wrote a secretary of state of the United States from 1997 to 2001.
large number of commentaries on Aristotles philoso- She was the first woman to hold the post President Bill
phy. These writings influenced Saint Thomas Aquinas, Clinton appointed her to the office. Albright had served
Albertus s most famous pupil, and other theologians as U.S. ambassador to the United Nations (UN) from 993 1

known as scholastics (see Scholasticism). to 997. At the UN, she became known as an outspoken
1

Albertus Magnus was born into a noble family in supporter of human rights and the use of UN peace-
Lauingen, near Ulm. He attended the University of Padua keeping forces in troubled areas.
where he joined the Dominican religious order
in Italy, Albright was born in Prague, Czechoslovakia (now
in 1 He studied and taught at a number of European
223. Czech Republic). Her maiden name was Madeleine Kor-
universities but spent most of his time in Cologne, Ger- bel. Her father was a Czech diplomat When Nazi Ger-
many. Albertus served as a high-ranking Dominican offi- man forces occupied Czechoslovakia in 1939, her father
Germany, as a bishop, and as a representative of
cial in fled with his family to Yugoslavia and, eventually, to the
the pope. His feast day is November 1 5. Albertus is the United Kingdom. The fami-
patron saint of students of the natural sciences. ly returned to Czechoslo-

Marilyn |. Harran vakia in 1945 but fled again

Albigenses, al buh JEHN seez, were a group named in 1948 when Communists

for Albi, a city in southern France. They were part of a took over the country.
sect called the Cathari, which flourished in parts of They settled in the United
France, Germany, and Italy during the 1100s and 1200s. States.
The Albigenses believed that the principles of good and Albright received a
evil continually opposed each other in the world. They bachelors degree from
believed that worldly things represented the evil force Wellesley College in 1959
and that the human spirit was the only good. They and a doctorate in govern-
taught that the spirit had been imprisoned in the body ment from Columbia Uni-
as punishment for sinning, and that the highest good versity in 1976. She was
Department ot State
was to free the spirit from the body. The Albigenses op- married to Joseph Al- \JS-

posed marriage, bearing children, and eating meat and bright, a journalist, from Madeleine Korbel Albright
other animal products. They advocated suicide, espe- 1959 to 1983.
cially by starvation. Albright served as a member of President Jimmy Car
The Albigenses grew in popularity until the church ter's National Security Council staff from 1978 to 1981.
pronounced them heretics in the mid-1 100s. But the no- She was a professor of international affairs at George-
bility and the townsfolk supported them. The church town University from 1982 tO 1993. Andrew Bennett
conducted a crusade against ihe Albigenses in the early Albumin, al BYOO muhn, also spelled albumen, is a
1200s. Crusaders and the Inquisition gradually de- sticky, gelatinlike substance. Its best-known form is the
stroyed the Albigenses' power, though there were brief white of an egg. Albumin belongs to the class of foods
rebellions from time to time. By about 350, the Albi- 1 called proteins (see Protein). The word is spelled albu-
genses had disappeared in Western Europe. See also men when it refers to egg whites, but albumin when re
 Alchemy 333

ferring to the general substance. The albumin of egg the mid-1970s included a new convention center and a
white is called ovalbumin. The albumin in milk is called public library. In the late 1900s, the city completed ex-
lactalbumin. Serum albumin is the albumin in blood pansions of the convention center and the Albuquerque
serum. It makes up over half of the protein in blood International Airport. Kelly Brewer
serum and helps stabilize other serum proteins. Some For the monthly weather in Albuquerque, see New
albumin found in vegetable matter. All albumins con-
is Mexico (Climate).
tain carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. Alcan Aluminium Limited is one of the worlds

Albumin becomes a solid mass when heated. If albu- largestproducers of aluminum and a manufacturer of
min is heated with a liquid, it either settles to the bottom aluminum products. Its headquarters are in Montreal,
as sediment or forms a scum at the top. The sediment or Canada. Alcan owns and operates companies in over 20
the scum collects foreign substances as it forms. Albu- countries and maintains sales offices worldwide. These
mins are used to collect impurities from liquids in sugar companies together are involved in all aspects of the
refining, industrial dyeing, and making photographic aluminum business: bauxite mining, alumina refining,
chemicals. Kermit L Carraway aluminum smelting, manufacturing, sales, and recycling.
See also Blood (Regulating the volume of blood com- In addition, Alcan owns hydroelectric power plants that

ponents); Egg (The parts of an egg). produce the energy required for aluminum smelting.
Albuquerque, AL buh kur keeipop. 448,607; met. area Industries served by Alcan include the four major
pop. 712,738), is the largest city in New Mexico. It serves markets for aluminum products: containers and packag-
as a financial, industrial, trade, and transportation center ing, transportation, building and construction, and the
of the Southwest. The city is also a leading center for en- electrical industry. products include automotive
Its

ergy, space, and defense research. For location, see parts, electric cables, chemicals, foil goods, and siding
New Mexico (political map). Albuquerque's heritage of for buildings.
both Pueblo Indian and Spanish culture gives the city a Alcan was formed in 1902 as a Canadian firm owned
special atmosphere. by the Aluminum Company of America (now Alcoa Inc.),
Description. Albuquerque, the county seat of a business based in the United States. In 1928, Alcan be-
Bernalillo County, covers about 168 square miles (435 came an independent company and took control of
square kilometers). The Albuquerque skyline includes a most of Alcoa's business outside the United States.
number of skyscrapers, but many low, flat-roofed, Critically reviewed by Alcan Aluminium Limited

adobe houses help the city keep its Indian character. See also Aluminum.
One of the city's landmarks, the Roman Catholic Church Alcatraz, AL kuh traz, was a famous federal prison on
of San Felipe de Neri, served as a fortress that protected Alcatraz Island in San Francisco Bay. The name Alcatraz
the early settlers during Indian raids. East of the
city, the comes from a Spanish word meaning pelican. The island
Sandia Mountains provide ski slopes, an aerial tram, and stands on 12 acres (5 hectares) of solid rock, and Alca-
other recreational facilities. Albuquerque is the home of traz was often called The Rock. More than 1 mile (1 .6
the Albuquerque Technical-Vocational Institute, the Uni- kilometers) of water separates it from the mainland. For
versity of New Mexico, and Southwestern Indian Poly- the location of Alcatraz, see San Francisco (map).
technic Institute. Alcatraz Island became the site of the first permanent
Federal nuclear weapon research and defense-related military fort on the West Coast in 1854. A military prison
research rank as the chief industries in Albuquerque. was added in 1861. In 1909, the wooden prison was re-
Nearby Kirtland Air Force Base is a defense and energy placed by a more modern concrete cell block. Alcatraz
research center. Sandia National Laboratories, on the became a federal prison in 1934, built to confine some
Kirtland base, conducts energy research and develop- of the most dangerous criminals in the United States. In
ment programs and is the largest employer in the state. 1963, the federal government decided Alcatraz was too
Phillips Laboratory is also at the base and isone of the expensive to maintain and supply, and closed In 1972, it.

Air Force's largest weapons laboratories. Tourism is the Alcatraz became part of the Golden Gate National Recre-
city's most profitable nongovernment industry. Clothing ation Area. Visitors may tour the prison.
and electronics food-processing plants, and
factories, James O. Finckenauer
health care facilities employ many Albuquerqueans. Alcazar, AL kuh zahr, is the name usually given to
Government and history. Albuquerque has a may- palaces built by the Moorish rulers in Spanish cities.
or-council form of government. The voters elect a mayor They sometimes had walls around them for defense,
and nine councilors to four-year terms. and were like fortresses. The one in Toledo, Spain, was
Francisco Cuervo y Valdes, the governor of the Span- destroyed during the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939). The
ish province of New Mexico, founded Albuquerque in Alhambra is perhaps the best-known alcazar (see Al-
1706. The community was named for the Duke of Albur- hambra). William | Hennessey
querque, a Spanish nobleman. The town became part of Alchemy, AL kuh mee, is a blend of pseudoscience,

the United States as a result of the Mexican War (1846- magic, and mystical philosophy. It was popular from the
1 848). Albuquerque was incorporated as a city in 1 891 . It time of early Christianity until about 1700. Alchemists
had about 3,785 people and served as a trading center tried to change less costly metals into silver and gold.
for sheep ranchers. They also tried to find the elixir of life (a substance that
After World War II ended in 1945, an increase in mili- would cure disease and lengthen life). They failed to find
tary spending created thousands of jobs in the nuclear it, but their work in preparing and
studying chemical
research centers in and near Albuquerque. The city's substances helped the science of chemistry develop.
population more than doubled from 1950 to 1960, rising Some alchemists were only fakes. But others were
from 96,815 to 201,189. An urban renewal program in learned people who had more philosophical goals. They
334 Alcibiades

felt that if they learned how to make gold from lesser cibiades then became an adviser to the Persian leader
metals, they could also perfect other things. They con- Tissaphernes. In 41 1 B.C, the Athenians asked Alcibi-
sidered gold the perfect metal because of its beautiful ades to lead their fleet at Samos. With this navy, he de-
luster and its resistance to rusting. feated the Spartans in several battles and became a
Some alchemy was practiced in China and India be- hero. In 406 B.C, however, the Spartan general Lysander
fore the birth of Christ. But it developed into a major sys- defeated Alcibiadess fleet After Athens s final defeat in
tem in Egypt during the next 300 years. The Greek- the war, Alcibiades fled to Asia Minor (now Turkey).
speaking scholars of Alexandria used it to try to explain There, his enemies set fire to his house, and he died try-
how Egyptian artisans made things. Greek-Egyptian ing tO escape. Peter Krentz

alchemy spread through Syria and Persia to the Arabs. It Alcid. See Auk.
spread to Western Europe in the 100s and 1200s. 1 Alcindor, Lew. See Abdul-Jabbar, Kareem.
Alchemists drew their theories of matter from the an- Alcoa Inc. is the world s leading producer of alu-
cient Greeks. They believed that all matter was made up minum products. It maintains operating facilities in
of a single, formless substance. Alchemists thought this more than 100 locations worldwide. Alcoa is engaged in
substance became the four elements— earth, air, fire, allsteps of aluminum production, from the mining of
and water— when combined with hot or cold and wet or the aluminum ore bauxiteXo the fabrication of aluminum
dry. They thought they could change one substance into into finished products. Alcoa also has plants for recy-
another merely by changing the balance of these ele- cling used aluminum. The company s wide range of
ments, a process called transmutation. This theory led products includes bars, building products, castings,
them to try producing gold from other metals. In the electrical conductors, fasteners, foil, forgings, plates,
early 1500s, Swiss scientist Paracelsus tried to substitute rods, sheets, tubing, and wire.
sulfur, mercury, and salt for earth air fire, and water. Al- Alcoa is also involved in the shipping industry and in
chemists also searched for the philosophers stone (a the manufacture of chemicals and nonaluminum prod-
magical substance that was supposedly able to make the ucts. It licenses technology to other firms and sells engi-
transmutation process easier). neering and construction services.
Gold s lasting quality led many persons to believe that The company was organized in 1888 as the Pittsburgh
they would find the secret of long life or even immortali- Reduction Company. It was formed to produce alu-
ty if they could discover how to make gold from lesser minum by a process discovered by the American scien-
substances. The Chinese once believed that eating from tist Charles M. Hall in 1886. The company s name was

golden dishes prolonged life. changed Aluminum Company of America (Alcoa)

to the
Alchemy was associated with many religious beliefs. It in 1907. It adopted its present name in 1999. The compa-
was believed that the techniques used to make gold ny s headquarters are in Pittsburgh. Pennsylvania.
were symbolically related to death, corruption, regener- Critically re\ tewed b\ Alcoa Inc.

ation, and resurrection. Alchemy and astrology became See also Alcan Aluminum Limited; Aluminum (The
closely related because of the belief that each heavenly growth of the aluminum industry).
body represented and controlled a certain metal. Some Alcock and Brown, AWL kahk, were
pioneer British
thought the sun represented gold; the moon, silver; who made the
a\ iators nonstop flight across the At-
first

Mars, iron; Venus, copper; Jupiter, tin; Saturn, lead; and lantic Ocean. Sir )ohn William Alcock (1892-1919) was
Mercury, the metal mercury, also called quicksilver. Al- the pilot, and Sir Arthur Whitten Brown (1886-1948) was
chemists believed that the positions of these bodies in- the navigator. On June 14, 1919, the two men took off
fluenced the success or failure of their work. from Lesters Field near St. John s, Newfoundland (now
Alan Dundes Newfoundland and Labrador), in a twin-engine Vickers
See also Astrology; Chemistry (History); Gold: Metal- Vimy a converted bomber. They landed the plane in a
lurgy (History). bog near Clifden. Ireland, the next day. They traveled
Alcibiades, al suh BY uh Dffz (450?-404 B.C), was an 1,950 miles (3,138 kilometersi in 16 hours 27 minutes at
Athenian general. He became a central figure in the an average speed of 1 18 miles (190 kilometersi per hour.
Peloponnesian War, which was fought between Athens Alcock and Brown were knighted for their effort by
and Sparta from 431 to 404 B.C King George V. They also received a prize of 10,000
Alcibiades was the ward of the Athenian leader Peri- pounds iS46,200i that the London Daily Mail newspaper
cles and a favorite pupil of Socrates a famous Greek had offered to the crew of the first airplane to make a
philosopher. He entered politics in 420 B.C and soon nonstop transatlantic crossing.
became popular for his aggressive foreign policy. Alcock was born on Nov. 6, 1892, in Manchester, Eng-
Alcibiadess policy led Athens to a battle with Sparta land. During World War (1914-1918), he was consid-
I

in 418 B.C, which Athens lost Later, he persuaded the ered one of the best pilots in the United Kingdom's Roy-
Athenians to invade Sicily In 415 B.C, just before the in- al Naval Air Service. He died in an air crash on Dec. 18,

vasion began, citizens accused Alcibiades of defacing months after his transatlantic flight
1919, six
statues of the god Hermes and mocking the religious
of Brown was born of American parents in Glasgow,
rituals known as the Eleusinian Mysteries. The Athenians Scotland on July 23, 1886. He became a British citizen
refused his request for an immediate trial, so he sailed and served in the Royal Flying Corps. He died on Oct 4,
on to Sicily. Shortly after arriving in Sicily, Alcibiades 1948. Paul R Man
was called back to Athens for trial. But he escaped to Alcohol refers to a class of chemical compounds, all of
Sparta. He advised the Spartans to aid the Sicilians, and which consist of chemically bonded atoms of carbon,
the Athenians were defeated in Sicily. hydrogen, and oxygen. All alcohol molecules contain at
Later, the Spartans grew suspicious of Alcibiades. Al- least one hydroxy! group. A hydroxyl group is a specific
 Alcoholic beverage 335

arrangement atoms in which a hydrogen atom is

of Normal propanol is made commercially from ethyl-
bonded oxygen atom. In alcohol molecules, the
to an ene and synthesis gas, a mixture of hydrogen and car-
oxygen atom in the hydroxyl group is, in turn, bonded to bon monoxide, in the presence of a rhodium or cobalt
a carbon atom. catalyst. Propyl alcohol is used to prepare other chemi-
People commonly use the word alcohol to refer to cals, and it is used as a solvent for sticky substances
such beverages as beer, wine, and liquors. But there are called resins.
many types of alcohols, and they have a variety of uses. Isopropanol is produced by reaction of the gas propy-
This article discusses the chemical properties and com- lene, a component of crude oil, with water in the pres-
mercial uses of several alcohols. For information on al- ence of an acid or metal catalyst. Isopropanol is mainly
coholic beverages, see Alcoholic beverage. used to produce acetone, a common industrial solvent.
Methanol, also called methyl alcohol or wood alco- It is also used as a rubbing alcohol, and in cosmetics

hol, is the simplest of the alcohols. It has one hydroxyl and lotions.
group, and its chemical formula is CH,OH. Methanol is a Ethanediol, or ethylene glycol, is a highly toxic alco-
highly toxic, colorless liquid. It boils at 149 F (65 C) and hol that is used mainly as an antifreeze in automobile ra-

freezes at -137 F (-94 C). diators. It is produced by the reaction of ethylene with
Methanol originally was produced from wood, but it water and oxygen in the presence of a silver oxide
is now commercially produced primarily from methane, catalyst. Ethanediol has a boiling point of 388 F
the chief component of natural gas. The majority of (198 C) and a freezing point of -9 F (-13 C). It
commercially produced methanol is converted to form- has two hydroxyl groups and a chemical formula of
aldehyde, a chemical used to make plastics. As an indus- HOCH,CH OH. 2

trial solvent (substance that dissolves other substances), Other alcohols include plasticizer alcohols, which
methanol is important in the manufacture of paints and have 6 to 1 1 carbon atoms. Plasticizers are used in the
varnishes. Methanol also functions as a fuel-line an- manufacture of plastics, and they give these substances
tifreeze for automobiles, and it serves as an ingredient flexibility.

in the production of other chemicals. Methanol can be Alcohols that have more than 1 1 carbon atoms are
used as a motor fuel, but it is more expensive than other called detergent alcohols. Manufacturers use these alco-
fuels. See Methanol. hols to make detergents, soaps, and shampoos. In com-
Ethanol, also called ethyl alcohol, is the alcohol found bination with other chemicals, these alcohols have the
in alcoholic beverages. Ethanol is also used for a variety ability to dissolve dirt and grease in water in a process
of other purposes. It serves as a solvent for chemical re- called emulsification. Robert C Cadwood

actions and for lacquers, varnishes, and stains. It is also See also Antifreeze; Glycerol; Solvent.
important in the preparation of chemicals used as deter- Alcohol Problems, American Council on. See
gents, flavorings, and fragrances. When ethanol is American Council on Alcohol Problems.
added to gasoline, it improves the octane rating of the Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms, Bureau of, is
gasoline. an agency in the United States Department of the Treas-
Ethanol produced by several methods. For example,
is ury. The bureau, which is often called the ATF, has re-
ethanol used in beverages is produced by fermenting sponsibilities for regulation, law enforcement, and tax
fruits, grains, or vegetables. However, most ethanol collection.
used for commercial purposes is made by heating ethyl- The ATF's regulatory mission is to administer federal
ene and water under pressure in the presence of a regulations for the production and distribution of alco-
phosphoric acid catalyst (see Catalysis). Ethylene is a gas hol, explosives, and firearms. ATF regulators inspect fac-
that is a component of crude oil. toriesand businesses and test products. The bureau is-
The United States government controls and taxes the sues licenses and permits to regulated businesses in the
production and distribution of ethanol in the United firearms, explosives, liquor,and tobacco industries.
States and taxes ethyl alcohol used in alcoholic bever- Each year, the ATF collects billions of dollars in taxes
ages. For this reason, ethanol manufacturers in the Unit- from manufacturers of alcohol and tobacco.
ed States denature (make unfit to drink) most of the Most ATF criminal cases involve people suspected of
ethanol that will be used for purposes other than alco- the illegal possession and use of firearms and explo-
holic drinks. Manufacturers denature ethanol by mixing sives. Targets of investigation include killers for hire,
it with methanol or other poisonous chemicals. gun smugglers, bombers, and arsonists. ATF special
Ethanol boils at 172 F (78 C) and freezes at -173 F agents go undercover to break up illegal commerce in
(-114 C). Its chemical formula is CH,CH,OH. It has one firearms, drug smuggling rings, outlaw motorcycle
hydroxyl group. gangs, and other criminal groups. The ATF works close-
Propanol, or propyl alcohol, has one hydroxyl group, ly with other law enforcement agencies.

and its chemical formula is CH.CH.CH.OH. There are The ATF was chartered in 1972. Its headquarters are in
two forms of propanol, called isomers. Isomers have the Washington, D.C Franklin E. Zimring

same kind and number of atoms. However, they have Alcoholic beverage is a drink that contains ethyl al-
different molecular structures and therefore different cohol. Alcoholic beverages are made chiefly from such
chemical and physical properties. For example, one of grains as barley, corn, and rye, or from grapes or other
the isomers of propanol, called normal propanol, 1- fruits.

propanol, or n-propyl alcohol, boils at 208 F (98 C) and There are two main groups of alcoholic beverages,
freezes at -195 F (-126 C). But the other isomer, fermented drinks and distilled drinks. Fermented drinks
known as isopropanol, 2-propanol, or isopropyl alcohol, contain from 5 percent or less to 20 percent ethyl alco-
boils at 181 F (83 C) and freezes at -126 FI-88 Q hol. The principal fermented beverages are beer and
336 Alcoholic beverage

wine. Distilled beverages, also called spirits or liquor, largely on the kind and amount of grain, fruit, and yeast
contain from 12 to 55 per cent or more ethyl alcohol. used, plus variations in the fermentation, distillation,
They include brandy, gin, rum, vodka, and whiskey. and aging processes.
Americans drink about 5| billion gallons (21.8 billion li- The percentage of alcohol in beverages is ex-
distilled
ters! of beer,570 million gallons (2.2 billion liters) of pressed as proof. In the United proof equals
States,
wine, and 416 million gallons (1.6 billion liters) of spirits twice the amount of alcohol in the beverage. For exam-
annually. The United States ranks about 20th among na- ple, a beverage that is 80 proof contains 40 per cent al-
tions in the per capita (per person) consumption of alco- cohol. In Canada and Great Britain, the amount of alco-
holic beverages. hol is about 57 per cent at 100 proof.
Taxes on alcoholic beverages provide a major source The leading distilled beverages in the United States
of revenue for the United States government and state include, in order of popularity: (1) whiskey, (2) vodka, (3)
and local governments. About 56 per cent of this reve- liqueurs, (4) gin, (5) rum, and (6) brandy.
nue comes from the sale of spirits, which carry much Whiskey is made chiefly from barley, corn, or rye.
higher taxes than do fermented beverages. Taxes and Most whiskey is a blend of as many as 40 kinds of whis-
other fees make up approximately half the price of a keys made from different grains. Whiskey may be aged
bottle of spirits. six years or more. Aging develops the flavor and gives
Ethyl alcohol slows the activity of the nervous system. the beverage an amber color. Whiskey from Scotland,
Alcoholic beverages have a relaxing effect that many called Scotch whisky or just Scotch, is known for its
people find pleasurable. However, an excessive amount smoky It is made from a mash that consists prima-
flavor.
of alcohol can cause intoxication. Prolonged, excessive rily Whiskeys made in the United States in-
of barley.
drinking of alcoholic beverages may lead to alcoholism clude bourbon and blended whiskey. Bourbon is pro-
and various other disorders. duced from a mash consisting chiefly of corn. American
blended whiskey may contain many different types of
Fermented beverages whiskeys.
Beer, wine, and other fermented alcoholic beverages Most whiskey ranges from 80 to 1 00 proof. Whiskey
are made by adding yeast to certain substances that served straight or neat is served unchilled. Whiskey may
contain sugar. The yeast begins the fermentation proc- also be served on the rocks (with ice) or mixed with
ess, which converts the sugar into ethyl alcohol and car- water, carbonated water, or other beverages. In addi-
bon dioxide gas. tion, it is used in many kinds of cocktails.
Beer is made chiefly from barley malt. To obtain the Vodka is made from barley, corn, or rye, or some-
malt, brewers soak barley in water and make it sprout. times from potatoes. It varies from 80 to 1 00 proof, is not
Then they dry the barley and remove the sprouts, leav- aged, and has no color. Vodka also has no taste or odor,
ing only starch, or malt. The malt is ground and mixed and so it is usually mixed with orange juice, tomato
with water to form a mash. It is then added to another juice, tonic water, or some other beverage.
mash, a preparation of cereal grain such as corn or rice Liqueurs, also called cordials, are made by flavoring
that has been crushed and heated. This process con- brandy, gin, or other spirits with various parts of plants,
verts the starch into sugar. Dried flowers from the hops such as flowers, fruits, and leaves. Liqueurs contain at
plant are added for flavor, and then the mash is fer- least 2| per cent sugar. The most popular flavors in-
mented. Finally, brewers age beer for several weeks to clude apricot, blackberry, cherry, chocolate, peach, and
develop its taste. peppermint. Liqueurs range from 25 to 110 proof and
Most beer contains from 2 to 6 per cent alcohol. have a variety of colors. They may be served neat, on the
Lager beer, the most popular type in the United States, rocks, or as part of various cocktails.
has a golden color, but some beers are dark brown. Gin is a mixture of alcohol and water, flavored with
Beer is a foaming, carbonated beverage and is generally juniper berries and other ingredients. Gin varies from 80
served chilled. to 94 proof. It can be mixed with a wine called vermouth
Wine. Almost all wine made from grapes, which
is to make a martini, one of the most popular cocktails. Gin
consist largely of sugar. Wine can also be made from also may be mixed with lime juice, tonic water, or other
apples, cherries, or other fruits. Winemakers crush the beverages.
fruit and then ferment the juice. Wine may be aged for Rum is made from the juice or syrup of sugar cane,
four years or longer. Most wine has an alcohol content or from molasses. Rum
is at least 80 proof and may be

of 7 to 24 per cent. Wine may be red, white, or rose white or amber, depending largely on the aging proc-
(pink), and either sweet or dry (unsweet). Wine is served ess. It is usually mixed with coconut juice, lime juice,
chilled or at room temperature. pineapple juice, cola, or some other beverage.
Other fermented beverages include ale, hard Brandy is distilled from grape wine or other fer-
cider, and sake. Ale is brewed in much the same way as mented fruit juices. Brandy made from grape wine is at
beer. Hard cider is made from apples. Sake is a Japanese least 80 proof. A grape brandy called cognac is distilled
drink made from rice. in the area of Cognac, a town in France. Brandy is aged

for two to eight years. Flavored brandies, made from

Distilled beverages
such fruits as blackberries, cherries, or plums, are at
beverages are made chiefly from
Distilled alcoholic least 70 proof. They are named for the fruit whose juice
fermented grain mash or fermented fruit juice. In the is used in making them. Brandy is usually served neat or

distillation process, the mash or juice is heated, giving mixed with another spirit, such as a liqueur.
offvapors of alcohol. Distillers collect the vapors and Other distilled beverages include aquavit and te-
cool them to form a liquid. The flavor of spirits depends quila. Aquavit, also spelled akvavit, is a Scandinavian
 Alcoholism 337

beverage made from grains or potatoes and flavored Alcoholism has four main symptoms: (1) craving, (2)
with caraway seeds. Tequila, a Mexican drink, is distilled lack of control, (3) physical tolerance, and (4) physical de-

from the fermented juice of the maguey plant pendence. Craving is a strong need to drink in spite of
serious harmful consequences, such as drinking-related
History
illnesses or job problems. Lack of control is the inability
The first alcoholic beverages were fermented. Scenes to stop drinking once a drinking episode starts. Physical
showing fermentation appear on pottery made in Meso- tolerance is the need to consume
increasing amounts of
potamia as early as 4200 B.C Brandy is probably the old- alcohol to feel its dependence occurs
effects. Physical
est distilled beverage. It may have been made as early as when people's bodies become so accustomed to alco-
A.D. 100. By the 1400s, whiskey had been distilled in Ire- hol that they have withdrawal symptoms after they stop
land and Scotland. Gin was first made by a Flemish phy- drinking. Symptoms of withdrawal include shakiness,
sician in the 1 600s. The first distillery in what is now the rapid heartbeat, nausea, sweating, and anxiety. Physical
United States was established in 1640 in the area of pre- dependence does not occur in all alcoholics.

sent-day New York City. Rum was first distilled in Barba- People who are not alcoholics may also have serious
dos about 1650. The first Canadian distillery was estab- problems caused by excessive drinking. These prob-
lished in Quebec City in 1769 for the production of rum. lems include difficulties at work or school, neglect of
In 1789, the first bourbon was made near Georgetown, family responsibilities, and strains in personal relation-
Kentucky. ships. Drinking that causes problems but does not meet
During the 1800s, a movement began in the United the formal definition for alcoholism is called alcohol
States to prohibit the manufacture and sale of alcoholic abuse.
beverages. A constitutional amendment banning the Causes of alcoholism. Scientists do not yet fully un-
beverages went into effect in 1920, but thousands of derstand what causes alcoholism. Although many peo-
Americans defied the prohibition law. In 1930, the feder- ple use alcohol at times, only a small percentage devel-
al government estimated that about 800 million gallons op drinking problems. Researchers are beginning to
(3 billion liters) of alcoholic beverages were being pro- identify ways that the brains of alcoholics differ from the
duced in the country annually. The prohibition amend- brains of nonalcoholics. For example, tests show that al-
ment was repealed in 1933. coholics and nonalcoholics have different patterns of
Throughout history, there have been attempts to pro- brain electrical activity. Such differences may provide
hibit or limit the drinking of alcoholic beverages. Coun- evidence that alcohol does not affect the brains of alco-
tries have imposed various measures to limit alcohol holics in the same way it affects nonalcoholics. Because
use. These measures include rationing alcoholic bever- of the way their brains respond, problem drinkers may
ages, imposing legal bans against drinking, and taxing develop an unusually strong desire for alcohol's effects.
alcoholic beverages heavily. Some religions prohibit the Research shows that heredity plays an important role
Consumption of alcohol. Lisa M. Tate in alcoholism. For example, the pattern of brain electri-
Related articles in World Book include: cal activity associated with alcoholism appears to be in-
Alcohol Beer Fermentation Prohibition herited. Other studies show that people with an alco-
Alcoholics Brewing Nutrition Whiskey
holic parent have a greater risk of developing the dis-
Anonymous Champagne (Beware of Wine
ease than do children of nonalcoholics. Scientists are
Alcoholism Distilling alcohol)
working to identify the particular genes (chemical units
Alcoholics Anonymous (A.A.) is a worldwide or- of heredity) that increase risk. Most experts think that

ganization of men and women who help each other many genes are involved and that environment also
solve their common problem of alcoholism. They also plays a key role in developing the disease. Environmen-
offer to share their recovery experiences with others talinfluences may include income level, family stability,
who have a drinking problem and want to do something and community acceptance of drinking. Experts think
about it The fellowship of Alcoholics Anonymous was that the relativeimportance of various genes and envi-
founded in 1935. It has about 85,000 local groups in the ronmental factors may differ among individuals.
United States, Canada, and about 130 other countries. Other research focuses on understanding how alco-
The people in each group meet to share their problems hol affects neurotransmitters, chemicals that carry mes-
and experiences. A.A. is not a medical or religious or- sagesamong nerve cells. Studies show that alcohol af-
ganization. It is concerned only with the personal recov- many neurotransmitters in the brain, including
fects
ery and continued sobriety of individual alcoholics who dopamine and serotonin. Among other messages, these
turn to A.A. for help. The General Service Office is the chemicals carry information about pleasure, sadness,
center of A.A. activities. The organization's headquarters and other moods. Prolonged drinking changes levels of
are in New York City. See also Al-Anon. Critically neurotransmitter activity, and the levels do not immedi-
reviewed by Alcoholics Anonymous ately return to normal when drinking stops. As a result,
Alcoholism is a serious disease in which people have problem drinkers may not feel right" when they stop
an overwhelming desire for the mental and physical ef- drinking because their neurotransmitters have adapted
fects of drinking alcoholic beverages. The formal term to alcohol.
for alcoholism is alcohol dependence. Alcohol is one of Effects of alcoholism. Alcohol affects the entire
the most widely used drugs in the history of the world. body. Health problems caused by long-term drinking in-
Many adults drink alcoholic beverages on social or cer- clude damage to the brain, stomach, intestines, and
emonial occasions but have no wish to consume large heart Liver problems, including a disorder called cirrho-
amounts regularly. People with alcoholism, who are sis, are especially common in alcoholics. The liver plays
called alcoholics, feel a strong, continuing urge to drink. a key role in breaking down alcohol, and excess drink-
338 Alcott, Bronson

ing puts abnormal demands on the organ. When alco- William Ellery Channing, a
holics stop drinking, some experience
form of a severe prominent Unitarian min-
withdrawal called delirium tremens Delirium tremens is ister, was also a friend. All
a state of extreme confusion that is sometimes accompa- these people influenced
nied by hallucinations (seeing or hearing things that are Alcott and helped form
not really present). Drinking is also a factor in many vehi- her ideas about politics
cle crashes, falls, and other accidents. and social reform.
Treatment aims to help alcoholics stop drinking and most of her
Alcott spent
remain sober Behavioral treatments and medications childhood in poverty be-
are two important approaches that have succeeded with cause her father invested
some alcoholics. Behavioral treatments include partici- in many idealistic projects
pation in Alcoholics Anonymous (AA> and various types that failed Atan early age,
of counseling. Medications include tranquilizers called she began to help support
Louisa May Alcott
benzodiazepines, sold under such trade names as Libri- the family by working as a
um and Valium Benzodiazepines are used in the first seamstress, a household
few days after a person stops drinking to help prevent servant, and a teacher. Her first book. Flower Fables
symptoms of withdrawal. Another medication called nal- (1 854), consisted of fairy stories she made up to tell one
trexone may be prescribed for longer periods in combi- of her students.
nation with counseling. For many people, naltrexone Alcotts first novel, Moods, was published in 1864. She
lessens the craving for alcohol. A medication called became editor of Merry's Museum, a magazine for girls
disulfiram, sold under the trade name Antabuse, dis- in 1 urged her to write a book
867. That year, a publisher
courages alcohol use by causing nausea, vomiting, and She wrote Little Women, which became an im-
for girls.
other unpleasant symptoms when people drink mediate success. The income from sales of Little
Enoch Cordis Women gave her financial security. In Little Women, Al-
Related articles in World Book include: cott gave American juvenile fiction an enduring family
Al-Anon Cirrhosis Mental illness story, a new kind of girl character, and a less instructive
Alcoholics Delirium tremens (Substance use narrative style. The March family in the book is largely
Anonymous Disulfiram disorders) the Alcott family. Jo March, the central character, is
Benzodiazepine Drug abuse Pancreatitis Louisa. The author continued the story of the March
Breath testing
family in Little Men (1871) and Jo s Boys (1886).
Additional resources Alcott s other books for young readers include An
Barbour, Scott, ed Alcohol: Opposing Viewpoints. Creenhaven, Old-Fashioned Girl'(1870) and Eight Cousins (1875). She
1998. also wrote novels for adults, including Work: A Story of
Ketcham, Katherine, and others. Beyond the Influence: Under- Experience (1 873) and A Modern Mephistophe/es II 877),
standing and Defeating Alcoholism. Bantam, 2000
but these Were leSS Successful. Alan Grihben

Alcott, A WL kuht or A WL kaht, Bronson ( 1 799-1 888),

Additional resources
was an American social reformer and a leader of a phil-
Ruth, Amy Louisa May Alcott. Lerner, 1999. Younger rpadpr<;
osophical movement From
called Transcendentalism.
Stern Madeline B. Louisa May Alcott 1950. Reprint. Northeast-
1834 to 1839, Alcott operated the experimental Temple ern Univ. Pr., 1999.
School in Boston. He tried to develop the bodies and
spiritual natures— as well as the minds— of his students. Alden, AWL duhn, John and Priscilla, came to
Alcott was a leading abolitionist He opposed the America on the Mayflowerm 1620. They became hus-
Mexican War (1846-1848) because he felt it resulted from band and wife, probably in 1622. They were among the
a desire by the United States government to extend slav- first Mayflower passengers to be married in America.

ery into Texas. In the 1840 s, Alcott helped found two co- The Aldens had 1 children. Their descendants include
1

operative experimental communities— the socialist President John Quincy Adams and American poets
Brook Farm and the vegetarian Fruitlands. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow and William Cullen
Amos Bronson Alcott was born near Wolcott, Con- Bryant. Longfellow wrote about the couple s marriage in
necticut He was the father of Louisa May Alcott, who his fictional poem The Courtship of Miles Standish.
wrote the famous novel Little Women. johnciendenning John Alden (1599-1687) was a cooper (barrel maker)
See also Brook Farm; Transcendentalism. from Harwich, in the county of Essex, England. The Pil-
Alcott, A WL kuht or A WL kaht, Louisa May (1 832- grims hired him to accompany them on their voyage to
1888), was an American author. Her best-known book, America. When the Mayflower sailed from England,
Little Women (1 868-1 869), tells the story of four sisters Alden had not yet decided whether he would stay in
growing up in a New England town during the mid- America. But he eventually became one of the leaders of
1800 s. Alcott also worked to gain voting rights for the Plymouth Colony. Alden served as an assistant to the
women and was active in the temperance (antidrinking) governor of the colony most of the time from about
movement. 1631 until he died. He served as treasurer from 1656 to
Alcott was born in Germantown, Pennsylvania, but 1658. In 1634, authorities held Alden on a technical
she grew up in Boston and Concord, Massachusetts. charge of murder because he had favored defending a
Her father, Bronson Alcott, was a philosopher and edu- Plymouth outpost against attack, and in the resulting
cational reformer. The family s friends and neighbors in- fight two men were killed. However, he was acquitted.
cluded the writers Ralph Waldo Emerson, Margaret Ful- Alden was a stern, unyielding man, and he led in the
ler, Nathaniel Hawthorne, and Henry David Thoreau. persecution of Quakers and Baptists.
 Aleixandre, Vicente 339

Mullens Alden (1602?-1685?) was the daughter

Priscilla considerable success in Germany and Russia. Aldridge
of William Mullens,one of the Pilgrims. The Mullenses became a British citizen in 1863. Stanley l Glenn

were from Dorking, in the county of Surrey, England. Aldrin, A WL drihn, Buzz (1 930- a United States
),

James Axtell astronaut, was the second person to set foot on the
Alder, AWL duhr, is the name of a group of about 30 moon. He and Neil A. Armstrong landed there in the
shrubs and small trees that grow in moist ground. Apollo 1 lunar module on July 20, 1969. Aldrin stepped
1

Alders are found in temperate regions of the Northern onto the moon 19 minutes after Armstrong.
Hemisphere. They also grow at high elevations in parts Aldrin was born in Montclair, New Jersey, on Jan. 20,
of Central and South America, Asia, and North Africa. 1930, and was named Edwin Eugene Aldrin, Jr. His fami-
Alders have oval leaves with toothed edges and pro- ly nicknamed him Buzz, short for Buzzer, his young sis-

duce separate male and female flowers. The female ter's pronunciation of the word brother. He legally
floweis grow in catkins (clusters of stalkless flowers) that changed his name to Buzz Aldrin as an adult.
harden into scaly, woody conelike structures. The struc- Aldrin graduated from the U.S. Military Academy in

tures have nuts and are later shed by the plant. 1951 and became an Air Force officer. After completing
pilot training in 1952, he flew 66 combat missions in the
Korean War. he received a doctor's degree in
In 1963,
astronautics from the Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology. He became an astronaut later that year.
Aldrin piloted the Gemini 12 space flight in 1966. Dur-
ing this flight, he left the spacecraft and "walked" in
space. He was partially or completely outside the space-
craft for 5 \ hours. This experience helped prove that
people can work outside an orbiting vehicle.
In 1971, Aldrin resigned from the astronaut program
and returned to active duty with the Air Force. He re-
Summer and
tired from the Air Force in 1 972. Lillian d. Kozioski
winter appearance Catkins Nut Bark
See also Space exploration (Apollo: Mission to the
WORLD BOOK illustration by Chris Skilton
moon).
The speckled alder has stalkless flowers called catkins. Aleatory music, AY lee uh tawr ee, is a type of music
in which the composer does not determine the specific

Ten species North America. Most

of alders grow in shape of a composition. The composer does not specify
are large shrubs that form dense thickets. The speckled pitches, rhythms, and tone colors. He or she only gives
aide/grow^ thioughout Canada, south to Virginia, and ranges of these materials and relies on chance proce-
west to North Dakota. The red alder is the only alder dures or performers to select and shape them.
large enough for commercial timber production. It is There are two basic types of aleatory music. In the
the most important hardwood tree in the Pacific North- first type, the composer uses chance procedures, such
west, where it grows up to 100 feet (30 meters) high. The as the tossing of dice, to determine the order and quali-
wood of the red alder is and light. It is whitish when
soft ty ofsounds. After the chance operations have estab-
first cut and light reddish-brown when dry. It is used lished the musical details, the composer creates a fixed
mostly for inexpensive furniture. Michael j. Baranski score using traditional musical notation. In the second
Scientific classification. Alders belong to the birch family, type, the performer largely creates a composition.The
Betulaceae. The scientific name for the speckled alder is Alnus composer might measures to be played
specify eight
rugosa. The red alder is A. rubra.
with high notes, followed by six measures of low notes.
See aiso Tree (Familial bruadleaf and needleleaf trees The performers then create melodies, harmonies, and
Ipiciurel). rhythms of their own design.
Aldridge, Ira II 807?- 867),
1 was the first African Ameri- The most important composer of aleatory music is
can actor to win fame in the Western world. He was best John Cage of the United States. Other important com-
known for his roles in the tragedies of William Shake- posers include Earle Brown, Morton Feldman, and
speare, especially Othello. Unlike other tragic actors of Christian Wolff of the United States; Pierre Boulez of
his day, Aldridge was also France; and Karlheinz Stockhausen of Germany.
a skilled comic actoi Mark D. Nelson

Ira Frederick Aldridge See also Boulez, Pierre; Cage, John; Stockhausen,
was born either in New Karlheinz; Electronic music.
York City or Senegal and Aleichem, Sholem. See Sholem Aleichem.
raised in New York City. In Aleixandre, ah layks AHN dray, Vicente 898-1 984), ( 1 a
1825, he left the United Spanish poet, won the 1977 Nobel Prize for literature. He
States because racial prej- influenced other Spanish poets for much of the 1900's.
udice iimited opportuni- Alexandre's early poetry, which he wrote chiefly in
black actors. He
ties for free verse,is highly surrealistic. It also praises the beau-

went to Britain in 1826 and ty ofnature by using symbols that represent the earth
made his debut as Othello and the sea. Many of Aleixandre s early poems are filled
in London. Aldridge also with sadness. These poems reflect his feeling that peo-
toured other European i>t ihe tin of HWi ^u'k ple have lost the passion and free spirit that he saw in
countries and achieved Ira Aldridge nature. Aleixandre s early poetry collections include Pas-
340 Aleppo

sion of the Earth and Destruction or Love (1 933).

(1 935) The Aleutian Islands are divided into five main groups
In Shadow of Paradise 11944),
Aleixandre began to from east to west These include the Fox Islands, Islands
concentrate on such themes as fellowship, friendliness, of Four Mountains, Andreanof Islands, the Rat Islands,
and spiritual unity. His later books of poetry include His- and the Near Islands. Unimak, largest of the Aleutian Is-
tory of the Heart11954) and In a Vast Dominion (1962). lands, has the highest mountain in the chain, Shishaldin
Aleixandre was born on April 26, 1898, in Seville. He Volcano (9,373 feet, or 2,857 meters). The village of Un-
studied law at the University of Madrid. Selections of his alaska, on the island of the same name, is the trading
work were translated into English in Twenty Poems of center of the Aleutians and one of the leading fishing
Vicente Aleixandre (1 977). Dick cerdes ports in the United States. Unalaska is the second largest
Aleppo, uhLEHP oh (pop. 1,583,000), is one of the island in the chain. It is the site of Dutch Harbor, which
largest and most important cities in Syria. An industrial served as a United States naval air base during World
center, it lies nestled among the hills in northwestern War II (1939-1945). Claus-M. Naske

Syria. For location, see Syria (map). See also Alaska (physical map); Aleuts.
Aleppo is one of the oldest continuously inhabited Aleuts, AL ee ootz or uh LOOTZ, are people who have
cities in the world, dating to about 2000 B.C The city's traditionally lived on the harsh, windswept Aleutian Is-
bazaar, narrow and limestone buildings reflect
streets, lands, which lie off the mainland of Alaska. The Aleuts
its ancient past. A medieval citadeHforx) surrounds the call themselves Unangan, meaning we the people. They

city. Aleppo is one of Syrias most important agricultural descended from Inuit (also called Eskimos) who settled
and industrial centers. Its chief products include cotton, on the islands thousands of years ago. But the Aleut lan-
wool, and textiles. The city is home to the University of guage differs from that of the Inuit
Aleppo. The early Aleuts lived off the rich sea environment.
In ancient times, Aleppo served as a gateway between Aleut hunters harpooned whales, seals, and other sea
Europe and the eastern Mediterranean to Asia. In the mammals from seagoing kayaks. They caught fish with
1 500s, the city flourished as a major trading center of spears and on fishhooks and also hunted birds. The
the Ottoman Empire. Christine Moss Helms Aleuts wore parkas made of furs, bird skins, or other
Aleutian Islands, uh LOO shuhn, are a volcanic is- parts of animals. Several Aleut families lived together in
land chain that extends 1,100 miles (1,800 kilometers) large homes sunk 3 to 4 feet (91 to 122 centimeters) into
west from the tip of the Alaska Peninsula. The Aleutians, the ground. The frames consisted of drift logs or whale

part of Alaska, separate the BeringSea from the Pacific bones. The homes were covered with a layer of dry
Ocean. They include 14 large islands, about 55 smaller grass or skins and a layer of sod.
islands, and many islets. The mountains on the islands Russian explorers discovered the Aleutian Islands in

are part of the Alaska Range. 1 741 Russian traders and fur hunters later practically en-
.

The Aleutians cover an area of 6,777 square miles slaved the Aleuts and killed many of them. Many other
(1 They lie 800 to 1 ,000 miles
7,552 square kilometers). Aleuts died from diseases brought by the Russians. The
(1,300 to 1,600 kilometers) south of the Arctic Circle be- Aleut population once numbered between 12,000 and
tween the 51 st and 55th parallels. This places the islands 1 5,000 people. But by the mid-1 800s less than 2,000 re-
in the same latitude as England. mained.
The Aleutians have many hot springs, as well as many In 1 867, the United States bought the islands, along
cool springs and swift streams, on some of the islands. with the rest of Alaska. Japanese forces attacked the is-
No trees grow there, but the islands have many varieties lands during World War II (1939-1945). They captured
of small shrubs, flowers, grasses, and mosses. The cli- the Aleut villagers of Attu and later sent them to a prison
mate is cool and foggy. The principal industry is fishing. camp in Japan. There, about half the Aleuts died of tu-
A few sheep ranches are operated there. The population berculosis and malnutrition. The United States govern-
of the islands is about 8,200. ment evacuated other Aleuts to Alaska. The Aleuts re-
turned to the islands in 1945.
In 1971, the United States Congress passed the Alaska
Native Claims Settlement Act, and the Aleuts regained
control of much of their homeland. There are about
12,000 Aleuts living in Alaska. They follow a modern way
of life, but many still hunt and fish for food.
Claus-M. Naske

See also Aleutian Islands; Inuit; Mask (Burial masks

and death masks).
AlewHe is a fish that lives mainly in the Great Lakes and

along the Atlantic coast of North America. It has large

eyes, a forked tail, silvery sides, and a grayish-green
back. Freshwater alewives grow 3 to 6 inches (8 to 15
centimeters) long. Saltwater alewives grow as long as 15
S u ~ m3k
&\t ALEUT >*» '
SLAN ° i^''^ n.'«-
p
? inches (38 centimeters). Saltwater species are caught
commercially for human food. Freshwater species are
«3I V. ..„..-..-•-• olFou."o
, islands used for animal feed and fertilizer. Saltwater alewives
swim along the Atlantic coast from the Canadian prov-
WORLD BOOK imp ince of Newfoundland and Labrador to South Carolina.
Location of the Aleutian Islands They are anadromous—that is, they migrate to freshwa-
 1

Alexander, Lloyd 341

Alexander III (11 05-1 181) was elected pope in 1159.

The Holy Roman Emperor Frederick supported an anti- I

pope, Victor IV, who had been elected by a minority of

the cardinals. The split between the emperor and pa-
pacy caused a division within the papacy that resulted in
the election of four antipopes during Alexander's reign.
During the split, Alexander spent long periods away
from Rome because the emperor made it impossible for
WORLD BOOK illustration by lames Teason
him to reside there. Alexander allied himself with the
The alewife Great Lakes and along the Atlantic
lives in the
city-states of northern Italy, which formed the Lombard
Coast of North America. Large numbers of alewives are caught
League to resist imperial authority. After a long war, the
for use in animal foods and fertilizers.
league defeated Frederick at the Battle of Legnano in
1 1 76. Frederick was forced to make peace with the pa-

ter rivers to lay their eggs. Each female lays approxi- pacy and finally recognized Alexander as pope in 1 1 77.
mately 1 0,000 to 1 00,000 eggs in the spring. The adults In 11 79, Alexander held a church council called the
then return immediately to the ocean. The young swim Third Lateran Council. He issued a number of important
to the ocean a few months later, after they have grown. decrees, including a requirement that future popes be
Alewives probably are not native to any of the five elected by two-thirds of the cardinals.
Great Lakes other than Lake Ontario. They colonized the Alexander was born in Siena, Italy. His given and fam-
other four lakes after 1 932. Sudden die-offs of alewives ily name was Rolando Bandinelli. Kenneth Pennington
often occur during the spring in the Great Lakes. Scien- Alexander III (1845-1894) was czar of Russia from 1881
tists believe these die-offs may be due to sudden drops to 1894. He became czar after his father, Alexander II,

in water temperature. was assassinated by revolutionaries. Alexander had II

Scientific classification. The alewife belongs to the herring adopted a number of liberal reforms. Alexander III op-
family, Clupeidae. Its scientific name is Alosa pseudoharengus. posed further reform and energetically fought the revo-
Henry W. Robison lutionaries. During his reign, Russian industry and sci-
Alexander I (1777-1825) was czar of Russia from 1801 ence made impressive gains, and culture thrived. See
to 1825.He became known for his stubborn struggle also Russia (Alexander III). Joseph T. Fuhrmann
with Emperor Napoleon of France. Russia finally de-
I Alexander VI was the most worldly of the
(1 431 -1 503)
feated Napoleon after France invaded Russia in 1812. Al- Renaissance popes. He was elected pope in 1492 and
exander was influential at the Congress of Vienna, which displayed the character and ambition more typical of a
in 1815 approved Russian territorial gains in Poland, Fin- secular (nonreligious) ruler.
land, and Bessarabia. The same year, he led the forma- Alexander was born in Jativa, Spain. His given and
tion of the Holy Alliance (see Holy Alliance). family name was Rodrigo Borja (Borgia in Italian). For
Alexander was kind and well-intentioned. At the be- many years, he held the profitable position of vice chan-
ginning of his reign, he considered freeing Russia's cellor of the Roman Curia, accumulating vast wealth and
serfs, introducing a constitution, and limiting the czars' influence. He fathered many children, whose fortunes
powers. But Alexander was also weak, and nothing he worked to advance even before becoming pope.
came of these projects. Disappointed liberal army offi- The first years of Alexander's reign were dominated
cers tried unsuccessfully to overthrow the government by Italian wars, which broke out when King Charles VIM
soon after Alexander died. loseph t. Fuhrmann of France invaded Italy in 1494. The pope managed to
See also Russia (Alexander I); Vienna, Congress of. survive the dangers of the conflict, largely through skill-

Alexander I (1888-1934) became king in 1921 of the ful diplomatic maneuvers. After Alexander's son )uan
Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes, later called was murdered in Rome in 1497, the grief-stricken pope
Yugoslavia. This country had been created in 1918 as the decided to launch a program of church reform. But he
homeland of several closely related peoples. From 1918 never carried it out. For the rest of his reign, Alexander
to 1921, Alexander ruled as regent for his father, King devoted much of the papacy's resources to furthering
Peter Alexander, a Serb, believed the Serbs should
I. the ruthless ambitions of his son Cesare to control cen-
rule the new country. But the other peoples opposed tral Italy for the Borgias. Charles L Stinger

Serb domination. As a result, Alexander made himself See also Borgia, Cesare; Borgia, Lucrezia; Savona-
dictator in 1929. That same year, he renamed the country rola, Girolamo.
Yugoslavia. In 1934, he was assassinated by a Macedo- Alexander, Graver Cleveland (1887-1950), was one
nian from Bulgaria who was supported by Croatian rev- of baseball's greatest pitchers. He won 373 games and
olutionaries. Alexander was born in Cetinje, Montene- pitched 90 shutouts while playing for the Philadelphia
gro. See also Peter II. r. v Burks Phillies, Chicago Cubs, and St. Louis Cardinals from 191

Alexander II (1 81 8-1 881 ) was czar of Russia from 1 855 through 1930. Alexander set a record in 1916 by pitching
to 1881. He succeeded his father, Nicholas I. Alexander 1 6 shutouts for the Phillies. He won two games in the St.

is called the "czar liberator because he freed Russia's Louis Cardinals' 1926 World Series victory over the New
serfs in 1861. He also introduced local self-government York Yankees. Alexander was born in Elba, Nebr. He was
and a court system based on French models. He mod- elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame in 1938.
ernized the Russian army and defeated the Turks in 1878 Dave Nightingale
(see Russo-Turkish wars). He was assassinated in 1881 Alexander, Lloyd (1924- ), an American author,
by revolutionaries who thought he was too conservative. won the 1969 Newbery Medal for his story The High
See also Russia (Alexander II). loseph t Fuhrmann King (1968). The book was the fifth in Alexander's series
342 Alexander of Battenberg

of fantasies about Prydain, an imaginary kingdom in There are many stories about Alexander's life. Some
Wales. He became interested in Wales and its legends are true, but others are legends. According to one story,
while stationed there in 1943 during World War II. His the boy Alexander tamed the great horse Bucephalus.
Westmark trilogy (1981 -1984) and Vesper Holly books This magnificent steed later carried Alexander as far as
(beginning in 1986) are adventure-fantasy series for India, where it died. Alexander built a city there and
young adults. Alexander's interests in cats, music, and named itBucephala after the horse.
mythology often appear in the plots of his stories. He In 343 or 342 B.C, Philip hired the great philosopher
was born on Jan. 30, 1924, in Philadelphia. Aristotle to tutor Alexander. Aristotle may have encour-
Kathryn Pierson Jennings aged Alexander's and peo-
interest in other countries
Alexander of Battenberg. See Battenberg. ples, as well as his curiosityabout plants and animals.
Alexander of Tunis, Earl (1891-1969), was a British Alexander's education followed the Greek principle of
military leader and statesman and the last British-born "a sound mind in a sound body." He studied literature,
governor general of Canada. He was one of the main Al- philosophy, and politics, and he also received training in

lied battle commanders during World War II (1939- and warfare. Alexander's official
sports, physical fitness,
1945). Alexander served as governor general of Canada schooling ended abruptly at the age of 16, when his fa-
from 1946 to 1952. He traveled extensively in the country ther called him away for duties in the government
and was highly popular. During his term, in 1949, New- In 338 B.C, the 18-year-old Alexander commanded the
foundland (now Newfoundland and Labrador) became cavalry in Philip'sarmy in the Battle of Chaeronea. This
Canada's 10th province. battlebrought Greece under Macedonian control. Philip
Harold Rupert Leofric George Alexander was born on next prepared to invade the Persian Empire in Asia. But
Dec. 10, 1891, in London. In 1911, he became an officer before he could do so, Philip was murdered by one of
in the Irish Guards of the British Army and later com- his bodyguards. Thus, at the age of 20, Alexander be-
manded a battalion in France during World War (1914- I came king of the Macedonians. After Philip s death,
1918). some Greek cities under Macedonian rule revolted. In
During World War
Alexander organized the evacu-
II, 335 B.C, Alexander's army stormed the walls of the re-
ation of Allied troops at Dunkerque, France, in 1940. Lat- bellious city of Thebes and demolished the city. About
er, he served as British commander in Burma (now My- 30,000 inhabitants of the city were sold into slavery.
anmar), the Middle East, and North Africa. Alexander Invasion of Asia. With Greece under control, Alexan-
directed the Allied campaigns in Sicily and Italy in 1943 der turned to his father's plan for attacking the Persian
and 1944. In 1944, he was named supreme commander Empire. In 334 B.C., he led an army of about 35,000 in-
of the Allied forces in the Mediterranean area. The same fantry and cavalry across the Hellespont from Europe to
year, Alexander became the youngest field marshal in Asia. The Persians sent out troops that met Alexander's
Commonwealth. He was made a viscount in
the British forces at the Granicus River. Alexander and his cavalry
1946 and an earl in 1952. Alexander was Britain's minister charged across the river and won the battle. This victory
of defense from 1 952 tO 1 954. Jacques Monet opened Asia Minor to Alexander.
Alexander the Great (356-323 B.C) was king of the After marching along the southern coast of Asia Mi-
Macedonians and one of the greatest generals in histo- nor, Alexander and his army headed north to the city of
ry. He conquered the Persian Empire, which stretched Gordium. There, according to legend, Alexander found
from the Mediterranean Sea to India and formed much a wagon with an ox yoke tied by a tight, complex knot
of what was then considered the civilized world. Alexan- An ancient prophecy said that whoever could untie this
der's conquests furthered the spread of Greek ideas and Cordian knot would become ruler of Asia. According to
customs in western Asia and Egypt He thus made possi- the most famous version of the story, Alexander first
ble the rich culture of the Hellenistic Age. tried unsuccessfully to untie the knot and then drew his
His youth. Alexander was born in Pella, the capital of sword and cut it in a single stroke.
theMacedonian kingdom. His father was Philip II, the By 333 B.C, Alexander had reached the coast of Syria.
shrewd king and general who conquered Greece. His There, in a fierce battle at Issus, he defeated the king of
mother was Olympias, a brilliant and hot-tempered Persia, Darius III, but could not capture him. Alexander's
princess from Epirus in army then marched south into Phoenicia to capture key
western Greece. Olympias naval bases at port cities. Part of one such city, Tyre, was
told Alexander that his an- on an island about \ mile (800 meters) offshore. Unable
cestor was the hero to capture the island from the sea, Alexander had his en-
Achilles. Throughout his gineers build a causeway out to the island, converting it

Alexander carried with

life, into a peninsula that remains even today. His troops
him a copy of the great used battering rams, catapults, and mobile towers in
poem the Iliad, which told The Tyrians surrendered in 332 B.C, after
their attack.
of the deeds of Achilles seven months of fighting. Alexander's use of huge siege
(see Iliad). Philip taught machines at Tyre led to a new age of warfare.
Alexander that the Mace- Alexander next entered Egypt. The Egyptians wel-
donian kings were de- comed him as a liberator from Persian rule, and they
scended from the hero crowned him pharaoh. On the western edge of the Nile
Hercules (also called Hera- Delta, Alexander founded a city in 331 B.C and named it
Roman opv
( of marble m ulpluM
cles), who in Greek after Lyslppus, Capitolino Mu Alexandria after himself.
seum. Rome lAlinarr from An
mythology was a son of Reference Bureau) From Alexandria, the Macedonian king made a long,
the god Zeus. Alexander the Great difficult trek through the Libyan Desert, a part of the
 Alexander the Great 343

Alexander's empire ex-

tended from Greece to India,
with Babylon as its capital. In
MACEDONIA /
323 B.C, when Alexander Mil.
Black Sea
k.
Heiiesporh
died, his empire covered PIRUS ..
much of what was then con- ^ Chaeronea
GREECE^ "

sidered the civilized world. Cw „,„* men** r /^

Alexander's conquests helped Sea
ky
Kalicamassus' Jssus

Creek culture spread in Egypt ^^ * Sk^Gaugamela

„ >/
7
/-x/ofFEATOF*.Arbela ME
and western Asia. I ( >* DARIUS
\\

Empire of
Alexander the Great
Route of
Alexander the Great

600 Kilometers

WORLD BOOK map

He consulted the oracle of

Sahara, to the oasis of Siwah. Return westward. In 325 B.C., Alexander had ships
the god Zeus-Ammon, and, according to legend, the or- and part of his army sailed westward from the
built,
acle pronounced Alexander the son of the god. mouth of the Indus River. These troops explored the
Victory over Darius. Alexander left Egypt in 331 B.C., northern shore of the Arabian Sea and the Persian Gulf.
traveling eastward into the Persian Empire. King Darius Alexander led the rest of his troops west across the De-
had formed a huge army that met Alexander's forces on sert of Gedrosia. As many as half of his forces died on
between the villages of Gaugamela and Ar-
a vast plain the way— more soldiers than enemy armies had killed.
bela, just east of the Tigris River. The Persians far out- Upon his return to Babylon, Alexander became busy
numbered Alexander's army, but Alexander's tactics and with the administration of his vast domain, which
the training of his troops proved superior in battle. Da- stretched from Greece to the Indus. He probably in-
rius was forced to flee, and he escaped across the Zag- tended to make Babylon his capital. Alexander planned
ros Mountains into Media. This clash of armies, known new expeditions to northern Africa and Arabia. He tried
Gaugamela or the Battle of Arbela,
as the Battle of to encourage trade and commerce and to develop a
ended more than two centuries of Persian rule in Asia. greater spirit of cooperation between Macedonians and
Alexander easily captured the fabled city of Babylon Persians. He married a Persian princess who was a
and then the Persian capital at Susa. In the winter of 331- daughter of Darius, and he performed a mass marriage
330 B.C., Alexander's army marched to Persepolis. There ceremony joining thousands of his soldiers to Persian
he seized the royal palaces and captured a vast store- women. Alexander also tried to incorporate large num-
house of gold and silver. Before leaving Persepolis, Al- bers of Persians into his army. But he failed to establish
exander had his soldiers burn down the palaces. a stable kingship to maintain what he had won.
In the spring of 330 B.C, Alexander swung north to- His death. In the spring of 323 B.C, Alexander be-
ward the Caspian Sea to find Darius. The Persian king came seriously ill with a fever at Babylon. He also suf-
could not gather enough troops to fight Alexander, and fered from exhaustion and the effects of several battle
he was killed by his own nobles. The death of Darius left wounds. He died at the age of 32 on June 1 0, 323 B.C. His
Alexander king of Asia. body was placed in a glass coffin in a special tomb at Al-
Central Asia and the Indus. Alexander moved his exandria.
army into Bactria and then across the Hindu Kush moun- After Alexander died, his half-brother, Philip III Arrhi-
tains into Sogdiana, overcoming local military chal- daeus, became king of Macedonia. At the time of Alex-
lenges as he went. In 327 B.C, Alexander married the ander's death, Roxane was pregnant with his son, Alex-
Bactrian princess Roxane. ander IV, who later shared rule over the Macedonians
By 326 B.C, Alexander's forces had reached the upper with Philip. But Philip was murdered in 317 B.C., and
Indus River Valley, in what is now Pakistan. Alexander young Alexander was killed about seven years later.
wanted to continue east toward the Ganges River. But No one succeeded Alexander the Great in the rule of
his homesick troops were tired of traveling and refused his vast empire. His leading generals became governors
to followhim any farther eastward. of various areas and fought among themselves for con-
During his years in central Asia, Alexander began to trol of the empire. By 300 B.C, Alexander's empire had
adopt the customs of the Persian kings. Many of his split into a number of independent states. The three

troops resented this change. They considered their king most powerful states were led by Alexander's generals
a fellow warrior, not a godlike sovereign. Plots against Antigonus, Ptolemy, and Seleucus. Eugene n. Borza
Alexander's life appeared, and he executed several Related articles in World Book include:
prominent Greeks and Macedonians who he believed Antigonid dynasty Olympias
Cordian knot Philip
had conspired against him. In a drunken brawl, Alexan- II

Hellenistic Age Ptolemy

der killed his good friend Cleitus, who had saved his life
I

Macedonia Iregionl
at Granicus.
344 Alexandria

Sculpture (picture: the Alexander Sarcophagus) After her failure to defend Egypts independence, she
Seleucid dynasty killed herself in 30 B.C Egypt was then made part of the
Additional resources Roman Empire. Under the Romans, Alexandria remained
an important trade center. It also was a major center for
Bosworth, A B. Alexander and the East. Oxford, 19%. Conquest
and Empire. 1988. Reprint Cambridge, 1993. the processing of gold and silver and the production of
Green, Robert. Alexander the Great Watts, 1996. Younger read- and papyrus.
glass, jewelry, linen,
ers. According to tradition. Saint Mark, a Christian mis-
Hammond, N. G. L The Genius of Alexander the Great Univ. of N. sionary, founded the Egyptian (Coptic) church in Alexan-
CPr., 1997.
dria around A.D. 40. The city, which already had a large
Stewart, Gail B. Alexander the Great Lucent Bks., 1994. Younger
readers.
community of jews, soon also developed a thriving
Christian community. Bishops of Alexandria exercised
Alexandria is Egypts busiest seaport
(pop. 3,380,000) enormous influence in defining beliefs and practices of
and second largest Only Cairo, Egypt s capital, has
city. the new Christian faith.

more people. Alexandria is also a major industrial cen- During Roman rule, clashes often took place between
ter. The city lies on Egypts Mediterranean coast in the rival ethnic and religious groups in the city. In the late
northwest corner of the Nile Delta, a fertile agricultural 200 s, the Mouseion and library were destroyed during
area. For location, see Egypt (political mapl. In ancient a war over control of the Roman Empire. When the Ro-
times, Alexandria was one of the world s most important man Empire was divided in 395, Egypt became part of
commercial and cultural centers. the Byzantine Empire.
The city is built on a long isthmus (strip of land) be- In 642, Arab Muslims conquered Egypt. The Arabs
tween Lake Maryut and the Mediterranean Sea. A ham- moved the capital from Alexandria to what is now Cairo.
mer-shaped peninsula extends out from the isthmus and Alexandria population gradually declined, and the city
s

forms two large harbors, east and west These magnifi- ceased to be a cultural center. In 1517, Egypt became
cent harbors have made Alexandria one of the Mediter- part of the Ottoman Empire. Under Ottoman rule,
ranean s leading ports for thousands of years. Alexandria s population fell sharply.
Hotels and beaches line the Corniche, a broad, curv- In 1805, an Ottoman army officer named Muhammad

ing road along the city s shoreline. The city is the home AN was appointed governor of Egypt Under Muham-
of Alexandria University. The Bibliotheca Alexandrina, a mad AN and his successors, Alexandria again grew to be
large research library scheduled to open in 2002, is a re- a center of business, banking, and trade. In 1820, a canal
vival of Alexandria s great ancient library. connecting Alexandria to the Nile River was completed.
People. Almost all people are Egyp-
of Alexandria s A railroad linking Alexandria to Cairo was built in the
tians. Most of the Egyptians are Muslims who speak Ara- 1850 s.
bic. A small number of foreigners live in the city. The city s population grew rapidly in the 1800 s. Most
In general, Alexandriaupper- and middle-class resi-
s of the new residents were Egyptian Muslims. But large
dents live in the east part of the city. Most working-class numbers of immigrants from other countries also came
people live on the west side close to industrial areas, to the city. Many of these foreigners became important
and on the peninsula between the two harbors. Most business leaders. Tensions rose between the citys
residents live in large apartment complexes. Egyptian and foreign communities, and bloody riots
Economy. Manufacturing plants in or near the city took place in 1882. Later that year, British warships bom-
produce petroleum products, plastics, processed foods, barded the city, and British troops occupied Egypt. The
steel, textiles, and other goods. Tourism also contributes British acted to crush a movement for Egyptian self-gov-
to the city s economy. Huge numbers of vacationers ernment, protect foreigners, and further British influ-
come each summer to take advantage of
to Alexandria ence in the region. Foreign business interests strength-
the city s beaches and resorts. ened their control of Alexandria in the late 1 800 s and
History. Alexandria is named after Alexander the early 1900 s.
Great, the king of Macedonia, who founded the city in After Egypt gained independence from the United
331 B.C after conquering Egypt. After Alexander died in Kingdom in 1 922, foreign control over the city weak-
323 B.C, one of his generals, Ptolemy, took over Egypt s ened. By the 1950 s, most foreigners had left Alexandria.
government and founded the dynasty known as the During the 1950s and 1960s, rapid industrial develop-
Ptolemies. Ptolemy made Alexandria the capital of Egypt. ment took place in the city.
Under the reign of the Ptolemies, Alexandria thrived. In the 1990 s. archaeologists working in waters near

It was one of the great centers of trade and culture, and Alexandria found hundreds of granite blocks, huge stat-
its population was the largest of any Mediterranean city. ues, and other stonework belonging to the ancient light-
Many of the leading thinkers of the Greek-speaking house, which had collapsed during an earthquake in the
world worked The towering Lighthouse of
in the city. 1300 s. The archaeologists also found about 40 sunken
Alexandria was one of the Seven Wonders of the An- ships, which showed the wide range of Alexandria s ear-
cient World (see Seven Wonders of the Ancient World ly Commercial activity. Mh hael | Reimer
iwith picturel). The city had a scientific institute called the Alexandria, is a historic city on
Virginia (pop. 128,283),
Mouseion and a library with about 500,000 scrolls made the west bank of the Potomac River, across from Wash-
of an early form of paper called papyrus. These institu- ington, DC
For the location, see Virginia (political map).
tions conserved and developed the science, literature, During the 1730 s, a warehouse was established on the
philosophy, and religious culture of the ancient world. site ofAlexandria for the export of tobacco, Virginia s
The Ptolemaic dynasty ended when its last ruler, chief cash crop. The military leaders George Washing-
Cleopatra, rebelled against the growing power of Rome. ton, Henry Light-Horse Harry Lee, and Robert E. Lee,
 Alfalfa 345

who was Henry Lee's son, had homes in Alexandria. plant contains large amounts of minerals, proteins, and
Their homes are preserved in a historic district that has vitamins, and farmers use it in order to make hay, meal,
made Alexandria a major tourist center. At Gadsby's Tav- and silage. They also grow alfalfa for pasture, for its
ern, Washington recruited his first command in 1754 seeds, and to enrich the soil and protect it from erosion.
and held his last military review in 1799. The Alexandria Some people grow alfalfa indoors and eat the plant's
Gazette Packet, founded in 1 784, is one of the oldest sprouted seeds. These seeds are known as alfalfa
newspapers in the United States. sprouts. Alfalfa is also known as lucerne throughout
Alexandria was part of the District of Columbia from most of the world.
1 791 to1 846. Today, it is a suburb of Washington, D.C The most important alfalfa-growing regions include
more than 50 technology and research
Alexandria has 1 North and South America, Australia, and parts of south-
and development firms and a large freight yard that ern and eastern Europe. The United States raises about
serves three railroads. It is also the home of more than 80 million tons (73 million metric tons) of alfalfa annually.
250 national trade and professional associations. It has a California, South Dakota, Wisconsin, and Minnesota are
council-manager form of government. the leading alfalfa-growing states in the United States. In
Susan L Woodward Canada, the leading alfalfa-growing province is Alberta.
Alexandrite, al ihg ZAN dryt, is a rare gem that has a Other leading alfalfa-growing provinces are Ontario and
high luster. It is a variety of a mineral called chrysoberyl. Saskatchewan.
Alexandrites are dark green in natural light but appear
The alfalfa plant
red in most kinds of artificial light. Jewelers cut and pol-
ish alexandrites so that they have numerous flat surfaces Alfalfa is a perennial—that is, it grows from year to
called facets. Faceted alexandrites are used to create year without being replanted. In humid regions, alfalfa
earrings, necklaces, rings, and other forms of jewelry. plants live from 5 to 7 years. In dry regions, they live 10
The alexandrite is one of the birthstones for the month years and sometimes longer.
of June. The alfalfa plant is a legume, a member of the pea
Alexandrites discovered in the Ural Moun-
were first family. bears seed pods, in which four to eight seeds
It

tains in Russia in 1833. The stone was named after develop. The plant has many slender stems. They grow
Alexander II, who later became the czar of Russia. To- about 3 feet (0.9 meter) high and bear compound leaves,
day, alexandrites are still mined in Russia. Other coun- each consisting of three leaflets. New stems grow from
tries that produce alexandrites include Brazil, Myanmar, buds on the plant's woody crown (base), which is be-
Sri Lanka, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. Pansy a Kraus tween the stems and the roots. The stems mature in
See also Gem (picture). about six weeks. They grow straight up in some types of
Alexia. See Aphasia. alfalfa and almost parallel to the ground in others. The
Alfalfa is a valuable crop that is grown mainly for for- leaves and stems of the alfalfa plant are used for live-
age (livestock feed). It is sometimes called the "queen of stock feed.
the forages." It promotes rapid growth and good health Flowers grow on the stems in clusters called racemes.
in the animals, especially cattle and sheep. The alfalfa Each raceme consists of 5 to 50 flowers. Most alfalfa

I
i
C Allen and Son

Fields of alfalfa are harvested as the plants begin to flower. The leaves and stems of the alfalfa
plant contain large amounts of minerals, proteins, and vitamins. Farmers grow alfalfa mainly for
livestock feed.
346 Alfalfa

lies far belowground. Because of their deep roots, alfalfa

plants have a greater resistance to drought than do
many other crops.

Uses of alfalfa
As livestock feed. Cattle graze on some alfalfa, but
farmers process most of the crop into hay, silage, or
meal. All these forms of the feed can be stored. Farmers
often plant alfalfa mixed with a grass for grazing. They
let their cattle graze for about a week. Then they keep

the animals away for four weeks or longer until the alfal-
fa plants grow back. This method of feeding livestock is

called rotational grazing.

In the United States, farmers harvest alfalfa mainly for
use as hay. Some hay is stored in rectangular bales, usu-
ally weighing from 50 to 150 pounds (23 to 68 kilo-
grams). Round weighing as much as 2,000 pounds
bales,
Nodules used to store hay.
(910 kilograms), are also
To make hay, farmers cut the alfalfa and let the sun
dry the plants in the field. At the time alfalfa is cut, it con-

tains 70 to80 percent moisture. Before being baled as

hay, the plants should contain about 15 percent mois-
ture. Hay that is too dry when it is baled will lose its
leaves. If the leaves, which containmany nutrients, fall
WORLD BOOK illustration by Kate Uoyd-JoneS, Linden Artists Ltd
off, the hay loses much of its food value. If baled hay
The alfalfa plant has many slender stems, which develop from
contains too much moisture, it spoils and cannot be fed
buds on the crown (base). Swellings called nodules grow on the to livestock.
roots. Bacteria in the nodules take nitrogen from the air. Nitro- Baled hay is widely used for cattle, sheep, and horses.
gen is essential to the plant's health and growth. Farmers prepare hay to feed their own animals or pro-
duce it as a cash crop for sale to other livestock raisers.
See Hay.
flowers are purple, but some are green, white, yellow, Some alfalfa hay is stored in the form of thickly
or var/e^afec/lmulticolored). packed 1-inch (2.5-centimeter) cubes. Large cubing ma-
Most of the roots of the alfalfa plant grow in the up- chines make these alfalfa cubes, and the process is ex-
per foot meter) of soil. But in fertile, well-drained
(0.3 pensive. However, cubed hay can be transported over
soils, some alfalfa roots extend as deep as 1 5 feet (4.6 long distances more economically than baled hay.
meters) or more. These deep roots can obtain water that Some alfalfa plants are chopped and then stored as

Dehydrating alfalfa. To dehydrate alfalfa for use as hay, tai hum s hi the alfalfa and let the sun dry
i

itin the field. The hay is then pressed into bales, loll. Most alfalfa meal is made by drying cut alfalfa

at a high temperature in a dehydrator, right and 'hen pressing n into pellets.

 Alfalfa 347

silage. Silage is a higher-quality feed than hay, and it spring and early summer, but medium hardy alfalfas
works better than baled or loose hay in automatic feed- grow more during the fall.
ing systems. Hay must remain in the field to dry longer Nonhardy alfalfas thrive on irrigated land in the
than silage and so may be exposed to damp or wet Southern and Southwestern United States, chiefly in Ari-
weather. Such weather may cause freshly cut alfalfa to zona, California, Nevada, and New Mexico. In colder cli-
mold and lose much of its food value. As a result, silage mates, such alfalfas grow during the fall until frost kills
retains many nutrients that hay may lose. See Silo. the stems and leaves. They cannot survive cold winters.
Most alfalfa meal is made by drying alfalfa at a high Many nonhardy alfalfas were developed from seeds
temperature in a dehydrator and then grinding it and brought from Peru and such northern African countries
pressing it into pellets. The pellets may be stored or as Egypt, Libya, and Tunisia.
sold. Farmers give alfalfa meal directly to their livestock
Growing alfalfa
or use it in preparing mixed feeds. Poultry farmers often

add alfalfa meal to poultry feed because it helps pro- Cultivating, planting, and harvesting. Alfalfa plants
duce high-quality eggs and chickens. flourish in fertile, well-drained soil that is neutral or
As a cover crop. Many farmers use alfalfa as a cover slightly alkaline (see Soil (Chemical conditions!). In arid
crop— that is, to enrich the soil and protect it from ero- areas, alfalfa needs growth. Be-
irrigation for successful
sion. Alfalfa plants enrich the soil by adding more nitro- fore planting alfalfa, many farmers enrich the soil with
gen to the soil than they use for growth (see Nitrogen fertilizers and add herbicides (weed-killing chemicals).
(Nitrogen and life]). Bacteria that live in nodules They plow the soil and then plant alfalfa seeds { to \
(swellings) on alfalfa roots take nitrogen from the air for inch (6 to 13 millimeters) or less below the surface.
the plant's growth and health. Alfalfa uses the nitrogen, Most farmers plant alfalfa in early spring or late sum-
which later becomes part of the soil as the plants die mer. They harvest a new crop every four to six weeks.
and decay. Farmers often rotate alfalfa crops with small The harvests must be timed so that the alfalfa is cut after
grain crops that use the nitrogen left in the soil by alfalfa. the plants begin to produce flower buds, but before the
Alfalfa, especially when mixed with a grass, will hold the seed pods form. If alfalfa is cut before the bud stage, the
soil in place and thus help prevent soil erosion. next crop will be smaller than normal. Frequent cutting
As a seed crop. Some farmers grow alfalfa chiefly to before the bud stage also kills the plants. Farmers har-
obtain large quantities of the seeds. They sell the seeds vest alfalfa before the seed pods form because the nutri-
to other farmers who raise alfalfa for livestock feed. tional value of the plants begins to decline after they
Alfalfa plants cultivated for seed require sunny days bear seeds.
and cool nights for successful growth, and dry weather Diseases and pests. A number of diseases and pests
for harvesting. Alfalfa seed producers must also keep damage alfalfa crops. The diseases include anthracnose,
bees to pollinate the plants' flowers, since the seeds de- bacterial wilt, crown rot, root rot, leaf spot, and spring
velop only if the flowers have been pollinated. The lead- blackstem. All of these diseases are caused by bacteria
ing alfalfa seed-producing states of the United States are or fungi.
California, Washington, and Idaho, in that order. Anthracnose destroys the base of alfalfa stems, and
bacterial wilt slows the growth of the plants (see Wilt).
Kinds of alfalfa
Both these diseases can kill alfalfa plants. Crown rot and
Most types of alfalfa plants grown in the United States root rot severely damage alfalfa that has been injured by
originated from seeds brought by European immigrants. cold weather, insects, or poor harvesting methods (see
Farmers created many new varieties by planting seeds Rot). Leaf spot and spring blackstem reduce the quality
from the alfalfa plants that grew in their fields. These and the quantity of alfalfa crops by causing the leaves of
plants, called Common alfalfas, were identified by the the plants to drop off.
state where they were developed. For example, Kansas Scientists have developed varieties of alfalfa that resist
Common was an important early variety of alfalfa plant. anthracnose, bacterial wilt, and leaf spot, but other dis-
New varieties of alfalfa are continually being devel- eases that attack the plant remain uncontrolled. Farmers
oped by plant breeders. Alfalfas are classified into three often practice crop rotation to reduce losses of alfalfa
main groups— hardy, medium hardy, and nonhardy—ac- plants to disease. In this method, a crop other than alfal-
cording to how they withstand winter weather. Hardy al- fa is grown in a field for one to three years before alfalfa
falfascan survive severe winter weather and are grown is planted. During the years that alfalfa is not grown in

chiefly in regions where such weather occurs. Medium the field, pests that thrive on the plant are deprived of
hardy alfalfas are raised mainly in places that have less their primary food source. As a result, the pest popula-
harsh winters. The nonhardy alfalfas come from regions tions decline and alfalfa can be safely planted in the
with mild winters. field. See Cropping system.
Hardy alfalfas grow in the northern part of
primarily Pests that attack alfalfa include such insects as alfalfa
the United States and Canada. These plants grow the
in weevils, potato leafhoppers, and aphids. Some nema-
most in spring and early summer. Little or no growth oc- todes (roundworms) and weeds also damage alfalfa.
curs in fall, even in mild climates. Some hardy alfalfas Young alfalfa weevils eat alfalfa leaves, reducing the
were developed from seeds brought from Russia, yield and quality of the hay (see Weevil). Potato leafhop-
Turkey, and other countries that have regions with cold pers and aphids restrict the growth of the plants by
climates. sucking juices from alfalfa stems. Stem nematodes and
Medium hardy alfalfas are raised mainly in the cen- root knot nematodes live as parasites in alfalfa stems
tral United States. Some
hardy alfalfas are also grown in and roots. They cause the plants to grow slowly, and, in
this region. The two types cannot be distinguished in some cases, to die. Weeds use up food and water that
348 Alfalfa weevil

alfalfa plants need, and so the alfalfa yield is reduced. Miguel Primo de Rivera led a bloodless overthrow of
Farmers use insecticides to control alfalfa weevils and the constitutional government. Primo controlled the
potato leafhoppers, and researchers have developed al- government until about 1930. By then support for the
falfas that resist aphids, root knot nematodes, and stem monarchy had collapsed, and a Republican government
nematodes. Herbicides are used to control weeds. assumed power in 1931. Alfonso fled into exile, and the
parliament declared him guilty of treason. The charge
History
was dropped after a new government headed by Fran-
Alfalfa is the only crop used for forage that has been cisco Franco power in 1939. Alfonso died in
came to
cultivated since prehistoric times. probably originated
It Rome in 1941. In monarchy was restored in
1975, the
in the Middle East. Records on brick tablets found in Spain. Alfonso s grandson, )uan Carlos, became king. In
Turkey indicate that alfalfa was an important cattle feed 1980, Alfonso s remains were removed from Rome and
crop in that region about 1400 B.C. It was brought to reburied in the Escorial, a combination burial place,
Greece by 490 B.C. and later to northern Africa and the church, college, monastery, and palace near Madrid.
regions that include present-day Italy and Spain. Today, See Juan Carlos I; Escorial. Stanley c. Payne

alfalfa grows wild in parts of Africa, Asia, and Europe. Alfred the Great was king of the West Sax-
(849-8991
During the A.D. 1500s, Portuguese and Spanish ex- ons in southwestern England. He saved his kingdom,
plorers brought alfalfa to Central and South America Wessex, from the Danish Vikings and laid the basis for
and to what is now the Southwest United States. Many the unification of England under the West Saxon monar-
settlers brought alfalfa from Europe to the American chy. He also led a revival of learning and literature. He
Colonies. However, they could not grow it in the New was such an outstanding leader in war and peace that
World because of the acidic soils along the Atlantic he is known as the Great."
the only English king
Coast. As a result, alfalfa did not become widely grown was born in Wantage, now in Oxfordshire,
Alfred
in the United States until after 1850. That year, an alfalfa England. He was the youngest son of King Ethelwulf of
called Chilean cloverwas brought to California from Wessex. According to the Welsh writer Asser, who
Chile. It was grown successfully in California, and farm- wrote a biography of Alfred shortly after his death, Al-
ers in other states began to raise it. fred was always eager to learn. Asser says that Alfred's
Various types of alfalfas were also brought to north- mother offered a book of Anglo-Saxon poems as a prize
ern regions of the United States from cold climates in to the first of her sons who could read Alfred won. As it.

Europe and Asia. Plant breeders used seeds of these al- a boy, Alfred twice went to Rome, where the pope ac-
falfas to develop the many varieties now cultivated in knowledged the status of the royal house of Wessex.
the United States. The journeys also showed Alfred the contrast between
Scientific classification. Alfalfa belongs to the pea family, England and the more advanced parts of Europe.
Fabaceae or Leguminosae. The scientific name for the varieties Alfred became king in 871 at the death of his brother
of alfalfa plants cultivated in the United States is Medicago sa-
Ethelred. The West Saxons had been at war with the
tiva. Donald Reid
J

Danes for many years. After several losing battles. Alfred

Alfalfa weevil. See Alfalfa (Diseases and pests); Wee- made peace with the invaders. But the Danes renewed
vil. their attacks and defeated Alfred at the Battle of Chip-
Alfieri, ahl FYEH ree, Vittorio, veet TAWRyohWlM- penham in 877. Alfred then defeated the Danes at the
18031, was an playwright and poet. He was born
Italian Battle ofEdington in 878. The Danish leader, Guthrum,
into an aristocratic family in Asti, where French was the agreed to be baptized a Christian. He also agreed to stay
spoken language of the nobility. The experience of writ- north and east of the River Thames, in an area called the
ing his first play in how imperfectly he
1774 taught him Danelaw. However, the Danes broke the peace, and Al-
knew Italian. He studied language and literature
Italian fred renewed the war. He won London in 886. All the
so he could write tragedy, a literary form long ignored English people not subject to the Danes recognized Al-
by other Italians. From 1775 to 1787, Alfieri wrote 19 fred as their ruler and paid him homage. The old, inde-
verse tragedies, most of which reflect his hatred of tyr- pendent Anglo-Saxon kingdoms began to merge under
anny and his admiration of human dignity. These themes the rule of Wessex.
helped arouse a spirit of nationalism in Italy. All his Alfred built forts and boroughs (fortified towns) at
plays have a mythical, Biblical, or historical plot. His best strategic points.He stationed his fleet along the coast as
works include Filippo (1775), Oreste (1786), and Mirra protection against further invasions. He also issued a
(1 786). Alfieri wrote many poems, a treatise in defense of code of laws to restore peaceful government.
liberty, and a lively two-part Autobiography (1790, 1803). Before Alfred, education had declined in England be-
Richard H. Lansing cause the Danes had looted monasteries and churches,
Alfonso XIII, al FAHN 50/7H886- 1941), served as king the centers of learning. Alfred revived learning by bring-
of Spain from 1902 until 1931 ,when Spain became a re- ing teachers and writers from Wales and continental Eu-
public. Alfonso reigned at a time when Spaniards were rope. He encouraged the translation of famous Christian
dissatisfied with political oligarchyWu\e by few), low books from Latin into Old English. Under his influence,
wages, poor living conditions, and a war in Morocco. the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle began to be compiled. It is
The parliamentary government was unable to solve now the main source for Anglo-Saxon history up to
these problems. 1 1 54. |oel T Rosenthal
Alfonso XIII was born in Madrid, six months after the See also Anglo-Saxons; England iThe Anglo Saxon
death of his father, King Alfonso XII. His mother, arch- period).
duchess Maria Cristina of Austria, ruled until Alfonso Alfven, Hannes Olof Gosta (1908-1995), a Swedish
came of age. In 1923, with Alfonso s approval, General physicist, won a share of the Nobel Prize for physics in
 Algae 349

1970 for his research in magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) kingdom Prokaryotae. They classify all other algae in the
and plasma physics. Magnetohydrodynamics is the kingdom Protista.
study of the ways in which electric and magnetic fields
Blue-green algae
interact with fluids that conduct electricity.
Alfven developed MHD and applied it to the study of Some kinds of blue-green algae form slippery, dark
plasma, a gas composed chiefly of electrically charged coatings on rocks along the shores of rivers, lakes, and
particles. He showed that plasma passing through a oceans. Others occur in soil, forming a slimy layer on
magnetic field produces electromagnetic waves. These wet ground. Lakes with large numbers of blue-green al-
waves, called Alfven waves, help explain the behavior of gae look greenish or bluish-green. A few species of
plasma, which makes up more than 99 percent of all blue-green algae may poison fish or cattle and other an-
matter in the universe. The results of Alfven s work have imals that drink water containing these organisms.
been used in astrophysics and space science and in de- Most blue-green algae can be seen only with a micro-
signing fusion reactors (see Nuclear energy). scope. Some species have only one cell. In others, the
Alfven was born in Norrkoping, Sweden, and earned cells form strands. The cells of blue-green algae lack a
a Ph.D. degree in physics from the University of Uppsala. distinct nucleus. Besides chlorophyll, they contain blue
He joined the faculty of the Royal Institute of Technolo- or red pigments (coloring matter). The combination of
gy in Stockholm in 1940. In 1967, Alfven became a pro- pigments causes some to appear pinkish, brownish, or
fessor of applied physics at the University of California black. Many species can take nitrogen from the air, con-
at San Diego. Richard l mit vert it tocompounds called nitrates, and so help to fer-
Algae, AL jee, are simple organisms that live in oceans, tilize soil or water. Most blue-green algae reproduce
lakes, rivers, ponds, and moist soil. A single organism of only by cell division.
this type is called an alga. Some algae are microscopic
Other kinds of algae
and consist of just one and others are large and
cell,

contain many cells. Some species drift or swim, and oth- All at least one nucleus.
other algae have cells with
ers are attached to stones or weeds in the water. Large The and other pigments in
cells contain chlorophyll
marine algae are called seaweeds. A few algae live on specialized cell parts called chloroplasts. These algae
land, growing on trees or other land plants, soil, and are generally grouped according to color— brown,
rocks. Others live on sloths or turtles. Still others grow green, or red. They grow and reproduce by cell divi-
within plants or animals. sion. Most kinds can also reproduce sexually.
All algae contain chlorophyll. They help purify the air This broad group of algae includes diatoms and di-
and water by the process of photosynthesis. Algae also noflagellates, most of which have only one cell. Many of
serve as food for fish and other animals that live in the these algae occur with marine animals in drifting mass-
water. es called plankton. Dinoflagellate cells swim by means
Somealgae multiply rapidly in polluted lakes and of two hairlike structures called flagella. Diatoms have
rivers.Thick layers of algae, called algal blooms, may cell walls made up of silica. These "skeletons" resist de-

form when waste materials, such as sewage and fertiliz- cay and may accumulate on the ocean floor. In some
ers, are dumped in the water. The increased algal popu- places, they form a whitish material called diatomite,
lation sometimes upsets the natural balance of life in which has many industrial uses. See Diatom; Plankton.
water. The water eventually may become extremely low Brown algae are plentiful along many seashores of
in oxygen and unfit for use by people. temperate zones. Some kinds, called kelps, grow as
Most botanists classify the blue-green algae, also much as 200 feet (60 meters) long (see Kelp). A/gin, a
called cyanobacteria, with bacteria as members of the gummy substance obtained from kelp, is used to thick-
en cosmetics, ice cream, mayonnaise, and other prod-
ucts. Some brown algae are used as fertilizer.
Green algae occur in both fresh and salt water. Most
ii species are microscopic and live in lakes, ponds, and
streams. Large quantities of such algae may color an en-
tire lake. Other species are larger and grow along

.«*?*n seashores. Many coral beaches of the tropics consist of

m pieces of green seaweeds filled with lime. Some scien-
tists are experimenting with growing green algae for

-*U"*v food.
Red algae are found mostly in subtropical seas,
v
^ where they sometimes grow with corals. A few species
of red algae live in fresh water. Some red algae have
blue as well as green and red pigments. Certain red al-
gae are the source of agar, a gelatinlike substance used
in laboratories to grow bacteria. In Japan, people eat a

red alga that is called nori. It is usually sold dried as pa-

E R Deggingei pery sheets. Russell G. Rhodes
Scientific classification. Blue-green algae belong to the
Many microscopic varieties of algae grow in oceans, lakes,
kingdom Prokaryotae. All other algae belong to the kingdom
ponds, and streams. The blue-green alga Anabaena, left, consists
Protista.
of long strands of single cells. The spherical colonies of the
green alga Volvox, right, consist of many cells. See also Eutrophication; Lichen; Seaweed.
350 Algebra

WORtD BOOK pholo by Slemkamp Ballogg

An algebra problem involves letters that stand for unknown numbers.

Algebra is one of the chief branches of mathematics. in this way is not part of arithmetic, but is an essential
Mastery of mathematics depends on a sound under- part of algebra.
standing of algebra. Engineers and scientists use alge-
Learning algebra
bra every day. Business and industry rely on algebra to
help solve many problems. Because of its importance in Sets and variables. Letters in algebra are related to
modern living, algebra is studied in schools and col- sets of numbers. Everyone is familiar with sets of ob-
leges in all parts of the world. jects. There are sets of books, sets of stamps, and sets of
Unknown numbers in algebra are represented by let- dishes. Sets of numbers are much the same. In algebra,
ters, such as x ory. In some problems, the letter can be one way to describe a set of numbers is to use a capital
replaced by only one number. A simple example would letter, such as N, as a name for the set. Then you list the
be*+3 = 8. For this statement to be true, x must be 5, numbers of the set within braces j. For example, here
|

because 5 + 3 = 8. In other problems, the letter may be is the set of single-digit whole numbers:

replaced by one of many numbers. For example, for the

H/=( 0,1 ,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9
algebraic statement x+y= 1 2 to be true, x would be 6 if
y is 6, or x would be 4 if y is 8. In such an algebraic state- Here is the set of odd numbers smaller than 20:
ment, you can find many values for x that make true
Y= 1 1,3,5,7,9,1 1,13,15,17,19|
statements if you give different values to/.
People can use algebra to solve problems in ways These are the kinds of sets used in algebra.
that are beyond the range of arithmetic alone. For exam- Imagine a group of people whose ages are 1 2 years,
ple: 15 years, 20 years, and 24 years. You can write these
An airplane travels 1 ,71 kilometers in 4 hours flying ages as a set of numbers:
with the wind, but it travels only 1,370 kilometers in 5
hours flying against the wind. The speed of the airplane
A= { 12,15,20,24]

in relation to the air is same in both directions, and

the How old will these people be three years from now?
the wind speed is constant. What is II the speed of the
) One way of answering this question is to write out
airplane in relation to the air and (2) the speed of the 12 + 3, 15 + 3, 20+3, and 24 + 3. However, the number 3
wind? is the same in all four of these expressions. In algebra,
The key to solving this problem is to use letters to you can write all four expressions as one general ex-
represent the two unknown numbers. For example, you pression, m + 3, in which m can be replaced with any
might use x to represent the speed of the plane relative number of the set A. For example, you can replace m
to the air, and y to represent wind speed. Using letters with 12, 15, 20, or 24.
 Algebra 351

The letter m is called a variable, and the set A is the This equation means that "the sum of 7 and a number
domain of the variable. The number 3 in the expression equals To solve the equation, you can replace at with
12."

m+3 is called a constant, because 3 always has the different numbers until you find one that will make the
same value. A is a letter that can be
variable in algebra equation a true statement. If you replace x in this equa-
replaced by one or more numbers belonging to a set. tion with 5, the equation will be a true statement. If you
Statements and equations. In mathematics, a state- replace x with any other number, the equation will be
ment is a sentence that is either true or false. Mathemat- false. So the solution set to this equation is 5 J. The so- j

ical statements can be illustrated in everyday language. lution set consists of only one root.
For example, here is an incomplete statement: Equations can have more than one root:

" was the inventor of the telephone." *2 +18 = 9*

As it stands, this statement is neither true nor false. Sup- The little 2 above the first x means that the number x
pose you write a name in the blank: represents squared. That is, the number is multiplied
is

once by itself (see Square). Also, one quantity placed

Bell was the inventor of the telephone."
next to another quantity indicates that one quantity is to
Now the statement is true. be multiplied by the other quantity. Therefore, the ex-
You can write a statement with a variable: pression 9* means 9x*.
In the above equation, you can replace x with 3:
"y is a state bordered by the Pacific Ocean."
3X3 + 18 = 9X3
You can replace a variable with the members of its do-
main. That is, you can replace the variable with names 9 + 18 = 27
that will produce a true or false statement.
27 = 27
Ohio is a state bordered by the Pacific Ocean."
You can also replace x with 6:

This statement is false. It is true only when you use

6x6+18=9x6
Alaska, California, Hawaii, Oregon, or Washington:
36+18 = 54
Oregon is a state bordered by the Pacific Ocean."
54 = 54
The replacements that make true statements are called
roots. The set that includes all the roots is called the so- Any other replacements of x make the equation a false
lution set. As with other sets, braces are used to enclose statement. So 3 and 6 are roots of the equation, and its

the solution set. The solution set of this example is solution set is j3, 6J.
(Alaska, California, Hawaii, Oregon, Washington J. In al- Some equations do not have roots:
gebra, you do not use names to replace a variable. In-
x=x+3
stead, you use numbers.
Equations are one kind of sentence in algebra. They This equation becomes a false statement for any num-
are mathematical sentences that say two things are ber you use to replace x. Its solution set is called an
equal. Here is a simple equation: empty set. An empty set is written | j.

Some equations have many roots. Some even have an

7+*=12
infinite (unlimited) number of roots:

Terms used in algebra U+1) 2 =*2 + 2*+l

Binomial is an expression in algebra consisting of two terms This equation will be a true statement if you replace x
connected by + or — symbols. with any number. Its solution set consists of all numbers.
Coefficient is the multiplier of a variable or number, usually Mathematicians use a number of terms to describe
written next to the variable. parts of an equation. They call the expression on each
Constant is a number or a variable whose domain a set of is

one number.
side of the equals sign a member of the equation. For
Equation is a mathematical sentence that says two expressions example, in the equation 3^+2=11, 3*+2 is the left

are equal. member and 1 1 is the right member. Each part of a

Exponent number placed at the upper right of a number or
is a member that is connected by addition or subtraction
variable toshow how many times is to be used as a factor it
signs— or stands alone— is called a term. Therefore, 3x
Expression, in algebra, is a certain number or variable, or num-
and 2 are the terms in the left member, and 1 1 is the
bers and variables, combined by operations such as addition,
subtraction, multiplication, or division.
term in the right member.
Factors are two or more expressions that are multiplied. Solving equations. The goal in solving an equation
Monomial is an expression in algebra consisting of a product with a variable is to isolate the variable on one side of
of numbers and variables. the equation. It does not matter on which side of the
Polynomial is an expression consisting of two or more terms. equals sign the variable appears because *=5 means
Quadratic refers to a variable that has been squared [used as a
factor twice).
5=x. But most people prefer to have the variable on the
Roots of an equation are numbers that make a true statement left because they read from left to right.

when they are substituted for a variable in the equation. A variable may be isolated by means of subtraction,
Term is part of an expression connected to other terms by addi- division, addition, and multiplication. Sometimes, you
tion or subtraction symbols.
must perform more than one operation to arrive at the
Variable is a symbol in algebra, usually a letter, that can be re-
final answer.
placed by one or more numerical values.
Subtraction. If the same number is subtracted from
352 Algebra

each side of an equation the new members remain

equal. All roots of the original equation are also roots of 12(j*-4>=12<4.,r+6)
the new equation. Thus, for example, you can subtract 2 8*- 48 = 3*+ 72
from each member of the equation 3*+ 2= 11:
Second, add 48 to each member of the equation to elim-
3^+2-2=11-2
inate the 48 from the left side of the equation:
to obtain the new equation
8,»-48-48 = 3»-72-48
3* = 9
8*=3x+120
The equation 3* = 9 is equivalent to 3*-t-2=ll. The roots
of either of these equations will solve the other. To iso- Third, subtract 3« from each member to eliminate the 5x
late the variable of the new equation, you must perform from the right side of the equation:
one more operation— the operation of division.
Division. each side of an equation is divided by the
If
8*-3*=3*+120-3*
same number, except zero, the new members will be 5» = 120
equal. The roots of the original equation are the roots of
the new equation. Using this rule you can divide each Finally, divide each member by 5 to isolate the variable *
side of 3* = 9 by 3: on the left side of the equation:

5x _ 1 20
3 3 5 5
*=3 > = 24
So the solution set of the equation 3*-t-2 = ll is |3j. You The solution set is therefore |24|. You can verify this by
can prove this bv replacing x with 3 in the original equa- replacing x with 24 in the original equation:

tion: 3 x i+2=11,orn=ll. X24-4=ix24^6

f
You cannot divide members of an equation bv zero.
Division by zero is meaningless.
16-4 = 6+6
Addition. Another rule for solving algebraic equa- 12 = 12
tions is that same number is added to each mem-
if the Since the equation-solving techniques did not produce
ber of an equation the new members will be equal. The any other solutions 24 is the onk solution.
roots of the original equation are roots of the new equa- Positive and negative numbers. In arithmetic, vou
tion. For example, in the equation » — 6= 18 vou can add canalwa\sadd multipk or divide numbers. But \ou
6 to each member equation to isolate the x on the
of the cannot alwavs subtract. For
left side of the equation. That is, x— 6 + 6=18-t-6, and example 3—5 is mean-
*=24. The solution is the set |24|. ingless in ordinary arith-
When adding terms with identical variables, the num- metic. Algebra has an ex-
bers before the variables are added. For example, 5<? — tended number svstem that
Za = 7a. When subtracting terms with identical variables, sokes this problem.
the numbers are subtracted, so that 8i -3v =5v In ordinary arithmetic,
Multiplication. The last rule for solving simple equa- numbers indicate onk size.
tions is that if each member of an equation is multiplied That is, they show how
b\ the same number, the new members are equal. It manv or how much. But
would not be useful to multipk b\ zero howe\er be- manve\er\da\ measure-
cause anv number multiplied bv zero equals zero. ments indicate both size
After multiplving both sides of an equation b\ the and direction. The temper-
same number the roots of the original equation equal ature above or below zero
the roots of the new equation. For example, vou can is a good example of this.

multipk each member of the equation j » = 5 by 4: In algebra, we use num-

bers that show direction.
4\ 7> =4 \ 5 iSOODMOi ..•iwfp.
>ou can show these new
to obtain numbers on a scale:
» = :o Below zero Above zero
Thus the solution set of j» = 5 is [20).
Nou can use all four rules to find the solution set of
the equation -2 + 1 -2 -3

The origin or starting point is zero. To the right of zero,

First,use multiplication to produce an equation that has the points show positi\e distance or direction. These
only whole numbers. Such an equation is easier to solve numbers are like temperatures above zero. To the left of
than one containing fractions The numbers in the de- zero the points show negati\ e distance or direction.
nominators 3 and 4 ha\ e the common factor 2 see 1 These numbers are like temperatures below zero. Point
Factor Multipk ing both sides of the equation b\ 12
1

4 is not just but - or positive one. The + sign

1 1

therefore changes the tractions into whole numbers: shows its direction from zero. Point B is not just but 1
 Algebra 353

— or negative one. The — sign also shows direction.

1 (— 4) = ( + 13). Using this example, you can see that the
The numbers on this scale are called positive numbers sum of the subtrahend and the difference is the minu-
and negative numbers. In everyday life, you can use end: ( — 4) + + 13) =( ( + 9). Here is another example of the
these numbers to represent temperatures, distances use of this rule: — 6) — + 8).
( ( change the sign of the
First,

above or below sea level, changes in stock-market (+ 8). Then add the minuend and changed subtrahend:
prices, business earnings, and many other things. For (-6) + (-8) = (-14).
every positive number, there is a negative number of Multiplying. The rule for multiplying signed numbers
the same arithmetical size. For example, the number 7 is to multiply the absolute values. If the signs are alike,
always means seven things, positive or negative. The ar- the product is positive.

ithmetical size of a number is called its absolute value.

( + 3)x( + 8) = + 24) ( (-3)x(-8) = ( + 24)
You can add, subtract, multiply, and divide positive
and negative numbers, but the rules of these operations If the signs are not alike, the product is negative.
are different from those in ordinary arithmetic.
( + 3)x(-8) = (-24) l-3)x( + 8) = (-24)
Adding can be illustrated with the problem
( + 5) + — 7),
( sum of positive five and negative
or the Dividing. The rule for dividing signed numbers is
seven. You can work out the solution on the following similar. Dividing numbers with the same sign gives a
scale. positive quotient

( + 24)-( + 3) = + 8) ( (-24)+(-8)=l+3)
-7
Dividing numbers with signs that are not alike gives a
negative quotient.
+5
( + 24)-(-3) = (-8) (-24)-H + 8) = (-3)

When you use negative numbers

in algebra, they can

2 -1 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 extend the domain of the variable. For example, the

equation *+4 = 1 has no root with ordinary numbers.
With the extended number system, its root is —3. Oper-
If you were adding + 5) and + 7) on a scale, you
( ( ations with negative numbers can be applied to vari-
would count five points to the right from zero, and then ables that represent numbers. That is, you can deal with
count seven more to the right to + 1 2). To add ( quantities such as — *or —/.
(+ 5) + — 7), start at zero on the scale above and count
( Writing formulas. Algebra uses general formulas to
off the first number to be added. This number is +5, so help solve many practical problems in science, engi-
you count off 5 to the right. Next, count off in the direc- neering, and everyday life. A wide variety of arithmetic
tion indicated by the second number to be added. This situations can be expressed in general formulas.
number —7, so you count off —7 to the left from +5.
is One example of the use of general formulas involves
This takes you to the left of 0, to — 2. You can read the room dimensions. Consider a room that is 5 meters long
sum of + 5) + — 7) on the scale: —2. Therefore,
( ( and 4 meters wide. Its perimeter, or outside measure-
( + 5I-H — 7) = — 2). Numbers with
( positive or negative ment, is 5+4 + 5 + 4 meters, or 2x(5 + 4) meters. If the
signs are often called signed numbers. One rule for room is 5 meters long and the width is unknown, you
adding signed numbers has two parts. First, if the signs can use w, a variable, to represent the width. The perim-
are the same, add the absolute values of the numbers eter is then 5+W+5+W, or2x(5 + n^. Going one step
and give the sum the common sign. For example, further, you can write a formula for the perimeter of any
(+ 5) + + 8) = + 13) and (-5) + (-8) = (-13). Second, if
( ( rectangular room by using / for the length and w for the
the signs are different, subtract the smaller absolute width. The formula is 2x(/+w). You can solve many
value from the larger absolute value, and give the result problems with this kind of formula.
the sign of the number with the larger absolute value. Some situations call for an equation. For example, a
For example, ( + 5) + (-8) = (-3) and (-5) + + 8) = + 3). ( ( man collected a sum of money on August 1, and \ as
Subtracting. To subtract positive and negative num- much on August 2. He collected a total of $6,500. How
bers, remember the method of subtraction in arithmetic. much was each amount? If n is the amount collected on
The minuend— the subtrahend =the difference:*)— 4 = 5. August 1 then |/7 is the amount collected on August 2.
,

The minuend is the number or quantity from which an- The equation is n+ ^/7 = 6,500. You can solve this equa-
other is to be subtracted. The subtrahend is the number tion to find n. First, multiply both members of the equa-
or quantity to be subtracted. The minuend is also the tion by 3 to change the fraction } to a whole number
sum of the subtrahend and the difference: 9=4 + 5. In
subtracting positive and negative numbers, you must
3 X (/7 + j/7) = 3 X 6,500
3/7 + = 19,500
/7
ask what you need to add to the subtrahend to make a
sum equal to the minuend. In the problem + 9) — — 4), ( ( Add the terms on the left side of the equation:
what can be added to 1—4) to make it equal to + 9)? One (

4/7=19,500
way to solve this subtraction problem is to change it

into an addition problem. Any subtraction problem can Divide both members of the equation by 4 to find n:
be changed into an addition problem by IV changing
/7 = 4,875
the sign of the subtrahend, and 12) adding the minuend
and the changed subtrahend. Using this rule, + 91 — — 4) ( ( And |/7 = 4,875h-3, or 1 ,625. Therefore, the man col-
becomes ( + 9I + + 4), and + 9) + + 4) = + 13).
I ( ( < So ( + 9)- lected S4.875 on August 1 and SI, 625 on August 2. To
354 Algebra

check this result, add the two amounts collected: ation,you can rewrite a — (6 + c) as the formula a — b — c.
$4,875 + 51,625 = $6,500. you want to change the sign"; of expressions or
If

numbers, you can reverse the process and put them

Basic algebra
within parentheses. For example., you can rewrite the ex-
After you learn to work with variables, equations, and pression 8 + 7 as —( — 8 — 7). Or, you can rewrite 8+4 — 6
signed numbers, you will find that the fundamental prin- as 8-1-4 + 6).
ciples of algebra are not hard to understand. Fundamental laws. There are five fundamental laws
Symbols in algebra. The symbol + indicates addi- in algebra. These laws govern addition subtraction,
tion. But in algebra, it also signifies a positive number. multiplication, and division. They are expressed in vari-
The symbol — indicates subtraction and a negative ables, and the variables can be replaced with any num-
number. You usually do not use x to indicate multipli- bers. Here are the laws:
cation in algebra, because it might be confused with the 1 The Commutative Law of Addition is written x+y=
letter x. Instead, you use a dot or no symbol at all. You y+x. This means that if you want to add two numbers,
write a multiplied by b as a b, (a)(6), or ab. (Note that you can add them in either order, and the sum will be
3 •
6 and (31(6) both mean six multiplied by three, but that the same. For example, 2 + 3=3 + 2 = 5, and — 8) + — 36) ( (

36 still means 36, as in arithmetic.) The symbol + for di- = (-36) + (-8)=-44.
vision is the same as it is in arithmetic. 2. The Associative Law of Addition is written x+
Parentheses ( and braces
), brackets often en- I 1,
j j [y+z) = (x+y)+z. This you want to add sev-means that if

close quantities or numbers. They are called signs of ag- eral numbers, you can add any combination first, and
gregation because everything within them must be the final sum will be the same. For example,
treated as a single expression. You must often simplify 2 + (3+4) = (2 + 3) + 4, or 24-7 = 5 + 4 = 9.
the enclosed expression before it can be used in other 3. The Commutative Law of Multiplication is written

parts of a problem. Here is an example using numbers: x y=y x This means that if you want to multiply two
numbers, you can multiply them in either order, and the
j12 + [4 + 5-(5-3)+4!-4|
product will be the same. For example, (2)(3) = (3)(2i = 6,
First, simplify the group (5 — 3): and - 8)( - 36) = - 36X - 8) = 288.
( (

4. The Associative Law of Multiplication is written

|12 + [4 + 5-2 + 41-4|
x- (y z) = bc y) z. This means that if you want to multiply
Second, simplify the group [4 + 5 — 2+4]: several numbers, you can multiply any combination first,
and the final product will be the same. For example,
|12 + 11-4|=19
2(3 4) = (2 3)4, or 2(1 2) = (6)4 = 24.
You use the same method to simplify expressions with 5. The Distributive Law of Miiltipliration over Addi-
variables. Here is an example of simplifying groups of tion is written xiy+z)=xy+xz This law can be illustrated
variables: with an example: 3 •
(4 + 5) = (3 4) + (3 5). If a number
+ 6a + [5a — a + (3a+4a)l— a\
|5a multiplies a sum, for example 3(4 + 5),
or 3 9 the result

First, simplify the group (3a + 4a):

is the same as the sum of the separate products of the
multiplier and each addend.. (3 4) + (3 5), or 12+15. In
j5a + 6a+[5a-a + 7al-a) this example, you can see that 3 9 = 12 + 15=27.

Second, simplify the group [5a — a + 7 a]:

Other definitions. It is important to define some
other words used in algebra. An expression consisting
(5a+6a + 11a-a)=21a of a product of numbers and variables is a monomial.
For example, monomial This particular mono-
5,ry is a
Sometimes it is useful to remove the parentheses mial contains three elements (5 x and^. called factors,
from an expression without simplifying it. You can do that multiply each other. An expression with two or
this by using the rules for addition and subtraction of more terms connected by addition or subtraction sym-
signed numbers. For example, the expression a + ib + c) bols is called a polynomial For example, x—y+z is a
can be rewritten a + b + c. To illustrate this, the expres- polynomial. One kind of polynomial
an ex- is a binomial,
sion 40 + 18 — 2) means that 8 — 2, or 6, must be added to pression with two terms connected by an addition or
40, or 40+6. Removing the parentheses, 40+8 — 2, or subtraction symbol For example, x+y and 3a 2 — Ab are
48 — 2, is the same as the simplified expression, 40+6. If binomials.
an expression within parentheses has an addition or A number, variable or expression that acts as a multi-
positive sign before it, you can remove the parentheses plier is called a coefficient. For example, in the expres-
without changing the signs of the quantities within the sion 5a, 5 is the coefficient of a and a is the coefficient of
parentheses. Thus, a + — b — c\ becomes a — b — c.
( 5. In abc+y), a is the coefficient of bc+y) and 1^+^ is the
But, if an expression within parentheses has a sub- coefficient of a.
traction or negative sign before it, you must change the Addition in algebra is much like that in arithmetic In
subtraction or negative sign, and you must change the algebra, a added to a is la The expressions a and la are
sign of the quantities within the parentheses. That is, said to be like or similar because they contain exactly
you make an addition problem out of a subtraction the same variables. To add two or more like quantities in
problem. Thus. 6 — — 8) becomes 6 + + 8). Here is an-
( 1 algebra, you use the Distributive Law. In this way, lx+3x
other example: 6 — 1 + 8) becomes 6 + — 8). 1 If there is + 4* is (2 + 3 + 4).*, or 9x. But there isno single term for
more than one quantity within the parentheses, you the sum of unlike quantities, such as a and b This sum
must change the sign of each quantity. For example, must be written a + b. To add 3a. 46. 6a, and b, you can
6—1 — 3 + 2) becomes 6+3 — 2, or 7. For this general situ- use the Commutative and Associative laws of addition.
 Algebra 355

These laws permit you to add a series of numbers in any littlenumber is called an exponent. It indicates the num-
order. First, add the similar terms: 3a + 6a = 9a and 4b + b ber of times a quantity is used as a factor. Thus, a a or
= 56. Then, combine the sums. Thus, 5a + 4b + 6a + b = 9 aa is written a 2 It is called the square of a. Next,
.

a + bb. a a a or aaa is written a 3 It is called the cube of a. And .

You can use the following form to work out the prob- aaaa is written as a 4 and aaaaa , is written as a 5 . A variable
lem: that occurs only one time as a factor has an exponent of
1 If you are adding or subtracting exponents, you can
+ 46
.

3,3
write a as a 1
.

6a+ b
When youmultiply like variables, you add their expo-
9a + 5b
nents. You can see that b 2 b* is (b b)ib b b), or b 5 It is • •
.

To add unlike quantities that are both positive and easier to add the exponents: b 2 b i = b 2+3 and b 2+i = b 5 , .

negative, you can use the Distributive Law of Multiplica- You cannot combine the exponents in a 2 b 2 because a
tion ovei Addition. he use of this law can be shown by
I and b could possibly represent different numbers.
adding IZa J - -frc-tbbffi+'ld1 i4a 3 + 36 2 c-46cP-3cr 3
), ), To multiply abed by bc2 dy, you combine the factors
i3a i + 2b 2 c-<-2bd2 4rf»), and {~2a -8b c-t6bd + 6d
i 2 2 i
). that are alike. In (abcd)\bc 2 dy), there are one a, two b's or
The little 3 above such terms as la* means that the num- b b, three c's or c c2 two ds or d d, and one /. So the
,

ber represented by the variable is cubed. That is, the product of abed and bc 2 dy is ab 2 c i d2y. The Commutative
number is used as a factor three times (see Cube). To Law of Multiplication permits you to multiply variables
add these terms, you should first arrange like terms in and numbers in any order.
columns: To multiply an expression consisting of two or more
terms by a single term or expression, you can use the
la*- b 2 c+ 6bd2 + 2di
Distributive Law of Multiplication over Addition:
4a> + 3b 2 c- Abel2 -Id* xiy+z) =xy+xz Multiplying CibM5b 2 c +2d) shows the
use of this law. You can modify the form used in arith-
3a 3 + 26 2 c+ 2bd2 -4di
metic for multiplication:
-2a -8b c+ 6bd2 + 6di
i 2
5b 2 c+ 2d
7a i -4b 2 c+\0bd2 + d>
3bd
An explanation of the second column illustrates the
]5b i cd+6bd2
method of addition. This column is — b 2 c+ 3b 2 c+2b 2 c—
8Z? 2 c. Using the Distributive Law, you can see that these To find the product in this example, you multiply the
terms aie the separate pioducts of a multiplier, b 2 c. The terms of (5b 2 c + 2d) one at a time. First, multiply 5b 2 c by
coefficients aie the addends thai make up a sum. These ibd. This product is \5b*cd. Write \5b*cd as the first
addends are —1, +3, + 2, and —8. You can add them term in the answer. Next, multiply 2d by ibd. This prod-
together to obtain (- 4)b 2 c, or — 4b 2 c. Use the same uct is dbd2 Write bbd2 as the second term in the answer.
.

method to add the other columns. The total product is ^5b i cd+6bd2 .

Subtraction of products of numbers and variables To multiply two expressions each consisting of two or
follows the same rule as the subtraction of signed num- more quantities is more difficult. Here is an example.
bers. To subtract one quantity from another, you must The problem is (a — Ma 2 — 2ab+b 2 ).

change the sign of tne subtrahend and add the two

a 2 -2ab+ b2
quantities together, in the example 8a — 2>a, the sign of
both the minuend and the subtrahend is positive. That a - b
is, + 8)a — + 3)a. Changing this from a subtraction prob-
( (

a 3
-2a b + ab 2 2
lem to an addition problem converts it to + 8)a + — 3)a. ( (

The sum of 8a and — 3a is 5a. - a 2 b + 2ab 2 -b 3

The subtraction (2a 3 -b 2 c + 6bd2 + 2di )-tta i + 3b 2 c-
a 3
-3a 2 6 + 3a6 2 -6 3
4bd2 — 2>di is more difficult. First, arrange like terms in
)

columns: First, multiply each term in the multiplicand by the first

2a 3 - b 2 c+ 6bd2 + 2di term of the multiplier. Write the product of this multipli-
cation as part of the answer. Next, multiply each term in
4a 3 + 36 2 c- Abcfi-id3
the multiplicand by the second term of the multiplier.
Next, subtract the coefficients of like terms by changing You can arrange like terms in columns. Write this sec-
the signs in the subtrahend and adding: ond product as part of the answer. Last, add the two
products to obtain the total product. Notice that arrang-
2a 3 - b 2 c+ 6bd2 + 2di
ing like terms in columns helps you do the addition that
-4a 3 -36 2 c + Abd + id3 gives the total product.
Division in algebra is the opposite of multiplication.
- la - 4b c + Obd + 5d>
3 2
1
2
Remember that to multiply like terms, you add their ex-
Multiplication in algebra is usually indicated by writ- ponents. To divide like terms, you subtract the exponent
ing two or more expressions together without an opera- of the divisor from the exponent of the dividend. For ex-
tion symbol. For example, d is written ab. ample, b 5 + b 2 = b 5 2 and b 5 2 = b\
When a variable or numbei is used as a factor more Here is a more difficult problem: I3x*y2z—9x3yz2 —
than one time, the multiplication is abbreviated. For ex- 6*2/j )-^(3at2/). In this case, you must divide each part of
ample, abb is written ab 1 and abbbb is written ab 4 The the dividend in turn by the divisor I3*2/). For each part,
356 Algebra

ask what multiplied by &x2y\ will give that part of the div- y. One line is horizontal and shows values of The other at.

idend. For example, what multiplied by 3x2y) will give line is vertical and shows values of y. These two lines
( — 9x*yz2 The
)? answer is — 3az2 Using this method,
( ).

(3*yz- 9*3><z2 - 6xy) + 3x2y) = {x2yz- ixz2 - ly2 ).

Here is another problem: (12<? 2 + 18a6 + 66 2 )-M4a +

26). For a problem of this kind, you can use a form
somewhat like the form used in arithmetic for long divi- y

sion:

12a 2 + 18a6 + 66 2

12a 2 -h 6ab

12a6+662 4a + lb Divisor

12a6 + 66 2
3a + 36 Quotient
64

First, divide the term of the dividend by the first

first
56
term of the divisor 12a 2 -^4a = 3a. Write the result, 3<3, as
the first term in the quotient to the right. Next, multiply 48
both terms of the divisor by 3<3, the first term in the quo-
tient: I4a + 26)(3al=12a 2 + 6a6. Write this product below 40
the dividend and subtract it from the dividend. You must
32
account for the result of this subtraction, 12a6 + 66 2 ,

with a second term in the quotient. To do this, divide 12

24 i
ab by the first term of the divisor 12a6n-4a = 36. And 36
proves to be the second term of the quotient. Multiply 16
the divisor by 36: 14a -+- 261(36) = 12a6-t-66 2 You can see .

that there is no remainder. 8

Factoring means to find expressions that are factors
of a given product. For example, (4a + 26) and (3a + 36)
are factors of 12a 2 +18a6 + 66 2 If you multiply (4a + 26)13
.
2 3 4 5 6 X

a + 36), the product is 12a 2 +18a6 + 66 2 An expression .

are called coordinates. You can plot the number pairs

can have more than one set of factors. For example,
from the table on the graph with 7 dots.
2x12, 3x8, and 4x6 are sets of factors of 24. Factoring
There is an equation that describes this line of dots:
isimportant in algebra because it is used to simplify
7=8^+16. You can see how the equation fits the table of
complicated expressions (see Factor).
values. For example, if x=2, then y= 8(2) + 16, or 32. If

Working with equations *= 5, then /= 8(5) + 1 6, or 56.

In the equation, the domain of at is the set of numbers
Functions. The amount of gasoline used by an air-
(0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6|. The values of y are called the range of
plane is related to its speed. The amount of postage re-
WORLD BOOk illustration b> Sarah v\ood»ard
quired for a parcel depends on its weight. The idea of
one thing depending on another is important in mathe-
matics. It is called the relation of one thing to another. In
algebra, a certain relation of two variables is called a
function.
You can learn the idea of a function from familiar
things. For example, imagine a concrete foundation that
is 1 6 centimeters above the level of the ground. On this
foundation, you build up 6 layers of stone blocks. Each
layer is 8 centimeters thick. As you add each layer of
blocks, the height of the pile becomes larger. Use x to
represent the number of layers and y to represent the
height of the pile. Here is a table showing the relation of
the number of layers of stone blocks to the height of the
pile.

12 3 4 5 6

16 24 32 40 48 56 64

You can show the numbers in this table on a graph.

Distances along two lines represent the values of x and
 Algebra 357

y. The range of y is the set of numbers j 16, 24, 32, 40, 48,
y
56, 64 1 . Mathematicians call the relation between the
two sets of numbers a set of ordered pairs. This set is 60
written | \x,y) \
- |
(0, 1 6), (1 , 24), (2, 32) . . . (6, 64) j
. This set
of pairs is a function. It is called a discrete function be-
cause it cannot be represented by a continuous line. On
the graph that appears on page 356, the function is
shown by the dots or points.
Now, imagine that the bottom of an aquarium is 20
inches above the floor. The aquarium is 36 inches high. 40
Water flowing into the aquarium causes the level of the

20 r

36 in

2 3 4 3 6 7 8 9 X

continuous line on a graph shows that it has a num-

/. Its
ber of solutions. That is, there are many pairs of num-
bers that will make y= 4*+ 20 a true statement.
Because linear equations have many solutions, it is
often useful to find some sort of restriction or limit for
them. For example, you might want to use a linear equa-
tion to solve a practical problem. To do this, you must
WORLD BOOK illustration by Sarah Woodward find some way to restrict the equation to one set of val-
ues. One method is to use a pair of equations that are
water in the aquarium to rise 4 inches every minute. This true for only one pair of numbers.
means that the height of the water above the floor is re- The equations 2y=x+4 and/+Ar=5 illustrate this
lated to the time the water has been flowing. In this ex- method. To solve these equations, you can use a graph.
ample, use x to represent the number of minutes the First, make tables of a few of the values that solve each

water has been flowing and y to represent the distance equation.

of the surface of the water from the floor. Here are some
of the values of x and/:

2y = x + 4 x + y = 5

x0123456789 x 2 4 x 3 5

20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 y 2 3 4 y 5 2
y

When this relation is shown on a graph, the line is solid Plot these points on the graph (as shown on page 358)
because the height of / increases continuously. You can and draw a line for each equation. The two lines cross.
describe this line with an equation:y=4*+20. If x=2, The point where they cross represents the values that
then y=4(2) + 20, or 28. You can see how this equation will solve both equations. This point is (2, 3). That is, x
fitsthe table of values. The domain of x is all numbers has the value 2, and y has the value 3. Only these values
between and 9, and the range of y is all numbers be- for * and y will solve the two equations.
tween 20 and 56. This function is called a linear function You can also solve a pair of linear equations in two
because it is continuous and can be represented by a variables by eliminating one of the variables. This results
solid line. The equation y=4x+ 20 is called a linear in a single equation in one variable. You can use 2y=

equation. The study of linear equations is one of the x+4 and/-)-jf=5 again as examples. There are various
most important topics in algebra. ways of eliminating a variable. The method that can be
Solving linear equations in two variables. The used here is called substitution. First, solve one of the
equation y=4x+ 20 is linear. It has two variables, * and equations for y. That is, find what y equals in one of the
 Or three turkeys and eight ducks:

$15

T»*
A Or five turkeys and three ducks:

<^<?
$25 $6

You cannot use 7 for x because the pair would be (7,

— 2), and —2 ducks is not a solution.
For another method of solving equations in two vari-
equations. Naturally, you will not know the value of x ables, see Determinant
Using the equation y+x= 5, the solution for/is 5-x Quadratic equations in one unknown. A quadratic
Substitute this for /in the other equation. The other equation is one in which the variable is squared. For ex-
equation is 2y=x+4. Substituting the new value for/, ample, x — 8jt= — 16 is a quadratic equation in one un-
2

you obtain 2(5-x)=a+4. Simplified, this is 10-2*= a+4. known. By combining terms, you can put any quadratic
Subtracting 4 from both sides of this equation produces equation with one unknown variable in the following
6-2*= x Adding 2*to both sides of the new equation form:
produces 6=3*. Therefore, x=2. Now you can replace x
ax*+bx+c=0
with 2 in either of the two equations and find 3 as the
value for/ 2/=2+4 and/+2=5. So the solution of the In this formula, and c represent the known num-
a, b,

two equations is {(2, 3)}. bers or coefficients. For example, b is the coefficient of
An equation in two variables can also be solved by re- x, and x is the unknown variable. In the simplest example

stricting the solution to positive whole numbers. You of this kind of equation, the coefficient a= and the co- 1

can see this in a problem involving a man who bought efficient 6=0. For instance, if a=1, 6=0, and c=-36,
some prize turkeys and ducks. He spent S31. He paid $5 then **— 36=0. This means that ^=36 and the solution
for each turkey and $2 for each duck. How many of each set is {6, -6}. If b does »of equal zero, there are three
did he buy? Use *to represent the number of turkeys other methods for solving this type of equation.
and 5*as their cost Use /to represent the number of The first method is to factor the equation after it has
ducks and 2/as their cost You can write this problem as been put in the form ax' + bx+c^O. You can use
an equation: 5*+2/=31. You can substitute only whole * + 8*+15 = as an example. You can factor the left-hand
numbers for x and /because, in this case, you cannot side of this equation: *< + 8*-H5=(*+3H*+ 5). So
buy part of a bird. (*+3)(*+5)=0. If the product of two numbers is zero, one
To solve this problem, we use the fact that only an of the numbers must be zero. If *+5=0, then x=— 5. Sim-
even and an odd number can have the sum 31. Any ilarly, if *+3=0, then *= -3. The solution set of

whole number multiplied by 2 is an even number, so 2/ * + 8x+15is{-3, -5}.

is even. This means that 5x must be an odd number. Any The second method is called completing the square.
even number multiplied by 5 is an even number, so x An expression such as £ + 2ab+bL
is called a perfect
cannot be even. Any odd number multiplied by 5 is an square because it can be rewritten {a+bY. You can
odd number, so at might be any odd number. Replacing change an equation such as #+&x+15 = Q so that the left-
*with odd numbers, you will find that the pairs of num- hand member is a perfect square. To do this, rewrite the
bers that solve the equation are (1, 13), 13, 8), and (5, 3). equation ^ + 8*+ 15=0 as *; +8*=-15. You know that
The man could have bought turkey and 13 ducks:
1 X + §x+\5 is a perfect square because it can be rewritten
UOKll) HOOK IlLislrations bs S.ir.ih Woodward (*+4) 2 You can add 16 to both sides of *2 + 8*=- 15. This
.

gives you xi + 8x+ 16= -15+16. Factoring this, you find

that U+ 4)2 = 1. One of two equal factors of a number is

called square rootisee Square root). In the equation

its

(*+4)2=1, *+4 must equal the square root of 1. The

# $5 <* $26
square root of 1 is either 1 or -1. So*+4=l or
*+4 = - 1. Then x= -3 or *= -5.
lution set to ^+8^+15=0
This means that the so-
{-3, -5}. is

The third method for solving a quadratic equation in

 Alger, Horatio 359

one unknown is to use the following formula: Related articles in World Book include:
Binomial theorem Newton, Sir Isaac
Boolean algebra Omar Khayyam
Descartes, Rene Progression
_ — b ±V b -4ac
la Determinant Series
Factor Set theoiy
Mathematics
You can obtain the a, b, and cfrom any qua-
coefficients
Outline
dratic equation put in the form ax +bx+c=0. Substitut-
l

Learning algebra
ing these numbers in the formula will give you the value
A. Sets and variables D. Positive and negative
of x In the formula, the symbol ± means positive or B. Statements and numbers
negative. It also indicates that there will be two roots to equations E. Writing formulas
the equation. C Solving equations
Here is how to apply the equation to the formula Basic algebra
*+8*-fl5=0: A. Symbols in algebra F. Multiplication
B. Fundamental laws C. Division
C Other definitions H. Factoring
D. Addition
-8±V(8) -4 2
(11(15)
E. Subtraction
2(1)
III. Working with equations
A. Functions
-8±-f: T B.Solving linear equations in two variables
2 C Quadratic equations in one unknown
IV. History
-8±2
Questions
How does the use of a variable help solve math problems?
How may an equation be compared to a balance?
-10, What meant by the motor roots of an equation?
is

2 How can numbers in algebra indicate size and direction?

What is the rule for multiplying positive and negative numbers?
How are two like variables with exponents multiplied? For exam-
Therefore, the solution set to ^ + 8*+ 15=0 is {-3, —5}. ple, (5/X3/I.
How is a function shown on a graph?

History What is the Commutative Law of Multiplication?

What methods are used to solve quadratic equations in one un-
The ancient Egyptians and Babylonians used algebra. known?
Evidence for its development appears in an Egyptian Where does the word algebra come from?
book that was copied by the scribe Ahmes about 650 1
Additional resources
B.C The Babylonians used more advanced algebra than
Aczel, AmirFermafs Last Theorem: Unlocking the Secret of an
D.
did the Egyptians. Hundreds of years later, the Greeks,
Ancient Mathematical Problem. Four Walls, 1996.
Chinese, and people of India contributed to the devel- Amdahl, Kenn, and Loats, Jim. Algebra Unplugged. Clearwater,
opment of algebra. Diophantus, a mathematician who 1995.
lived in the A.D. 200s, used quadratic equations and Downing, Douglas. Algebra the Easy Way. 3rd ed. Barron's, 1996.
symbols for unknown quantities. Diophantus, who was Varadarajan, V. Algebra in Ancient and Modern Times. Am.
S.
Mathematical Soc, 1998.
probably Greek, has been called the father of algebra."
The Arabs made many contributions to the study of al- Alger, ALjuhr, Horatio (1832-1899), was an American
gebra. They adopted the number system of India, in- author of novels for boys. He became famous for his sto-
cluding the zero, and developed fractions much as they ries about boys who rose from poverty to wealth and
are used today. They helped transmit earlier mathemati- fame through hard work, virtuous living, and luck. Al-
cal ideas to the West. Between 813 and 833, al-Khwariz- ger's works reinforced an image of the United States as
mi, a teacher in the mathematical school in Baghdad, a land where dreams of material prosperity, high social
wrote an book on algebra that was used as a
influential position, and power could come true. The name Horatio
textbook. The English word algebra comes from an Ara- Alger is still used to describe fictional and real-life indi-
bic word meaning restoration or completion in the title viduals who achieve rags to riches' success through
of this work. The Persian astronomer and poet Omar their own efforts.
Khayyam (c. 1048-1131) wrote a book on algebra. Critics now consider Alger's novels poorly written
There was little progress in the development of alge- and dull. But during the latter half of the 1 800s, his sto-
bra during the Middle Ages. Europeans began to study ries made him one most influential writers in the
of the
the subject in the late 1400s and in the 1500s. Many United States. Alger wrote more than 1 30 books, which
mathematicians contributed to its later development. sold about 40 million copies. Many of his boy heroes ap-
The widespread use of computers has caused major peared in series, notably Ragged Dick (begun in 1867),
changes in the study and use of algebra. Inexpensive Luck and Pluck (begun in 1869), and Tattered Tom (be-
software can perform most problem-solving steps stud- gun in 1871).
ied in algebra. For example, the programs can quickly Horatio Alger, jr., was born in Revere, Mass. From
solve linear or quadratic equations. The emphasis in al- 1866 to 1896, he devoted much of his time and money to
gebra classes has therefore begun to shift from learning helping a home for orphans and runaway boys in New
basic symbol-manipulation skills to understanding alge- York City. Alger used his experiences with the children
bra's underlying concepts. Bright as material for his novels. Ronald T. Curran
360 Algeria

Algiers, the capita! and largest city of Algeria, is often called Algiers the White because of its many
white buildings. The city has an excellent harbor on the Mediterranean Sea. Most Algerians live in
cities in the country s narrow Mediterranean coastal region.

Algeria
Algeria, al JEER ee uh, is a large country in northern pie to a five-year term and may serve no more than two
Africa. Among African countries, only Sudan is larger. consecutive terms. The president appoints a prime min-
Northern Algeria stretches along the Mediterranean ister to head the government The prime minister in turn

Sea The country s narrow Mediterranean region has a chooses a Council of Ministers to help in carrying out
warm climate and rich farmland. Almost all Algerians the day-to-day operations of the government
live in this region. Algiers, the country and
s capital Algeria has two houses in its national legislature, the
largest city, lies on the Mediterranean. To the south, the National People s Assembly and the National Council.
sun-scorched wastes of the Sahara cover more than The National People s Assembly has 380 members who
four-fifths of Algeria.Beneath the surface of this desert
area lie huge deposits of natural gas and petroleum.
Most Algerians are of mixed Arab and Berber de-
scent. However, the people form two distinct cultural Facts in brief
groups— Arab and Berber. Each group has its own cus-
Capital: Algiers.
toms and language. But nearly all Algerians are Mus- Official language: Arabic.
lims—that is, followers of Islam. Official name: Al-Jumhuriyah al-)az'iriyah ad Dimuqratiyah wa
For about 1 30 years, Algeria belonged to France. In ash-Sha'biyah (Democratic and Popular Republic of Algeria).
1962, it gained independence following a bloody revolu- Area: 919,595 mi 12,381,741 km). Greatest distances— east-west,
tion. Algerians then formed a socialist government that 1,500 mi (2,400 km); north-south, 1,300 mi (2,100 km).
Coastline-750 mi (1,200 km).
began a program of rapid industrial development The
Elevation: Highest e/e\ atiort- Moum Tahat, 9,573 ft 12,918 m)
program has been financed chiefly by income from Al- above sea level. Lowest elevation— Chott Melrhir, 102 ft 131 m)
geria s government-owned natural gas and petroleum below sea level.
industries. But industry has not grown fast enough to Population: Estimated 2002 population-52,813,000: density, 36
eliminate poverty and widespread unemployment per mi (14 per km); distribution, 51 percent urban, 49 percent
rural. 1987 census-Z3,03i,942.
Government Chief products: Agriculture— barley, citrus fruits, cork, dates,
grapes, meat, milk, olives, potatoes, wheat Manufacturing—
National government A president serves as Alge- machinery, processed foods, textiles, transportation equip-
ria s head of state. The president is elected by the peo- ment Mining— antimony, copper, iron ore, lead, manganese,
mercury, natural gas, petroleum, phosphates, salt, tungsten.
National anthem: Kassaman ("We Pledgel
Kenneth ). Perkins the ontributor or
< this article, is Professor Money: Basic unit dinar. One hundred centimes equal one
of History at the University of South Carolina. dinar.
 Algeria 361

are elected by the people to five-year terms The Na- The typical household consists of only a father
fices.
tional Council has 144 members who serve six-year and mother and their children. City people have much
terms. Ninety-six of the members of the council are more contact with Western ideas than do rural Algeri-
elected from representatives of local assemblies. The As a result, some city dwellers follow Western cus-
ans.
president appoints the other 48. toms.
de Liberation Nationale (FLN), or
Until 1989, the Front Since Algeria gained independence, many poor rural
National Liberation Front, was Algeria's only legally per- people have moved to cities to seek factory work. But
mitted party. Today, Algeria is a multiparty state. How- many of them have not been able to find jobs. The mi-
ever, the Constitution bans the formation of political gration and a severe housing shortage have resulted in
parties based on religion, language, sex, or regional dif- the growth of large slums in many Algerian cities.
ferences. Other important political parties in Algeria to- Clothing. Many Algerians, especially in rural areas,
day besides the FLN include the Movement of Society wear traditional clothing. A woman may wear a long,
for Peace and the National Democratic Rally. white cotton outer garment called a haik. It covers the
Local government. Algeria has 48 provinces called head and the lower part of the face and extends down
wilayas. Each wilaya has an elected assembly and a wali as far as the feet. Traditional clothing for men includes a
(governor), who is appointed by the president. long,hooded cloak called a burnoose. Many people in
Courts. The Supreme Court is Algeria's highest urban areas wear Western-style clothing.
court. It reviews cases from 48 wilaya courts. Wilaya Foods made from such grains as wheat and barley
courts hear appeals from lower courts called tribunals. form the chief part of the diet of most Algerians. The na-
Armed forces. About 120,000 men serve in Algeria's tional dishis couscous. It consists of steamed wheat

army, air force, and navy. About 85 percent of them served with meat, vegetables, and a souplike sauce.
serve in the army. Algerian men 19 years or older may Many city dwellers eat Western-style dishes.
be drafted for two years of military duty. Members of Recreation. Soccer is the most popular sport in Al-
thearmed forces also work on the construction of high- geria. Many Algerians enjoy playing the game or watch-
ways and other public works projects. ing soccer matches. A favorite pastime in cities is going

People
Ancestry. Most of Algeria's people are of mixed
Arab and Berber ancestry. Berbers lived in what is now
Algeria at least 5,000 years ago. Arabs began to arrive
from the Arabian Peninsula during the A.D. 600's.
Through the years, so many Arabs and Berbers inter-
married that it is now difficult to separate the groups by
ancestry. However, many Berbers in the country still
maintain their own language and culture. Less than 1
percent of the people are of European descent.
Language. A large majority of Algerians speak Ara-
bic, the country's language. In addition to Ara-
official Algeria's flag and coat of armsdisplay a star and crescent,
bic, many Algerians speakFrench. About a fifth of the symbols background of green, a tradi-
of Islam, partly against a
tional Islamic color. The flag was officially adopted in 962,1
people speak dialects of the Berber language.
when Algeria gained its independence from France. The Arabic
Way of life. Since Algeria gained its independence letter jim, which appears twice at the top of the coat of arms, is
from France in 1962, the government has worked to rid an abbreviation for the Arabic form of Republic of Algeria.
the country of French cultural influences. For example,
it requires that legal proceedings be in Arabic rather
than French. Arabic has also replaced French as the lan-
guage used to teach the country's elementary and high
school students. Many Algerians have called for stricter
observance of Islamic teachings, which regulate family
and community relationships and many other aspects of
daily life.

Rural life. Rural Algerians typically live in large family

groups made up of several generations. Most houses
are built of stone or concrete or of sun-dried bricks
made of mud and straw. Most also have flat tile or tin
roofs. The majority of rural Algerians make a living rais-
ing livestock or farming small plots.
The architecture of Algeria s larger cities re-
City life.
flects Islamic and European influences. Mosques (Islam-
ic houses of worship) and open-air markets are com-

mon. Older sections of the cities are called casbahs. In

these sections, shops and houses are crowded along
narrow streets. Newer sections have broad boulevards
WORLD hook map
and tall office and apartment buildings. Algeria a large country in northern Africa. Nearly
is all its peo-
In Algeria's cities, many men work in factories or of- ple live in an area that borders the Mediterranean Sea.
362 Algeria

to motion pictures. Algerians celebrate several national them go on to high school. The University of Algiers is

holidays, including their country's independence day on the country's largest university.
July 5. They also enjoy a number of religious festivals. The arts. A large number of Algeria's finest works of
Religion. The Constitution of Algeria declares Islam art reflect the influence of Islam. Outstanding examples
to be the country's official religion. About 99 percent of include the beautiful domed mosques found through-
the people are Muslims, but they do not all agree about out the country. Algerians are also known for their su-
the role that Islam should play in the country's political perb jewelry, pottery, rugs, and other handicrafts in
and social life. which they use distinct Islamic designs and traditional
Education. More than half of all Algerians aged 15 or techniques.
older can read and write. For Algeria's literacy rate, see Algerian painters and writers were strongly influ-
Literacy (table: Literacy rates for selected countries). Al- enced by French culture during the period when Alge-
gerian law requires all children from 6 to 1 5 years old to ria belonged to France. Since then, they have increasing-

attend school. More

than 90 percent of all children at- ly drawn upon their Arabic, Berber, and Islamic cultural

tend elementary school. However, only about a third of roots. Today, many Algerian painters use traditional

Cities and towns* Algiers Bejaia 844 000 , A 4 Bordj Constantine . 808,000 . A 4
lAlgerl 1 886 000 A i Beni Abbes C 2 Menaiel A 3 Djelfa 629,000 B 3
Adrar 289,000 . D Annaba 530,000 . A 4 Biskra 501,000 B 4 Boumer- El Asnam A 3
Ain Delfat 647,000 A Arzevv A 3 Blida 859,000 . A 3 dest 826,000 . A 3 ElBayadht 182.000 B 3
Atn Temou- Balna 948,000 B . 4 Bordj Bou Bouira .646,000 A 4 ElOued 472,000 B 4
chent 112,000 B Bechar 233.000.. 2 Arreridj 512,000 A 4 Chleft .831, 000. A 3 EITarrt 340 000 B 4
Chardaia 255 000 B 3
Cuelma 405,000 A 4
lllizi 25,000 D 5
Jiiel 571 .000. A 4
Khemis
Miliana A 3
Tie Is. Sardir Khenchela . . .287,000 . B 4
Laghouat 263.000 B 3
Algeria ITALY
Maghnia B 2
Mediterranean Sea S.alv I Mascara 690,000 B 3
Mecheria B 3
International boundary Medea 787.000 .A 3
nk Algiers Skikda Annaba Milat 610,000 A 4
Road Moham-
Railroad
Moslem ^^^^^^onWmin^ madia
Mosta-
B 3

ganem 619 000 A 3

Oil pipeline MSilat 757,000 B 4
Naamat . 37.000..
,1 3
Seasonal stream <s " ,i
" 1'
Oran 1 110,000 A 3
o«iSfc4^,
Nemcen Ouargla .355,000 C 4
*-raB
National capital Oumtl
Bouaghit A
475 000 . 3
Other city or town Relizane A
691000 3
Saida 270 000
B 3
Mecher. Split 1.257 ,000. A 4
Sidi Bel
Abbes 542 000 B I

Skikda 736.000. A 4
Souk Ahras . . .346.000 . A 4
Taman-
rasset 122,000 ,E 4
Tebessa 486 000 B 4
Tiaret 708 ooo B 3
Tindout .21000 D I

Tipazat 749 000 A 3

TissemsiltT ,
.270,000 . A i
TiziOuzuu I 108,000 j* 4
Tlenicen 846,000 . B 2

Physical features
Ahaqgar
Mountains L 4
ChplHRiw-i A 3
ChottMelrlm
Hake) B 4
Djebel Aissa
(mountain! B 3
Grand Erg
Occidental
Idesertl l 1

Grand Erg
Oriental
idunel i 1

Mediterranean
Sea ... A 4
Mount Tahat t 4
Mouydir
Mountains [ 4
Plateau ot
l.ldenlail U 1

Sahara (desert D 3
Saharan Atl.i-.
mountains B 3
Sebkha
Meken hane
Make) 1) l

Tassili
Oua-n-Ahaggai
rlateau) I i

Atlas
(mountains) B 2

"Populations are Foi wtlsM ,i

provini e whli j lm lude sui

i

rounding areas as well .t-. the pri-

mary i It) "i town rhi \l<i in
gove -"i does Ifa pop
uiatlon data foi individual i
ities oi

Names ap kej
show sgem
Soui i
1994 offii ial estimates
National si.ii^
WORLD BOOK m.ip
 Algeria 363

much of the region. During rainy periods, shallow salt

lakes called chotts torm on the plateaus. About 7 per-
cent of the Algerian people live in the region.
Average temperatures on the High Plateaus range
from 81 F (27 C) in summer to 41 °F (5 C) in winter. The
region receives less than 16 inches (41 centimeters) of
rain a year.
The Sahara The Saharan Atlas Mountains form the
northern border of the Algerian Sahara. This vast desert
region occupies more than 80 percent of the country.
Sand dunes cover much of the northern Sahara. Other
parts of the region consist of bare rock, boulders, and
stones. A wealth of natural gas and under the
oil lies

eastern part of the wasteland. In the southeast, the Ahag-

gar Mountains tower above the desert floor. The range
includes Algeria's highest peak, Mount Tahat, which ris-
Algerian townspeople in Timimoun, in the country's Sahara re- es 9,573 feet (2,91 8 meters) above sea level.
gion,wear either traditional or Western-style clothing. The Daytime temperatures in the Algerian Sahara some-
group at the right includes schoolchildren. times soar above 120 F (49 O. During the summer, a
very hot, dusty wind called the sirocco blows northward
Arabic or Berber designs. Numerous Algerian authors across the region. The sirocco parches the High Plateaus
now write novels and plays in Arabic instead of in about 40 days each summer and the Tell about 20 days.
French. Less than 3 percent of all Algerians live in the Sahara.
Many people live in oases and rely on
of the region's
The land and climate
underground springs to water such crops as dates and
Algeria has three major land regions. They are, from grains.Nomads travel between grazing areas with their
north to south: (1) the Tell, (2) the High Plateaus, and (3) camels, sheep, and other livestock.
the Sahara.
Economy
The Tell stretches about 750 miles (1 ,200 kilometers)
along the Mediterranean coast. The region is from Algeria has a developing economy based largely on
about 80 to 200 miles (1 30 to 320 kilometers) wide. It income from natural gas and petroleum production. The
consists chiefly of coastal plains and gently rolling hills. government controls the nation's key industries, includ-
The word an Arabic term meaning hill. Much of
7e//is ing the production of natural gas and petroleum and the
Algeria's best farmland lies in the western and central manufacture of construction materials, textiles, and iron
parts of the region. Rugged mountains cover most of and steel. However, most farms and small factories and
the eastern Tell. Many Aleppo pine, juniper, and cork service industries are privately owned.
oak trees grow on the mountain slopes. The Tell Atlas Service industries account for about 44 percent of
Mountains rise along the region's southern edge. Over the total value of Algeria'seconomic production and
90 percent of Algeria's people live in the Tell. employ about 45 percent of the nation's workers. These
Near the sea, temperatures in the Tell average 77 F industries— which include banks, government agencies,
(25 °C) in summer and 52 F (1 1 °C) in winter. Annual rain- hospitals, insurance companies, and schools— provide
fall averages 16 inches (41 centimeters) in the west and business, community, or personal services.
27 inches (69 centimeters) in the east Mining accounts for about 1 8 percent of the value of
The High Plateaus lie south of the Tell Atlas Moun- Algeria's economic production and employs about 2
tains and range from about 1 ,300 to 4,300 feet (400 to percent of the nation's workers. Algeria produces large
1,300 meters) above sea level. Herders graze cattle, quantities of natural gas and petroleum, chiefly from
sheep, and goats on the grasses and shrubs that cover fields in the northeastern part of the Sahara region.

The High Plateaus region stretches across northern Algeria. The Sahara, a hot desert region, covers over four-fifths of Alge-
Tin' region's grasses and shrubs provide feed for herds of live- ria.Date palm trees, such as the ones shown here, grow in
stock. This shepherd is grazing a flock of sheep near Tiarel. oases, where they are watered by underground springs.
364 Algeria

Other important minerals produced in Algeria include Nearly all the roads and railroad track lie north of the Sa-

iron ore, lead, mercury, phosphate rock, and zinc. hara. Camel caravans still cross the Algerian Sahara, as
Manufacturing and construction account for about they have for hundreds of years. However, aircraft,
26 percent of the value of Algeria's economic produc- jeeps, and trucks are also used to move goods and peo-
tion and employ about 30 percent of all workers. The na- ple across the desert. Algeria's chief international air-

tion's chief manufactured products include construction ports are in Algiers, Constantine, and Oran. Algiers and
materials, iron and steel, refined petroleum products, Oran are the main seaports. The government controls
liquid natural gas, and textiles. Almost all Algerian facto- the country's four daily newspapers. It also operates all

ries are on or near the coast in such cities as Algiers, radio and television stations.
Annaba, Arzew, Constantine, and Skikda.
History
The government has poured much money into the
construction of factories. But the industries have not People have lived in what is now Algeria for at least
grown fast enough
provide jobs for all workers. Thus,
to 40,000 years. By about 3000 B.C., nomadic Berbers had
hundreds of thousands of Algerians work in foreign begun migrating to the region. They probably came
countries, especially France. from Europe or Asia. In the 100s B.C., the Phoenicians,
1

Agriculture provides a living for about 22 percent of who lived on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean
Algeria's workers and generates about 1 percent of the 1 Sea, established trading posts on the Algerian coast.
value of the country's economic production. Most farm- About 200 B.C., the Romans helped a Berber chieftain
ers own small plots on which they produce enough to named Massinissa form and become ruler of the King-
feed their families. Other farmers work on large govern- dom of Numidia in northern Algeria. From 46 B.C. to the
ment farms. Grains, especially wheat and barley, are the A.D. 600s, the area was controlled, in turn, by the Ro-
chief crops. Other crops include dates, grapes, olives, mans, the Vandals, and the Byzantines.
potatoes, and citrus Dairy products and meat
fruits. Arab conquest In the A.D. 600s, Arabs from the Ara-
come from and sheep.
cattle, goats, bian Peninsula began to invade much of northern Africa,
Trade. Natural gas, petroleum, and refined petrole- including Algeria. This invasion resulted in the spread of
um products account for about 90 percent of the total Arabic culture throughout northern Africa and into what
value of Algeria's exports. Algeria belongs to the Organi- is now Spain. In Algeria, most of the Berbers adopted Is-

zation of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), an asso- lam—the religion of the Arabs— and, in time, the Arabic
ciation of countries whose economies depend heavily language. Many Arabs and Berbers also intermarried.
on oil exports. Other Algerian exports include citrus Ottoman rule. During the early 1500s, Spanish Chris-
fruits, mercury and phosphate rock. Al-
dates, iron ore, tians captured Algiers and other Algerian coastal cities.
geria imports large amounts of machinery, raw materi- But in 1518, Barbarossa, a Turkish sea captain, gained
als, and food. Its main trading partners include France, control of Algiers. He later helped drive the Spanish
Germany, Italy, and the United States. from most other Algerian coastal areas. Barbarossa
Transportation and communication. Algeria has joined the areas under his control to the Ottoman Em-
about 50,000 miles (80,000 kilometers) of roads and pire, an Islamic empire based in what is now Turkey. Al-
about 2,500 miles (4,000 kilometers) of railroad track. geria remained a part of the empire until the early
1800s. During that time, ships in the Mediterranean Sea
were attacked by private warships under the command
of corsairs from Algeria and other countries. Raids by
Algerian corsairs on the ships of other nations became
Algeria's chief source of income.
French rule. In 1830, France invaded and gained con-
trol of northern Algeria. The French king, Charles X,
hoped an overseas military victory would strengthen his
rule in France. The French governed Algeria as part of
France. Many French and other Europeans settled in Al-
geria.These settlers became known as colons. Non-
French colons were given French citizenship. However.
France made it very difficult for Muslims to become
French citizens, even though Muslims made up the
great majority of the Algerian population. France gave
the colons large amounts of Algerian tribal land, and the
colons soon controlled Algeria's economy and govern-
ment. Many native Algerians fought against French rule.
In 1847, the French defeated powerful rebel forces led

by Abd al-Qadir, a Muslim religious leader. By 1914,

France controlled all of what is now Algeria.
As subjects of France, many Algerians fought on the
Allied side in World War (1914-1918). During World
I

War II (1939-1945), Algeria became a battleground. In

A gas-processing plant in Arzew changes natural gas into a liq-

1940, France surrendered to Germany. France, cooperat-
uid so thai il ( .in l>e shipped overseas. Natural gas is one of Al ing with Germany, formed a government at Vichy in
geria's most valuable exports central France. The Vichy government ruled Algeria un-
 Algiers 365

1942, when the United Kingdom, the United States,

til guage, or regional differences. Multiparty elections for
and other Allied countries invaded and occupied Alge- the National People s Assembly were held in 1997. In

ria (see World War II lln northern Africa]). After the war, 1999, Abdelaziz Bouteflika, an independent candidate
the Allies returned control of Algeria to France. supported by the military and Zeroual, was elected
The Algerian Revolution. After both world wars, na- president in a contest marred by charges of vote fraud.
tive Algerians demanded greater political power. But In 2001 clashes broke out between security forces
,

each time, the colons blocked all reforms that would and Berber protesters in northern Algeria. The protest-
have given native Algerians a voice in the government in ers demanded greater political and cultural recognition
proportion to their population. In 1954, native Algerians for Berbers. The government agreed to some Berber de-
formed an organization to fight for independence— the mands. In 2002, for example, it made the Berber lan-
Front de Liberation Nationale (FLN), or National Libera- guage, Tamazight, a national language of Algeria. But
tion Front. The FLN began a revolution on November 1. Berber protests Continued. Kenneth Perkins ).

It ambushes, assassinations, and bombing

carried out Related articles in World Book include:
raids against the colons and the French forces in Alge- Algiers Fanon, Frantz Organization of
ria. In response, the French army destroyed orchards
Arabs Omar the Petroleum
Barbary States Foreign Legion Exporting Coun-
and cropland belonging to native Algerians, forced mil-
Ben Bella, Ahmed France (History) tries
lions of native Algerians into concentration camps, and Berbers Numidia Sahara
tortured rebel leaders. By the late 1950 s, the army's tac- Constantine Oran Western Sahara
tics had aroused strong opposition in France. Peace
Outline
talksbegan in 1961. On July 3, 1962, France finally grant-
I. Government
ed Algeria independence. See France (History).
A. National government C Courts
Independence. Most colons—about a million of B. Local government D. Armed forces
them— fled Algeria during or soon after the revolution. II. People
In 1963, one Ahmed Ben Bella, be-
of the rebel leaders, A. Ancestry D. Clothing C. Religion
came Algeria s first Ben Bella proclaimed Al-
president. B Language E. Foods H. Education
geria a socialist state and urged workers to take over C Way of life F. Recreation I. The arts
III. The land and climate
businesses and farms abandoned by colons.
A. The Tell B. The High Plateaus C The Sahara
In 1965, Fiouari Boumedienne, the army commander, IV. Economy
overthrew Ben Bella. Boumedienne began a program of A. Service industries D. Agriculture
rapid economic development based on government B. Mining E. Trade
ownership and control of industry. He used income C Manufacturing and F. Transportation and corn-
construction munication
from natural gas and petroleum to build fertilizer plants,
V. History
steel mills, oil refineries, and other factories.
Recent developments. Boumedienne died in 1978. Questions
In 1979, Defense Minister Chadli Bendjedid was elected How did the Arab invasion of Algeria during the 600 s influence
president. He slowed industrial development to devote most Berbers?
more resources to producing agricultural and con- How have literature and painting changed in Algeria since the
country became independent?
sumer goods. From independence until 1989, the FLN What French army tactics aroused strong opposition in France
was the only political party allowed by Algeria s Consti- during the Algerian Revolution?
tution. But a 1989 revision permitted other parties to op- How do Algerians in oases water their crops?
erate. The main opposition party, the Front Islamique du What is the sirocco?
Salut (FIS) — or Islamic Salvation Front— claimed that How does the Algerian government support Islam?
Why have many rural Algerians moved to urban areas?
changes in the electoral law favored the FLN.
Why did France invade Algeria in 1830?
A first
round of multiparty elections for the National In which land region do most Algerians live?
People's Assembly was held in December 991 with a 1 ,

second round scheduled for January 992. But the gov- 1 Algiers, a/JEERZipop. 1,886,000), is the capital and
ernment canceled the second round after it seemed that largest city of Algeria. The city is also the nation's com-
the FIS would win a majority of seats. The government mercial and financial center. Algiers lies in northern Al-
dissolved the Assembly, and President Bendjedid re- geria, on the Mediterranean Sea (see Algeria Imapl).
signed. A military-dominated High State Committee then Algiers was built on top of a hill. The oldest section of
governed Algeria until 1994, when the committee was the city is the Casbah in the north. The Casbah has a
replaced by a president, Liamine Zeroual. In 1995, Zer- large population, and its many old buildings are crowd-
oual was elected president in a multiparty election. ed close together. This section was named for the cas-
The courts banned the FIS in 1992, and thousands of bah (fortress) that still stands on the hill. The commercial,
FIS members were arrested. Violence increased as the governmental, and residential areas of Algiers are down
FIS and other Muslim extremists continued to protest the hill and in the suburbs. White buildings, constructed
against the government. In June 1999, the Islamic Salva- in the late 1800 s, line the waterfront. Algiers has a num-
tion Army, the armed branch of the FIS, announced it ber of museums and mosques (Islamic houses of wor-
was ending its fight against the government. However, ship) and is the home of the University of Algiers.
some Muslim extremists have continued to attack Alger- Many of the city s people work for the national gov-
ian security forces and civilians. More than 100,000 peo- ernment. Others are employed in banking and interna-
ple have died in the fighting since 1992. tional trade or in industry. The city s industries include
In 1996, the Algerian people approved a revised con- food and tobacco processing, metalworking, and the
stitution that bans parties based on religion, sex, lan- production of cement, chemicals, soap, and shoes.
366 Algin

Algiers was founded in the A.D. 900's by the chief of a women, called shamans, were thought to have spiritual
Muslim The Ottoman Empire
tribe called the Sanhaja. powers and served as advisers.
ruled the city from the early 1 500s until 1 830. The The Algonquin and their allies the Huron fought a bit-
French took control of Algiers that year. They brought to ter war against the Iroquois during the 1600s. About
Algiers a European culture, which blended with the 1640, the Algonquin were defeated and driven from
city's Muslim culture. Algiers was a colonial capital for their territory. This war and epidemics of measles and
many years under Ottoman and then French rule. It be- smallpox reduced the Algonquin population from about
came the national capital in 1962, when Algeria gained 4,000 to 1,000 in a 10-year period. Today, there are about
independence from France. The population of Algiers 4,000 Algonquin, most of whom live in eastern Ontario
has increased several times since 1954, causing severe and Southwestern Quebec. Conrad E. Heidenreich

overcrowding in the city. Construction of a subway sys- Algorithm, AL guh rihth uhm, is a step-by-step proce-
tem to ease the city's transportation problems was be- dure for solving a mathematical problem in a limited
gun in the late 1980S. Malcolm C Peck number of steps. The instructions for each step are pre-
See also Algeria (picture). cise. Many algorithms involve repeating the same steps
Algin. See Algae; Seaweed. several times and can be carried out by a computer.
Algol, AL gahl, also called Beta Persei, is the second Probably the most famous algorithm is Euclid's algo-
brightest star in the constellation Perseus. about 100 It is rithm. It is used to find the greatest common divisor of
light-years from the earth appears
(see Light-year). Algol any two whole numbers, a and b. To use this algorithm,
to be a single star, but it is actually a type of double star first divide the smaller number (b)\n\o the larger num-

called an eclipsing binary. In such a binary, a pair of ber (a): I If the numbers divide evenly, with a remainder
.

stars revolve around each other so that one periodically /Wof 0, the algorithm ends and b is the answer. But if the
blocks the light of the other. This action reduces the remainder is not 0, divide the remainder into the former
brightness of the double star as viewed from the earth. divisor * Keep dividing each succeeding remainder
.

Algol's variations in brightness can be seen with the into the previous divisor until you reach a remainder of
unaided eye. About every three days, Algol loses two- 0. Then stop. The last divisor is the greatest common di-

thirds of its brightness in a period of five hours. In an- visor of the original numbers a and b
other five hours, it returns to its normal apparent magni- Thomas Butts

tude of 2.3 (see Star (Brightness of starsl). Algol was one Algren, AWL grihn, Nelson (1909-1981), an American
of the first eclipsing variables to be discovered. author, is best known for fiction describing the brutal
The distance between the centers of the two stars is life Chicago slums of the 1930s and 1940s. His
of the
about 7 million miles (1 1 million kilometers). One star characters are constantly defeated by their sordid envi-
has a surface temperature of about 22,000 °F (12,000 C). ronment, but the reader sympathizes with their yearning
The second, fainter star is only one-third as hot. A third, for love and dignity.
more distant star belongs to the Algol system. It orbits Algren's most moving and artistic novel is The Man
the other two stars,but it does not take part in the with the Golden Arm (1949). It records the unsuccessful
eclipses. Sumner Starrfield struggle of the central character, Frankie Machine,
See also Astronomy (map: The stars and constella- against gambling, drug addiction, and a crippled, neu-
tions of the Northern Hemisphere); Binary star. rotic wife. Algren's novel A Walk on the Wild Side 1 956) (

Algonquin Indians, al GAHNG kihn or al CAHNG has a robust comic quality. Algren also wrote a collec-
kwihn, once fished and hunted in the Ottawa River re- tion of stories, The Neon Wilderness (1947), and a book
gion of Canada, in what is now Ontario and Quebec. of stories and nonfiction pieces called The Last Carousel
They are also called the Algonkin. The Algonquin, Cree, (1973). Algren was born in Detroit, but he lived most of
and other tribes spoke Algonquian languages, a group his life in Chicago. victor a Kramer
of related languages named for the Algonquin. These Alhambra, al HAM bruh, was a famous palace and
tribes had strong similarities, and scholars use the term fortress in Granada, Spain. It was built by the Moors, a
Algonquian Indians or Algonquian familyXo refer to all
of the Algonquian-speaking tribes.
The Algonquin lived in bands of 100 to 300 members.
Each band was divided into hunting groups of up to 25
close relatives. Algonquin families lived in lodges made
of bent saplings covered with birchbark. Each lodge
housed a husband and wife, their young children and
unmarried grown-up daughters, and their married sons
with their own wives and children.
In winter, the Algonquin hunted deer, moose, and
other animals. During the rest of the year, they fished
and also gathered wild fruits, nuts, and roots. The Al-
gonquin were experts in building and handling canoes.
They traveled by canoe during spring, summer, and fall.
In winter, they used toboggans and snowshoes.
The Algonquin believed in a great spirit, an especially © Adam Woolfitt Woodfin Camp In

powerful god. But they believed their lives were affect- The Alhambra is a palace and fortress in Granada, Spain. Built
ed mostly by ancestral spirits and the spirits of animals, by the Moots between 1 248 and 354, the Alhambra is one of
1

plants, and other natural surroundings. Certain men and the finest examples of Islamic architecture in Europe.
 Alien and Sedition Acts 367

Muslim people from northern Africa, between 1248 and defeat his opponent Bert Randolph Sugar

1354 (see Moors). Now a monument, the Alhambra is See also Boxing (pictures).
one of the most elaborate and important examples of Is- Additional resources
lamic architecture in the Western world.
Hauser, Thomas. Muhammad Ali: His Life and Times. 1991.
An outer wall encloses the Alhambra, which occupies Reprint Simon & Schuster, 1992.
35 acres (14 hectares). Twenty-three towers rise from this Schulman, Arlene. Muhammad Ali. Lerner, 1996. Younger read-
wall,which is made of red bricks. Alhambra is an Arabic ers.

word meaning the red. Colorful, delicately ornamented

plaster moldings cover many of the walls and ceilings of Alibates Flint Quarries National Monument, .//
the palace. The Alhambra is also noted for its two court- uh BAHTeez, is in Potter County in northwestern Texas.
yards. The Court of the Lions, in particular, is famous for The monument has quarries where prehistoric Indians
its carved columns, its delicate screens, and its fountain dug stone for weapons and tools. Nearby are ruins of a
(see Spain [picture: The Alhambra]) Pueblo Indian settlement built in the 1100s and 1200's.
The Alhambra was the last stronghold of the Moors in The monument was authorized in 1965. For area, see Na-
it was captured by forces of the Spanish
Spain. In 1492, tional Park System (table: National monuments).
monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella. wmiamRudd
j .
Critically reviewed by the National Park Service

All, ah LEE, Muhammad, moo HAM t/M(1942- ), Alien, AYL yuhn or AY lee uhn, is a person who is not a
was an American heavyweight boxing champion. AM first citizen or national of the country in which he or she is
won the championship by living. The legal and social rights of aliens differ in vari-
knocking out Sonny Liston ous countries.
in 1964. Some boxing The United States recognizes two kinds of aliens, tem-
groups recognized Ali as porary visitors and resident aliens. A person in the Unit-
champion until 1967. But ed States as a tourist or on business is a temporary visi-
he was stripped of the tor. Temporary visitors may not travel or accept employ-

World Boxing Association ment without permission from the U.S. government
(WBA) title late in 1964 in a They are protected under the Bill of Rights. Resident
dispute over a contract aliens live in the United States on a permanent basis.
The WBA again recog- They generally enjoy the same rights as citizens, but
nized Ali as champion af- cannot vote or hold public office. Illegal aliens are non-
ter he defeated Ernie Ter- citizens living in a country without the proper docu-
rell in 1967. In the same ments. They may be deported if they are discovered.
year, the WBA and other Chuagu Daily Defender The Alien Enemies Act of 798 gives the president the
1

boxing groups stripped Muhammad Ali power "to apprehend, restrain, secure and remove" alien
Ali of his title when he re- enemies in wartime. The U.S. government first regis-
fused induction into the United States Army. He was tered aliens in 1940. Robert J Pranger

also convicted on charges of refusing induction. See also Citizenship; Naturalization; Immigration;
After his conviction, Ali did not box for 3 \ years. In Smith Act; Deportation.
1971, he suffered his first loss in 32 professional fights Alien and Sedition Acts, A YL yuhn or A Y lee uhn,
when he attempted to regain the heavyweight title from sih DIHSH uhn, were a series of laws passed by Con-
Joe Frazier. Later in 1971, the Supreme Court of the Unit- gress in 1798 to silence opposition to an expected war
ed States reversed Ali's conviction. with France. Neither France nor the United States had
Ali regained the heavyweight championship by declared war, but French and American ships had
knocking out George Foreman, the defending champi- fought many battles.
on, in 1974. Early in 1978, Ali lost the title to Leon Spinks The Alien and Sedition Acts consisted of three laws
in one of the greatest upsets in boxing history. Later in dealing with aliens (foreigners) and one dealing with
1978, Ali won the title for the fourth time when he de- sedition (inciting rebellion). The Alien Enemies Act au-
feated Spinks in a 15-round decision. In 1979, Ali gave thorized the president to imprison or deport citizens of
up his title and announced his retirement. In 1980, how- enemy The Alien Friends Act permitted even
nations.
ever, he came out of retirement and fought Larry be deported if the presi-
citizens of friendly nations to
Holmes for the World Boxing Council version of the ti- dent considered them dangerous. The Naturalization
tle. Holmes defeated Ali by a technical knockout. In 1984, Act required a foreigner to live in the United States for
Ali was diagnosed with a brain illness called Parkinson 14 years before becoming a citizen. The Sedition Act
disease. was used to fine or imprison anyone who encouraged
Ali was born Cassius Marcellus Clay in Louisville, Ken- resistance to federal laws or who criticized the govern-
tucky. He became a professional boxer afterwinning the ment
light heavyweight title at the 1960 Summer Olympic The chief supporters were members of the Federalist
Games. In 1964, he adopted the Black Muslim religion Party, which controlled Congress. The Federalists gener-
and changed his name to Muhammad Ali. He discussed ally supported Britain in international disputes. Their op-
his boxing career and religious views in his autobiogra- ponents were members of the Democratic-Republican
phy, The Greatest My Own StoryWSlb). Party, which usually sided with France. The Democratic-
Ali became one of the most colorful and controversial Republican Party gained much support from recent im-
boxing champions. He bragged about his ability and migrants to the United States, most of whom were from
made up poems that scorned his opponents. Early in his France or Ireland.
career, Ali even predicted the round in which he would By passing the Alien and Sedition Acts, the Federal-
368 Alien Registration Act of 1940

ists hoped to silence their critics. The plan failed, how-

ever. Many people objected to the Alien and Sedition
Acts as a violation of freedom. Thomas Jefferson and Mouth
lames Madison, two Democratic-Republican leaders,
challenged the constitutionality of the acts in the Ken-
Pharynx
tucky and Virginia Resolutions. The resolutions became
part of the Democratic-Republican platform in the 1800
presidential election. The Democratic-Republicans de-
feated the Federalists in this election. The Alien Friends
Act expired that year, and the Sedition Act expired in
1801. Congress repealed the Naturalization Act, and the Esophagus

Alien Enemies Act was amended. leraid a. Combs

See also Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions.

Alien Registration Act of 1940. See Smith Act
Alienation is the feeling of being isolated from certain
aspects of one's environment. Alienation may occur
Stomach
when a person's emotional ties with another person,
group, institution, or belief are disrupted. Sometimes,
entire groups become alienated.
There are many causes of alienation. For example,
Large intestine -

alienation may occur when a group loses a leader who

represented its dreams and hopes, or when a child dis-
covers the shortcomings of an adult the child has ad-
mired. Or it may result if a person believes that certain Small intestine -

political, economic, or social institutions are impersonal

and unresponsive to change.
Alienation takes different forms and may have various
consequences. Alienated persons may become disori-
ented or hostile, feel helpless, withdraw within them- Rectum
selves, or reject established values. Many social scien-
tistssee a relationship between alienation and such
behavior as crime, mental illness, and voter apathy. But
alienation sometimes has such positive consequences WORLD BOOk illustration bv Charles Wellek

as artistic creation, invention, and discovery. It is a The alimentary canal through which food is taken
is a tube
theme of much contemporary literature. For a discus- into the body and digested. It is about 30 feet (9 meters) long in
sion of how one writer deals with alienation, see the ar- an adult, beginning at the mouth and ending at the rectum.
ticle Kafka, Franz. Wolf Heydebrand
Alienation of affections is the act of a third person down to the stomach. In the stomach, fluids lubricate
who turns the affection of one family member away and partially digest the food. The partially digested food
from another. In the past, only husbands could sue for is called chyme. Contractions of the stomach mix and
alienation of affections, and they could do so only if the grind the food into a liquidlike mixture that contains
third person had interfered with the husband's relation- small particles. This mixture is emptied into the small in-
ship with his wife. Today, wives also can sue. In recent testine.There, juices from the pancreas, liver, and intes-
years, a few plaintiffs have successfully sued for the tine wall continue the process of digestion. The intestine
alienation of a parent's affections. A number of states in squeezes the chyme back and forth to mix it thoroughly.
the United States prohibit alienation of affections suits. The frequency and pressure of these contractions varies
Opponents argue that they promote family
of the suits and keeps the chyme moving through the intestine.
conflict and enable dishonest people to obtain money Most of the food elements in the digested food are
by threatening to sue for alienation of affections. Barring absorbed into the bloodstream through the small intes-
such suits is also part of a trend in family law to avoid tine. The intestine is lined with a mucous membrane
placing blame for the failure of a marriage. made up of tiny fingerlike projections called villi. The
Aidan K Gough villi increase the area through which absorption can

Alimentary canal is a long tube through which food take place. Soluble parts of the chyme pass through the
is taken into the body and digested. In human beings, small intestine into the bloodstream, and are carried to
this passage
is about 30 feet (9 meters! long. Animals all parts of the body. The water and salts that remain are

that eat meat usually have shorter alimentary canals than absorbed in the large intestine. The remaining solid
animals that eat grass. The alimentary canal begins at the wastes, called feces, are mixed with bacteria. The feces
mouth, and includes the pharynx, esophagus, stomach, pass out of the body through the rectum in a process
small and large intestines, and rectum. called defecation. Andre Dubois
When a person swallows food, muscles of the phar- Related articles in World Book include:
ynx push the food into the esophagus. The muscles in Digestive system Intestine

the esophagus walls respond with a wavelike contrac- Esophagus Mouth

Human body Pharynx
tion called peristalsis. At the same time, the lower eso-
Trans-visionl Stomach
phageal sphincter relaxes, allowing the food to pass
 Alkalosis 369

Alimony, AL uh moh nee, is support money paid by alkali metal precedes another word, as in alkali metal
one spouse (husband or wife) to the other during a legal halide, it refers to the presence of a positive ion of an al-

separation or after a divorce. A court sets the amount of kali metal. The salt sodium chloride (NaCI) is an alkaii
alimony and orders that it be paid either in a lump sum metal halide. It is made of the positive ion of the alkali
or in installments. A person may also be ordered to pay metal sodium, and the negative ion of the halogen chlo-
alimony while waiting for a separation or divorce to be rine.
granted. In some states, the law does not provide for al- In nature, alkali metals always occur in compounds. A

imony. See Divorce. process called electrolysis can separate the metals from
In many cases in the past, a divorce was granted to their salts and hydroxides. The average sample of the
one spouse because of misconduct by the other. The earth's crust is about 3.13 percent sodium, 2.85 percent
marriage partner who was found at fault would not re- potassium, 0.034 percent rubidium, 0.034 percent ce-
ceive alimony. In many states today, courts can grant a sium, and 0.007 percent lithium. Francium, a radioactive
divorce without finding either person guilty. These alkali metal, occurs only briefly when uranium decays.
courts base alimony decisions on the spouses' financial With the exception of minerals known as common sil-
condition. A court may order that no alimony be paid, icates, most alkali compounds dissolve easily in water.
or that it be paid only temporarily. If the wife has a high- Rain washes these compounds from the soil. The com-
er income than her husband, she may have to pay al- pounds then collect in the ocean and in lakes that have
imony. no outlets, such as Great Salt Lake in Utah. The evapora-
People who fail to pay alimony may have payments tion of ancient seas and lakes left vast deposits of alkali
taken out of their wages, or they may be imprisoned. An saltsthroughout the world.
alimony order may be changed if either spouse's finan- The alkali metals all form singly charged positive
cial or marital condition changes. carifred b Broderick ions, and are extremely reactive chemically. They react
Alinsky, uh LIHN skee, Saul David (1909-1972), won violently with water, forming hydroxides and releasing
fame for his efforts to help poor people help them- hydrogen gas and heat Duward f. shnver
selves. A professional organizer, he helped the poor in Related articles in World Book include:
more than 40 U.S. communities to form groups to gain a Base Francium Potassium
voice in local affairs and improve their economic and Cesium Lithium Rubidium
Element, Chemical Lye Sodium
social positions. These groups used various methods of
social protest, including boycotts, picketing, rent Alkaloid, AL kuh loyd, any of a group of organic
is

strikes,and sit-down strikes. bases found in plants. Alkaloids contain carbon, hydro-
Alinsky was born in Chicago. He graduated from the gen, nitrogen, and oxygen. Small amounts of many alka-
University of Chicago in 1930. His first community action loids can have a powerful effect on people and animals,
project was the "Back-of-the-Yards" program in the and are used as medicines or poisons. Some useful al-
stockyards area of Chicago in 1939. In 1940, several kaloids are synthesized (artificially put together) in
wealthy Chicagoans gave him money to establish the In- chemical factories, as well as taken from plants.
dustrial Areas Foundation. Alinsky continued his work Alkaloids with medicinal value include codeine and
through this organization. One of his best-known morphine from the poppy plant, and quinine and quini-
achievements was the creation in 1960 of The Wood- dine from the cinchona. Others are caffeine from coffee
lawn Organization (TWO) in a predominantly black and tea, cocaine from coca, ephedrine from the
neighborhood in Chicago. In 1 969, Alinsky founded a Ephedra genus of plants, reserpine from Rauwolfia ser-
school in Chicago to train organizers for work in poor pentina, and tubocurarine from curare.
and middle-class neighborhoods. Poisonous alkaloids from such plants as curare are
lames W Varder Zanden used on arrowheads by peoples who hunt chiefly with
Alkali, AL kuh ly in chemistry, refers to six chemical bow and arrow. The hemlock plant, which was used to
elements that are known as the alkali metals: lithium, kill the Creek philosopher Socrates, contains lethal

sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium, and francium. amounts of conine and other alkaloids. Aconitine from
These elements make up group 1 of the periodic table. the aconite plant is also highly poisonous. Nicotine, an
Compounds of alkali metals rank among the most com- alkaloid of the tobacco plant, is toxic to human beings
mon and most useful of all chemicals. Millions of tons and is also used to kill insects. Patrice C Belanger

of alkali metal salts are used by industry each year. The Related articles in World Book include:
salts come from mines and wells. Sodium and potassi- Aconite Morphine
Base Nicotine
um salts areraw materials for sodium hydroxide and
Caffeine Quinine
potassium hydroxide. These alkali metal compounds Cocaine
and others made from them are used in making glass,
paper, soap, and textiles; in refining petroleum; and in Alkalosis, al kuh LOHsihs, is a condition in which a
preparing leather. The word alkali comes from the Ara- person's body fluids become too alkaline. The body ad-
bic word al-qili, meaning plant ashes. Plant ashes were Severe alkalosis can result in
justs to mild alkalosis.
the first source of alkali metal compounds. muscular weakness, convulsions, coma, and even
When used alone, the word alkali refers to alkali met- death.
al hydroxides, and sometimes to alkali metal carbonates. Most cases of alkalosis arise from disorders or drugs
An alkali metal hydroxide is acompound that contains that cause the body to lose too much acid, thus upset-
an alkali metal positive ion (such as Na) and a negative ting the normal balance of acid and alkali. Disorders
hydroxideiOH ion. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and
) that can result in alkalosis include prolonged vomiting
potassium hydroxide (KOH) are alkalis. When the term and hyperxentilation (abnormally rapid, deep breathing).
370 All Fools' Day

Prolonged vomiting causes excessive loss of hydrochlo- Lake Erie

ric acid from the stomach. In hyperventilation, a person

exhales too much carbon dioxide, lowering the level of "Clevelanc

carbonic acid in the blood. Alkalosis can arise from pro-
longed use of such drugs as diuretics, which inu east
Pennsylvania
the flow and the acidity— of urine from the kidneys.
Treatment of alkalosis usually consists of correcting Ohio Pittsburgh

the underlying disorder or reducing the drug intake. A Harrisburg

solution containing a weak acid may be administered

through a vein to help restore the body's normal acid-al-
kali balance. Edward E. Morse
See also Acidosis. West
All Fools' Day. See April Fools' Day. Virginia ^ ashmgtomi
DC.
All Saints' Day is a Christian holy day observed by
Western Christians on November and by Eastern 1
Chesapeake^
Christians on the first Sunday of Pentecost (see Pente-
cost). It honors all Christian saints, especially those who
do not have days named for them. Halloween takes its Virginia
Roanoke
name from All Saints' Day because October 31 was 100 Miles
called All Hallow s Eve, "eve of all the holy ones day.
100 Kilometers
In A.D. 609 or 610, Emperor Phocas gave the Roman

temple called the Pantheon to Pope Boniface IV as a WORLD BOOK r.,ap

church. The pope rededicated it to the Virgin Mary and Location of the Allegheny Mountains
Christian martyrs. The anniversary of this event may have
been the origin of All Saints' Day among Western Chris- ters) inWest Virginia. The mountains form a divide be-
tians. In the early 700 s, Pope Gregory III dedicated a tween streams that flow into the Atlantic Ocean and
chapel to all saints on November in St Peter's church.
1 those that empty into the Gulf of Mexico. The Alleghe-
Some historians think the celebration of that event may nies are the eastern edge of the Allegheny Plateau. This
have fixed the date of the feast at November 1. The gen- plateau is the major source of coal used by iron and
eral celebration of the feast day by Christians through- steel plants in Pittsburgh and nearby industrial areas.
out Western Europe probably began in the 800s. Trees from the mountains, including hickories and
Richard L Schebera maples, are shipped to pulp and paper mills and
See also Halloween; Saint sawmills in the Allegheny region.
Allah, AL uh or AH luh, is the Arabic name for the The Alleghenies are one of the most thinly populated
Supreme Being of the religion of Islam. The word is a regions in the East. Most of the people live in valleys
compound of al (the) and Hah (god). It denotes the east of the mountains or on the Allegheny Plateau.
Supreme Being in the Quran, which is to Muslims what The Alleghenies were created about 230 million years
the Bible is to Christians and Jews. Muslims regularly re- ago by disturbances in the earth s crust Before that
peat the creed: There is no god but Allah; and Muham- time the region made up part of a deep ocean trough.
mad is the Messenger of Allah. Richard c Martin About 40,000 feet (12,000 meters) of sediment(b\Xs of soil
Allahabad, al uh huh SAD (pop. 990,298; met. area and rock) had piled up in this trough. The upper layers
pop. 1,049,579), is a holy city of India. The name means of the sediment once formed the floor of dense,
City of Cod. Allahabad lies in the state of Uttar Pradesh, swampy forests. The remains of plants from the forests
where the Ganges and Yamuna rivers meet (see India created the thick coal deposits of the Alleghenies and
[political map]). Hindus consider these rivers sacred. the Allegheny Plateau.
Allahabad is a trade center for cotton, sugar, and oth- In pioneer times, the Alleghenies were major barriers
er products of nearby farms. The business and market to transportation. In 1755, the British general Edward
district lies at the main crossroads of the city. Braddock built a road through a mountain pass called .

Allahabad was founded in the 200 s B.C. Its old build- Cumberland Narrows, near Cumberland, Maryland. Part
ings include a famous mosque called the Jama Musjid of this road, called Braddocks Road, became part of the
and an ancient palace and fort built by the Mughal em- National Road, which linked the East Coast and the Ohio
peror Akbar in 1 583. Jawaharlal Nehru, India s first prime River Valley. Today, the pass is the heart of major trans-
minister, was born in Allahabad in 1889. His daughter, portation routes through the Alleghenies.
Indira Gandhi— who also served as prime minister— was John Edwin Coffman
born in the city in 1917. p.p.Karan See also West Virginia (picture).
Allegheny Mountains, al uh CAY nee, form part of Allegheny River, al uh GAY nee, is a major stream of

the Appalachian Mountain system of the eastern United western Pennsylvania and a principal headwater of the
States. They extend southwest from central Pennsylvania Ohio River. It rises in the hilly plateau country of north-
through western Maryland, eastern West Virginia, and central Pennsylvania, curves across the southwest cor-
western Virginia. ner of New York, and returns to Pennsylvania. The Alle-
The Alleghenies vary in height from about 2,000 feet gheny then continues south to Pittsburgh, where it joins
(610 meters) above sea level in the north to more than the Monongahela River to form the Ohio. The Allegheny
4,800 feet (1,460 meters) in the south. Spruce Knob, the is about 325 miles (523 kilometers) long, and drains

tallest peak in the Alleghenies, rises 4,861 feet (1,482 me- about 1 1,400 square miles (29,530 square kilometers).
 Allen, Richard 371

Itsbranches include the Kiskiminetas, Clarion, and settled in theNew Hampshire Grants, now Vermont.
Conemaugh rivers and Red Bank, Oil. and French New Hampshire granted land to settlers to the west,
creeks. Major deposits of coal, oil, and natural gas lie in but in 1764 the British decreed the land belonged to
the drainage basin. The river is navigable with a channel New York. In 1 770, New York courts ruled that land titles

for 70 miles (110 kilometers), from Pittsburgh to East in Vermont were not good unless purchased from New
Brady. William C Rense York. The settlers resisted this ruling by force. Allen and
Allegiance, Pledge of. See Pledge of Allegiance. Seth Warner organized the Green Mountain Boys. They
Allegory, AL uh cawr ee, is a story with more than one terrorized settlers fromNew York and fought off offi-
meaning. Most allegories have moral or religious mean- cials. New York's
governor offered a reward of 20
ings. Famous allegories include the fables attributed to pounds and later, 100 pounds, for Allen's arrest
Aesop, an ancient Greek writer. Aesop's fables seem to With the outbreak of the Revolutionary War in 1 775,
describe the adventures of animals and human beings. Allen and the Green Mountain Boys supported the patri-
But the author actually wanted to teach his readers ot cause. On May 0, 775, Allen and Colonel Benedict
1 1

something about human nature. Arnold led a force of 83 men in the attack on Fort Ticon-
One of Aesop s best-known fables is The Fox and the deroga. They subdued the British garrison and captured
Grapes." On its surface, or its of meaning, the
literal level cannon and other weapons for the American cause.
story tells of a fox who wants a bunch of grapes hanging In the early fall of 1 775, Allen tried to seize Montreal,

above his head. The fox tries desperately to reach the Canada. Captured by the British and held prisoner until
grapes but cannot He finally gives up, saying that the 1 778, he wrote A Narrative of Col. Ethan Allen's Captivity

grapes are probably sour anyway. The allegorical mean- (1779). After his release, he petitioned the Continental

ing of this story is that people may pretend the things Congress for Vermont's statehood. When Congress re-
they cannot have are not worth having. fused, he negotiated with the British to make Vermont a
Allegories had their greatest popularity during me- British province. Allen was accused of treason, but no
dieval and Renaissance times in Europe. The Divine one could prove his guilt. He then settled in Burlington,
Comedy, written by the Italian author Dante Alighieri in Vermont. A statue of Allen represents Vermont in Statu-
the early 1 300s, literally tells of a man's journey to heav- ary Hall in Washington, DC
James Kirby Martin
en through hell and purgatory. Allegorically, the poem See also Green Mountain Boys.
describes a Christian soul rising from a state of sin to a
Additional resources
state of blessedness. Other allegories include the para-
Aronson, Virginia. Ethan Allen. Chelsea Hse., 2000. Younger
bles of Jesus, and The Faerie Queene, written by the
readers.
English poet Edmund Spenser in the late 1500s. Michael A. Revolutionary Outlaws: Ethan Allen and the
Bellesiles,
Allegories lost popularity in Europe after about 1600, Struggle for Independence on the Early American Frontier.
but some, such as Pilgrim's Progress (1678, 1684) gained 1993. Reprint Univ. Pr. of Va., 1995.

recognition in later times. Allegory also exists in other Hahn, Michael T. Ethan Allen. New England Pr., 1994. Younger
readers.
ways. Many novels include allegorical suggestions of an
additional level of meaning. Examples include Moby- Allen, Hervey (1889-1949), was an American author
Dick (1 851 a whaling adventure that raises issues of hu-
), best known for his historical romance Anthony Adverse
man struggle and fate in a mysterious universe, and (1933). The story takes place during the era of the French
Lord of the Flies (1954), a story about shipwrecked boys ruler Napoleon in the late 1700s and early 1800s. It fol-
I

that examines the persistence of evil. Paul strohm lows the adventures of a young man as he travels
Related articles in World Book include: through Italy and Africa and finally to New Orleans.
Aesop s fables Fable Morality play Allen's style is rich in historical detail based on his thor-
Bunyan, John Colding, William Parable
ough research of the Napoleonic period.
Divine Corned) Melville, Herman Spenser, Edmund
Allen planned a series of novels about colonial Ameri-
Allen, Barbara, is the central character in an old ca called The Disinherited. He completed three works in
British ballad. As with all true ballads, more than one the series: 77?e Forest and the Fort (1943), Bedford Village
version exists. In most versions, Allen is called to the (1944), and Toward the Morning (1948). The novels tell
bedside of a dying man who loves her. She refuses to the story of Salathiel Albine, a white frontiersman kid-
comfort him, but soon after his death, Allen regrets her napped as a boy by Shawnee Indians in the 1 750s. All
lack of pity and dies of remorse. Like all traditional bal- three works were collected and published as The City in
lads, the focus is on the climax of the action and little is the Dawn. Allen also wrote IsrafeKWlQ, a biography of
disclosed about the circumstances leading up to it American writer Edgar Allan Poe. William Hervey Allen
A ballad about Allen was first printed in England in was born in Pittsburgh. Samuel chase Coale
1780, but had existed in oral versions at least 100 years Allen, Richard (1 760-1 831 founded the African ),

before that date. It was first printed in the United States Methodist Episcopal Church (A.M.E.), the first African
in 1836 and became very popular. Mark e workman American denomination in the United States.
Allen, Ethan (1 738-1 789), a fiery patnoi and soldier, led Allen was born a slave in Philadelphia and grew up
the Green Mountain Boys in the capture of Fort Ticon- on a plantation in Delaware. He later bought his free-
deroga from the British in 1775. Thi^ was one of the first dom, and moved to Philadelphia in 786. Allen helped 1

important American victories of the Rf v olutionary War. form the Free African Society, a service group for
See Fort Ticonderoga. blacks, in 787. He soon came to believe that blacks
1

Allen was born on Jan. 21, 1738, in Litchfield, Con- should have their own churches, and founded the
necticut. Historians know little of his early life. He served Bethel African Methodist Episcopal Church in 1794. He
briefly in the French and Indian War in 1757, and then was ordained a minister in 1799. In 1816, Bethel ended
372 Allen, William

its link with the Methodist Mystery (1993), Mighty Aphrodite (1995), Everyone Says I
Church. That year, Allen Love You (1 996), and Small Time Crooks (2000), and in the
helped establish the Afri- comedy-dramas Crimes and Misdemeanors (1 989) and
can Methodist Episcopal Husbands and Wives (1992). He also wrote and directed
Church, uniting Bethel with The Purple Rose of Cairo (1 985), Radio Days (1987), Alice
other A.M. E. churches. He (1990), Bullets over Broadway (1994), Celebrity (1998), and
became bishop of the new Sweet and Lowdown (1999). Allen wrote and directed a
Church. Edgar Allan Toppin few dramatic films, including Interiors (1978) and Shad-
See also Jones, Absa- ows and Fog (1 992).
lom. Allen wrote three full-length comic plays, Don't Drink
Allen, William (1803 the Wafer (1966), Play It Again, Sam (1969), and The Float-
1879), served as an Ohio ing Light Bulb (1981). He has also written humorous es-
New York Public Ubrary
Democrat in the United
Richard Allen
says and stories. Many of them were published in the
States House of Represent- collections Getting Even (1971), Without Feathers (1975),
atives from 1833 to 1835 and Side Effects (1 980). Gene d Phillips

and in the U.S. Senate from 1837 to 1849. During the Allenby, Lord (1861-1936), was a British military
Mexican War (1846-1848), he was a Senate spokesman leader. During World War he led British forces in
I,

for President James K. Polk. Allen, known as the "Ohio Egypt and Palestine. By skillfully combining attacks by
Foghorn" due to his loud voice, supported westward ex- his own forces with those of Arab guerrillas led by Ma-
pansion. He threatened war with the United Kingdom to jor T. E. Lawrence (Lawrence of Arabia), he defeated the
get theOregon Country, a large area between California Turks in 1917 and 1918 (see Lawrence, T. E.l. His victory
and Alaska. He was governor of Ohio from 1874 to 1876. at Megiddo on Sept 18, 1918, gave the
in Palestine

Allen was born in Edenton, North Carolina. A statue of British control of Syriaand Palestine.
him represents Ohio in Statuary Hall in the U.S. Capitol Allenby served as British high commissioner for Egypt
atWashington, D.C Michael f. Holt from 1919 to 1925. Arabs were bitter because the British
Allen, William Cardinal (1 532-1 594), a prominent and French refused to give them independence, and be-
English clergyman, defended Roman Catholic beliefs af- cause the Allies had promised the Jews a national home
ter the Protestant Queen Elizabeth came to the throneI in Palestine. Allenby handled a difficult situation with

in 1558. He was soon forced into exile. In 1568, Allen tact and sympathy.
founded a seminary in the Spanish Netherlands (now Edmund Henry Hynman Allenby was born in Suffolk,
Belgium) to provide priests for England. In 1 570, Pope England. He spent many years with British forces in
V excommunicated Queen Elizabeth. She, in turn,
Pius Africa. When World War began, he commanded first a
I

made a crime to become a Catholic priest in England.

it cavalry division and then a corps of the British Expedi-
But the college continued to supply priests for England. tionary Force in France. He became an army comman-
Many of them were executed. Allen was born in Lanca- der in 1915. His full title was Viscount Allenby of Megid-
shire. He became a cardinal in 1587. Marvin r. o Conneii do and Felixstowe. Larry H. Addington

Allen, Woody (1an American actor, mo-

935- ), is Allende Gossens, ah YEHN day COH sehns, Sal-
tion-picture director, author, and comedian. Allen won vador (1908-1973), served as president of Chile from
two Academy Awards for directing and co-writing An- 1970 to 1973, when military leaders overthrew his gov-
He also won an Academy Award for his
nie Hall (1977). ernment. The military leaders reported that Allende
screenplay for Hannah and Her Sisters (1986), which he committed suicide during the revolt, after refusing to re-
directed. sign from office. Allende had been the first Marxist to be
Allen is skilled at depicting the American character in freely elected to lead a nation of the Western Hemi-
a satirical light. He often satirizes the anxieties and ro- sphere. As president, he nationalized Chile's banks and
mantic difficulties of intellectual, urban people. In some copper mines and many other industries.
of his films, Allen portrays a witty but insecure, self-con- Allende was born in Valparaiso. He became involved
scious, and rather desperate individual troubled by the in politics in 1 926 while a medical student at the Univer-
lack of values in modern society and by his relationship sity of Chile. He earned an M.D. degree at that university
with women. In addition, this character is often a Jewish in 1932. In 1933, Allende helped organize Chile's Social-
outsider yearning for acceptance in the exclusive worlds ist Party. He was elected to the Chamber of Deputies, a
of Hollywood and the white Protestant community. house of the Chilean Allende later
legislature, in 1937.
Allen was born in New York City. His real name is served as Chile's minister of health. From 1945 to 1970,
Allen Stewart Konigsberg. He began his career writing he served in the Senate. Kaiman h. snven
jokes for magazines, newspapers, and television. During See also Chile (Marxism and military rule).
the early 1960s, Allen was a popular nightclub comedi- Allentown (pop. 106,632) is a center of manufacturing
an. He made his film debut as an actor in Whats New, and high technology in eastern Pennsylvania. The city
Pussycat?'(1965), which he wrote. He has turned out a lies on the Lehigh River, across from Bethlehem. Allen-

steady stream of highly personal films, which he has town, Bethlehem, and Easton form a metropolitan area
written and directed, and which have been shot and with 637,958 people. For Allentown's location, see Penn-
edited according to his own creative goals. sylvania (political map).
Allen wrote, directed, and starred in such comic films Factories in Allentown produce clothing, electronic
as Take the Money and Run (1969), Bananas (\9T\), Sleep- equipment, food products, industrial machinery, metal
er(1973), Love and Death (197'5), Manhattan (1979), Zelig products, and trucks. The city is also a chief maker of
(1983), Broadway Danny Rose (1984), Manhattan Murder cryogenic equipment and gases, used to produce ex-
 Allergy 373

treme cold for scientific and industrial purposes. Allen- ies [see Protein).The allergens and the antibodies then
town an important point for pipeline transportation
is act together to release certain substances from the body
and tank storage of petroleum and natural gas. It is a re- cells into the blood and other body fluids. These sub-
gional headquarters for several telecommunications stances, called H-substances, bring about reactions in
companies. Airlines, truck lines, and freight railroads Many H-substances can cause al-
other cells or tissues.
serve the city. people and animals. The chief H-
lergic reactions in
Allentown s downtown business district is laid out substance that causes allergy in people is histamine.
around a central square near the Lehigh River. A brick- The H-substances that are released into the body af-
paved mall forms part of the main shopping street. Brick fect allergic target tissues. Most of these tissues are cap-
row houses, many of which were built during the 1800s, illaries (small blood vessels), mucous glands, or smooth
are the most common type of housing. Many of the peo- muscles (muscles of the stomach and of all other inter-
ple are descendants of Germans who moved to Pennsyl- nal organs except the heart). The location of these tis-
vania during the 1600s and 1700s. They are often called sues in the body— along with their particular response
Pennsylvania Dutch. Allentown is an important center of to H-substances— determines the specific allergic dis-
Pennsylvania Dutch culture. See Pennsylvania Dutch. ease. In general, histamine causes capillaries to enlarge,
Allentown is the home of Cedar Crest College and mucous glands to secrete, and smooth muscles to tight-
Muhlenberg College. The city has a symphony orches- en.
tra, a professional theater company, and an art museum. After a person's body has produced antibodies in re-

The Allentown Band is the oldest municipal band in the sponse any future exposure to
to a particular allergen,
United States. the allergen will stimulate antibody production. But such
Allentown, originally called Northampton Town, was allergic antibodies do not behave in the same manner as
founded in 1 762 by William Allen, chief justice of Penn- the protective antibodies that a person's body produces
sylvania. British troops captured Philadelphia in Septem- to fight infection. The protective antibodies fight disease
ber 1 777, during the Revolutionary War. The Liberty Bell organisms and destroy them or make them harmless. If
was then moved from Philadelphia to Allentown for the body continues to make such antibodies after the or-
safety. remained concealed in Allentown in Zion's Re-
It ganisms have been destroyed, the person may become
formed Church until the summer of 1778, when it was immune to the disease.
returned to Philadelphia. Allentown became an incorpo- Emotional factors. The allergen-antibody reaction
rated city in 1867. In the late 1900s, the city carried out a does not fully explain allergy because the allergic target
number ofdevelopment projects to preserve historical tissues are under the basic control of the autonomic
districts and rehabilitate housing. nervous system (see Nervous system (The autonomic
Allentown is the seat of Lehigh County. It has a mayor- nervous system]). The autonomic nervous system tends
council government. William c Rense to keep these tissues in their normal state of balance.
Allergy is a body reaction persons who
that occurs in But the autonomic nervous system itself is involved in
are sensitive to certain substances. substance that is A other body responses, such as emotions. As a result,
harmless to a nonallergic person may cause mild to ex- strong emotions may also affect the reaction of an aller-
tremely severe symptoms in an allergic person. A per- gic target tissue.Types of emotions that increase the
son can develop an allergy at any time, but in most cas- probability of an allergic response include anger, fear,
es the first symptoms appear in childhood. About 15 resentment, worry, and lack of self-confidence.
percent of the people in the United States have an aller- Nerve centers in the brain take part in emotional re-
gy requiring repeated medical treatment. sponses. A part of the brain called the hypothalamus
Common forms of allergy include asthma, hay fever, constantly checks and controls the autonomic nervous
and a year-round nasal allergy called perennial allergic system. The hypothalamus, in turn, is considerably influ-
rhinitis. Others are eczema (itching red swellings on the enced by the cerebral cortex of the brain. When certain
skin), hives, allergic headaches, and allergic digestive stimuli come into the brain as a result of seeing or hear-
disturbances. ing, a message is formulated in the cerebral cortex. If
A substance that causes an allergy is called an aller- the message is one that could cause any kind of emo-
gen. The allergens that cause most asthma, hay fever, tional response, it is sent to the hypothalamus. The hy-
and other respiratory allergies include house dust, mold pothalamus then sends the message via the autonomic
spores, pollen, and the dandruff or hair of household nervous system to the allergic target tissues. If the aller-
pets. Many foods may
cause allergic reactions. These gic target tissues receive an emotionally painful mes-
foods include chocolate, cow's milk, eggs, wheat, and sage, they become more likely to react to histamine. See
certain seafoods, especially shellfish. Brain producing emotions).
(In

Early human beings probably had allergies, and they Hereditary factors. Such allergies as asthma, hay
still exist in many animals as well as in people. But not fever, eczema, perennial allergic rhinitis, and certain
until the early 1900s did physicians begin to understand kinds of allergic headaches tend to run in families. One
the specific causes and characteristics of allergy. Today, member of a family may have asthma, another may have
the term allergy is often used to refer to a specialized hay fever, and still another may have eczema and hay
field of medicine. An allergist \s a doctor who treats al- fever. Doctors have observed an inherited tendency to
lergic diseases. develop allergy. If both parents have an allergy, each of
How an allergy develops. The body of an allergic their children has about a 75 percent chance of develop-
person reacts to some allergen or allergens to which it ing one. If only one parent has an allergy, the probability
previously has been exposed. An allergen is capable of is 50 percent or less.

stimulating the body to produce proteins called antibod- An inherited tendency toward allergy apparently does
374 Allergy

not follow any strict genetic laws. Therefore, allergy is particular kind of animal. But if the allergen is house
said to be familial rather than directly inherited. dust or ragweed pollen, the person may have an ex-
The allergic threshold. Many factors besides emo- tremely difficult time trying to avoid it.
tions and heredity can influence a person's reaction to If the allergen cannot be avoided, the physician may
allergens. All patients with an allergy have an allergic give the patient drugs to relieve the symptoms. Such
threshold, the particular level of their body's resistance drugs include the antihistamines and, in more severe
to allergic disease.The allergic threshold varies, de- cases, steroids.
pending on the type and seriousness of various factors A treatment called hyposensitization, or desensitiza-
at any given time. For example, whether people develop tion, is helpful for some types of respiratory allergies,
asthma when exposed to pollen or dust may depend on especially asthma, hay fever, and perennial allergic rhi-
their emotional state or a change in the weather. It also nitis. Hyposensitization is aimed specifically at the aller-
may depend on whether they already have some other gen-antibody reaction. The physician injects an ex-
disease or are overtired. An increase in one or several tremely small dose of pollen or other allergen into the
of these factors might lower the patient's allergic thresh- body on a regular basis. In most cases, the patient re-
old enough to cause an allergic attack. On the other ceives injections twice a week for about two months,
hand, a decrease in one or more of the factors could and then once a week. The doctor gradually increases
raise the allergic threshold and reduce the chances of the amount of allergen up to what is called a mainte-
an attack. nance dose. The injections cause the body to produce
An allergist, when diagnosing and treating any al- antibodies called blocking antibodies. The blocking anti-
lergy, must consider all the forces acting on a patient bodies combine with the allergens. This combining
that could contribute to that person's condition. This process results in fewer allergens being left free to
procedure helps explain why the proper treatment of al- react with the regular allergic antibodies.
lergy takes so long to establish in many cases. loan S Gallagher

Diagnosis and treatment There is no complete Related articles in World Book include:
cure for allergy. People may be able to avoid the symp- Antibiotic (Allergic Asthma Headache
toms of a particular allergy by avoiding the allergen that reactions) Eczema Hives
Antihistamine Hay fever Steroid
causes it. remain allergic to the substance.
But they still

On the other hand, allergy can be controlled. The rate Alliance. See International relations.
of occurrence and the seriousness of the attacks can be Alliance for Progress, or, in Spanish, Alianza para
decreased, and complications can be prevented. In most el Progreso, was a cooperative program that promoted
cases, if treatment starts soon after the first symptoms economic and social development in Latin America. It
are recognized and continues on a regular basis, it pro- involved the United States and more than 20 Latin-
duces good results. An untreated allergy tends to be- American nations. The program began in 1961 and
come worse rather than better. ended during the early 197(Ts.
The physician first gives the patient a physical exami- In 1961, President John F. Kennedy called for the es-
nation and diagnoses the presence of an allergic dis- tablishment of the Alliance for Progress. He proposed
ease from the person's symptoms. Carefully controlled the cooperative program to replace previous efforts by
skin tests are used to identify the allergens causing the the United States to help Latin-American countries on an
trouble. The doses of many of the
allergist injects small individual basis. The United States and 19 Latin-
most common allergens in separate areas just beneath American countries signed the charter of the Alliance
the skin. Substances to which the patient is allergic for Progress on Aug. 17, 1961 in Punta del Este, Uru-
,

cause the skin to become red and slightly swollen at the guay. Other Latin-American countries later joined the
injection site. The procedure generally causes little dis- program.
comfort and the redness and swelling quickly disappear. Under the alliance s charter, the participating Latin-
Next, the allergist compares the results of each skin American countries provided 80 percent of the funds for
test with the results of the patient's physical exam and the program. The remainder was furnished by the
medical history. Skin tests do not always provide defi- United States, other wealthy countries, and a variety of
nite answers, but they serve as guides to identification public and private groups. During the 1%0 s, the United f

of allergens. Blood tests and examination of samples of States provided nearly SI con-
billion for projects
the patient's nasal mucus also help in the diagnosis. nected with the Alliance for Progress program. These
Skin tests cannot identify a food allergy if the food projects included housing developments, power plants,
causes an allergic reaction only after it has been and roads.
changed during the process of digestion. To detect such The Organization of American States, an association
a food allergy, the physician may put the patient on a of Latin-American countries and the United States, coor-
controlled diet. The allergist removes from the person s dinated the activities of the Alliance for Progress. United
diet all foods that most commonly cause allergic reac- States participation was directed by the Agency for In-
tions This step may relieve the symptoms. If so. the phy- ternational Development which was then a part of the
sician returns the foods one
time to the diet. If the
at a United States Department of State. Other United States
allergy flares up again after the person eats one of the government agencies involved in the program included
foods, he or she probably has an allergy to that food. the Export-Import Bank and the Peace Corps. Interna-
After the substance or substances that trigger the al- tional lending agencies, such as the Inter-American De-
lergic reaction have been identified, the patient avoids velopment Bank and the World Bank, also worked with
them as much as possible. This may be fairly easy if the the alliance.
substance is a food, such as chocolate, or the hair of a One of the goals of the Alliance for Progress was an
 Alligator 375

annual economic growth rate of at least 2 4 percent per long or longer. Today, few can be found that have
nation. Almost all the Latin-American countries exceed- reached even a length of 1 2 feet (3.7 meters). Male alliga
ed this goal during the 1960s. They also improved their tors from 11 to 12 feet (3.4 to 3.7 meters) long weigh
educational systems and programs to benefit the poor. from 450 to 550 pounds (204 to 249 kilograms). Females
But the alliance was less successful in providing more seldom measure more than 9 feet (2.7 meters) long, or
jobs. Unemployment in much of Latin America remained weigh over 160 pounds (73 kilograms).
high, though the alliance had pledged to reduce it. Crit- Habits. The female alligator makes her nest of grass
ics charged that the alliance failed to deal realistically and other plants, which she forms into a pile about 3
with Latin America's overpopulation problem. Others feet (0.9 meter) high and 7 feet (2.1 meters) across. She
said the program's goals had been too ambitious. Still lays 20 to 60 eggs in the center of the pile, where the
others blamed the U.S. Congress, which began to cut nest is wet. The eggs are white, hard-shelled, and slight-
funds for the alliance in the late 1960s. ly larger than hens' eggs. The young emerge from the
During the early 1970s, the U.S. government began to eggs after about nine weeks.
emphasize increased trade, rather than direct aid, as a Alligators provide more care for their young than do
means of solving Latin America's economic problems. most reptiles. After laying eggs, the female stays near
Also, Latin-American nations were providing more and the nest, guarding the eggs against predators. When the
more of their own development resources. In addition, young hatch, they give high-pitched yelps, and the
international lending agencies, especially the World mother comes to scratch open the nest and free them.
Bank, provided more money for development projects The mother alligator protects her young for a year or
in Latin America. Nathan A. Haverstock more.
See also Organization of American States. When first hatched, the young alligators are about 9
Allies. See World War (introduction); World War II
I inches (23 centimeters) long. During the first six years of
(table: The Allies; Strategy). their lives, both males and females grow about 1 foot (30
Alligator is the name of two kinds of reptiles related to centimeters) in length each year. After this time, the fe-
crocodiles. The American alligator lives in the waters males grow more slowly. But the males continue to
and lowlands of southeastern United States. The Chi- grow at the same rate for several years more. Alligators
nese alligator lives in the lower Yangtze River Valley, in probably live 50 to 60 years.
China. Other related reptiles are the caimans of Central In winter, alligators remain resting underwater, bury

and South America. Caimans are frequently called alliga- themselves in mud, or go into deep holes that they have
tors. made with their bodies. These holes are called gator
Body. Alligators resemble lizards in their shape, but holes. During droughts, gator holes often provide the
they have thicker bodies and tails than most lizards. Alli- only refuge for aquatic animals. When rains return, the
gators' jaws are set with many sharp eyes teeth. Their fish, frogs, turtles, and other animals that have survived
stick up above their skulls so that alligators can see in gator holes repopulate the swamps and marshy lakes
above the water while their bodies are beneath it. They of the South.
use their short, strong legs for walking. Alligators swim Alligators eat many kinds of small animals that live in
by moving their tails from side to side. or near the water, including fish, snakes, frogs, turtles,
An alligator's skin is tough. The skin on the animal's small mammals, and birds. Large males sometimes at-
back is rough and ridged with dozens of small bones tack dogs, pigs, or even cattle. They drag these animals
called osteoderms. The skin on the belly is smooth and under water to drown them, and then tear them to
was once used to make
handsome, long-lasting
a pieces. Alligators do
by grabbing hold of a part of
this
leather for handbags, shoes, and other articles. A young their prey with their jaws and twisting until that part
American alligator has yellow marks across its body, but comes off. Fortunately, even the largest alligators sel-
these fade after a time. When grown, the American alli- dom attack human beings. The muscles that close an al-
gator is dull gray and dark olive in color. ligator's jaws are very strong. But once the jaws are shut,
Alligators in the past grew to be 18 feet (5.5 meters) they can easily be held closed by a person's bare hands.

Ihm! l>,i\nisun \ \>

An alligator's body is suited for on land and in water. The alligator uses
life its short, stocky legs
for walking. In ihe water, it swims by sweeping its tail from side to side.
376 Alligator

lated hunting of alligators for commercial purposes.

D. Bruce Means
Scientific classification. Alligators are in the crocodile fami-
ly, Crocodylidae. They make up the genus Alligator.

Alliteration, uh uh RAYshuhn, occurs when the

liht
same sound succeeding accented syllables. In "Pe-
starts
ter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers, for exam-
ple, alliteration is created by the occurrence of a p
sound at the beginning of every accented syllable. The
first sentence of this paragraph has alliteration of s

sounds. Old English poetry had no rhyme, but was held

together by a pattern of alliteration. Alliteration, like
rhyme, assonance, and consonance, is a device of repe-
tition that helps express the feelings and ideas of a
poem. Paul B Drehl
The alligator's powerful jaws can crack cattle bones. But if the
See also Poetry (Sounds).
jaws are shut, they can be held closed by a person s hands.
Allopathy, uh LAHPuh thee, is a method in medical
practice that tries to cure a disease by producing effects
on the body that differ from the effects of the disease.
The term is sometimes wrongly used to cover all the
practices that medicine and surgery use to cure disease
and relieve pain. See also Homeopathy.
Allosaurus, al uh SAWR uhs, was a large, meat-eating
dinosaur that lived about 1 50 million years ago. Al-
losaurus lived in what is now the western United States,
including Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming. It grew about
36 feet (1 1 metersl long, stood about 7 feet (2 meters)
high at the hips, and weighed about 2 tons (1 .8 metric
tons).
The head of Allosaurus was 3 feet (0.9 meter) long. Its
jaws had about 70 teeth, each 3 inches (8 centimeters)
C. | Chafans
long with jagged edges for slicing flesh. Holes in the
A swimming alligator can keep its eyes and nostrils above the
skull lightened the weight of the dinosaur s large head.
water because of the shape of its skull.
A pair of distinctive low, bony bumps rose in front of the
eyes. The short front legs had three strong, curved
People have sometimes captured alligators in this way, claws on each hand. The hind feet were birdlike, with
without using any weapons. three toes pointing forward and a small inner toe point-
Alligators and crocodiles. Alligators are often mis- ing backward. Allosaurus walked on two legs with its
taken for crocodiles but are different from them in some body parallel to the ground and held its long tail out be-
ways. The fourth tooth of the alligator s lower jaw fits hind for balance. The animal could rear up to a height of
into a pocket of the upper jaw. The same tooth in the 12 feet(3.7 meters) or more.

crocodile fits into a groove in the side of the upper jaw, Allosaurus preyed on other dinosaurs. Many di-
making it visible when the animal s mouth is closed. An- nosaurs, including Apatosaurus and Diplodocus, were
other way to tell the American alligator from the Ameri- much larger, and so Allosaurus may have eaten mostly
can crocodile is that the American alligator has a much smaller dinosaurs. When Allosaurus did eat larger di-
broader snout Alligators are also much less aggressive nosaurs, it may have attacked only the weaker ones,
and active than crocodiles. In the United States, alliga- such as the young or the sick. It may also have eaten di-
tors and crocodiles are found together only in the nosaurs that had already died. Peter Dodson

marshes at the southern tip of Florida. Both alligators See also Dinosaur ipictures).
and crocodiles belong to the great group of crocodil- Allotropy, uh LAHT ruh pee, in chemistry, is the ability
ians. This group also includes caimans and gavials. See of an element to exist in more than one form. These
Crocodile; Gavial. forms are called allotropes. For example, three common
Where alligators live. Alligators were once common allotropes of carbon are: (1) hard, transparent diamond
in lakes, swamps, and rivers along the Gulf of Mexico crystals, (2) soft, black graphite crystals, and (3) black,
and on the Atlantic Coast as far north as North Carolina. sooty, uncrystallized carbon black (see Carbon). The
They were also found far up the Mississippi River. But word allotropy comes from two Greek words meaning
so many were killed for their hides or for food and sport another and way.
that they became scarce. In 1967, the U.S. Fish and Solid allotropes differ in their crystal structures. But
Wildlife Service classified the alligator as an endan- allotropic gases differ in their molecular structures. For
gered species. This designation gave the animal almost example, each molecule of ordinary oxygen is made of
complete protection. But by 1977, alligator populations two oxygen atoms. Each molecule of the allotrope ozone
had increased so much in Florida and other southern is made of three oxygen atoms. Ordinary oxygen has no

coastal regions that the animals were reclassified as odor. But ozone has a peculiar sharp odor (see Ozone).
threatened. This new classification permits tightly regu- Robert | Ouellette
Alloy is a material made up at least one
of a metal and
other element. Most amount of the
alloys contain a large
main metal, or base metal, and smaller amounts ot other
components. These components can be either metals or
nonmetals such as carbon or silicon. Many pure metals
are too soft, rust too easily, or have other disadvantages.
But often these disadvantages can be overcome if the
metals are combined with other elements. Three, four,
or more different substances may be present in a single
alloy.
People usually make alloys by melting a base metal
and adding other components. This liquid alloy then
cools and solidifies. Many alloys need to be worked into
a final shape after cooling. Other alloys can be made
without melting the base metal. For example, manufac-
turers can blend metal powders together and heat them
under pressure. The solid powder particles then bond McDonnell Douglds Corporation
to form the alloy. Products made from alloys include the steel landing gear and
nose on this military airplane, above. Steels, like many alloys, are
Characteristics of alloys strong materials that resist chemical damage. These properties
Alloys consist of tiny crystals called grains. In every make them useful in many different industries.

grain, the atoms are packed together in a particular geo-

metric arrangement. Each grain is tilted differently from gether in various ways to form strong, stable com-
those next to it. Manufacturers can control grain size by pounds. The proportion of metals in polyphase alloys is
the way they heat, form, and cool the material. Grain size the same in all grains of a particular type. But this pro-
determines particular characteristics in alloys. For exam- portion can vary significantly from one grain type to an-
ple, smaller grains make stronger alloys. Boundaries be- other. Steels are polyphase alloys that include some
tween the grains also help determine alloy characteris- grains of iron containing small amounts of carbon and
tics.Boundaries can become sources of weakness when other grains of a chemical compound called iron car-
an alloy has impurities, or when people use the alloy at bide. Iron carbide has one atom of carbon to every three
high temperatures or with damaging chemicals. atoms of iron.
There are two types of alloys: (1 single phase alloys
) Most alloys are stronger and harder than the pure
and (2) polyphase alloys. Single phase alloys consist of metals from which they are made. Alloys also usually
grains that all have the same composition. In these al- have lower melting temperatures than pure metals.
loys, one metal dissolves into another in the same way Most alloys are less ductile than pure metals— that is,

that salt dissolves into water. A mixture of copper and they are more difficult to hammer into shape, roll into
nickel in any proportion forms a single phase alloy. sheets, or draw into wires. However, some special su-
Polyphase alloys have different types of grains mixed perplastic alloys are extremely ductile. Few alloys can
together. In these alloys, the different atoms bond to- conduct electricity as well as pure metals. But there are
some superconducting alloys that are excellent conduc-
tors.

Kinds of alloys
The first alloys. People discovered alloys in na-
first

ture during prehistoric times. Such

alloys included me-
teorites of iron and nickel and mixtures of gold and sil-
ver in river beds. The first alloy made by people was
bronze. The oldest bronzes consisted of copper and ar-
senic. Prehistoric copper smelters first produced them
accidentally in about 3500 B.C. Over the next few hun-
dred years, people discovered that mixing tin with cop-
per produced a more useful bronze. They began to
make tools, ornaments, and weapons out of this bronze.
Bronze is much harder than pure copper, and it is easier
to melt and cast into useful shapes.
Alloys of iron. Iron is the most important industrial
metal. Manufacturers have almost always used it as an
alloy rather than as a pure metal. Iron-based alloys are
called ferrous alloys.
The most widely used ferrous alloys are the steels.
Steels vary both in the way people make them and in
their composition. All steels, however, contain small
The structure of an alloy consists of tiny crystals called grains.
This photograph, taken with a microscope, shows the different amounts of carbon and manganese and large amounts
grains of a kind of steel. Steels are iron alloys. of iron.
378 Alloy

Each variety of steel has certain advantages. Carbon and other hardware are among the many products con-
steels rank as the most widely used steels. Most carbon taining brass.Mone/\s a nickel-copper alloy. Manufac-
steels contain less than 1 percent carbon. Their strength turers often use this alloy for materials that must resist
and durability make them popular materials for structur- corrosion in sea water, such as pump fittings and boat
al beams, automobile bodies, and food cans. Alloy steels propellers.
contain nickel, chromium, and molybdenum. They are Many have specialized applications. Stellite,an
alloys
strong enough for such products as bicycle frames and extremely hard alloy, consists chiefly of cobalt, chromi-
aircraft landing gear. Stainless steels contain more than um, and tungsten. People use stellite as a surface layer
12 percent chromium, and many varieties also use nick- on steel to improve its resistance to wear. Solder, which
el. Stainless steels can resist corrosion (rust and other has a low melting point, is used to join metal surfaces.
chemical damage! extremely well. They are common Woods metal, another alloy with a low melting point, is
materials for kitchen utensils, pots and pans, and hospi- employed in fuses for automatic fire alarms and sprin-
tal equipment. Tool steels Are ferrous alloys used to kler systems. Invar, an iron-nickel alloy, barely expands
work and shape other materials. They contain such com- or contracts when its temperature changes. It is used in
ponents as tungsten, chromium, and molybdenum. Ma- products that must remain at a constant size, such as
chines used to shape metal are made with special tool measuring devices and pendulum rods.
steels that keep their hardness and sharp cutting edges, Several alloys make excellent magnets. One example
even when they become red-hot in use. is group of alloys containing aluminum, nickel,
Alnico, a
Alloys for strength and lightness. Many alloys used cobalt, iron,and copper. These alloys can lift up to 60
in vehicles, and especially aircraft, must be strong and times their own weight However, alloys containing
light Aluminum is a common base metal for many of large amounts of metallic elements called rare-earth ele-
these alloys. Pure aluminum is too light and weak for ments, such as samarium, produce magnets hundreds
construction purposes. But manufacturers can mix the of times more powerful than Alnico.
metal with other components to make strong, durable, developing many alloys
Scientists are that prov ide
alloys. Some common aluminum alloys contain small greater strength and durability than older alloys. For ex-
amounts of copper, manganese, and magnesium. These ample, superalloys can resist extremely high tempera-
alloys are only slightly heavier than pure aluminum and tures and severely corrosive conditions. They contain
are as strong as some steels. Other aluminum alloys the base metals nickel or cobalt alloyed with chromium
contain zinc, magnesium, and lithium and are even and many other elements. These superalloys are impor-
stronger materials. People make aluminum alloys into tant components of jet engines and spacecraft
many different products, including beverage cans, bicy- Michael L Wayman
cle rims, and house siding. Related articles in World Book include:
Magnesium is only about two-thirds as heavy as alu- Annealing Metallography
minum. It is not strong enough by itself for most struc-
Assaying Monel metal
Babbitt metals Money (United States curren-
tural purposes, but it serves as the base metal in many
Brass cy today)
useful alloys. Products using magnesium alloys include Britannia metal Nickel silver
aircraft and automobile parts, as well as various tools Bronze Permalloy
and equipment Titanium is another base metal for many Duralumin Pewter
strong, light alloys. Industries use titanium alloys to Cold Cold alloys! Silver
Iron and steel Solder
make jet engines, aircraft parts, and corrosion-resistant
Lead (Properties! Stainless steel
equipment in chemical plants. Metal
Costly and ornamental alloys. People have long
used gold and silver as alloys rather than as pure metals. Allport, Gordon W. 1897-1967 . was an American
Manufacturers usually add cheaper metals to the gold psychologist known for his research in human personal-
or silver. This reduces the cost of the alloy while keep- ity. books and articles published during a
In a series of
ing the appearance of the precious metal. Alloying also period of 30 years, Allport opposed the idea that an indi-
hardens the gold or silver and keeps it from wearing vidual's personality is a bundle of physiological drives
away rapidly through use. Yellow gold \s a gold alloy and conditioned responses. Allport emphasized the
containing copper and silver. It is common in jewelry gradual growth and unfolding of human personality. He
and other ornamental items. Dentists use similar gold al- believ ed that a person is not a mechanical product of
loys as fillings for teeth. Jewelry and tableware are often environmental forces, but a unique force striv ing to de-
made of alloys that contain silver and copper. velop his or her own potential.
Several cheaper alloys make attractive but inexpen- Gordon VVillard Allport was born in Montezuma, Indi-
sive household articles. German silver is a blue-white, ana. He graduated from Harvard University in 1919 and
copper-based alloy containing nickel and zinc. People received a Ph.D. from Harvard in 1922. From 1930 until
use German silver for such objects as candlesticks and his death, Allport taught psychology at Harvard. He
hardware. Pewter, a silver-colored, tin-based alloy, is helped establish Harvard's department of social rela-
easy to work and can be highly polished. Plates, mugs, tions in 1946. RobenCWevant
and vases are often made of pewter. Coins are common- Allspice is a spice with a flav or similar to that of a com-
ly made of copper-nickel alloys. bination of cinnamon, cloves, and nutmeg. Allspice is

Other alloys. Among the most common alloys are sometimes called Jamaica pepper, or pimento. It comes
the brasses. These copper-based alloys contain up to from the immature berries of the pimento tree. The
about 40 percent zinc and small amounts of tin, lead, or berries are gathered by hand, dried in the sun or in a
other elements. Plumbing materials, locks, fasteners. kiln, and ground into powder or sold whole.
 Almanac 379

People use allspice to season baked goods, fish, and roads. Franklin contributed many proverbs (short
liqueurs, pickles, and smoked meats. Oil from the sayings) that became widely quoted. See Poor Richard's
berries is used in making a perfume for soap and to dis- Almanac.
guise the taste of some medicines. lames e Simon In the 1800s, many governments and newspapers be-

See also Pimento. gan issuing almanacs. These included food recipes, first-
Allston, Washington (1779-1843), was one of the first aid advice for injuries and snake bite, weather predic-
American artists to paint in a Romantic style. He became tions, and conundrums (short, humorous questions and
famous for imaginative, dramatic works, many of which answers). Gradually, publishers stopped predicting the
had supernatural themes. weather, except in the Old Farmer's Almanac, the
Allston based many of his early paintings on the Bible Farmer s Almanac, and several local almanacs.
and other literature. One of his finest early pictures was Almanacs today, such as The World Almanac, contain
the Biblical work The Dead Man Revived by Touching general information. Almanacs published by groups,
the Bones of the Prophet Elijah (181 3). Allston also paint- such as the United Nations, contain facts, statistics, and
ed idealized landscapes. He later abandoned elaborate documents about many countries. Newspapers, reli-
and dramatic themes and concentrated on simpler sub- gious groups, business organizations, and certain trades
jects, particularly graceful, dreamlike women in dim or professions publish almanacs with specialized infor-
landscapes. Allston's Moonlit Landscape (1819) and other mation.
night scenes are noted for their delicate tones. Allston A book
of great value to navigators and astronomers
died before completing his last major painting, Belshaz- is The Astronomical Almanac, published by the United
zars Feast, which he began in 1817. States Naval Observatory. This almanac includes tables
Allston was born in Georgetown County, South Car- and charts about stars, tides, eclipses, latitude, longi-
olina. In 1801, he went to London, where he studied with
the American painter Benjamin West. While in Europe,
Allston came into contact with English Romantic litera-
ture and paintings by Venetian artists of the 1 500's that
influenced his best work. Allston returned to the United
States in 1818.
Alma-Ata. See Almaty.
Sarah Burns

Alma mater, AL muh MAH tuhr or AHL muh MAH

tuhr, is an expression used by students or graduates to
i 6 6~y.
refer to their university or college. The Latin words
mean
words
fostering mother. The Romans often used the
in speaking of some of their goddesses, such as

Ceres and Cybele. The expression was applied to Euro-

^ALMANACK
FOR
pean universities during the Middle Ages, probably first
at the University of Bonn in Germany. A statue of the Vir-
The Year of our LORD
gin Mary at Bonn was called Alma Mater, or Beloved 1667.
Mother. Thomas |. McLernon Befog ik tur Account Bifloctile, or Leap- ' y^
Almanac, AWL muh nak, is a book or pamphlet, usual- ycat r And from the CrtAtion j6l6»
ly published once a year, that contains many kinds of in-
formation. An almanac often includes a calendar, out- Whofe Vulgar Notes are;
standing dates and events, movements of heavenly <5o1d«n Ndrtiber
CycleoPtheSoit
f>O ftomin
?4<>£p>&
tn<Jf$io[) <
bodies, and facts about governments, history, geogra- 1*
Dominicil Lcrterj FB < > Nurab: DrrAJkion 17
phy, and weather. It may also give figures on population,
industry, and farm production.
Fitted for the Longitude, of 31 f gr*
Almanacs originally provided a calendar of the
and 4* |r. 30 m. of North L*t :
months, with eclipses, the movements of the planets,
and the rising and setting times of the sun, moon, and
and jmay ferve wkhoW fentlble

stars. People believed that this information would be errour for moft part of zVWt#gfc»i<fc
useful to farmers and to navigators.
Many scholars believe that the earliest almanacs con- By Swiel Brafyntntrj Philomath.
tained predictions made by ancient Persian astrologers.
Later, almanacs appeared in Rome. The oldest existing
.lob tf-'\\, Cirfff tMVind ih< fitm tMflutncei
»/Pleudes, or Iwji lhtbmit-of Ofion >
copies of almanacs today were written in the 1300s and Vct.} 1 , Cfnji itou kr<PfJ<"<" MiW'-'h ?" tit
1400s. Publishers issued almanacs in England in the fttiJSitj r Zanji (fc«<gW^Ar»Oltfut wr&biijeitrtzcs^
1600s to give information about the calendar. These in-
cluded the Nautical Almanac, for sailors.
CUM
Priiw«a tvy
B~R~l~6~G~ir~
:3«auil:Grten r
1 f> o 1.
Almanacs appeared in colonial America in the 1600s.
They were usually small pamphlets giving calendars, the
dates of religious feasts, weather forecasts, and signs of
American Antiquarian Society Wo
the zodiac (see Zodiac). Poor Richard's Almanac was the
Title page of an almanac, printed at Cambridge, Massachu-
best known of these early books. Benjamin Franklin first
1667 by Samuel Green, is one of two known copies. This
setts, in
published the almanac for the year 733. The book had 1
ropy the American Antiquarian Society library at Worcester,
is in

poetry, astronomy information, and lists of court justices Massachusetts. The other is held privately in Albany, New York.
380 Almandine

tude, and weather. Navigation officers of most United cultivate bitter almond trees only for the almond's oil, al-

States ships use it. Two useful almanacs published in the though people also extract oil from the sweet nuts. Oil
United Kingdom are Whitaker's Almanack and The of bitter almonds contains the poisonous hydrocyanic
Statesman's Year-Book. They provide general informa- (prussic) acid (see Prussic acid). After the acid is re-
tion about all countries in the world. Michael h Hams moved, the oil is used in flavoring extracts.
See also Banneker, Benjamin; Calendar (picture: An The almond tree is native to southwestern Asia. But
American calendar of 841 1 ). today it is widely grown in the countries that border the
Almandine. See Garnet. Mediterranean Sea. The trees also thrive in California,
Almaty, ahl mah TIH (pop. 1,147,000), also spelled where commercial groves produce large annual crops
Alma-Ata, is the largest city and the economic and cul- of almond nuts.
tural center of Kazakhstan. It lies in the southeastern part Almond trees are well-proportioned and may grow 40
of the country, in an irrigated valley at the foot of the feet (12 meters) high.They have long, pointed leaves that
Tian Shan mountain range. For the location of Almaty, curl, and showy pink blossoms that reach about 1 \
see Kazakhstan (map). inches (3.8 centimeters) across. The blossoms open early
Almaty has many treelined boulevards and large in spring, long before the leaves appear. For this reason,
parks. It is the home of the Kazakh University and a num- almonds are grown commercially only in regions that
ber of specialized institutes of higher learning. The do not have early spring frosts. In other regions, people
Medeo sports complex hosts international sports com- grow the trees as ornamentals. waiter s. judd
petitions. Industries inAlmaty produce food products, Scientific classification. The almond belongs to the rose
metal products, printed material, and textiles. family, Rosaceae. It is Prunus dulcis.
Almaty was founded in 1854. It was originally called Alnico. See Alloy (Other alloys).
Verny. In 1921, it was renamed Almaty, which means fa- Aloe, AL oh, is the name of a group of over 200 fleshy-
ther of apples. The name refers to nearby apple or- leaved plants native to the Middle East, Madagascar,
chards. In 1929, Almaty became the capital of Kazakh- and southern Africa. They are often cultivated in regions
stan, which was then an autonomous republic of the with warm climates. Aloes are related to lilies, though
Soviet Union. It remained the capital after Kazakhstan the two differ greatly in appearance.
became an independent country in 1991. In 1997, Akmo- Aloe plants range in height from a few inches or cen-
la (now called Astana) replaced Almaty as the capital. timeters to 30 feet (9 meters) or more. The leaves of
Nancy Lubin many species become large. They are lance-shaped and
Almond, AH muhnd or AHL muhnd, is a delicious nut. sharp-pointed, with jagged edges that end in sharp
The nuts are the seeds of the beautiful almond tree. hooks. The leaves usually grow directly from the ground
Each nut grows in a thin shell that looks somewhat like a in the form of a large rosette. From the center of this

peach stone. A green leathery hull covers the shell. The rosette springs the flowering stalk that ends in a dense
hull splits open when the almond is ripe. cluster of yellow or reddish tube-shaped flowers. The
Some almond trees produce sweet nuts; others have century plant, also called American aloe, is similar in ap-
bitter ones. Sweet almonds are a popular delicacy when pearance but unrelated.
toasted, salted, and eaten whole, or added to candies Farmers in southern Texas raise large quantities of the
and rich pastries. Bitter almonds are not edible. Growers Barbados aloe, also known as aloe vera. This species
also is a common houseplant. Its leaves contain a bitter
juice. Manufacturers heat the juice at low temperatures
to produce a powder and a gel. The powder is used as a
laxative and as an ingredient in some dietary supple-
ments. Aloe gel is colorless and feels cool on the skin. It
is used to make a wide variety of cosmetics, including

skin creams, shampoos,

and suntan lotions. Re-
search has shown that
aloe gel is effective in
treating burns and frost-
bite.
Certain African species
of aloe have fibers in their
leaves that are used for
making rope, fishing nets,
and coarse cloth. Others
have a finer fiber that is
used to make lace, and
some species are used to David M Stone, Photo/Nats

make violet dye. Barbados aloe

Alwyn H. Gentry
Scientific classification. Aloes are in the lily family, Liliaceae.

WORLD BOOK illustration b) KiteUoyd lones Linden

The Barbados aloe is classified as Aloe vera or A. barbadensis.
Artist Ltd

The almond is the seed of the almond tree and a delicious nut. Alpaca, al PAKuh, is a grazing animal of South Ameri-
Each nut grows in a shell that resembles a peach stone. ca that is related to the camel. It is raised usually for its
 Alphabet 381

binary system, a pair of closely spaced stars that orbit

each other. They are about 4.4 light-years from the earth.
The brightest of the three stars is Alpha Centauri A,
which has an apparent magnitude of 0.01. The apparent
magnitude of Alpha Centauri Band Proxima Cen-
is 1.34,
tauri s is 1 Alpha Cen-
1.09 (see Star [Brightness of stars)).
tauri is approaching our solar system at about 14 miles
(23 kilometers) per second. Sumner Starrfield

Alpha Ononis. See Betelgeuse.

Alpha particle is an atomic nucleus that consists of
two protons and two neutrons. An alpha particle can be-
come the nucleus of a helium atom by capturing two
electrons.
Two processes create alpha particles— (1) radioactive
decay and (2) nuclear fusion. In the decay process, a larg-

er nucleus emits (gives off) an alpha particle. For exam-

ple, nuclei of heavy chemical elements, such as uranium
and thorium, decay by emitting alpha particles. Almost
all the helium on earth formed by radioactive decay.

In the fusion process, hydrogen atoms fuse {\o\n) to

Francisco Erize. Bruce Coleman Ltd create alpha particles. The amount
measured
of helium
The alpaca a South American animal valued for its thick,
is in stars and galaxies agrees with the big bang theory of
straight hair, which is used to make warm, soft material. the beginning of the universe. In that theory, most of the
helium in the universe was produced by nuclear fusion
fine wool. Sometimes the young are killed for meat. The within the first thousand seconds of the big bang.

alpaca lives mountain regions of Peru and Bolivia. It

in Fusion also creates alpha particles inside stars. For ex-
thrives at heights from 12,000 to 16,000 feet (3,660 to ample, a series of fusion reactions produces most of the
4,880 meters) above sea level. The blood of the alpaca is sun's energy. These reactions consume four protons
especially efficient in carrying oxygen, which is less and make one alpha particle; a single proton is the same
abundant at high elevations. as the nucleus of the simplest form of hydrogen. The al-
The alpaca resembles the llama. Both of these animals pha particle has less matter than the protons had. The
are believed to be descended from the guanaco, a wild missing matter is converted to energy. William Karl Pitts

animal of the Andes Mountains. The alpaca has longer See also Big bang; Helium; Radiation (Sources of ra-
wool of much better quality than the llama. Alpacas are diation); Star (Fusion in stars).
also close relatives of the wild, wool-bearing vicunas Alpha Scorpii. See Antares.
that live in the Andes. Alphabet is the series of letters used in writing a lan-
The alpaca stands a little less than 4 feet (1.2 meters) guage. The word comes from alpha and beta, the first

high at has a thick coat of black, white,

the shoulder. It two letters of the Creek alphabet. Another name for the
or brown hair that grows from 8 to 24 inches (20 to 61 26 letters of our alphabet is the ABC s.
centimeters) long. This hair is much straighter and finer Most books, magazines, and newspapers are printed
than sheep's wool. It provides one of the best fibers in the 26-letter alphabet called Roman. But the Romans

known for making warm, Owners usually

soft material. did not invent it. They put finishing touches on a system
much as 7
shear their alpacas every year. They get as thathad been growing for thousands of years. See the
pounds (3 kilograms) of wool from some of them. on each letter of the English alphabet at the be-
articles
Bolivia and Peru have become the world's most im- ginning of each letter in The World Book Encyclopedia.
portant producers of alpaca wool. They export some of
The earliest writing
it to the United States and Europe to be manufactured
into cloth. They weave the remainder at home and often people could communicate with one
In early times,

make shawls out of it Indians of Peru raised alpacas, another only by speaking or by making gestures. They
and made the wool into cloth for hundreds of years be- had no way to keep records of important events, unless
fore Europeans came to South America. Much cloth they memorized the story of a great battle or important
called alpaca actually contains sheep's wool and cotton happening. They had no way to send messages over
and has little or no alpaca wool in it Anne innis Dagg long distances unless they passed them from one per-
Scientific classification. Alpacas belong to the family Camel- son to the next by word of mouth, or had one person
idae. They are Lama pacos. memorize the message and then deliver it
See also Guanaco; Llama; Vicuna. The first stage in writing came when people learned
Alpenhorn. See Alphorn. to draw pictures to express their ideas. In ideography,
Alpha Centau ri, AL fuh sehn TA WR eye, is a multiple each picture conveyed an idea. Ideography enabled
star system in the constellation Centaurus. It is visible even people who did not speak the same language to
only from the Southern Hemisphere. It consists of three communicate with each other. Then people learned lo-
stars that differ in brightness. One of them is Proxima gography, expressing ideas indirectly by using signs to
Centauri, the star closest to earth except for the sun. This stand for the words of the idea. Instead of drawing pic-
star lies 4.2 light-years away (see Light-year). The other tures of five sheep to show a herd of five animals, a per-
two stars, Alpha Centauri A and Alpha Centauri B, are a son could draw one sign for the numeral five" and one
382 Alphabet

for "sheep." Gradually people learned to use a syllabic n, f, and

These signs specified the consonants in sylla-
r.

system, in which a sign that stood for one word could bles, but not the vowels. Egyptian writing, which devel-
be used not only for that word but also for any phonetic oped around 3000 B.C., was formally a picture writing,
combination that sounded like that word. This is what and structurally a word and syllabic writing.
we call rebus writing (see Rebus). If we used rebus writ- The Semites, who lived in Syria and Palestine, knew
ing in English, we could draw a sign for the word "bee" something of the Egyptian writing system. They worked
followed by a sign for the word leaf to stand for the out an alphabetic writing about 1500 B.C They used
word "belief. Finally, people developed alphabets in signs to show the consonants of syllables, just as the
which individual signs stood for particular sounds. Egyptians did. The Semites seem to have adapted some
Today, most written languages in the world use alpha- of the pictures from Egyptian hieroglyphics, but they
betic writing systems. For more information, see Writ- used these symbols for sounds in their own language.
ing. The oldest known Semitic alphabets have been found in
Syria and at a Semitic outpost in the Sinai peninsula.
The earliest alphabets
The Phoenicians, who lived along the coast of the
The Egyptians used a system of several hundred Mediterranean Sea, developed a system of 22 signs
signs that stood for full words or for syllables. They about 1000 B.C. Their alphabet was structurally related
could write the word nefer, or good, with a single sign to Semitic and Egyptian, with signs for consonant
for the whole word, or with three signs, for the sounds sounds, not vowel sounds. Early Phoenician writing con-

Development of the The English alphabet developed from a number of early writing systems, beginning with the sign
English alphabet writing of Ancient Egypt. The Romans had given most capital letters their modern form by A.D.
114. But the letters/, U. and kVwere not added to the alphabet until the Middle Ages.

Egyptian Semitic Phoenician Greek Roman Egyptian Semitic Phoenician Greek

About About About About Aj>.114 About About About About
3000 BC 1500BC IOOObc 6O08C 3000BC 1500BC IOOObc 600»c

^ V -£ A A A N
ra a 4 £ B B o
) 7 r C 7 r
P A A D D ? q
* X -\ F E E ® p
Y Y ? F F W i
) 7 G G
r x + + T
! £ E H H V Y T
<^3 tf X i I I Y Y T
<^l tf X J Y Y T
^t M/
i

K K K
I

¥ X
°\ r L A L L Y Y T Y
— AAA "f MMM I Z
 Alphabet 383

Greek A BT A E Z H I KA M N S O II P £ T V <I> X V il

Russian ABBrftEE}K3HHKJIMHOnPCTy0XUHUiniBbIb3K)fl

Hindi 3T31T3^33;**5"^£r^'3FT5r'n'Tr T^^^r^^^ffl^^"^^?" 1

"^

Arabic ^ 5
5 ^^J^o^-J^pJeJo^ueji^r);^^^^-^-^^

Gaelic a t)C-oe|?5ti itmnoppf cu

The alphabets of five languages are shown above. Hindi is India's most widely spoken lan-
guage. People throughout the Middle East and northern Africa use Arabic, which is read from
right to left. Gaelic, along with English, is the official language of Ireland.

pictographic forms, which they may have

sists partly of the emperor Trajan. The style of lettering they used is
borrowed from older pictographic systems, and partly considered one of the most beautiful in the world.
of geometric or diagrammatic signs that they invented. Carving letters in stone is not an easy job, and Roman
Historians find it difficult to trace the formal relations stonecutters rounded or squared, simplified, and pol-
between Semitic and Phoenician signs, because Phoeni- ished their letters. They developed the beautiful thick-
cian has both pictographic and diagrammatic signs, and and-thin strokes we use today. They also added serifs
because so little is known of the ancient systems used in (little finishing strokes) at the tops and bottoms of many

Syria and Palestine. letters. The practical reason for serifs was that the carv-
The Cypriote, the people of the island of Cyprus, de- ers found it difficult to end wide strokes without ugly
veloped an alphabet of their own. Starting with an un- blunt lines. And if a chisel slipped while squaring off an
known word-syllable system, they worked out an alpha- end, they could not erase the mistake. But serifs also
bet of 56 signs, each standing for an initial consonant added a touch of strength and grace to Roman lettering,
and a different vowel. The next step was to create sepa- and are still used today.
rate signs for vowels and consonants. Small letters gradually developed from capitals.
The Greeks came in contact with Phoenician traders, Scribes who copied books often used uncials (rounded
and learned from them the idea of writing individual letters) that were easier to form than some capitals. True
sounds of the language. Sometime during the period lower-case letters developed later, when scribes saved
before 800 B.C, they borrowed Phoenician symbols and space in books by using the smaller letters.
modified them to form the Greek alphabet. The Phoeni- The alphabet today is not well suited to writing
cian alphabet included more consonants than the words in English.does not have a separate character
It

Greeks needed for their language, so they used the for every distinctive sound in English, and it has several
extra signs for vowel sounds. In this way, the Greeks im- characters with more than one sound. Many other lan-
proved on both Phoenician and Cypriot ideas, because guages written with Roman letters use accent marks to
they could combine individual letters for both conso- show changes in sounds. Linguists use an almost perfect
nants and vowels to spell any word they wanted. alphabet, the International Phonetic Alphabet, which has
The Greeks took over the Phoenician names for their more than 80 characters (see Phonetics).
signs, and in most cases the signs themselves. The first
Other systems of writing
letter of the Phoenician alphabet,^, and its name,
aleph, meaning ox, became alpha in Greek. The
-A, or Arabic and Hebrew, as well as Sanskrit and many al-

second letter,^ or beth, meaning house, becametS, or

, phabets used in various parts of India, developed from
beta in Greek. The Greeks later modified the shapes of the Phoenician system. Arabic and Hebrew were influ-
these letters, adding and dropping some letters, to form enced by the Aramaic alphabet and vocabulary.
the 24-letter Greek alphabet of today. The Cyrillic alphabet. In the 800s, Saints Cyril and
Methodius, two brothers, invented the Glagolithic al-
The Roman alphabet phabet while serving as missionaries among the Slavic
The Etruscans moved to central Italy from some- peoples. They based this alphabet on Greek and on a
where the eastern Mediterranean region sometime
in Slavic language called Macedo-Bulgarian. About 900,
after 1000 B.C They carried the Greek alphabet with the Glagolithic alphabet was modified into the Cyrillic
them. The Romans learned the alphabet from the Etrus- alphabet, which was named for Cyril, the more literary
cans, and gave much the same form we use today. The
it of the brothers. Missionaries from Constantinople (now
early Roman alphabet had about 20 letters, and gradu- Istanbul) carried the Cyrillic alphabet with them when
allygained 3 more. they converted the Russians, Serbs, Bulgars, and other
Capital letters were the only forms used for hun- Slavic peoples. Missionaries from Rome used the
dreds of years. Many people consider the Roman alpha- Roman alphabet when they converted the Poles and
bet perfected by AD. 114. That year, sculptors carved Czechs. They made spelling changes and used accent
the inscriptions on a memorial column built to honor marks for special sounds. Serbs and Croats speak
384 Alphonsus Liguori, Saint

Serbo-Croatian. But Serbs write with the Cyrillic or the feet (2.1 to 3.7 meters) long. Their crude construction

Roman alphabet, and Croats use the Roman alphabet. causes certain irregularities of pitch. The alphorn is
Chinese is the only major language that does not played with a cup-shaped wooden mouthpiece. Gioac-
have an alphabetical system of writing. Chinese has chino Rossini included an alphorn in his opera William
thousands of characters that stand for words. Most char- 7e//(1829). The alphorn has been used since prehistoric
acters are derived from pictographs of objects. Others times. Melvin Berger
are combinations of pictographs used to form abstract Alpinism. See Mountain climbing.
words. Still others have no pictographic background at Alps are the largest mountain system in Europe. The
all. Some Chinese characters can be used to express the snow-capped peaks and sheltered, peaceful valleys of
syllables of proper names or foreign words. the Alps are among Europe's most spectacular sights.
Japanese is based on Chinese, but the characters The Alps stretch across south-central Europe in a
represent either syllables or words. Most of the Japa- broad arc. The mountains begin near the Mediterranean
nese characters are taken directly from Chinese, be- Sea and form a border between France and Italy. The
cause Japanese scholars copied the forms, as well as the Alps then extend northward and eastward through
structure, of the Chinese language. Marianne Cooiey northern Italy, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, southern Ger-

Related articles. See the articles on each letter of the alpha- many, Austria, and Slovenia. The mountains form a chain
bet. See also the following articles: about 660 miles (1 ,060 kilometers) long and cover an
Braille Handwriting Russian language
area of about 80,000 square miles (21 0,000 square kilo-
Chinese language Hebrew language lAlphabet)
meters). The broadest part of the Alps is about 1 60 miles
(Written Chinese) Hieroglyphics Semaphore
Codes and ciphers Japanese language Sequoyah (260 kilometers) wide and extends across Switzerland
(Substitution! Manuscript Shorthand between Germany and Italy. The highest Alpine peak,
Cuneiform Morse code Sign language Mont Blanc, rises 15,771 feet (4,807 meters) on the bor-
Egypt, Ancient (The Pictograph (picture)
der between France, Italy, and Switzerland. Other fa-
people) Pronunciation Spelling
Creek language Rebus Writing
mous mountains in the Alps include Monte Rosa, which
lAlphabet) Rune rises 15,203 feet (4,634 meters), and the Matterhorn,
which reaches 14,692 feet (4,478 meters). Both stand on
Alphonsus Liguori, al FAHN suhs lee GWAW ree, the Swiss-Italian border.
Saint (1696-17871, an Italian religious teacher, founded The Alps form a major barrier between central and
in 1732 the Congregation of the Most Holy Redeemer southern Europe. Few people made the difficult trip
(the Redemptorist Order) for religious work among through the mountains until the Romans gained control
poor people in rural areas. He wrote books on moral of the Alps between 58 and 1 5 B.C and built roads
problems and for devotional and doctrinal purposes. He through several Alpine passes. The roads allowed com-
emphasized the power of prayer. Alphonsus Liguori munication and trade between the peoples on either
alsocomposed many popular hymns. He was born near side of the Alps. Today, modern railroads and highways
Naples, Italy. He was canonized (proclaimed a saint) in enable people to travel easily through the mountains.
1 839. His feast day is August 2. Marvin r. oconneii People come to view the magnificent scenery and take
Alphorn, also called alpenhorn, tube-shaped
is a long part in such sports as mountain climbing and skiing.
instrument used chiefly by herders to call cattle in How the Alps were formed. Geologists believe a
mountain regions of Switzerland. It is made of long large sea once covered what is now the Alpine region.
wooden staves tightly bound together with birchbark More than 100 million years ago, the land masses north
strips to form an airtight tube. Alphorns are from 7 to 12 and south of this sea began to move closer together.
The great pressure placed on the seabed forced it to
gradually fold so that great ridges and valleys formed.
Rock that deep below the seabed was pushed
once lay
The highest parts of the Alps in-
to the top of ridges.
clude such rocks as gneiss, granite, and schist, which
were formed by heat and pressure deep within the
earth. Many Alpine ranges consist chiefly of limestone
that also formed in the seabed. Most of the Alps had
taken shape by about 15 million years ago.
Glaciers occupied valleys high in the Alps from about
2 million years ago until about 0,000 years ago. As
1

these glaciers moved downhill, they gouged the earth

and rock, creating U-shaped Other geologic fea-
valleys.
tures visible in the Alps include cirques and cols.
Cirques are bowl-shaped hollows near the peak of a
mountain. A col is a high pass between two cirques. A
hanging valley is a small valley that empties into a larger
and lower valley. A stream flowing through a hanging
valley may create a waterfall.
The Alpine glaciers also moved earth and rock that
had collected along the edges and top of the ice. As the
The alphorn is a long, tube-shaped musical instrument used in ice melted, rock debris piled up along the glaciers path
Switzerland and other mountainous countries. in bands called moraines. Some of these moraines
 Alps 385

ern Alps. The eastern Alps begin southeast of Lake Con-

stance and consist of the Bavarian, Noric, and Carnic
Alps; Hohe and Niedere Tauern; the Dolomites; and the
Julian and Karawanken Alps.
Climate of the Alps varies from place to place. In
general, the Alps have a highlands climate. Such a cli-
mate is generally cooler and wetter than that of sur-
rounding areas and is affected by altitude. For example,
the higher areas of a mountain range are colder. This re-
sults in greater precipitation because cold air cannot
hold as much moisture as warm air.

The Alps separate two distinct climatic regions. The

land to the south of the Alps has hot, dry summers and
mild, moist winters. The land to the north and to the
west has a temperate climate with warm summers, cold
winters, and precipitation at all times of the year.
The Alps frequently experience warm, dry, violent
winds, called foehns, that blow downward along moun-
tain slopes. These winds melt snow and ice on the
mountainsides, frequently causing avalanches.
Plant and animal life. Various kinds of vegetation
Three famous Alpine peaks— the Eiger, the Monch, and the grow at different elevations in the Alps. The valleys at
(ungfrau, left to right— form part of the majestic Bernese Alps in the base of the Alps are filled mainly with grass. Beech
southern Switzerland. Glaciers lie near the mountaintops. and oak trees grow on the lower slopes. Fir, pine, and
spruce trees cover the higher slopes. Above the timber
formed natural dams across valleys, creating lakes as line, the elevation above which trees cannot grow, are
water collected behind the dam. Such Alpine lakes as Alpine meadows. Mosses, lichens, bare rock, and ice
the Lake of Lucerne and Lakes Como, Maggiore, Ge- and snow cover the highest elevations of the Alps.
neva, Constance, and Zurich were created by this proc- Many species of animals live in Alpine forests and
ess. Today, there are about 1,300 small glaciers in the meadows. They include the graceful chamois, which re-
Alps. The largest, the Aletsch Glacier, is in southern sembles the antelope; and the ibex, a rare, long-horned
Switzerland. See Glacier; Moraine. wild goat. Golden eagles and peregrine falcons live
Chief ranges of the Alps. Most geographers divide among the highest peaks.
the Alpine region into the western, central, and eastern Agriculture and industry. Most farming is done in
Alps. The western Alps include the ranges west of the the valleys and on the sunny lower slopes of the Alps.
Great St. Bernard Pass, which is between northwest Italy Small family-owned farms are most common. The chief
and southwest Switzerland. The Savoy, Dauphine, Gra- crops include such grains as barley, oats, and rye. Tradi-
ian, Cottian, Ligurian, and Maritime Alps are considered tional Alpine farmers raise cattle, goats, and sheep.
western Alps. The central Alps lie between the Great St. Dairy farming is also an important economic activity.
Bernard Pass and Lake Constance. They include the Ber- A variety of industries operate in the foothills and val-
nese, Pennine, Lepontine, and Rhaetian Alps. The central leys of the Alps. Factories manufacture chemicals, elec-
and western Alps are higher and narrower than the east- trical machinery, and other equipment. Traditional

Mont Blonc Motterhorn Monte Rosa Stelvio Pass Grossglockner

15,771 ft. (4,807 m) 14,692 ft. (4,478 m) 15,203 ft. (4,634 m) 9,045 ft. (2,757 m) 12,457 ft. (3,797 m)

St Gotthard Tunnel
Great St.
i

U Brenner Pass
13642ft 3,600 ft. (1.097 m)
Bernard Pass 4,508 ft. (1,374 m)
8.100 ft. (2,469 m) (4,158 m) Juf (Village)
6,975 ft.

(2,126 m)

Highest railway * tf
11,333ft. (3,454 m)

Lake Constance
-
<y
tt \
Grenoble, France 1,296 ft (395 m) Sea level Vienna, Austria

Western Alps Central Alps Eastern Alps

WORLD BOOk diagram b\ Oorge Suytok*

Some features of the Alps are shown in the above illustration. Most of these features are in the
mountain ranges that include Italy's border with Austria, France, or Switzerland. Lake Constance
lies in both Switzerland and Germany. The measurements show height above sea level.
386 Alps

handicrafts still produced in the region include shoes hard Road Tunnel in south-central Switzerland is 10.1
and other leather goods, textiles, and ceramics. miles (16.3 kilometers) long and is one of the longest
Natural resources found in the Alps include bauxite, highway tunnels in the world. It is part of the St Gott-
iron ore, stone, and timber. Many factories run on hy- hard Road, the most-traveled route through the central
droelectric power that is generated by waterfalls in the Alps running between western Germany and Italy. The
mountains. Hydroelectricity also powers most railroads Simplon Tunnel is the longest railroad tunnel in the
in the region. Power plants in the Alps transmit some Alps. It extends for 12.3 miles (19.8 kilometers) between
Europe.
electricity to other parts of Switzerland and northwest Italy. The Great St Bernard
Tourism is important to the economy of the Alps. Tunnel was the first major highway tunnel to connect
Well-known Alpine resort communities include Cha- Italy and Switzerland. The Frejus Railway Tunnel and the

monix in France, Lucerne and St Moritz in Switzerland, Mont Blanc Road Tunnel link France and Italy.
Berchtesgaden in Germany, Cortina d Ampezzo in Italy, Climbing the Alps. Few people attempted moun-
and Innsbruck and Salzburg in Austria. taineering in the Alps until the 1700s, when scientists
Alpine travel. More than 40 passes occur naturally in began to study the landforms and the biology of the re-
the Alps. Highways and railroads have been built gion. In 1786, two Frenchmen, physician Michel G. Pac-
through many of them. The Brenner Pass, 4,508 feet card and his guide, Jacques Balmat, became the first to
(1,374 meters) high, is the most widely used pass in the reach the top of Mont Blanc. They recorded scientific
eastern Alps. It lies between western Austria and north- observations along the way.
ern Italy and has both a major highway and railroad. Many of the Alpine peaks were climbed for the first
In addition, tunnels have been built through the time during the mid-1 800s, when mountaineering
mountains beneath several of the passes. The St Gott- gained popularity as a sport In 1855, a group of Swiss

The Alps

International boundary

Rood and tunnel

Railroad and tunnel

WORLD BOOK maps

800 Kilometers
 Altai Mountains 387

and British men made the first successful climb to the

top of Monte Rosa. In 1865, climbers reached the top of
the Matterhorn for the first time. Most Alpine summits

had been conquered by 1900. Mountain climbing in the

Alps became even more popular in the 1900s. Today,
professional guides use modern equipment to help
people scale the highest peaks. Each year, more than
2,000 people climb to the top of the Matterhorn.
History. People have lived in the Alps for thousands
of years. By the 500s B.C, Celtic tribes controlled much
of the region. From 58 to 15 B.C., the Romans conquered
the Alpine Celts. The Romans built roads through vari-
ous Alpine passes to link Rome with its northern
provinces. The roads enabled the Romans to expand
their influence into parts of northern Europe. These
roads came to rank among the busiest in Europe due to
Roman trade with the north.
Travel in Roman Empire
the Alps decreased after the
collapsed western Europe during the A.D. 400s. But
in

merchants, government officials, religious leaders, and

soldiers continued to use Roman roadways to cross the
mountains. Through the centuries, the Alpine region
came under the control of a number of empires and
states. For more information on the region's political his-
tory, see the History section of the World Book article
on each Alpine country. Alsace-Lorraine is a historical region in France.
In the late 1800s, the first railroads crossed the Alps.
This service led to the rapid growth of tourism in the re- and part French. Important products of the region in-
gion. Today, travelers can cross the Alps in under eight clude barley, oats, rye, textiles, wheat, and wine. Mineral
hours by highway or train. Trans-Alpine routes have in- products include iron ore from Lorraine and potash
creased trade among the Alpine countries and between from Alsace. The Vosges Mountains district of the west
northern and southern Europe. But environmental pollu- supplies timber, coal, and salt; and the streams of this
tion and overdevelopment caused by growth in high- district provide hydroelectric power. Alsace-Lorraine
way traffic and tourism are a concern. Howell c Lloyd also supports an important automobile industry.
Related articles in World Book include: Alsace and Lorraine were often a prize in wars be-
Austria (pictures) Mont Blanc tween France and Germany. In the A.D. 300s and 400s,
Brenner Pass Saint Bernard passes
Teutonic bands drove out the Celtic tribes then living in
Europe (The Alpine mountain Saint Gotthard Pass
system) Simplon Pass and Tunnel
the region. In the late 700s, the area became part of

Frejus Tunnels Switzerland (The Swiss Alps) Charlemagne's empire. It fell to the middle kingdom be-
Germany (The Bavarian Alps) Tree (picture: Forests of tween France and Germany when Charlemagne's grand-
Glacier needleleaf trees) sons divided the empire. But before long Alsace and
Jungfrau Tyrol Lorraine came under German rule.
Matterhorn
Alsace and Lorraine remained under German rule un-
Additional resources til the 1 500s, when France gained control of them by
Bullen, Susan. The Alps and Their People. Raintree Steck slow stages. The people fought efforts to turn them into
Vaughn, 1994. Younger readers. French people. But the French Revolution of 1 789
Lee, Stephen. The Alps. Batsford, 1991. brought a change of heart. The Alsatian people became
Reifsnyder, William E. and Marylou. Adventuring in the Alps. 2nd so French in spirit that more than 50,000 moved to
ed. Sierra Club, 1999. A guidebook.
France when Germany got almost all of Alsace in 1871.
Al-Qa ida. See Qa ida-AI-. The Germans resented the loss of Alsace-Lorraine af-
ALS. See Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. ter World War (1914-1918). They regained control of
I

Alsace-Lorraine, AL sas lohRAYN, is a region in the area in World War (1939-1945). The Germans
II

northeastern France, on the French-German border. It moved thousands of the people out of the region and
covers 12,289 square miles (31,828 square kilometers). replaced them with Germans, Poles, and Russians. The
Switzerland lies to the south, and Luxembourg to the Allies drove the Germans out of Alsace-Lorraine in 1944-
north. The map with this article shows that the region 1945, and France again took control of the region.
looks like a figure "7." Alsace, the north-south arm, has William M Reddy
two departments (administrative districts)— Haut-Rhin Alsatian dog, al SAY shuhn, is the term used in Britain
and Bas-Rhin. Lorraine forms the east-west arm. It is di- and Commonwealth countries for a German shepherd
vided into the departments of Moselle, Meurthe-et- dog. See German shepherd dog.
Moselle, Meuse, and Vosges. Altai Mountains, AL ty, form a lofty range that runs
About 4 million people live in Alsace-Lorraine. Most about 1,200 miles (1,900 kilometers) northwest across
of them belong to the Roman Catholic Church. For hun- the borders of western Mongolia and Kazakhstan. For
dreds of years, the inhabitants have been part German location, see China (terrain map). The Altai are among
388 Altar

the oldest mountains in Asia. They contain rich deposits In most gametophyte and the sporophyte
plants, the
of copper, gold, iron, lead, silver, and zinc. Some have differ in sizeand appearance. For example, the phase
pastureland and forests. The highest peak is Belukha, or that people recognize in ferns is the sporophyte. The fa-
White Mountain (14,783 feet, or 4,506 meters). miliar phase of mosses is the gametophyte. The sporo-
James A. Hafner phyte is the familiar phase of all flowering and cone-
Altar is a raised place or object that serves as the cen- bearing plants. Joseph E. Armstrong
tral point of religious worship. An altar may be as simple See also Plant (How plants reproduce); Fern; Liver-
as a mound of earth or as elaborate as a carved stone wort; Moss; Seed (How seeds develop); Spore.
table. Altars may be
outdoors, in homes, or in buildings Alternative medicine refers to a wide range of heal-
of public worship. The word altar probably comes from ing practices that generally are not considered part of
the Latin word altus, which means high place. conventional medicine. In general, practitioners of alter-
The ancient Creeks, Romans, and Israelites used altars native medicine use natural remedies and believe that
to burn incense and to sacrifice animals or other offer- the body can heal itself if given a chance. They feel that
ings to a god or gods. Christians adopted the idea of an "invasive" treatments, such as drugs and surgery, should
altar for sacrificial worship by the AD. 100's. By the Mid- only be used as a last resort.
dle Ages, Christian altars had been moved from a more Some forms of alternative medicine— such as
central position in the church to the back wall. The acupuncture, chiropractic, and naturopathy (use of nat-
ural agents, such as fresh air, massage, and exercise)—
are well-established professions with standard training
and licensing of practitioners. Other forms are less or-
ganized as professions. These include herbalismiuse of
remedies derived from plants) and homeopathy {use of
minute amounts of substances that, in a healthy person,
produce the same symptoms as those of the disorder).
Still other forms of alternative medicine— including faith

healing and psychic healing— are even further removed

from the world of scientific and professional medicine.
During the second half of the 1900s, growing num-
bers of people became disillusioned with conventional
medicine, particularly its expense, risks, and inability to
cure certain common serious diseases. Many patients
complain that conventional doctors too readily pre-
scribe drugs as treatment Others complain that conven-
Richard Kehrwald Black Star tional medicine is too impersonal— that it focuses on the
An altar is the central point of worship services in many reli- disorder rather than the patient Such disillusioned pa-
gions throughout the world. The priests shown above celebrate tients often seek out alternative practitioners.
Mass behind a tablelike altar in a Roman Catholic church. Most doctors have regarded alternative medicine as
unscientific. But an increasing number of doctors are
priest stood at the altar, with his back to the worshipers. trying to combine the best ideas and practices of both
In 1964, the Roman Catholic Church issued a directive conventional and alternative medicine. This use of alter-
that altars be moved away from the back wall of the native medicine as a potentially helpful supplement to
church so that the priest could face the congregation. In conventional treatments is often called complementary
Eastern Orthodox Churches, the altar is behind a screen and alternative medicine. Andrew Weil
called an iconostasis. In the 1500s, many Protestants See also Acupuncture; Chiropractic; Homeopathy;
converted altars into simple tables on which the sacra- Pioneer life in America (Health).
ment of the Lord's Supper is celebrated. mi Ram Alternative school is any public or private school
For pictures of an altar, see Religion (The Mass; Con- that differs from traditional schools in curriculum, pur-
fucius' birthday); Hinduism; Buddhism (Buddhist monks). pose, or teaching methods. Most alternative schools at-
Alternating current. See Electric current; Electric tempt to establish a less formal relationship between
generator; Tesla, Nikola. pupils and teachers. They also try to make greater use of
Alternation of generations is a term that describes community facilities outside the school and to involve
the life cycle of most plants and some algae. The term parents in the educational process. Alternative schools
generations is misleading since it refers to two different developed because of dissatisfaction with the quality
phases that make up a single life cycle. and aims of traditional schools.
In one phase, the plant is known as a gametophyte or Alternative schools have voluntary enrollments. A typ-
gamete-bearing plant and produces sex cells called ical alternative school has 30 to 40 students. A school of

gametes. Gametophytes can produce male sperm cells, this size can easily adjust its program to fit individual
female egg cells, or both. When a sperm cell and an egg needs and desires. Some alternative schools work only
cell unite, they form a zygote (fertilized egg). The zygote with children of elementary-school age. Others accept
develops into the next phase of the reproductive cycle. only teen-agers. Many alternative schools put students
In this phase, the plant is known as a sporophyte or of several ages into classes based on subject interest.
spore-bearing plant and produces reproductive cells Many alternative schools in the United States operate
called spores. Then spores develop into gamete- independently of the public school system. These
producing plants, and the cycle begins again. schools, which are privately run, are usually called free
 Altgeld, John Peter 389

schools. The word free refers to the independence of rooms. High school students decide whether to enter a
such schools. It also describes the emphasis of the free school withfew course requirements, or one of
schools in allowing students to make their own deci- several programs in the regular high school program.
sions. Other alternative schools operate as part of the
History
public school system. Such schools may be in one area
of a public school building or in a separate building Experimental schools similar to alternative schools
provided by the school system. The separate buildings have been set up throughout the history of public edu-
are often called magnet schools or specialty schools. cation. But the term alternative school first came into
They attempt to attract students from a wider attendance widespread use during the 1960s. It referred to a wide
area than a traditional neighborhood school. variety of programs and institutions that differed greatly
from private schools and special programs within public
Features of alternative schools
schools. Most private schools had been established for
The basic principle followed by alternative schools is the children of wealthy families. Most special programs
that not all children have the same goals and the same worked only with students who had special problems or
ways of learning. Many of the people involved in operat- exceptional ability. But most alternative schools wel-
ing these schools do not want to convert the whole comed any student.
school system to their methods. They want to provide African Americans in the Southern States set up some
the opportunity for a different kind of education for chil- of the first alternative schools. During the 1960s, these
dren who would benefit from it. people established freedom schools in communities
The major feature of many alternative schools is the where public schools refused to admit their children. In
open space classroom, sometimes called an open class- many Northern cities, African Americans set up alterna-
room. The teacher of an open space classroom, instead tive schools because of dissatisfaction with the treat-
of lecturing most of the time, helps students find inter- ment of their children in public schools.
esting ways to learn on their own. Many kinds of educa- Many people began to realize that a public school
tional materials are kept in the classroom. The students system could hurt, rather than help, some children. They
work with these materials alone or in groups. The declared that parents and educators should have the
teacher gives the students individual help. freedom to set up alternative education methods.
Most alternative schools lack adequate funds and During the late 1960s, several groups created open
such facilities as gymnasiums, laboratories, and shops. space classrooms modeled on the United Kingdom's in-
Parents and volunteers provide most of the finances, fant schools. Such schools are attended by children
help run the classes, and help maintain the buildings. from age 5 to 7. In the United States, similar classrooms
Many forms of alternative schools have developed in were set up in a number of public schools. Their suc-
response to various needs. Street academies and cess contributed to the growth of the alternative school
dropout centers, which function in the poor sections of movement. Beatrice Cross and Ronald Gross
big cities, help high school dropouts continue their edu- See also Edison Project.
cation. Storefront schools have developed from child-
Additional resources
care and kindergarten facilities. Work schools hold
Greene, Rebecca. The Teenagers Guide to School Outside the
classes part of the day, and the students work at regular
Box. Free Spirit, 2000.
jobs the rest of the day. Koetzsch, Ronald E. The Parents' Guide to Alternatives in Educa-
The school without walls plan, used in some large tion. Shambhala, 1997.
cities, takes advantage of the educational opportunities Weil, Danny K. Charter Schools. ABC-Clio, 2000.
provided by businesses and institutions of the commu- Alternator. See Electric generator.
nity. Students may spend part of the day at an artist's stu- Altgeld, John Peter (1847-1902), was a reformer who
dio, a factory, a museum, a newspaper office, a repair served as governor of Illinois from 1893 to 1897. Under
shop, a theater, or a government or private agency. The his leadership, Illinois established a board to help settle
purpose of this method is to make learning more realis- strikes, gave prisoners the right to parole and probation,
tic and enjoyable, and to broaden the experiences of- and also improved its public school system.
fered high school students. Shortly after taking office, Altgeld, a Democrat, par-
Some alternative schools emphasize the study of the doned three of the men who had been convicted of a
culture and history of a certain minority group. Some ac- bombing during the Haymarket Riot (see Haymarket
cept only students from one such group. Others seek Riot). He believed they had not received a fair trial. How-

students from several cultures and ethnic groups. ever, he was widely criticized for his action.
A number of alternative schools have been designed In 1894, President Grover Cleveland sent federal

for children from middle- or upper-class families. Usual- troops to Chicago during the Pullman Strike (see Pull-
ly such schools are in suburban or rural areas. Most of man Strike). Altgeld opposed what he considered inter-
them stress the independence of each student and have ference in a state matter. He protested to Cleveland but
no required subjects. again received wide criticism.
A trend in the development of alternative schools has Altgeld was born in Niederselters, Germany, near
been the establishment of such schools within the pub- Wiesbaden. His family settled in the United States in
lic school system. One plan offers a variety of learning 1848. Altgeld became a lawyer in 1871 and served as a
environments from which students, parents, and teach- superior court judge in Cook County, Illinois, from 1886
ers may choose. At the elementary school level, parents to 1891. His book Our Penal Machinery and Its Victims
can choose to place their children in a traditional class- (1884) criticized the U.S. court system for discriminating
room or in one of several kinds of open space class- against the poo. Clyde c Walton
390 Altimeter

Altimeter, al TIHM uh tuhror AL tuh mee tuhr, is an in- souri. He began his career directing industrial films and
strument that measures altitude. Aircraft and some satel- then TV in the 1950s. He gained prominence when he
lites are equipped with altimeters. Mountain climbers, directed M'A*S'HC\91G\, a darkly comic movie about a
surveyors, and scientists also use altimeters. battlefield hospital. In the 1970s, he directed a series of
There are three main kinds of altimeters: (II pressure offbeat films praised by critics, including McCabe and
altimeters,(2) radar altimeters, and (3) laser altimeters. Mrs. Miller{\ST\ a quirky Western; Thieves Like Us
),

Pressure altimeters are standard equipment on aircraft. (1974), a rural gangster film; and Nashville (197'5), about
Some planes also carry radar altimeters. Earth satellites the country music industry. His output fell in the 1980s,
carry radar and laser altimeters to measure the height of but he made a comeback in the 1990s with The Player
the oceans, land, and icecaps. Scientists have used radar on the movie industry; Short Cuts (1993),
(1992), a satire
and mounted on space probes to map
laser altimeters based on stories by the American author Raymond Carv-
the surfaces of other planets and the moon. er; Kansas C/fy (1996), set during the Great Depression;

A pressure altimeter resembles a type of gauge and Cookie s Fortune (1999), a comedy about eccentric
known as an aneroid barometer. Both devices measure characters in Mississippi. Dr. T & and the Women (2000)
the effect of air pressure on a metal chamber from portrays the personal and professional life of a gynecol-
which most of the air has been removed. A pressure al- o<7/5f (women's doctor). Altman's other films include
timeter determines an aircraft s distance above sea level Brewster McCloud\^T\), California Split (1974), Popeye
by measuring the pressure of Earth s atmosphere. This 980), Fool for Love (1 985), The Gingerbread Man (1 998),
(1

pressure decreases as altitude increases. and Gosford Park (2001). Louis Ciannelti

A radar altimeter measures the time a radio signal Altrusa International is a volunteer organization of

takes to travel from a plane or satellite to Earth s surface business and professional leaders who work to improve
and back. A laser altimeter works in the same way, but their communities through personal service. Altrusa op-
uses pulses of laser light rather than radio waves. erates programs in international relations, vocational
To use a satellite-based altimeter to measure the guidance, and the promotion of literacy. It also sponsors
height of features on Earths surface, scientists must first youth groups and runs a charitable foundation. About
measure the satellite s distance above sea level. They do 17,000 members belong to 550 clubs in the United
this by tracking the satellite by lasers and radio from States, Canada, Bermuda, Chile, El Salvador, Guatemala,
ground-based stations and from satellites of the Global India, Ireland, Mexico, New Zealand, the Philippines,
Positioning System (GPS). The GPS is a worldwide navi- Puerto Rico, South Korea, and the United Kingdom. Al-
gation system that uses radio signals broadcast by satel- trusa International was founded in 1917. Its headquar-
lites. The altitudes of the ground stations and the GPS ters are in Chicago. Critically reviewed by Altrusa International
satellites are precisely known. Thus, scientists can use Alum, AL uhm, is the name group of double salts.
of a
those altitudes and the tracking data to determine a Double salts consist of two simple salts that form crys-
satellite s distance above sea level. tals together in fixed amounts. Common alum is a dou-
Researchers have used measurements from satellite- ble salt of /Tyc/raretyiwater-containing) potassium sulfate
based altimeters to determine how the ocean shrinks and aluminum sulfate. It is also called potash alum or
and expands as its temperature changes. They have also potassium alum. Its formula is K SO/Al,(S0 );24H,0. Oth-
2 4

used satellite data to measure the speed and direction er alums are ammonium alum, sodium alum, and potas-
of ocean currents. In addition, satellite-based altimeters sium chrome alum. Most are manufactured from bauxite
have measured the height of the icecaps covering large (aluminum oxide ore). Potassium alum helps stop bleed-
areas of land in the polar regions. Researchers can use ing and shrinks human or animal tissues. Alums are
the information about the icecaps to determine whether used to make glue, dyes, baking powder, and leather
the caps are growing or shrinking. George h Bom tanning agents; to purify water; and to harden plaster of
See also Barometer; Global Positioning System. Paris. See also Salt, Chemical. Marianna a. Busch
Altitude is the height of an object above the surface of Alumina, uh LOO muh nuh, also called aluminum ox-
Earth, the moon, or some other reference body. In ge- ide, is a compound composed of aluminum and oxygen.
ography, the height of a physical feature or place is It has the chemical formula Al,0,. Alumina occurs in na-
commonly called elevation. In astronomy, altitude is the ture as a mineral called corundum. Alumina and water
angle between a line from an observer to, for example, a occur in different combinations in the minerals boehm-
star and a line from the observer to the horizon. See also ite, diaspore, and gibbsite. These minerals are found in
Air; Altimeter; Mountain; Navigation. bauxite, the chief source of the alumina from which alu-
Altitude record. See Balloon (History); Glider (table). minum is made. Refined alumina has wide use as an ab-
Altman, Robert (1925- is an American motion-
), rasive, a material used for grinding and polishing. Alu-
picture director known for his unusual, offbeat films. His mina resists high temperatures and is a poor conductor
movies have a documentary visual style that seems as if of electric current, so it is used in furnace linings and
the camera just happened to catch revealing moments electrical insulators. A white clay called kaolin, which
in the characters' lives. He prefers ensemble casts, with contains alumina, is used to make porcelain dinnerware.
many equally important performers, rather than casts Alumina occurs in several crystal forms. These forms
dominated by a few stars. His films tend to favor charac- have the same chemical formula but differ in the ar-
ter analysis over They reflect an ironic skepticism
plot. rangement of their aluminum and oxygen atoms. The
toward traditional American values and institutions. various forms can be changed from one to another by
Many of his films have pessimistic, unhappy endings, heating them to certain temperatures. David f Hess

though they use eccentric humor and raunchy comedy. See also Aluminum; Corundum; Kaolin.
Altman was born on Feb. 20, 1925, in Kansas City, Mis- Aluminium. See Aluminum.
 Boeing WORLD BOOK photo

Building airplanes of aluminum Roasting corn on the cob in aluminum foil

Aluminum alloys have a variety of uses because of their valuable properties. For example, the
metals are lightweight but strong and so are used in the construction of airplanes. Aluminum cans
chill quickly and can be recycled. Flexible aluminum foil is used in storing and cooking food.

Aluminum much
lines,
electrical equipment, including light bulbs, power
and telephone wires. Thousands of other products
also contain aluminum. These products include air con-
Aluminum, uh LOO muh nuhm, is a lightweight, sil- ditioners, cookware, golf clubs, knitting needles, lawn
ver-colored metal that can be formed into almost any furniture, license plates, paints, refrigerators, rocket
shape. can be rolled into thick plates for armored
It fuel, and zippers.
tanks or into thin foil for chewing gum wrappers. It may Aluminum is the most plentiful metallic element in

be drawn into wire or made into cans. Aluminum does the earth's crust and the third most common of all the el-

not rust, and it resists wear from weather and chemicals. ements, after oxygen and silicon. Aluminum makes up
Aluminum is called aluminium (ALyuh MIHN ee uhm) in about 8 percent of the earth's crust. But unlike some
English-speaking countries outside North America. other metals, such as gold and silver, aluminum never
Pure aluminum is soft and has little strength. Thus, occurs free (uncombined) in nature. It is always chemi-
aluminum producers almost always alloy [m\\) it with cally combined with other elements. People had no way
small amounts of copper, magnesium, zinc, and other of separating aluminum from these elements until the
elements to form aluminum alloys. The added elements 180fJs. Scientists then developed processes for separat-
give aluminum strength and other properties that make ing the elements and producing aluminum. These proc-
it one of the most useful metals. The world uses more esses have been used to make aluminum ever since.
aluminum than any other metal except iron and steel.
Properties of aluminum alloys
The largest share of aluminum alloy production goes
to the packaging industry for use in such items as bever- Only a small percentage of aluminum is used in pure
age cans, bottle caps, foil pouches, foil wrappers, and form. It is made into such items as electrical conductors,
food containers. The construction industry uses alumi- jewelry, and decorative trim for appliances and cars.
num alloys insuch items as gutters, panels, residential
siding, roofing, tubes for electric wires,and window Properties of pure aluminum
frames. Manufacturers of transportation equipment use
huge amounts of aluminum in airplanes, automobiles,
boats, railroad cars, and trucks. Aluminum is used in Atomic number 13

Kenneth A. Bowman, the contributor of this article, is a tech-

Al Atomic weight
Density (at 20 °C)
Melting point
26.9815
2.70
660.2 °C
Ig, cm J
)

nical specialist at Alcoa Laboratories. Chemical symbol Boiling point 2500 °C

392 Aluminum
Almost all aluminum is used commercially in alloy oxygen, however, the metal forms an invisible layer of a
form with up to 1 5 percent of one or more other ele- chemical compound called aluminum oxide. This layer
ments. The chief elements are copper, magnesium, protects aluminum from corrosion by oxygen, water,
manganese, silicon, tin, and zinc. Copper and magne- and many chemicals. It makes aluminum especially valu-
sium increase the strength and hardness of aluminum. able for use outdoors, where the metal resists the ef-
Magnesium makes aluminum easier to weld. Man-
also fects of wind, and pollution.
rain,
ganese helps aluminum resist corrosion and also pro- Electrical conduction. Aluminum and copper are
vides strength. Silicon lowers the melting point of alu- the only common metals suitable for use as electrical
minum and makes it easier to cast. Tin makes aluminum conductors. Aluminum conducts electricity about 62
easier to shape with metalworking tools. Zinc, especially percent as well as copper. But aluminum weighs a third
when combined with magnesium, gives added strength. as much. Aluminum wire can therefore carry the same
Other elements may also be alloyed with aluminum for amount of electric power as copper wire that weighs
special purposes. These elements include bismuth, twice as much. In addition, aluminum is more ductile
boron, cadmium, chromium, cobalt, iron, lead, lithium, than copper, which means it can more easily be drawn
nickel, sodium, titanium, vanadium, and zirconium. into wires. Aluminum wire is used for nearly all high-
its alloys, has many valuable proper-
Aluminum, with voltage power lines in the United States.
ties that make
an exceptionally useful metal. These
it Heat conduction. The first large commercial use of
properties include (1 light weight, (2) strength, (3) corro-
) aluminum was in cookware. Aluminum cookware heats
sion resistance, (4) electrical conduction, (5) heat con- up quickly and evenly. Aluminum also cools quickly,
duction, and (61 light and heat reflection. which helps make it popular for such items as beverage
Light weight. Aluminum is one of the lightest metals. cans and ice cube trays.
Itweighs about 70 pounds per cubic foot (2,720 kilo-
1 Light and heat reflection. Aluminum reflects about
grams per cubic meter)— about a third as much as steel. 80 percent of the light that strikes it. This property has
As a result, aluminum has replaced steel for many uses. made the metal widely used in lighting fixtures. Alumi-
For example, some parts of airplanes, automobiles, and num also reflects heat well. Buildings with aluminum
trucks are now made of aluminum rather than of steel roofs reflect much of the sun's heat and so stay cooler in
because lighter vehicles use less fuel. Products packed hot weather. When fire fighters must walk through
inaluminum containers cost less to ship because the flames, they wear special suits coated with aluminum.
containers weigh less than those made of other metals. Other properties. Aluminum is nonmagnetic, which
To make aluminum alloys even lighter, the lightest makes it valuable for protecting electrical equipment
metal, lithium, is added to the aluminum. from magnetic interference. Aluminum does not pro-
Strength. Although pure aluminum is weak, certain duce sparks when struck and can therefore be used
aluminum alloys are as strong as steel. Such alloys are near flammable or explosive materials. The metal is not
used in airplanes and trucks, in guardrails along high- poisonous, and so food can be safely wrapped in alumi-
ways, and in other products that require strength. Alu- num foil and cooked in aluminum pots. Aluminum can
minum alloys lose some strength at high temperatures. be shaped by almost any metalworking process. It can
But unlike many other metals, they get stronger at ex- also be bolted, glued, riveted, soldered, welded, and
tremely low temperatures. Aluminum alloys are widely otherwise joined by most methods used for other met-
used in equipment for processing, transporting, and als. Finally, aluminum can be recycled.

storing liquefied natural gas, which can have a tempera-

- 260 °F (- 1 62 °C). Sources of aluminum
ture of
Corrosion resistance. Some metals corrode (wear Most minerals, rocks, and soils contain aluminum
away) if exposed to oxygen, water, or various chemicals. compounds. But aluminum can be made economically
A chemical reaction occurs that causes the metals to only from bauxite. Bauxite is the name for any ore that
rust or become discolored. When aluminum reacts with has a large amount of aluminum hydroxide— & chemical

Where bauxite is mined

This map shows the most im-
portant bauxite-mining areas
of the world. The richest baux-
ite deposits lie in tropical and
near-tropical regions.

* Major bauxite-mining area

o Other bauxite mining area

WORl I) BOOK map

 )

Aluminum 393

Leading bauxite-mining countries er process. This technique was patented by Karl Joseph
Bayer, an Austrian chemist, in 1888.
Tons of bauxite mined in a year The first step of the Bayer process is mixing pow-
Australia
dered bauxite with a solution of caustic soda (sodium
300.000 tons (53.800,000 metric tons) hydroxide). Machines pump the mixture into large tanks
called digesters. The digesters heat the mixture under
Guinea
500,000 tons (15,000,000 metric tonsl pressure at 300 to 480 F (1 50 to 250 C) for about 30 min-
utes. The alumina dissolves in the caustic soda, forming
Brazil
400,000 tons (14,000,000 metric tons) a solution of sodium aluminate. The other materials in
the bauxite remain as solids and are called red mud'be-
Jamaica
300,000 tons II 1,100,000 metric tonsl cause of their color.
The mixture sodium aluminate solution and red
of
China >•<
900,000 tons 19,000,000 metric tons) mud next passes through a series of tanks in which cloth

filters separate the liquid from the solids. The red mud
India >•
00,000 tons (7,400,000 metric tons) is discarded. The sodium aluminate solution is cooled

slightly and sent to tanks called precipitators. Crystals of

Russia
600,000 tons 14.200,000 metric tonsl aluminum hydroxide are then added to the solution,
which is a<7/'tete(i(stirred) for several days. This process
Venezuela
600,000 tons 14,200,000 metric tons) causes most of the alumina in the solution to precipitate
(come out of solution) and collect on the crystals.
Kazakhstan
00,000 tons (3,700,000 metric tonsl After the precipitation is complete, the solution is fil-

Suriname tered to separate the aluminum hydroxide crystals from

4,000,000 tons (3,600,000 metric tonsl the liquid. The crystals are washed to remove any impu-
rities and then heated at 2000 to 2200 F (1090 to 1200 C).
Figures are for 2000.
Source: U S Geological Survey.
The heat drives out water, leaving a fine white powder
of alumina. The alumina is composed of aluminum and
combination of aluminum oxide and water. Aluminum oxygen. To recover the alumina that did not precipitate,
oxide, also called alumina, is the compound from which manufacturers take the liquid and refine it with a new
aluminum is made. batch of bauxite and caustic soda. Small amounts of lime
Most bauxite consists of 30 to 60 percent alumina and and soda ash may also be added.
1 2 to 30 percent water. It also contains iron oxide, silica, Smelting the alumina separates the aluminum from
and titanium oxide. The color of bauxite depends chiefly the oxygen. The smelting is done by the Hall-Heroult
on how much iron oxide the ore contains. The more process.This method was developed independently in
iron oxide it has, the darker the color. Bauxite may be 1886 by two scientists. They were Charles Martin Hall of
white, cream, gray, pink, yellow, red, or brown. Most the United States and Paul L T. Heroult of France.
bauxite is as hard as rock, but some is as soft as clay. Aluminum producers begin the Hall-Heroult process
The richest deposits of bauxite and near- lie in tropical by dissolving the alumina in a chemical bath composed
tropical regions. Enough bauxite deposits have been mainly of cryolite (sodium aluminum fluoride). The bath
found to last several hundred years. The leading bauxite- also contains a little aluminum fluoride and calcium flu-
mining countries include Australia, Guinea, Jamaica, and oride. The bath is held in large rectangular steel contain-
Brazil. ers and heated to about 1740 F (950 C). The containers,
Most bauxite deposits lie near the surface of the earth called pots or cells, have a carbon lining.
and are mined by the open-pit method. In this process, In a process called electrolytic reduction, one or more

bulldozers aiid other earthmoving machines first clear carbon blocks suspended in each pot send an electric
away the overburden— the soil, rocks, and trees that cov- current through the bath. The current flows to the car-
er the deposits. Next, explosives blast the ore loose. bon lining, completing the electric circuit. The blocks
Huge power shovels scoop up the bauxite, and trucks or act as the anode, or positive pole of the circuit, and the
railroad cars carry processing plant
it to a lining acts as the cathode, or negative pole. As the cur-
At the processing plant, the bauxite is crushed and rent flows through the bath, the alumina breaks apart
then washed to remove clay and dirt. Some of the water The oxygen in the alumina combines with the carbon in
in the bauxite is removed by drying the ore in kilns the anode and is released as carbon dioxide gas. The
(ovens). The bauxite is then ground into a powder and aluminum metal collects at the cathode at the bottom of
shipped to a refining plant. the pot. See Electrolysis.
An aluminum plant may have as many as 200 pots
How aluminum is produced electrically connected to one another in long rows
There are two chief steps producing aluminum. (1 in called potlines. The reduction of alumina to aluminum
and (2) smelting
refining the bauxite to obtain alumina goes on continuously. Alumina is added to the pots reg-
the alumina to obtain aluminum. After smelting, the mol- ularly, and the electric current keeps the bath at the
ten aluminum is cast into blocks called ingots or other proper temperature. A large pot may produce more
forms that will be shaped into finished products. It takes than 2 tons (1 .8 metric tons) of aluminum daily.
4 to 6 pounds of bauxite to make
aluminum. 1 pound of Casting the molten aluminum. About once a day,
Refining the bauxite separates the alumina in the molten aluminum from the potlines is drawn off into
ore from the iron oxide, silica, and titanium oxide. To pots called crucibles. Each crucible holds 4,000 to 8,000
separate the alumina, aluminum producers use the Bay- pounds (1 ,800 to 3,600 kilograms) of aluminum. Most of
394 Aluminum
How aluminum is made Aluminum comes from bauxite, an ore that has a large amount of a compound called alumina. Alu-
minum making involves separating the alumina and then obtaining aluminum from it
WORLD BOOK diagram by Arthur Crebetz

Steam

Bauxite is crushed and then

Sodium
mixed with a solution of caus-
aluminate
tic soda. A
tank called a di-
and
gesterheaXs the mixture
red mud
under pressure. The heat and
pressure cause the alumina in
the bauxite to dissolve in the
caustic soda, forming a solu-
tion of sodium aluminate. The
other materials in the bauxite,
which are called red mud, re-
main as solids and are filtered
out.

Alumina comes out of the so-

dium aluminate solution in a
tank called a precipitator. The
solution is agitated (stirred) in
the precipitator after crystals
ofaluminum hydroxide have
been added. The stirring
causes alumina in the solution
to collect on the crystals. The
solution is then filtered to
separate the crystals, which
are heated in a kiln (ovenl. The
heat drives the water out of
the aluminum hydroxide, leav-
ing a fine white powder of
alumina.

Aluminum is made in a car-

bon-lined pot. The alumina is
first dissolved in a chemical

bath in the pot. Carbon blocks

suspended in the pot send an
electric current through the
bath. The current breaks the
alumina apart, and molten alu-
minum collects at the bottom
of the pot. The aluminum is si-

phoned into a pot called a

crucible and later cast into
forms called ingots and bil-
lets.

the aluminum is There are two types of

cast into ingots. liquid. The gas causes impurities to float to the surface,
ingots: (1) and (2) foundry ingots. Alu-
fabricating ingots where they are skimmed off. During fluxing, chemical
minum is also cast into forms called billets. reactions cause some hydrogen gas to be trapped in the
Fabricating ingots, or rolling ingots, are used by alu- liquid. In aprocess called degassing, chlorine or some
minum producers to make plates, sheets, and foil. The other gas is added to remove the hydrogen.
ingots may be 30 feet (9 meters) long, 6 feet (1.8 meters) After fluxing and degassing, the molten aluminum
wide, and 2 feet (0.6 meter) thick. They may weigh up to alloy is filtered to remove solid impurities. Then it is cast
18 short tons (16 metric tons). To make fabricating in- into ingots, usually method. In this
by the direct chill
producers alloy other metals with the molten alu-
gots, process, the alloy is poured into a mold, which is then
minum in a furnace and then purify the mixture. Scrap passed through a spray of cold water. The water quickly
aluminum and recycled aluminum may also be added. cools and freezes the alloy.
The purification process, called fluxing, consists of Foundry ingots, also called alloy ingots or reme/t in-
pumping nitrogen, argon, or other gases through the gots, weigh 4 to 50 pounds (1.8 to 23 kilograms). In most
 Aluminum 395

cases, the molten aluminum is poured from the cruci- more. They are used in such things as railroad cars,
bles directly into molds, where it cools and hardens ships, and storage tanks. Aluminum sheets measure -j-^
gradually. Aluminum producers sell foundry ingots to to | inch (0.1 5 to 6.4 millimeters) thick. They are used for
plants called foundries. The foundries remeltthe ingots the "skins" of airplanes and in such products as awnings
with scrap and recycled aluminum and perform the al- and cooking utensils. Aluminum foil is less than j-^
loying, fluxing, and degassing operations themselves. inch (0.15 millimeter) thick. It has many household uses,
The alloyed aluminum is then recast and turned into especially in cooking and in wrapping food. Rolling may
parts for appliances, automobiles, and other products. be used to shape aluminum billets into bars and rods.
Aluminum producers supply some foundry ingots in Casting is a process in which alloyed foundry ingots
alloy form. Foundries near aluminum plants may buy are melted and then poured or forced into molds of a
molten aluminum that comes directly from the potlines desired shape. The aluminum is removed from the
to eliminate the need for remelting. molds after it hardens. Casting is used to make parts of
Billets are made either in long rectangular shapes particular items, such as the bottoms of electric irons or
shape of thin poles.
that look like railroad ties or in the parts for automobile engines. See Cast and casting.
They are produced in the same way as fabricating in- Extruding consists of forcing a heated billet through
gots. Billets can be made into bars, rods, and parts for an opening in a tool called a die. A ram at one end of a
thousands of items. Bars look like small rectangular bil- cylinder forces the billet through a die opening at the
lets. Bars may also be hexagonal or octagonal. Rods look other end. The aluminum comes out shaped like the die
like small pole-shaped billets. Bars and rods are made opening. The extrusion process is used to make rods
into tubing, wire, and various other products. and tubing, trim for automobiles, and frames for doors
and windows. See Extrusion.
How aluminum is shaped and finished Drawing is used to produce aluminum wire and tub-
Aluminum ingots and billets can be shaped by any of ing. To make wire, a pointed aluminum rod is pulled
the metalworking processes. These processes include through a series of successively smaller dies. The rod
(1) rolling, (2) casting, (3) extruding, (4) drawing, (5) forg- becomes wire when it reaches a diameter of less than £
ing, and (6) machining. After the aluminum is shaped, inch (9.5 millimeters). Tubing is made by pulling an alu-
various finishes may be applied. minum rod through one die. A steel bar called a man-
Rolling consists of reducing the thickness of fabricat- drel extends through the center of the die and hollows
ing ingots by squeezing them between pairs of heavy out the rod.
rollers. The ingots are heated and then rolled to a thick- Deep drawing forms aluminum into beverage cans,
ness of 1 to 3 inches (2.5 to 7.6 centimeters). After cool- beer barrels, pots and pans, and various other contain-
ing, the metal is rolled again to form plates, sheets, or ers. In this process, a ram forces aluminum plate or an
foil. Aluminum plates are \ inch (6.4 millimeters) thick or aluminum sheet into a cavity of the desired shape.

Some shapes of aluminum

Aluminum Company of America

Aluminum sheeting is made by squeez- Aluminum tubing is formed by forcing An aluminum forging is made by ham-
ing ingots between pairs of heavy rollers. a billet or rod through an opening in a mering an ingot or billet into the desired
The sheeting shown above will be used tool called a die. The tubing above will shape. This forging will be installed in the
for the siding (outside walls) of buildings. be used in air-conditioning units. tail section of an airplane.
396 Aluminum

Forging is the process of hammering or pressing that produce aluminum ingots and billets and shape
heated aluminum ingots or billets into the desired them into such forms as plates, sheets, foil, bars, rods,
shape. Forging produces exceptionally strong parts for and wires. The firms also sell the ingots and billets to
use in aircraft landing gear, truck wheels, tools, and vari- foundries in the secondary aluminum industry, which
ous other items. See Forging. specializes in shaping aluminum. Specialized workers in
Machining. Aluminum can be shaped with a variety the primary aluminum industry include engineers, geol-
of machine tools, including drills, grinders, saws, and ogists,and metallurgists.
shears. Such tools shape aluminum bars and rods into In the United States, the primary aluminum industry
bolts, screws, and other small items. Machining may produces about 4 million tons (3.6 million metric tons) of
also be used to put final touches on products that have the metal yearly. The leading aluminum companies in
been cast or forged. See Machine tool. the country are Alcoa Inc., Alumax Incorporated,
Other shaping processes produce aluminum in Reynolds Metals Company, and Kaiser Aluminum and
such forms as powders and pastes. Powders and pastes Chemical Corporation. Two labor unions— the Alu-
consist of finely ground particles of aluminum. Alumi- minum, Brick and Glass Workers International Union
num powder goes into such products as explosives and (ABCWIU) and the United Steelworkers of America
inks. In paste form, aluminum is used in paints and in (USWA)— represent most of the workers in the alu-
metallic finishes for automobiles. minum industry.
Aluminum powder is also used to produce gears and Aluminum producers in the United States use about
other small parts by a process called powder metallurgy. 1 1 million tons (1 million metric tons) of bauxite annual-
In this process, the aluminum powder is pressed into ly. They import all of this bauxite, chiefly from Brazil,

the desired shape and then heated to bond the particles Guinea, Guyana, and Jamaica. Aluminum producers also
together. Powders of other metals also may be mixed import alumina.
with the aluminum. Powders of aluminum alloys also In Canada, the primary aluminum industry produces
may be used. The item is further shaped by forging or about 2 million tons (2.3 million metric tons) of the
|

some Powder metallurgy.

other process. See metal yearly. About 90 percent of Canada's aluminum is
Finishing aluminum. Aluminum has an attractive nat- made in Quebec. The country s leading aluminum man-
ural appearance and so is often used without a special ufacturer is Alcan Aluminum Limited. Canada produces
finish. However, various finishes may be used for deco- no bauxite. It imports most of this ore from Guinea,
ration or to improve resistance to corrosion and wear. Guyana, and Suriname.
More kinds of finishes can be applied to aluminum than In other countries. Only about a third of the
to any other metal. There are four types of finishes. They aluminum-producing countries perform each step in
are (II mechanical, (21 chemical, (3) electrochemical, and aluminum production— mining the bauxite, refining the
(4) applied. ore, and smelting the alumina. In some countries, such
Mechanical finishes include such processes as em- as Guinea and Jamaica, the industry mines and refines
bossing and polishing. In embossing, a raised pattern is bauxite for export but produces no aluminum. Other
made on aluminum sheets by passing them between countries, including Germany and Japan, import bauxite
rollers that have been engraved with a design. A and then refine it and smelt the alumina. Some coun-
method called barrel burnishing polishes aluminum arti- tries, such as Norway and Tajikistan, import alumina but
cles in a revolving or vibrating barrel that contains an not bauxite.
abrasive (gritty) substance. Countries that perform each step in the production
Chemical finishes include acid and alkaline etches, process include Australia, Brazil, China, Russia, and Suri-
which eat designs into aluminum. Acid etches are also name. Several bauxite-mining countries have joined to-
used to remove stains from the metal and to prepare it gether to form the International Bauxite Association
for further finishing. Alkaline etches may be used to give (IBA).
aluminum a dull finish.
Recycling
Electrochemical finishes include anodizing and elec-
troplating.Anodizing thickens aluminum's natural coat- become a very important aspect of the
Recycling has
ing of aluminum oxide and thus increases resistance to aluminum industry in many countries. In the United
corrosion, scratching, and wear. It also makes aluminum
easy to dye. Electroplating involves coating aluminum Leading aluminum-producing countries
with another metal. Certain coatings improve alumi-
num s corrosion resistance, electricity conduction, or Tons of aluminum produced in a year

other properties. See Anodizing; Electroplating.

Applied finishes include such coatings as enamel, lac-
United States ••••••••••••••
4.043,000 ions i3.668.OO0 metric tonsl

quer, paint, and plastic film. They may be applied by dip- Russia ••••••••••••1
3,577.000 tons 13.245,000 metric tonsl
ping, spraying, or other methods.

The aluminum industry

China •••••••••€
2.81 1 .000 tons 12.550.000 metric tonsl

About 50 countries produce aluminum. The world's

annual aluminum production totals about 27 million
Canada •••••••••
2.616.000 tons 12.373.000 metric tonsl

tons (24 million metric tons). The United States is the Australia ••••••€
leading aluminum producer, accounting for about 1
1 .950.000 tons n .769.000 metric tonsi

percent of the world total.

Figures are tor 2000
The primary aluminum industry consists of companies Source VS. Geological Survey.
 Aluminum 397

Leading aluminum-producing states method soon opened in France. The price of aluminum
and provinces dropped from $1 15 a pound ($254 a kilogram) in 1855 to
$17 a pound ($37 a kilogram) in 1859. However, it was
Annual aluminum-producing capacity* stilltoo costly for widespread use.
Quebec The growth of the aluminum industry increased
>,000 tons 12,463,000 metric tons) greatly following two important developments in the
1 880s. They were the invention of the Hall-Heroult proc-
Washington
,000 tons II ,253,000 metric tons) ess and of the Bayer process.

Kentucky In 1886, two scientists— Charles Martin Hall of the

i.OOO tons 1423,000 metric tons) United States and Paul L T Heroult of France— devel-
Texas oped an inexpensive way to make aluminum. Neither
7,000 tons 1315,000 metric tons) scientist knew that the other was working on the prob-

Indiana
lem. However, each thought of dissolving alumina in the
331,000 tons (300,000 metric tons) mineral cryolite and separating aluminum from the mix-
ture by electrolytic reduction. Today, the Hall-Heroult
"Capacity may be greater than actual production
Figures are for 2000.
process is used to produce nearly all the aluminum in
Sources: US Geological Survey: Natural Resources Canada
the world.
Karl Joseph Bayer, an Austrian chemist, further re-
States, scrap makes up about 30 percent of the total alu- duced the cost aluminum production. In 1888, he
of
minum supply. Heavily recycled items include used bev- patented an inexpensive method for obtaining alumina
erage cans, parts from old automobiles, and scrap accu- from bauxite. The aluminum industry still uses the Bayer
mulated during the manufacture of aluminum products. process to produce alumina. The Hall-Heroult and Bayer
Beverage cans represent the leading product made processes are described in the section How aluminum
from aluminum by volume. More than half the beverage isproduced.
cans used in the United States are recycled. Hall and several business associates organized the
One benefit of recycling aluminum is that it conserves Pittsburgh Reduction Company in 1888. The company
natural resources. The most important natural resource began producing 50 pounds (23 kilograms) of aluminum
saved is energy. Recycling saves about 95 percent of the a day.The firm changed its name to the Aluminum Com-
energy required to make aluminum from bauxite. One pany of America (Alcoa) in 1907. By 1909, Alcoa was pro-
recycled aluminum can saves enough energy to keep a ducing 16,500 tons (14,970 metric tons) a year. The price
1 00-watt light bulb burning for about 3 \ hours. In addi- of aluminum dropped pound (66
to less than 30 cents a
tion, recycling preserves natural beauty. It also reduces cents a kilogram). Heroult formed a Swiss aluminum
the amount of garbage sent to sanitary landfills. company in 1888, but it did not begin production imme-
diately. In 1902, the Northern Aluminium Company, Lim-
History
ited (now Alcan Aluminium Limited), was founded in
The word aluminum comes from the term alumen. Canada.
Alumen is the Latin name for alum, a group of aluminum Aluminum production soared during World War I

compounds that occur in nature and which ancient peo- (1914-1918) as the fighting nations increased output to
ples used in dyeing textiles. In 1746, Johann Heinrich help fill During the 1920s, the devel-
their military needs.
Pott, a Prussian chemist, prepared alumina from alum. opment of new aluminum
and of improved meth-
alloys
Scientists believed that alumina was a chemical com- ods of turning aluminum into useful products continued
pound that consisted of oxygen and an unknown metal. to boost production. The Great Depression of the 1930s
The British chemist Sir Humphry Davy called this metal cut world aluminum output almost in half. But the start
alumium and later changed the name to aluminum. In of World War II (1939-1945) brought tremendous expan-
1809, Davy formed an alloy of iron and aluminum by sion in production. In 1941, Reynolds Metals Company
electrically melting alumina with iron and carbon. became the second producer of primary aluminum in
The first aluminum. In 1825, Hans Christian Oersted, the United States.
a Danish scientist, produced the first aluminum. Oersted After World War the aluminum industry developed
II,

prepared aluminum chloride from alumina. He then many products that have become commonplace. The
heated the aluminum chloride with an alloy of potassi- first aluminum foil wrap appeared in 1947.
successful
um and mercury, and a small lump of impure aluminum Also in aluminum began to replace brass in
the 1940s,
formed in the alloy. the base of light bulbs. High-strength aluminum wire for
In 1827, Friedrich Wohler, a German chemist, pro- power lines was introduced in 1957. Aluminum cans be-
duced aluminum as gray powder by heating aluminum came popular in the 1960s. Today, nearly all beverage
chloride with potassium. In 1845, Wohler produced alu- cans are made completely of aluminum.
minum particles large enough to be weighed. He dis- Recent developments. The demand for aluminum
covered that aluminum was lightweight Wohler was the has grown steadily with the continuing development of
first scientist to describe several other properties of alu- new uses for the metal. For example, the auto industry
minum. has used increasing amounts of aluminum in cars to
In 1854, Henri Etienne Sainte-Claiic De\ ille, a French lessen their weight and so improve fuel efficiency.
chemist, improved on Wbhler's method Deville used During the late aluminum producers
1900s, several
sodium instead potassium to breal
of down aluminum began to sell aluminum
any customer who would buy
to
chloride. This process produced lai quantities of alu- it. This practice led to aluminum's becoming an interna-

minum. Commercial aluminum plai >ing Devilles tional commodity pro duct of trade). In 1978, aluminum
{
398 Aluminum
appeared on the London Metal Exchange (LMEL In 1983, States? How much of the nation s aluminum do they produce?
it was listed on the Commodities Exchange (COMEX) in What percentage of bauxite used by American aluminum pro-
the United States. Only a small amount of aluminum is ducers is imported?
What are some benefits of recycling aluminum?
sold through these markets. But the published market
Why is aluminum usually alloyed with other elements?
prices are used to set the price of aluminum when it is How are aluminum plates, sheets, and foil made?
sold by a producer to a customer who will fabricate the How much bauxite does take to produce pound (0.5
it 1 kilo-
metal into products. gram) of aluminum?
The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 led to a sharp What is the purpose of anodizing aluminum?
drop in the world price of aluminum. The Soviet Union
How does aluminum resist corrosion?

had developed an enormous defense industry that re- Additional resources

quired massive amounts of aluminum. After the col- Altenpohl, Dietrich G., and Kaufman, J. C, eds. Aluminum: Tech-
lapse, the newly independent former Soviet republics nology, Applications, and Environment 6th ed. Minerals, Met-
maintained their own defense industries. However, the als & Materials Soc, 1998.

total size of these industries was much smaller than the Davis, Joseph R., ed. Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys. ASM In-
ternational, 1993.
Soviet industry had been. As a result, the demand for Farndon, John. Aluminum. Benchmark Bks., 2001. Younger read-
aluminum in the former Soviet Union was much de- ers.
creased. Nichols, Sarah C, and others. Aluminum by Design. Abrams,
The republics also needed money badly. To raise 2000. A history of aluminum as used in design.
money, they began to export aluminum to countries out- Aluminum Company of America (Alcoa). See Al-
side the former Soviet Union. Because of the resulting coa Inc.
oversupply, the price of aluminum plunged. The alu- Alva, Duke of. See Alba, Duke of.

minum industry throughout the world responded by Alvarado, ahl vah RAH thoh, Pedro de 1 1 4857-1 541 ),
closing relatively old and inefficient smelters. helped Hernando Cortes subdue the Aztec in Mexico
Kenneth A. Bowman and conquered Guatemala himself. Born in Badajoz,
Related articles in World Book include: Spain, Alvarado went to the West Indies in 1510. In 1518,
Alcan Aluminium Limited Electrolysis he joined an expedition led by Juan de Grijalva to south-
Alcoa Inc. Electroplating
ern Mexico. Alvarado accompanied Cortes to Mexico in
Alloy (Kinds of alloys) Extrusion
1519. After Cortes conquered Mexico in 1 521 he sent ,

Alum Flux
Alumina Forging Alvarado to seize Guatemala. Alvarado succeeded in
Anodizing Metallurgy 1524 with the help of Indian allies. In 1525, he con-
Bauxite Oersted, Hans Christian quered El Salvador for Spain and directed the founding
Cast and casting Powder metallurgy of the capital city, San Salvador. Alvarado became gov-
Davy, Sir Humphry Smelting
ernor Of Guatemala. Helen Delpar
Duralumin Wohler, Friedrich
See also Cortes, Hernando; Guatemala iHistoryl; Latin
Outline America (map: Early explorationl.
I. Properties of aluminum alloys Alyssum, Sweet. See Sweet alyssum.
A. Light weight Alzheimer's disease, A WL TS hy muhrz, often abbre-
B. Strength
viated as AD, is a brain disease that causes increasing
C Corrosion resistance
memory and
loss of other mental abilities. Alzheimer's
D. Electrical conduction
E. Heat conduction disease is the most common cause of severe memory
F. and heat reflection
Light loss in elderly adults. The disease attacks few people be-
C. Other properties fore age 60, but it becomes increasingly common with
II. Sources of aluminum age. In the past, elderly adults suffering from severe
III. How aluminum is produced
memory loss were often labeled senile, but they were
A Refining the bauxite
B. Smelting the alumina
probably suffering from what doctors now recognize as
C Casting the molten aluminum AD. The disease is named after Alois Alzheimer, a Ger-
IV. How aluminum is shaped and finished man psychiatrist and neuropathologist, who first de-
A Rolling scribed the effect of the disease on brain cells in 1907.
B. Casting
Diagnosis. There is no single test used to identify
C Extruding
people with AD. Patients, or their family members, may
D. Drawing
E. Forging first notice increasing forgetfulness, often accompanied
F. Machining by reduced interest or awareness of ongoing activities.
C. Other shaping processes Patients may ask the same question repeatedly, misplace
H. Finishing aluminum objects, forget appointments, and neglect their appear-
V. The aluminum industry
ance. Physicians use imaging techniques, such as com-
A. In the United States
B In Canada puted tomography (CD or magnetic resonance imaging
C In other countries (MRU, to determine that other brain disorders, such as
VI. Recycling stroke or a brain tumor, are not causing the symptoms.
VII. History Doctors suspect AD if no other disease or disorder is
Questions found to cause the symptoms.
What is the Hall-Heroult process? What is the Bayer process?
As the disease progresses, memory loss increases,
Why is aluminum wire used for nearly all high-voltage power and patients begin to lose other mental functions. They
lines in the United States? may not understand what others are saying, or lose the
Which are the four largest aluminum companies in the United ability to name familiar people or objects. Patients can
 Amanites 399

become confused or disoriented, easily getting lost 1 300s, but the first preserved version, The Four Books of
even in familiar locations. In later phases, patients lose the Virtuous Knight Amadis of Gaul, was published in
the ability to remember or talk meaningfully. Eventually, 1 508. At least part of the work is attributed to Garci Or-
they cannot care for themselves, and most become donez (or Rodriguez) de Montalvo.
bedridden and require constant care. In their weakened The story describes the adventures of a romantic,
condition, patients are vulnerable to pneumonia and brave, modest hero named Amadis. His aristocratic man-
other infectious diseases. Most from such
patients die ners and sense of justice reveal a Renaissance in-
strict
infections 10 to 12 years after developing AD. terpretation of the ideal medieval knight. The story is
Only an autopsy performed after the patient dies can marked by flowery prose. The episodes deal with spec-
confirm the diagnosis of AD. Examination of the brain tacular and fantastic events, including knightly duels,
tissue with a microscope reveals many deposits of a magic spells, and fierce combat with giants and drag-
protein called amyloid. These abnormal deposits, called ons. Young Amadis loves Princess Oriana and, despite
plaques, are surrounded by damaged and dead nerve many obstacles and temptations, remains faithful to her
cells. Tangled clumps of abnormal filaments (threadlike until their marriage. Cervantes was influenced by Ama-
structures) many of the nerve cells in the brain of pa-
fill dis in creating Don Quixote. Harry sieber
tients whodied of AD. Gaping holes in the brain tissue, Amado, ah MAH doh, Jorge, ZHA WR zhay{\ 91 2-
caused by the destruction of nerve cells, appear in se- 2001), was a Brazilian novelist. Amado was born on Aug.
vere cases. Chemical tests conducted after an autopsy 10, 1912, in llheus in the state of Bahia, along the north-
show that AD patients have lower levels of acetyl- eastern coast of Brazil. He wrote mainly about the peo-
choline, a brain chemical that transmits nerve impulses. ple of Brazil's lower classes living in his native region,
In a small number of cases, AD is caused by mutations especially the area around the port of Salvador. In a style
(random changes) of genes on chromosome pairs that is both poetic and realistic, he used the language of
known as chromosomes 1, 14, and 21. Another gene, lo- these people to portray their infectious zest for life.
cated on chromosome 19, is strongly associated with Before 1958, Amado wrote essentially Marxist novels,
the development of AD. The gene controls production such as Jubiaba (1935) and The Violent Land'(1942), which
of one of three forms of a protein called apolipoprotein reflected his sympathy for victims of social injustice. Be-
F(ApoE). A person inherits two genes for ApoE produc- tween 1937 and 1952, he was exiled several times be-
tion, one from each parent. Each gene produces one of cause of his political views. Beginning with Cabrie/a,
three types of ApoE, known as ApoE-2, ApoE-3, and Clove and Cinnamon (1 958), he wrote in a more sophisti-
ApoE-4. Persons possessing one or two ApoE-4 genes cated style that emphasized satirical humor. Many critics
have a higher risk of developing AD after the age of 60 regard The Two Deaths ofQuincas Wateryell{\9^) as
than people who do not have the ApoE-4 gene. Howev- his masterpiece.
er, scientists do not think the ApoE-4 gene causes AD. Amado made an important contribution to Brazilian
Some people with two ApoE-4 genes do not develop literature by becoming the first major writer to praise
AD, while others who do not have the gene at all go on his nation's extensive African heritage. This theme domi-
to develop AD. Scientists do not know why different nates one of his finest works, Tent of Miracles (1969).
ApoE types are related to increased risk for the disease. Among his other novels are Dona Florand Her Two
Treatment There is no cure for AD. Good nutrition, Husbands (1966), 77e/a(1977), Pen, Sword, Camisole
hygiene, and reassurance can help preserve the comfort (1979), Showdown (1984), and The War of the Saints
and dignity of AD patients. Such drugs as donepezil and (1993). EarlE.Fitz

revistigmin help improve mental function and slow the Amalekites, uh MAL uh kyts, were a desert people
progression of the disease. These drugs help compen- who Canaan (later called Palestine) in Old
lived south of
sate for the lower levels of acetylcholine in the brain of Testament times. The Israelites considered them their
AD patients by removing other chemicals that destroy oldest enemies. Joshua defeated the Amalekites in the
acetylcholine. Physicians may administer high doses of late1200s B.C King Saul defeated them 200 years later.
vitamin E, which helps protect nerve cells from damage Afterward, the Amalekites destroyed Ziklag, the town
by the amyloid plaques accumulating in the brain. Scien- where David and his followers lived. David found them
tists are investigating estrogen replacement therapy for celebrating this victory. He killed many, but 400 escaped.
women, anti-inflammatory drugs, and a vaccine against H. Darrell Lance
amyloid plaques as possible treatments to prevent or Amalgamated Clothing and Textile Workers
slow the development of AD. Union. See Union of Needletrades, Industrial and Tex-
Families provide most of the care that AD patients re- tileEmployees.
ceive and should be included in decisions about care. Amanites, uh MAN nyts, are members of a religious
Family members can become distressed by the de- group called the Amana Church Society. The word
mands of providing care to relatives whose disease can Amana comes from the Song of Solomon 4:8. It is the
last more than 10 years. The Alzheimer's Association of- name of a mountain, and means true or fixed.
fers support and information to patients and their fami- The society was founded by Eberhard Gruber and Jo-
lies. Jeffrey L Cummings hann Rock in Germany in 1714. It was originally called
See also Senility. the Community of True Inspiration. Members led simple
A.M. stands for the Latin words ante meridiem, which lives according to the Word of God, revealed not only in
mean before noon. See Hour. the Bible but also inthe "true inspiration' of their
AMA. See American Medical Association. prophets. The last leader believed to be inspired died in
Amadis of Caul, AM uh dihs, is a famous Spanish ro- 1 885. But the group continued to read and study the tes-
mance of chivalry. may have appeared in Spain in the
It timonies of their past prophets.
400 Amaranth

Christian Metz and Barbara Heinemann led the group

to the United States in 1842. It settled near Buffalo, New
York, and was Ebenezer Society. Members
called the
owned villages and lands in common. They moved near
Cedar Rapids, Iowa, in 1855. They founded seven vil-
lages: Amana, East Amana, High Amana, Homestead,
Middle Amana, South Amana, and West Amana. The
Amanites farmed and made woolen goods and drugs.
The society gave up its communal economic life in
1932, during the Great Depression. But the villagers con-
tinued to live a simple life and today make
crafts and op-
The society
erate restaurants serving traditional foods.
became a cooperative stock company known for manu-
facturing refrigerators and other household appliances.
The religious members organized the Amana
Church Society. Charles RLippy

See also Iowa (Places to visit).

Amaranth, AM uh ranth, is the common name of a
genus (group) of plants that includes weeds, garden
flowers, and crops. This genus is made up chiefly of
herbs. Amaranths grow widely, especially in warm cli-
mates. The name amaranth comes from a Creek word
meaning unfading. It was given to amaranths because Amarillo Com ention & Visitors Coun
even when dried.
their flowers retain their color A cattle auction in Amarillo offers animals from the area to the
Among the weeds that belong to the amaranth genus highest bidder. Amarillo is a major distribution and processing
are giant pigweed (often called redroot), spreading pig- center for cattle, oil, and other products.

weed, and a kind of tumbleweed. Love-lies-bleeding is

an ornamental amaranth with long, drooping, crimson Cattle auctions held by the privately owned Amarillo
flower clusters. The purple amaranth is a tall plant with Livestock Auction Company rank among the largest in
late-blooming, pinkish-purple flower clusters. Ama- the world. A large plant that slaughters cattle for beef
ranths cultivated for their edible seeds are called grain operates outside Amarillo. Large deposits of oil and nat-
amaranths. Amaranth seeds were an important food for ural gas lie in the Panhandle, and Amarillo has many
the Aztec and Inca Indians. Anton a. Reznicek petrochemical plants. The city lies in the world s chief
Scientific classification. Amaranths are in the amaranth fam- helium-producing area. An assembly plant for United
ily, Amaranthaceae. The scientific name for the love-lies-bleed- States nuclear weapons is northeast of the city. Other in-
ing is Amaranthus caudatus. Purple amaranth is A. cruentus.
dustries include copper refining and the manufacture of
See also Pigweed; Tumbleweed. fiberglass machine parts and cement products.
Amarillo s cultural attractions include an art center, a
community theater, and a symphony orchestra. Down-
town Amarillo has a Civic Center with convention and
entertainment facilities. Amarillo has a community col-
lege and a branch of the Texas Tech medical school.
West Texas A&M University and a branch of Texas State
Technical College are near the city. The American Quar-
ter Horse Association, the world s largest horse registry,
has headquarters in Amarillo. Palo Duro Canyon, a ma-
jor tourist attraction, is located just southeast of the city.

In 1887, Worth and

construction crews of the Fort
Denver City Railroad founded the settlement of Ragtown
near what is now Amarillo. In the same year, a land de-
veloper laid out the site of Amarillo near the settlement.
Settlers called the town Amarillo, which means yellow in
Spanish. The name may refer to the yellowish soil that
borders nearby Amarillo Creek.
Amarillo grew rapidly during the early 1900 s, when
WORLD BOOK illustration n\ Chnslabel King other railroads began to serve the community and oil
An ornamental amaranth called love-lies-bleeding has a num- and natural gas were discovered in the area. The city has
ber of long, drooping clusters of crimson flowers. a council-manager form of government and is the coun-
ty seat of Potter County. Dennis Spies
Amarillo, am uh RIHL oh (pop. 1 73,627; met. area pop. Amaryllis, \\t uh RIHL ihs, is a family of more than
21 7,858), is the largest city and commercial center of the 1 ,200 species of flowers. Most species grow outdoors in

Panhandle of northern Texas. It serves as a major distri- warm regions. In colder climates, amaryllises are usually
bution and processing center for cattle, oil, and other grown indoors as potted plants in winter and transplant-
products. For its location, see Texas (political map). ed outdoors in summer.
 Amazon rain forest 401

Amateur radio. See Radio, Amateur.

Amati family, ah MAH tee, was a family of violin mak-
ers who worked in Cremona, Italy, from the 1500s to the
1700s. Amati violins come in a variety of varnish tones
ranging from dark red to light yellow. The violins have
refined proportions and curves, and a high-arched shap-
ing of the top. The arch helps produce a sweet, some-
what restrained soprano sound that was preferred for
the intimate ensemble music popular in the 1600s.
Andrea Amati (about 1 51 1-1579) was one of the first vi-
olin makers to give the instrument its distinctive shape
and features. His work was carried on by his sons, Anto-
nio (born about 1540) and Girolamo (1561-1630). Giro-
lamo's son, Nicolo (1596-1684), was the most famous and
influential Amati. Nicolo trained many instrument mak-
ers, including Andrea Guarneri and Antonio Stradivari.
Nicolo's son, Girolamo II (1 649-1 740), was the last violin

WORLD BOOK illustration bv Richard Lewington, The Garden Studio

maker in the family. Abram Loft

An amaryllis has a long stem and trumpet-shaped flowers. The

Amazon. See Amazons.
belladonna lily, pictured here, is a popular species. Amazon rain forest is the world's largest tropical
rain forest It covers approximately 2 million square
miles (5.2 million square kilometers) in the Amazon River
The plants in the amaryllis family have long stems and Basin of South America. About two-thirds of the rain for-
many long, narrow leaves. The flowers are made up of est lies in Brazil. The forest also occupies parts of Bo-
six petals, and they may grow in clusters or as a single livia, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, and Venezuela. The Ama-
blossom. Some of the amaryllises are especially fragrant. zon rain forest receivesan average annual rainfall of 50
More than half of the amaryllis family are grown from to 175 inches (130 to 445 centimeters). Temperatures av-
bulbs. The remaining plants are grown from corms or erage about 80 D F (27 °C).
rhizomes (see Corm; Rhizome). Trees in most of the Amazon rain forest grow in sev-
Certain members of the amaryllis family look like eral distinct layers. Some trees, called emergents, tower
plants in the lily family. The two families may be con- above the rest of the forest and may reach heights of
fused with each other. over 165 feet (50 meters). The upper canopy generally
The belladonna lily is a popular amaryllis that blooms grows 65 to 165 feet (20 to 50 meters) high. Plants called
from August to October. This lilylike plant grows from a epiphytes, or air plants, thrive in this layer. They include
bulb. Its stalk is 18 to 30 inches (46 to 76 centimeters) aroids, bromeliads, ferns, liverworts, mosses, and or-
high. It is topped by a cluster of 6 to 10 flowers. The fra- chids. One or two lower canopies consist of saplings of
grant blossoms are usually 3 inches (8 centimeters) long the trees found in the upper canopy, in addition to
and may vary in color from rose-red to white. The narcis- smaller trees and shrubs. Z./a/?a5 (woody vines) wind
suses and snowdrops are other popular members of the around tree trunks and branches, extending from the
amaryllis family. August A. De Henogh ground to the upper canopy. The canopies get sunlight,
Scientific classification. The amaryllis family is Amarylli- but they prevent much light from reaching the forest
daceae. The scientific name for the belladonna lily is Amaryllis
belladonna.

See also Jonquil; Narcissus; Snowdrop.

Amateur Athletic Union AAU) ( is an organization
Atlantic Ocean
that promotes and develops amateur sports and physi-
cal fitness programs in the United States. The AAU is a
nonprofit, volunteer group. It consists of about 5,000
athletic clubs affiliated with 58 regional associations.
The largest program sponsored by the organization is

the Junior Sports and Junior Olympic Games. This annu-

al competition attracts about 2 million participants from

8 to 18 years old. Participants compete in about 20

sports, including basketball, gymnastics, volleyball, track
and field, and wrestling. The AAU sponsors other athlet-
ic competitions at the local, state, regional, and national
level. It also conducts adult sports programs and physi-
cal fitness programs for youth and adults. In addition,
the AAU annually presents the James E. Sullivan Award
Pacific
to the nation s outstanding amateur athlete. The award is Ocean
named for an early AAU executive.
WORLD BOOK!
The AAU was founded in 1888. It has headquarters in Amazon rain forest rovers much of northern South America.
Indianapolis. About two-thirds of the rain forest lies in Brazil. The rain forest
Critically reviewed by the Amateur Athletic I mon ot the I nitecl States also occupies parts of several other lands.
402 Amazon rain forest

The Amazon rain forest

abounds with lush plant life.

Many kinds of animals also

live there. The forest lies in
the Amazon River Basin of
South America. It is the
worlds largest tropical rain
forest.

z C Mango from Peter Arnold

floor.Most of the Amazon rain forest has infertile soil. cattleand growing crops.
The Amazon rain forest contains a wider variety of Areas of the rain forest that have been cleared can re-
plant and animal life than any other place in the world. generate. However, regenerated areas are much less di-
Tens of thousands of different plant species live there. A verse than the original forest. About 1 percent of the
2 j-acre (1 -hectare) area of the rain forest may contain up Amazon rain forest has been destroyed. Development,
to 280 or more species of trees. Many economically im- deforestation (the destruction of forests), and gold min-
portant plants live in the rain forest They yield such ing also threaten the culture of the few remaining native
products as Brazil nuts, cocoa, curare (an important peoples of the Amazon rain forest Many of these peo-
drug), pineapples, and rubber. More than 1,500 species ple depend on the forest to support themselves.
of birds make their homes in the rain forest The re- Wm. Wayl Thomas
gion's rivers contain up to 3,000 species of fish. In addi- See also Forest (Deforestation); Rain forest; Yanoma-
tion, scientists believe that as many as 30 million differ- mi Indians.
ent insect species may live in the forest Amazon River, AM
uh zahn, is the world s second
The world's rapid population growth and increasing longest river and the chief river of South America. Only
demands for natural resources have seriously threat- the Nile River in Africa is longer. The Amazon is 4,000
ened the Amazon rain forest. Loggers cut down trees, miles (6,437 kilometers) long— longer than the highway
which the lumber industry uses to make wood products. route between New York City and San Francisco. The
Ranchers and farmers clear land to use for grazing beef Amazon carries more water than any other river— more
than the Mississippi, Nile, and Yangtze rivers together.
The Amazon is too wide at many points for a person
on one bank to see the opposite shore. The river ranges
from 1 \ to 6 miles (2.4 to 10 kilometers) wide during
most of its course. It widens to about 90 miles (140 kilo-
meters) at its mouth. The depth of the Amazon averages
about 40 feet (12 meters) and increases to more than 300
feet (90 meters) at some places.
The Amazon River Basin covers about 2,700,000
square miles (7,000,000 square kilometers) and includes
the world s largest tropical rain forest. The temperature
averages about 80 F (27 C) and varies little throughout
the year. Rainfall in the Amazon region ranges from 50
inches (1 30 centimeters) in the low-lying areas to 1 20
inches (300 centimeters) near the Andes Mountains in
Peru. The air is very humid in most of the river basin.
Most ships enter the Amazon River by way of the Para
River, on the southern side of Marajo Island. Ocean ves-
sels can about 2,300 miles (3,700 kilometers) up the
sail

Amazon Belem, on the Para River about

to Iquitos, Peru.
90 miles (140 kilometers) from the Atlantic coast, and
Manaus, 1,000 miles (1,600 kilometers) upstream from
Destruction of the Amazon rain forest threatens its plant and
the mouth of the Amazon, are important ports. Ships

animal populations as well as its native peoples. The area pic- bring in clothing, food, tools, and other products. They
tured here was burned to dear land for cattle grazing. pick up such raw materials as animal skins, Brazil nuts,
 Amazon River 403

Amazon River 80 c We

At/antic
latitude
Ocean

\^_ SOUTH
AMERICA

Pacific ^t
Ocean

^*

Amazon River
drainage basin

International boundary

City

Swamp

WORLD BOOK map 500 1000 1.500 2 000 2 500 3.000 3 500 4 000 4.500 Kilometers

lumber, and rubber. The ships also take aboard live more during the rest of its course. The river flows at
birds, fish, and other animals bought by pet shops and about 1 ^ miles (2.4 kilometers) per hour during the dry
zoos. season. Its flow increases to about 3 miles (5 kilometers)

The course of the Amazon begins high in the per hour when the river is swollen by rain.
Andes Mountains of Peru as a small stream called the More than 200 smaller rivers flow into the Amazon.
Apurimac River. The Apurimac is located 17,200 feet They include the Japura, the Jurua, the Madeira, the
(5,240 meters) above sea level. It flows northwest into Purus, the Tapajos, the Xingu, and the Rio Negro.
the Ucayali River, the lower branch of the Amazon in An unusually high ocean tide occasionally overpow-
Peru. The Ucayali flows north through the Andes and ers the current at the mouth of the Amazon. This creates
then turns east and joins the Maraiion River, the upper a wall of water called a bore that measures up to 1 5 feet
branch of the Amazon. This junction takes place near (4.6 meters) high and rushes upstream.
Iquitos, Peru,and forms the main channel of the Ama- Animal and plant life. Many kinds of fish live in the
zon. The river continues eastward across Brazil and Amazon River. They include the fierce, flesh-eating pira-
flows into the Atlantic Ocean on the northern side of nha and the pirarucu, one of the largest freshwater fish
Marajo Island. of South America. The basin area is the home of such
The Amazon tumbles rapidly through the Andes and animals as alligators, anacondas, monkeys, parrots,
falls about 16,400 feet (4,999 meters) during the first 600 sloths, and many species of insects.
miles (970 kilometers). It falls about 800 feet (240 meters) The Amazon rain forest has a great variety of plant

Loren Mclntyre, Woodfin Camp Inc

The muddy brown Amazon

joins the blue-black waters of
the Rio Negro in northwest-
ern Brazil. The Rio Negro is
one of the Amazon's chief
tributaries.
404 Amazons
life. found more than 3,000 species of
Scientists have Scythians, were the product of a planned union of the
plants in square mile (2.6 square kilometers) there. The
1 Amazons and the Scythians. Nancy Feison
trees stand as tall as 130 feet (40 meters). Their tops Ambassador is the personal representative of a coun-
grow so close together that only a little sunlight can try's head of state at the capital of another country. An
reach the ground. ambassador is the nation's highest-ranking diplomat in
History. Indians lived in the Amazon River basin be- the other country. The person's full title is ambassador
fore white people came to the area. Vicente Yanez
first extraordinary and plenipotentiary.
Pinzon, a Spanish explorer, was probably the first Euro- In the United States, the president appoints all ambas-
pean to see the Amazon. In 1500, he sailed to the coast sadors, with the approval of the Senate. The rank of am-
of what is now Brazil. During 1541 and 1542, another bassador is also given to American chiefs of mission to
Spaniard, Francisco de Orellana, led the first exploration international organizations if the person is appointed by
of the river by a European. His expedition followed the the president and confirmed by the Senate. For exam-
Amazon from the mouth of the Napo River in Peru to the ple, an ambassador heads the United States delegation
Atlantic. During Orellana's journey, his group was at- to the United Nations.
tacked by what appeared to be female Indian warriors. An ambassador heads a country's embassy in the for-
The Spaniards called their attackers Amazons, after the staff may number several hundred peo-
eign capital. The
female warriors in Greek mythology (see Amazons). The ple, including minister-counselors, counselors, diplo-
name was later given to the river and the nearby area. matic secretaries, consular officers, attaches, and clerks.
In the mid-1 800s, trees in the Amazon basin became The ambassador carries on negotiations with the for-
an important source of rubber. But after about 1910, eign government that deal with the political, economic,
plantations in Southeast Asia began to make rubber and cultural relations between the two nations. The am-
more cheaply. The demand for Amazon rubber fell, and bassador provides the official channel of communica-
the economy of the region collapsed. Since the 1960s, tions by maintaining contacts with the head of state, the
the Brazilian government has built highways and air- foreign minister, and other officials.

ports in the Amazon basin. New towns and farms have The ancient Greeks were among the first people to ex-
been established in this region, and its population has change diplomatic representatives. The Congress of Vi-
grown. enna in 1814 and 1815 and the Congress of Aix-la-
Increasing demands for natural resources are threat- Chapelle in 1818 placed diplomacy on a systematic basis
ening the Amazon rain
forest Mining and the clearing by creating four classes of representatives. These
of land for agricultureand industry are adding to the classes consisted of ambassadors (the highest rank),
rapid destruction of the plant and animal life in this envi- ministers, ministers resident, and charges d'affaires.
ronment Jerry R. Williams During its early history, the United States appointed rep-
See also Amazon rain forest; Brazil (The Amazon Re- resentatives of the three lower ranks. In 1893, the United
gion); Orellana, Francisco de. States appointed its first ambassadors— to Britain,
France, Germany, and Italy. Today, the United States as-
Additional resources
signs ambassadors to all countries with which it has dip-
De Onis, Juan. The Green Cathedral: Sustainable Development of
lomatic relations. Michael P Sullivan
Amazonia. Oxford, 1992.
Coulding, Michael, and others. Floods of Fortune: Ecology and Related articles in World Book include:
Economy Along the Amazon. Columbia Univ. Pr., 1996. Address, Forms of Diplomacy Minister
Mclntyre, Loren. Amazonia Sierra Club, 1991. Consul Legation State, Department
of
Amazons, AM uh zahnz, were a tribe of warrior
women in Greek mythology. To the male-centered Amber is a hard, yellowish-brown fossilized resin. It

Greeks of the 400s B.G, the Amazons symbolized all that comes from the resins of pine trees that grew
chiefly in

was barbaric and non-Greek. The Greeks believed that northern Europe millions of years ago. These resins
the Amazons inhabited a remote region of Asia Minor were gummy materials mixed with oils in the trees.
and maintained their female culture by mating periodi- When the oils became o*/tY/zei7(combined with oxygen),
cally with men of neighboring tribes. The women sent hard resins were left. These pine trees were buried un-
their sons back to the tribes of their fathers, or enslaved derground or underwater, and the resins slowly
them, rearing only the girls. changed into irregularly shaped lumps of amber. Lumps
The name Amazon is usually taken to mean breast/ess. of amber often contain insects trapped as the resins
The women, according to some sources, seared off the flowed from the trees. Some lumps have air bubbles.
right breast of each daughter so she could shoot the The largest supply of amber lies in the Baltic Sea area.
bow and arrow more easily. It comes from a species of pine tree that is now extinct

Many references to Amazons appear in ancient Greek Some experts consider this amber the only true amber.
For example, the Amazon queen Penthesileia
literature. Central America has important deposits of amber from
aided the Trojans against the Greeks in the Trojan War. other sources. Most amber is mined from a claylike soil
After killing many Greeks, she was killed by the Greek called blue earth. Amber is used to make beads, mouth-
warrior Achilles. pieces for pipes, and other ornaments.
Some scholars believe that the concept of a race of The ancient Greeks called amber elektron. When they
women warriors originated when the Greeks fought the rubbed amber with cloth, it became electrically charged
Scythians, a people who lived north of the Black Sea. and attracted bits of lightweight material, such as straw
Scythian women sometimes fought alongside the men and feathers. The word electricity comes from the Greek
and had masculine habits. The Greek historian word elektron. Roger D.Barry
Herodotus believed the Sarmatians, who replaced the See also Electricity (History); Gem (picture); Resin.
 Ambulance 405

Ambergris, AM
buhrgrees or AM buhi grihs, is a ye/lowtail has a bright yellow tail and a yellowish stripe
waxy substance found in the intestines of some sperm along the side of the body. It lives in coastal areas of the
whales. It has a musky smell when dried and was once Pacific Ocean. Robert R. Rofen

used in expensive perfumes. Ambergris was added to Scientific classification. Amberjacks belong to the family
perfume because its odor made the odor of the per- Carangidae. The greater amberjack is Seriola dumerili. The yel-
lowtail is 5. lalandei.
fume last longer. Today, artificial substitutes have almost
entirely replaced natural ambergris in perfume making. Ambler, Eric (1909-1998), an English author, won fame
Ambergris was once collected chiefly from the bod- for his well-constructed novels of intrigue and interna-
ies of dead sperm whales. The whales also pass amber- tional adventure. He also wrote screenplays for motion
gris as a waste product, and clumps of it can sometimes pictures. Ambler's novels include A Coffin for Dimitrios
be found in the water or on shore. |ohn k. b. Ford ( 1 Journey into Fear 1 940), The Light of Day 1 963),
939), ( (

See also Whale (American whaling). The Levanter (1972), and The Care o/T/me (1981). During
Amberjack is a large, fast-swimming game fish found World War II (1939-1945), Ambler made educational
in warm and tropical oceans. People who fish for sport films for the BritishArmy. He continued writing for mo-
prize the amberjack for its fierce fighting ability when tion pictures after the war. His screenplays include The
hooked. Amberjacks have a streamlined body and a Wreck of the Mary Deare and The Cruel Sea. His autobi-
ography, Here Lies, was published in 1986. Ambler was
born in London. David Ceherln
Ambrose, Saint (340?-397), was a bishop of Milan and
one of the most influential people of his time. As bishop,
he acted as an adviser for three Roman emperors and
defended the freedom of the church from government
interference.
Ambrose preached widely. He also wrote essays pro-
moting Christian ethics and upholding the ideal of vir-
ginity. In Concerning Faith (377), Ambrose defended the

WORLD BOOK illustration by |ohn D Dawson belief in the divinity of Jesus Christ against the ideas of

The greater amberjack is the largest species of this fast-swim- the Arians, who believed only God the Father was com-
ming game fish. It may weigh more than 150 pounds (68 kilo- pletely divine (see Arianism). Ambrose also helped de-
grams). The greater amberjack lives in tropical seas. feat an attempt to regain government approval of the an-
cient Roman religion. Historians believe that Ambrose
sharply forked tail. They are variously colored. Some popularized the practice of singing hymns in church. His
species have a brownish, gray-green, or blue back. sermons and piety inspired Saint Augustine to convert
Some have silvery sides and deeply colored fins. Ambrose baptized Augustine in 387.
to Christianity.
There are about 12 species of amberjacks. The greater Ambrose was born in what is now Trier, in western
amberjack is the largest species. It may grow more than Germany. He pursued a career as a lawyer and provin-
5 feet (1.5 meters) in length and may weigh more than cial governor. The people of Milan chose him as bishop
150 pounds (68 kilograms). It lives in tropical seas in 374. His feast day is December 7. Marilyn j. Harran
throughout the world. A species of amberjack called the Ambrosia, am BROH zhuh, was a magical substance
eaten by the gods of Greek and Roman mythology. Am-
brosia was eaten with nectar, the drink of the gods. A
human being who ate ambrosia and drank nectar be-
came immortal. The word ambrosial means sweet-
smelling or delicious. Mary R. Lefkowitz
Ambrozic, Aloysius Cardinal (1930- was ap- ),

pointed a cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church by

Pope John Paul II in 1998. The pope had appointed him
archbishop of Toronto in 1990.
Aloysius Matthew Ambrozic was born in Gabrje,
Slovenia, then part of Yugoslavia. He settled in Canada in
1948 and studied for the priesthood at St. Augustine s
Seminary in Scarborough, Ontario (now part of Toron-
to). He was ordained a priest in 1955. He served as a pro-

fessor at St Augustine s from 1960 to 1967 and dean of

students from 1971 to 1976. He also taught at the Toron-
to School of Theology from 1970 to 1976.
Ambrozic became auxiliary bishop of the archdiocese
ofToronto in 976 and coadjutor archbishop in 986. He
1 1

wrote The Hidden Kingdom (1 972) and Remarks on the

Canadian Catechism ( 1 974). Robert p. imbein

GtMnotoonal Instilulr nt Amenta

Ambulance designed to transport
is a vehicle that is

sick or injured people. Most ambulances are built from

Amber is the fossilized resin of pine trees. Amber is used to
make pipestems and jewelry, such as the pendant shown here. specially designed automobile vans or trucks. They are
Most amber comes from the Baltic Sea area in northern Europe. painted with crosses and other special markings, and
406 Ameba
amebas live in water and moist soil. Others live in the

bodies of animals and human beings.

Only one cell makes up an amebas whole body. The
cell contains a nucleus, the structure that directs the
and the cytoplasm, jellylike material
cell's activities,

around the nucleus. A thin, elastic membrane surrounds

the cytoplasm and nucleus and holds them together.
Water and gases pass in and out of the ameba through
the membrane.
To move about, an ameba must change its body
shape. The cytoplasm pushes out the membrane to form
a fingerlike pseudopod
(false foot), and all of the
cytoplasm seems to flow
into it. For every "step," an-
other pseudopod must
form. Cells that move in
this way are called ame-
boid cells. The white
blood cells of human be-
© Urty Mulvei, SPL from Photo Researchers ings are ameboid cells.

Ambulances are staffed by trained medical workers called para- Amebas eat tiny living
medics. Paramedics provide emergency care to patients before organisms and particles of
they reach the hospital. dead and decaying matter.
They engulf their food by Oxford Scientific Films from Animals Animals

they have sirens and flashing lights to warn drivers and slowly wrapping Ameba
pedestrians of their approach. Airplanes and helicopters pseudopods around a
also may serve as ambulances. Airplanes can travel long food particle. In this way, the food gets inside the cell.
distances quickly, and helicopters can reach places that The section of the cell that contains the food is called a
have no roads or landing strips. food vacuole. It floats in the cytoplasm until the food is
The ambulances were horse-drawn wagons that
first digested. All undigested food passes out of the cell as
wounded soldiers in wartime. The
carried sick or the ameba slowly moves away. Amebas in fresh water
Spaniards used such vehicles during the siege of Mala- must control water taken into their bodies or they will
ga in 1487. In New York City
1869, Bellevue Hospital in burst They have a contractile vacuole to collect the extra
began to use the ambulances. During World
first civilian water that builds up in the cell. When the contractile
War II (1939-1945), armies first used helicopters to trans- vacuole is filled, it empties through the cell membrane.
port wounded soldiers from remote battlefields. Amebas reproduce by //ss/'on (splitting apart) when
Until the 1970s, ambulances merely carried patients they reach a certainsize. The nucleus divides first Then

to a hospital. The vehicles were too small to allow any the rest of thebody divides. The division results in two
treatment and they carried little medical equipment. daughter cells, which can also grow, feed, and divide.
Most ambulance workers received only basic first-aid Most amebas are harmless to people. But one type
training and could not handle serious emergencies. causes a serious ailment called amebic dysentery when
Today, most ambulances have room for treatment of it gets into the large intestine. uwrencec wit
patients, and they carry equipment that helps ambu- Scientific classification. Amebas belong to the kingdom
lance workers keep patients alive. This equipment in- Protista. A common ameba is Amoeba proteus The ameba that
cludes bandages, oxygen masks, resuscitators (breath- causes dysentery is Entamoeba histolytica.

ing machines), splints, and medications. In addition, See also Dysentery; Protoplasm; Protozoan.
many ambulances are staffed by highly trained workers Amendment, in legislation, is a change in a law, or in

called paramedics. Paramedics can provide cardiopul- a before it becomes a law. Bills often have amend-
bill

monary resuscitation (CPR) and other lifesaving emer- ments attached before a legislature votes on them.
gency treatments (see Cardiopulmonary resuscitation). Amendments to the Constitution of the United States
Many ambulances carry a two-way radio, which en- may be proposed in two ways:
ables a worker to communicate with a hospital physi- (1) If two-thirds of both houses approve, Congress

cian.The worker reports such information as a patient's may propose an amendment. The amendment becomes
pulse, blood pressure,and breathing condition, and the a lawwhen ratified either by legislatures or by conven-
doctor can determine the proper treatment. Some am- tions in three-fourths of the states.
bulances have instruments that send the hospital med- (2) If the legislatures of two-thirds of the states ask for
ical data, such as a patient's heart activity, by a process an amendment, Congress must call a convention to pro-
called te/emetryisee Telemetry). Daud r_ Boyd pose it. The amendment becomes a law when ratified ei-
See also Australia (Transportation Ipicturel). ther by the legislatures or by conventions in three-
Ameba, uh MEE buh, also spelled amoeba, is a tiny, fourths of the states. This method has never been used.
one-celled organism that usually can only be seen under For the text of amendments to the U.S. Constitution,
a microscope. Amebas vary in size from about ,^, inch see Constitution of the United States Peier won

(0.25 millimeter) to k inch (2.5 millimeters) across. Some See also Parliamentary procedure.
 American Association of University Women 407

Amenhotep IV. See Egypt, Ancient (The New King- American patriotic songs. Katharine Lee Bates, a college
dom). professor, wrote the words as a poem during a visit to
Anient See Catkin. Colorado in 893. She was inspired by the view from
1

America is the great land mass of the Western Hemi- Pikes Peak. The poem, which describes the wonders of
sphere. For location, see World (map). It is made up of America, was published on July 4, 1895. Sometime after
North and South America. The mainland of America is that the words became associated with the hymn tune
the longest north-to-south land mass on earth. The "Materna" (also called "O Mother Dear, Jerusalem!, writ-
greatest distance of its mainland from north to south is ten by American composer Samuel Augustus Ward in
about 8,700 miles (14,000 kilometers), from the Boothia 1882. The music and text were published together in
Peninsula in Canada to Cape Froward in Chile. The west- 1910 Katherine K_ Preston

ernmost point of mainland America is at the Seward See Bates, Katharine Lee.
Peninsula on the west coast of Alaska. Northeastern American Academy and Institute of Arts and
Brazil is the easternmost point. America also includes Letters an organization that promotes literature and
is

many islands north, south, east, and west of the main- the fine arts in the United States. It gives awards and
land. North and South America are connected by a land prizes to notable artists, writers, and composers. In ad-
bridge that is narrowest at the Isthmus of Panama. dition, it organizes exhibitions of art and manuscripts,
Many scientists believe that America was connected and buys works by American artists to donate to U.S.
to the western edge of Africa and Eurasia from about museums.
250 million years ago until about 200 million years ago. The organization consists of two divisions, the Insti-
Volcanic formations in Brazil are similar to such forma- tute and the Academy. A maximum of 250 United States
tions in South Africa. Likewise, the Appalachian Moun- citizens may be members They serve for
of the Institute.
tains of North America may be related to the Caledonian life and belong to one
departments— music, art,
of three
Mountains of Scotland. or literature. Membership openings result from the
The word America is believed to be in honor of the death of a member. After a vacancy occurs, members
Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci. It was first used only nominate replacements. The department and full Insti-
for South America but was later applied to the whole tute membership vote on these nominees. The candi-
Western Hemisphere. Today, the term is often used to dates receiving a majority of votes in both elections be-
refer to the United States of America. come members of the Institute. The Academy consists
John Edwin Coffman of 50 Institute members elected for life by Academy
Related articles in World Book include: members.
Central America South America The American Academy and Institute of Arts and Let-
Exploration United States ters was formed in 1976 from the merger of the Ameri-
LatinAmerica Vespucci, Amerigo
can Academy of Arts and Letters, founded in 904, and 1
North America
the National Institute of Arts and Letters, founded in
America is one of the national hymns of the United 1 898. Headquarters are in New York City. critically

States.The words were written in 1 831 for a church reviewed by the American Academy and Institute of Arts and Letters

school in Boston by Samuel Francis Smith, who was American Academy of Arts and Sciences. See
then studying for the ministry. The song was first sung at Arts and Sciences, American Academy of.
the school's Fourth of July celebration that year. Smith American Association for the Advancement of
wrote the words to a melody that was popular in many Science (AAAS) is the world's largest federation of sci-
European countries. He found the tune in a collection of entific organizations. AAAS has about 285 affiliated soci-
German melodies. "God Save the Queen," the British na- and academies of science, which cover the physi-
eties
tional anthem, uses the same melody. Smith wrote five and social sciences. Individual members of
cal, life,

stanzas. The third, which called the British tyrants," is AAAS number about 1 34,000. Membership is open to
not sung today. See also God Save the Queen. anyone interested in achieving the objectives of AAAS.
Valerie Woodring Coeroen Main AAAS are to further the progress
objectives of
America First Committee, foundedSeptember in of science, make
easy for scientists to cooperate with
it

1940, was the most powerful isolationist group in Amer- one another, help increase scientific freedom and re-
ica before the United States entered World War It had II. sponsibility, make science more effective in the promo-
over 800,000 members, who wanted to keep America tion of human welfare, and advance education in sci-
neutral. It through pub-
tried to influence public opinion ence. AAAS publishes a weekly journal called Science.
lications and speeches. America First disagreed with an- The association was founded in 1848. Its headquarters
other powerful group, the Committee to Defend Ameri- are in Washington, D.C Critically reviewed by the American

ca by Aiding the Allies. Both of the groups wanted to Association for the Advancement of Science

build American defenses and keep the United States out American Association of Retired Persons. See
of the war. However, the Committee to Defend America AARP.
argued that the best way to remain neutral was to aid American Association of University Women
the United Kingdom. America First thought it more im- (AAUW) is a national organization of men and women
portant to stay out of the war than to assure a British vic- who have a bachelor's or higher degree. has about It

tory. America First was dissolved four days after the 140,000 members. The AAUW promotes equality, edu-
Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor on Dec. 7, 1941. cation, and personal development for women, and so-
David A. Shannon cial reform. Members take part in study and action pro-

America the Beautiful, also called O Beautiful for grams, and they support legislation relating to their
Spacious Skies, is one of the most familiar and popular concerns. The AAUWs interests include the arts, com-
408 American Baptist Association

munity affairs, education, and international relations. American Battle Monuments Commission is an
The AAUW Educational Foundation, a division of the independent federal agency that commemorates the
AAUW, offers fellowships to women for advanced study achievements and sacrifices of United States armed
or research. The AAUW also offers to its members, forces. The commission designs, constructs, operates,
branches, and state divisions grants for public service and maintains U.S. military cemeteries and memorials in
projects and studies. foreign countries. It also maintains certain monuments
The AAUW was founded Boston in 1882 as the As-
in in The commission controls the de-
the United States.
sociation of Collegiate Alumnae. Its national offices are sign and construction of military monuments and mark-
in Washington, D.C ers erected in foreign countries by U.S. citizens and by
Critically reviewed by the American Association of University Women private and public organizations, and it encourages the
American Baptist Association was organized in sponsors to maintain these sites. Congress established
1924 through the merger of three church groups— the the commission in 1923. Private citizens and members of
General Association of Baptist Churches, the Baptist the armed forces serve on the commission.
Missionary Association of Texas, and a Baptist conven- Critically reviewed by the American Battle Monuments Commission
tion in Oklahoma. The churches in the association do American Bible Society. See Bible Society, Ameri-
not recognize baptism by other denominations and do can.
not practice intercommunion (mutual services) with American Bowling Congress (ABC) is a legislative
other denominations. The association believes in the and judicial body that governs about 3 million male
equality of all members and the complete independ- bowlers in almost 120,000 sanctioned leagues in the
ence of local congregations. See Baptists. Western Hemisphere. It standardizes equipment, makes
Congregations in about 45 states belong to the associ- rules, and issues awards for outstanding scoring per-
ation. They sponsor 2 colleges, 22 Bible institutes, 5 formances. It conducts an annual tournament in the
seminaries, and support missionary work in many parts United States and is a member of the United States
of the world. The association has almost 1,100,000 mem- Olympic Committee. ABC, founded in 1895, has head-
bers. Its headquarters are in Texarkana, Texas. quarters in Greendale, Wisconsin.
Critically reviewed by the American Baptist Association Critically reviewed by the American Bowling Congress
American Baptist Churches in the U.S.A. is an or- American Cancer Society. See Cancer Society,
ganization of Baptist churches, associations, and reli- American.
gious bodies. It is a member of the National Council of American Chemical Society is an organization of
Churches, the World Council of Churches, and the Bap- chemists and chemical engineers. It has more than
tist World Alliance. The organization sponsors colleges, 163,000 members and is the world's largest scientific so-
theological seminaries, hospitals, retirement homes, ciety. It more
consists of than 30 professional divisions.
and other supports evangelistic, educa-
institutions. It Local groups meet throughout the United States and
tional, agricultural, and medical missions in many other Puerto Rico. It was founded in 1876. The society's head-
countries. The organization has about 1,500,000 mem- quarters are in Washington, D.C The best-known publi-
bers. Its headquarters are located in Valley Forge, Penn- cations of the American Chemical Society are the Jour-
sylvania. nal of the American Chemical Society, Chemical
The organization was formed in 1907, partly to help Abstracts, and Chemical and Engineering News.
coordinate the work of national missionary and educa- Critically reviewed by the American Chemical Society
tional bodies which the Baptist churches established in American Civil Liberties Union (ACLLI) is a non-
1814, 1824, and 1832. For more information about Bap- partisan organization devoted to defending the rights
tist doctrine and history, see Baptists. and freedoms of people in the United States. It works
Critically reviewed by the American Baptist Churches in the U.SA mainly by providing lawyers and legal advice for individ-
American Bar Association is a voluntary organiza- uals and groups in local, state, and federal courts. In ad-
tion of lawyers, judges, law students, and law teachers dition, officials of the ACLU testify before state and fed-
of the United States and its possessions. The organiza- eral legislative committees, advise government officials,
tion's goals include promoting the administration of jus- and conduct educational programs. The chief goal of
tice and upholding high standards of legal education the ACLU is to protect the fundamental rights of individ-
and ethics. uals as described in the Constitution of the United
The American Bar Association, which is often called States. These rights include freedom of speech and pro-
the ABA, gives accreditation (official approval) to law tection against unfair punishment for people accused of
schools. The association also publishes studies on sub- crimes.
jects of legal and public interest, such as legal aid and The ACLU has defended the constitutional rights of a
prison reform. In addition, the organization provides op- wide range of individuals and groups. It played an im-
portunities for continuing legal education in these sub- portant part in Supreme Court rulings that guaranteed
jects. Many members Congress ask the ABA for its
of legal aid to poor people. The group has supported fair
views on current legislation. The ABA publishes the treatment of conscientious objectors, people whose
monthly American Bar Journal, plus about 7,800 books conscience does not allow them to take part in war. The
and pamphlets yearly on topics including business, ACLU has urged desegregation of schools and promot-
criminal, and taxation law. ed the black civil rights movement. In 1978, the organiza-
More than 400,000 men and women belong to the tion defended the right of a group of American Nazis to
ABA. The ABA was founded in 1878 and has headquar- march in Skokie, Illinois. One of the current goals of the
ters in Chicago. ACLU is the abolition of capital punishment. The group
Critically reviewed by the American Bar Association also calls for further restrictions on government inves-
 American Farm Bureau Federation 409

tigative agencies and for stricter separation of church

and it seeks greater protection for the
state. In addition,
rights of immigrants who enter the United States with-
out the required papers, and for the rights of homosexu-
als and mental patients. The ACLU also supports the
rights of women to have abortions.
The ACLU was founded in 1920. It has about 300,000
members. Its headquarters are in New York City.
Harvey Clickman
American colonies. See Colonial life in America
American Council on Alcohol Problems ACAP) (

is warns the public of the

a nonprofit organization that
dangers of alcohol. It also works to deal with the prob-
lems caused by alcohol. The organization was founded
as the American Anti-Saloon League in Washington,
D.C, in 1895. It was renamed the National Temperance
League during the 1930s. The group took its present
name in 1964. Headquarters of the American Council on
Darlyn Davison
Alcohol Problems are in Bridgeton, Missouri.
Critically reviewed by the American Council on Alcohol Problems The American Eskimo dog has a fluffy, white coat
American Council on Education is an alliance of
nearly 1,800 institutions and organizations of higher ed- American Eskimo dogs are intelligent, alert, and ener-
ucation. Most members are colleges, universities, com- They once performed tricks in many American cir-
getic.
munity colleges, and technical schools. But many nation- cuses but are now kept chiefly as pets and show dogs.
al, regional, and state associations also belong. The Critically reviewed by the American Eskimo Dog Club of America

council was organized in 1 91 8. It tries to advance educa- American Farm Bureau Federation is the largest
tion through the cooperation of member institutions. Its general farm organization in the United States. More
prime interest has been education beyond high school. than 5 million families are members of the federation.
The council has sponsored national programs of re- The federation works to protect and advance the busi-
search and development to improve testing, guidance, ness and economic interests of farmers and ranchers by
and the quality of teaching. The council represents supporting educational programs, promoting favorable
American higher education in dealing with the govern- legislation, and sponsoring helpful services. It is an in-
ment on matters of public policy that affect higher edu- dependent and voluntary organization that operates on
cation. Its headquarters are in Washington, D.C. local, state, national, and international levels. When pro-
Critically reviewed by the American Council on Education moting legislation, the federation works with both Dem-
American Dental Association. See Dental Associ- ocrats and Republicans.
ation, American. The federation helps its members solve many prob-
American Education Week. See Education Week, lems affecting individual farm products. It works to re-
American. duce crop surpluses and to expand markets for farm
American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy products in the United States and in other countries. The
Research sponsors research on government policy, federation promotes research to find new uses for farm
the United States economy, and American and world products in the home and in industry. In many states, in-
politics. The institute, called AEI for short, is home to surance, cooperative and group purchasing of farm sup-
renowned economists, legal scholars, political scien- plies, and cooperative marketing of farm products are
tists, and foreign policy specialists. among its most important services. The federation also
AEI was founded in 943 mainly to conduct economic
1 promotes farm safety, citizenship, leadership training,
policy research, which remains the core of its work. Its education, and social and community betterment.
program in foreign and defense policy examines how Organization. The American Farm Bureau Federa-
American interests can be advanced and how political tion is composed of state Farm Bureaus from all of the
and economic freedom can be promoted. The institute states and from Puerto Rico. The state bureaus are com-
is financed by contributions from corporations, founda- posed of county bureaus, and county bureaus are com-
tions, and individuals. AEI is based in Washington, D.C posed of farm and ranch families.
Critically reviewed by the American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Each year, delegates from the states meet at the feder-
Research ation's nationalconvention to determine the organiza-
American Eskimo dog is a small dog known for its tion's policies and program of
action. All the delegates
fluffy, white coat. Breeders in the United States devel- are farmers whose chief occupation and interest is farm-
oped the dog during the early 1900s. It is descended ing or ranching. The delegates elect a board of directors
from European spitz breeds. American Eskimo dogs are and a president and vice president Directors and offi-
often called "Eskies." There are three varieties— the cers carry on the federation's affairsbetween conven-
standard, the miniature, and the toy. Standard Eskies tions. The directors represent all sections of the United
measure 15 to 19 inches (38 to 48 centimeters) tall at the States. These officials are responsible to the federation
shoulder, miniature Eskies stand 1 2 to 1 5 (30 to 38 cen- delegate body for their activities.
timeters) inchestall, and toy Eskies are 9 to 12 inches (23 The American Farm Bureau Federation has its national
to 30 centimeters) tall. headquarters in Park Ridge, Illinois. It also has an office
410 American Federation of Arts

in Washington, D.C The federation publishes a weekly The AFL-CIO has a number of committees and depart-
newsletter. Most of its state bureaus also publish maga- ments. These groups deal with such matters as organiz-
zines or newspapers. ing, legislation, civil rights, ethical practices, internation-
History. A group of 28 state farm bureaus formed the al affairs, education, economic policy, community
American Farm Bureau Federation in Chicago in 1919. services, and occupational safety and health.
The federation played an important part in dev eloping Activities of the AFL-QO include working with unions
farm legislation during the Great Depression of the to increase their membership, informing union mem-
1930 s. This legislation emphasized soil conservation bers about legislative and political matters, providing le-
programs, price supports, and acreage control regula- gal assistance, and representing the interests of work-
World War ended in 1945, the federation
tions. After II ers families. In the legislative field, the AFL-QO works
recommended changes in government farm programs. for enactment of desired legislation on national and
The changes were intended to reduce the farmers de- state levels. The organization promotes the activity of
pendence on crop price supports and acreage controls. union members in such projects as campaigns for voter
registration and for improvements in education and
American Federation of Arts. See Arts, American training. It also works to resolve certain types of dis-
Federation of putes among its member unions. The AFL-QO s publica-
American Federation of Government Employ- tions include The AFL-OO \ens, published every other
ees (AFGE) is a union of civilian employees of the Unit- week, and a weekly newsletter. Work in Progress.
ed States government and the District of Columbia. The History. In 1881, in Pittsburgh, a group of trade
AFGE represents general office workers, janitors, unionists representing about 50,000 members founded
lawyers, mechanics, and scientists. The union consists of the Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions of
about 1 ,300 local unions called lodges. It is associated the United States and Canada. In 1886 the group reor-
with the American Federation of Labor and Congress of ganized, changing its name to the American Federation
Industrial Organizations AFL-CIO of Labor. Its approach was to organize workers by crafts
The AFGE was formed in 1932 by workers who with- and skills. In 1935, eight leaders of AFL unions set up the
drew from a similar union, the National Federation of Committee for Industrial Organization to carry on an or-
Federal Employees SFFE. In 1931, the \FFE had broken ganizing drive in mass-production industries. The QO
its ties with what was then the AFL NFFE members who tried to sign up all workers in a plant, unskilled as well
wanted to have an association with the AFL then found- as skilled. Because of a disagreement over this type of
ed the AFGE. AFGE headquarters are in Washington, organizing, the AFL suspended 10 national unions par-
D.C For membership see Labor movement table: Im- ticipating in the QO in 1936. The QO then formed its
portant L.S. labor unions . James C. ScoviUe own labor federation in 1938 and changed its name to
American Federation of Labor and Congress of the Congress of Industrial Organizations. The AFL and
Industrial Organizations (AFL-CIO) is a federation the CIO formally merged in 1955. In 1957. the Teamsters
of labor unions. The AFL-CIO consists of many national Union, then the largest union in the United States, was
and international craft and industrial unions that togeth- expelled from the AFL-CIO after its leaders were ac-
er have millions of members. The national unions are cused of unethical practices. The Teamsters rejoined in
self-governing, but cooperate vvfth one another within 1987. Another of the country s largest unions, the United
the federation. Each national union has local unions in Automobile Workers, disaffiliated in 1968 but rejoined
the United States and its territories.The international in 1981. AFL-QO headquarters are in Washington, D.C

unions also have local unions in Canada and in Puerto (amesG Scoville

Rico. Panama, and other Caribbean lands. Altogether, Related articles - World Book include;
the national and international labor unions have tens of American Federation of Gov- KirkJand Lane

thousands of local unions. emment Emplc Labor movement

Congress of Industrial Organ- Meanv George
Organization. All the affiliated unions are represent-
izations Reuther. Walter P.
ed at the AFL-QO s conventions, held every two years. Gompers, Samuel Shanker, Albert
The convention is the supreme governing body. It elects Green, William Sweeney, )ohn J.
the president, the secretary-treasurer, the executive vice
president, and a number of vice presidents who make American Federation of Musicians. See Musi-
up the executive council. The council determines AFL- cians. American Federation of
CIO policy between conventions and carries out poli- American Federation of State, County, and Mu-
cies established by the convention. The AFL-OO has nicipal Employees is one of the largest unions in the
central bodies federations in all 50 states and Puerto United States. It represents public employees and health
Rico, and hundreds of local central bodies. It also has a care workers. The union has more than 12 million mem-
number of directly affiliated local unions. bers. They include employees of state county and mu-
Nine trade and industrial departments are affiliated nicipal governments: school districts: public and private
with the AFL-CIO. These departments are the Building hospitals; universities;and nonprofit agencies. Health
and Construction Trades, Metal Trades, Union Label and and hospital workers form the largest occupational
Service Trades, Maritime Trades, Industrial Union, Food group, with more than 325,000 members.
and Allied Service Trades, Professional Employees, The unions chief goal is to improve working condi-
Transportation Trades, and Public Employees depart- tions and achieve dignity for its members through col-
ments. The national and international unions affiliate lective bargaining with employers. It has over 4.000 local
with the department or departments that represent their unions and is affiliated with the American Federation of
interests. Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations.
 American Indian Movement 411

The organization was founded in 1936. Its headquar- 21 to25 inches (53 to 64 centimeters) tall at the shoulder
ters are inWashington, D.C For membership, see Labor and weighs 60 to 70 pounds (27 to 32 kilograms). It has
movement (table: Important U.S. labor unions). well-shaped legs, hard muscles, a long tail, ears that
Critically reviewed by the American Federation of State, County, and hang down, and a distinctive bark. See also Dog (pic-
Municipal Employees ture: Hounds); English foxhound.
American Federation of Teachers is a union affili- Critically reviewed by the American Kennel Club

ated with the American Federation of Labor and Con- American Friends Service Committee (AFSC) is

gress of Industrial Organizations (AFL-CIO). It is made up a Quaker organization committed to nonviolence and
of various educational workers, including teachers, social equality. The AFSC promotes peaceful policies
counselors, school custodians, and school-bus drivers. that respect human rights and the rights of nations to
It also represents state employees, faculty at colleges choose their own future. The AFSC has played a promi-
and universities, and nurses. The American Federation nent role in efforts to end racial separation in South
of Teachers has about 2,200 local unions in the United Africa. In addition, the AFSC carries out programs in de-
States and other countries. veloping countries that help people raise food and im-
The union's chief objectives are to promote profes- prove health conditions.
sionalism in teaching and to secure appropriate wages, Quakers, who started the AFSC, believe in the equali-
better working conditions, and job security for its mem- ty of all people. In the United States, the AFSC works for
bers. The union supports school-based management, fair treatment of American Indians, farm laborers, racial

better school construction, and equal educational op- minorities, gay and lesbian people, immigrants, and oth-
portunities for people of all races. The federation up- ers who experience poverty or discrimination.
holds the rights of teachers to help form school policies The AFSC was founded in 1917 with the aim of caring
and programs. Its members believe it can achieve its World War In 1947,the AFSC was
for civilian victims of I.

goals through democratic discussions between teacher awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for its relief work after
representatives and school administrators, and through World War The AFSC is privately funded by individu-
II.

collective bargaining. alsfrom many religious backgrounds. It operates assist-

The American Federation of Teachers was founded in ance programs in 30 countries. The organization's head-
1916. headquarters are in Washington, D.C For mem-
Its quarters are in Philadelphia.
bership, see Labor movement (table: Important U.S. la- Critically reviewed by the American Friends Service Committee
bor unions). See also Quakers.
Critically reviewed by the American Federation of Teachers American Gl Forum of the United States is a civil

See also Shanker, Albert rights organization for Mexican American military veter-
American foxhound is a medium-sized hunting dog. ans and their families. It fights discrimination against
It is trained to hunt foxes by following the scent they Mexican Americans in education, employment, and
leave on the ground. Hounds can be trained to hunt housing.
singly or in packs of 15 or 20. Most hunt clubs use packs Hector P. Garcia, a World War combat surgeon, II

of foxhounds. American foxhounds are trained to run founded the organization in 1948 in Corpus Christi,
competitively at field trials. They are well known for Texas. The previous year, an undertaker in Three Rivers,
their speed, endurance, and stamina in the field. Texas, refused to rebury a Mexican American CI who
Foxhounds are usually white, with different-sized had been killed during the war and buried overseas.
patches of black or tan or both. But a foxhound can be Garcia and other veterans organized the American Gl
almost any color. The American foxhound stands from Forum of the United States to aid needy and disabled
veterans who encountered such prejudice aftsrthe war.
The group sponsors programs to help Mexican Ameri-
cans obtain jobs, medical services, and scholarships.
The American Gl Forum of the United States has
about 50,000 members, with local chapters in nearly
every state. Its national headquarters are in Austin,
Texas. Feliciano M. Ribera
American Heart Association. See Heart Associa-
tion, American.
American Historical Association. See Historical
Association, American.
American history. See United States, History of the.
American Indian. See Indian, American.
American Indian Movement (AIM) is a civil rights
organization in the United States and Canada. It works
for equal rights for American Indians and improvement
of their living conditions. The group has participated in
efforts to establish Indian land ownership rights.
The American Indian Movement has often been criti-
Robert Pean Animals Animals
cal of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, a U.S. government
j

An American foxhound medium-sized hunting dog. Most

is a
agency that works to promote the welfare of the nation's
foxhounds have a white, black, and tan coat The dog uses its Indians. AIM believes the bureau has failed to eliminate
speed, endurance, and sensitive nose to help people hunt foxes. widespread job and housing discrimination and poverty
412 American Institute of Aeronautics

among Native Americans. The organization also has de- AKC maintains a library and a museum.
manded the return of property rights guaranteed by The AKC was founded in 1884. Its headquarters are in

treaties between the U.S. and Canadian governments New York City. Critically reviewed bv the American Kennel dub

and various Indian tribes. American League. See Baseball.

AIM was founded in Minneapolis in 1968 by Dennis American Legion ranks as the largest veterans or-
Banks, George Mitchell, and Clyde Bellecourt. Its origi- ganization in the United States. Men and women who
nal goals were to help improve the lives of the city's In- served honorably in the U. S. armed forces during
dians and to protect them from police actions that AIM World War I, World War II, the Korean War, the Viet-
considered brutality. AIM chapters began to be formed nam War, the Persian Gulf War. or in military actions in
in other cities in 1970. AIM has carried out several pro- Grenada, Lebanon, or Panama, may join the American
tests to call national attention to the problems of Indi- Legion. The Legion seeks to advance the aims and inter-
ans. In 1972, members occupied the headquarters of the ests of veterans, to continue friendships formed during
Bureau of Indian Affairs in Washington, D.C, for seven military service, and to see that disabled veterans get
days. The following year, AIM members and other Indi- the care and help they need. It takes part in programs
ans seized the village of Wounded Knee, S. Dak., where that promote the American way of life at the local, state,
the U.S. Cavalry massacred as many as 300 Sioux in 1 890 and national levels. It also sponsors patriotic community
(see Wounded Kneel. projects and educational and charitable programs.
During the 1970"s, AIM also established and operated The American Legion has about 3 million members.
a number of organizations to help Indians develop a They are organized into 58 departments and about
sense of self-determination. These groups, consisting 1 6,000 local posts. It holds a convention each year to de-

only of Indians, worked to improve schools, legal serv- termine policies and programs and to elect national offi-
ices,employment programs, and health services for Na- cers, including a national commander. The national ad-
tiveAmericans. Since 1974, AIM has attempted to unite jutant heads the national headquarters staff at 700 N.
Native Americans throughout the Western Hemisphere. Pennsylvania Street, Indianapolis, IN 46204. The Legion
But problems among AIM leaders contributed to the also has a national office in Washington, D.C The official
groups decline in the 198ffs. W Roger Buffalohead publication is the American Legion Magazine.
American Institute of Aeronautics and As- community
Activities. Legion posts have built
tronautics is a professional society for engineers and houses, swimming many parks
pools, playgrounds, and
scientists who are engaged in aviation and space work throughout the United States. They have supplied ambu-
in the United States. The institute encourages research lances and special equipment for community hospitals
and aids education in the fields of science and engineer- and for hospitals operated by the Department of Veter-
ing. It sponsors technical meetings and discussions, and ans Affairs. The Legion be-
it publishes six journals, two book series, and a monthly came particularly active in
magazine. The institute was established in 1963 through education during eco-
the consolidation of the American Rocket Society and nomic depressions during
the Institute of the Aerospace Sciences. It has more than the early 1920s and early
70 corporate members and more than 44,000 profes- 193Ds. More than 1,000
sional and student members. Headquarters are in Wash- posts received certificates
ington. D.C Critically reviewed by the American Institute of of honor from the National
Aeronautics and Astronautics Education Association for
American Kennel Club (AKC) is the world's largest keeping local schools run-
registry forpurebred dogs. The club recognizes 137 ning in spite of the re-
breeds of purebred dogs and registers more than 1 mil- duced budgets with which
lion dogs a year. It maintains a file called the Stud Book, they had to operate. The
which contains a familv history of every dog ever regis- American Legion origi- can Legion

tered with the AKC nated the \early observ- Legion emblem
The AKC is made up of member dog clubs
about 500 ance of American Educa-
in the United States. The national member breed clubs tion Week isee Education Week, Americanl.
set the standardsby which dogs are judged at AKC The Legion has actively opposed Communism, fas-
shows. Representatives from the clubs carry out the cism, and all forms of totalitarianism. Its program of
AKC s activities. The AKC makes rules for dog shows and youth activ ities works to build American ideals. The Le-
such competitions as obedience trials, field trials, and gion sponsors vouth baseball leagues in all parts of the
hunting tests. The AKC also approves dog show judges country. Each year, American Legion posts sponsor
and maintains a staff to assist at competitions. more than 4,000 baseball and other athletic teams.
The AKC encourages interest in purebred dogs and The Legion sponsors more than 1,400 Boy Scout
promotes their health and welfare. The club publishes a troops. Each year, the Legion holds a national high
number of periodicals, including the monthly magazine school oratory contest to promote the study of the
Pure-Bred Dogs— American Kennel Gazette; and Stud United States Constitution and the Bill of Rights. It
Book Register, a monthly listing of male and female awards S60.000 in scholarships to the finalists. The Le-

dogs that have bred for the first time. It publishes the gion also sponsors an annual Bovs State. Under this pro-
reference books The Complete Dog Book and AKC Dog gram. bo\ s selected by local Legion posts and civic, reli-
Care and Training. gious, and educational organizations take part in a one-
The AKC also produces videos on each breed and on week course on the practical operation of state
other subjects of interest to dog owners. In addition, the government. The program also includes health and
 American Library Association 413

recreational activities. Boys who

have taken part in Boys Vietnam War, the Persian
State are selected to attend the Legion's annual Boys Na- Gulf War, and the military
tion. This is a program in the study of national govern- conflicts in Grenada, Leba-
ment (see Boys State). In national defense, the Legion non, and Panama, or of
has always favored adequate military preparedness. men and women who died
History. A group of 20 officers who served in the after they were honorably
American Expeditionary Forces (A.E.F.) in France in discharged from the armed
World War is credited with planning the Legion. A.E.F.
I services; (3) female military
headquarters asked these officers to suggest ideas on veterans eligible for mem-
how to improve troop morale. One officer, Lieutenant bership in the American
Colonel Theodore Roosevelt, jr., proposed an organiza- Legion; and (4) female
tion of veterans. In February 1919, this group formed a members of the Legion.
Auxiliary emblem
temporary committee and selected several hundred offi- The Auxiliary has nearly 1

cers who had the confidence and respect of the army. million members in more
When the first organization meeting took place in than 12,000 local units.
Paris in March 1 91 9, about 1 ,000 officers and enlisted The Auxiliary conducts programs to benefit veterans,
men attended. The meeting, known as the Paris Caucus, their families, and the community. It sponsors Girls
adopted a temporary constitution and the name The State, an annual program that educates high school girls
American Legion. It also elected an executive committee about American government and citizenship (see Girls
to complete the organization work. It considered each State). The first national American Legion convention in
soldier of the A.E.F. a member of the Legion. The execu- 1919 authorized the formation of the Auxiliary. The or-
tive committee named a subcommittee to organize vet- ganization held its first convention in Kansas City, Mo. in

erans in the United States. 1921. The Auxiliary's headquarters are at 777 N. Meridian
The Legion held a second organizing caucus in St. Street, Indianapolis, IN 46204.
Louis, Mo., in May 1919. It completed the constitution Critically reviewed by the American Legion Auxiliary
and made plans for a permanent organization. It set up American Liberty League. See Liberty League.
temporary headquarters in New York City, and began its American Library Association (ALA) is an organi-
relief, employment, and patriotism programs. zation founded in 1876 for libraries, librarians, library
Congress granted the Legion a national charter in trustees, and other people interested in libraries. It
September 1919. The first national convention, held in works closely with organizations in the fields of educa-
Minneapolis, adopted a permanent constitution and tion, recreation, and public service. The association's
elected officers to head the organization. 50,000 members include individuals and libraries from
In 1921, the country plunged into a short, sharp eco- all parts of the world.
nomic depression. Millions lost their jobs. About 4 mil- The ALA aims to improve the quality and effective-
lion soldiers had returned to civilian life. The Legion ness of libraries. It seeks to make libraries accessible to
turned itself into a nationwide employment service, with all people, to improve professional standards of librar-

1 1,000 branch offices. Veterans reported at Legion posts iesand librarians, and to promote the distribution of
for jobs. More than 1 million people found jobs in this books and other library materials without censorship.
way. The Legion also began its fight for the relief of The ALA presents several awards and citations for out-
wounded and disabled soldiers. It organized a rehabili- standing achievements in librarianship and related
tation service to help disabled veterans make claims for fields. Its Association for Library Service to Children
compensation and obtain medical care. At the close of awards the Caldecott and Newbery medals for children's
World War II, the Legion helped write the Gl Bill of books (see Caldecott Medal; Newbery Medal).
Rights and worked for its adoption by Congress. The association works for legislation to increase the
Until 1942, membership in the Legion was limited to availability or to improve the quality of library service. It
American soldiers, sailors, marines, and nurses who had urged passage of the Library Services Act of 1956, which
served on active duty during World War In 1942, the I. was designed to aid the development of public libraries
Legion amended its charter to allow World War veter- II in rural areas. In 1964, the act was amended and became

ans to join. Korean War veterans became eligible in known as the Library Services and Construction Act.
1950, Vietnam War veterans in 1966, and Persian Gulf This and later amendments authorized aid to both urban
War veterans in 1 991 Veterans of the actions in Gre-
. and rural libraries. After a new copyright law was en-
nada, Lebanon, and Panama became eligible in 1990. acted in 1976, the association helped librarians and li-
During and after the Vietnam War (1957-1975), the le- brary users understand the law's provisions.
gion promoted job opportunities for returning veterans. The ALA publishes books and periodicals. Its official
It also worked to increase veterans' benefits under the bulletin, American Libraries, is published 11 times a
Gl Bill to meet rising educational costs. year.Other periodicals include Booklist, Choice, Col-
Critically reviewed by the American Legion lege and Research Libraries, Library Resources and
American Legion Auxiliary is the largest women's Technical Services, RQ, and School Library Media Quar-
patriotic organization in the United States. It is affiliated terly.The ALA publishes an annual yearbook on library
with the American Legion. Women eligible for member- and information services. It also provides information
ship are (1) wives, mothers, sisters, and female descend- about careers in the library field. ALA headquarters are
ants of American Legion members; (2) wives, mothers, at 50 E. Huron Street, Chicago, IL 6061 1.
sisters, and female descendants of men and women Criticallv reviewed by the American Library Association
who died in World Wars and II, the Korean War, the
I See also Library (School library standards).
414 American literature

American literature told about a 1728 surveying expedition

the Dividing Line (published in 1841).
in

The
The History of
"line" divides
the orderly society of Virginia from the less polished
American literature cannot be captured in a simple settlers of North Carolina.
definition. It reflects the many religious, historical, and New England. In 1 620, the Pilgrims founded Plym-
cultural traditions of the American people, one of the outh Colony, the second permanent English settlement
world's most varied populations. It includes poetry, fic- in America. Many Pilgrims belonged to a group of Eng-
tion,drama, and other kinds of writing by authors in lish Protestants called Puritans, who were followers of
what is now the United States. It also includes nonwrit- the religious reformer John Calvin. The Puritans faced
ten material, such as the oral literature of the American persecution in England and came to America mainly to
Indians and folk tales and legends. In addition, Ameri- seek refuge where they could practice their religion.
can literature includes accounts of America written by The Puritans were an intensely intellectual people. Soon
immigrants and visitors from other countries, as well as after arriving, they began founding schools and colleges
works by American writers who spent some or all of and writing and printing books. They wrote histories,
their lives abroad. sermons and other religious writings, and poetry.
This article discusses the literature of what is now the Histories. The Puritans recorded their own history out
United States. For information on the literature of Can- of a desire to communicate with fellow believers in Eng-
ada and Latin America, see the articles Canadian litera- land, to attract new colonists, and to justify their bold
ture and Latin-American literature. move to a new country. In their histories, the Puritans
portrayed their successes as evidence of God's favor
Beginnings of American literature
and their hardships as signs of God's disapproval.
American literature begins with the legends, myths, William Bradford, the second governor of Plymouth
and poetry of the American Indians, the first people to Colony, told the story of the colony in Of Plimoth Planta-
live in what is now the United States. Indian legends in- tion (written between 1630 and 1651 and published in
cluded stories about the origin of the world, the histo- 1 856 as History of Plymouth Plantation).

ries of various tribes, and tales of tribal heroes. With Cotton Mather was the greatest of the Puritan histori-
rare exceptions, this oral literature was not written ans. He wrote more than 400 works on many subjects,
down until the 1800s. including a defense of the witchcraft trials of the 1690s
The earliest writing in America consisted of the jour- in Salem, Mass. But he poured his heart into Magnalia
nals and reports of European explorers and missionar- Christi Americana (1702), a religious history of New Eng-
ies. These early authors left a rich literature describing land that upholds traditional Puritan beliefs.
their encounters with new lands and new civilizations. Religious writings. The Puritans based their religion
They publicized their adventures, described the New on constant study of the Bible. Sermons began with a
World, and tried to attract settlers in works that some- passage from the Bible, followed by an analysis of its
times mixed facts with propaganda. meaning, and then its application to personal and com-
munity life. The greatest Puritan preacher and theolo-
Colonial literature (1608-1764)
gian was Jonathan Edwards. He wrote learned essays re-
Colonists from England and other European countries formulating traditional Calvinist doctrines, but also
began along the eastern coast of North America
settling defending them. Edwards most important book is Free-
in the early 1600 s and created the first American colo- dom of Will (1754). In it, he defended the doctrine of
nial literature. The colonies in Virginia and New England predestination, the idea that God has chosen certain
produced the most important writings in the 1 600s. In souls to be saved.
the 1700s, Philadelphia emerged as the literary center of Poetry. Most critics today rate Edward Taylor as the
the American Colonies. best of the Puritan poets. A clergyman, Taylor composed
Virginia. Captain John Smith wrote what is regarded a series of meditative poems on Scripture readings. He
as the American book, A True Relation of.
first Vir- . . intended the poems to prepare his mind to preach and
ginia (1608). It describes how he and other colonists es- to celebrate Communion. His verse followed the learned
tablished the first permanent English settlement in style of the English metaphysical poets of the 600s. Like 1

America at Jamestown, Va., in 607. Smith told a version

1 them, he mingled everyday words and incidents with
of the famous story of Pocahontas in The Genera// Histo- Biblical language and complex metaphors. Taylors
ric of Virginia, New England, and the Summer Isles poems were not discovered until 1937 and not pub-
(1624). The story claims that Pocahontas, the daughter of lished until 1939.
an Indian chief, saved Smith s life when her father was Although life as a settler was hard, Anne Bradstreet
about to have him killed. found time to write poetry, chiefly for her father and
In The History and Present State of Virginia (1 705), his- husband. Her brother-in-law had her work printed in
torian Robert Beverley wrote about the tragic destruc- London as The Tenth Muse Lately Sprung Up in America
tion of the American Indians. To Beverley, the Indians (1650), the first volume of American poetry ever pub-
represented possibilities for happiness, innocence, har- lished. The resulting publicity made Bradstreet more
mony, and freedom. William Byrd II, a Virginia planter, conscious of her craftsmanship. She began experiment-
ing with meter, imagery, structure, and theme. Several
Poems (16781, a revised second edition, was published
Donald C. Marshall, the contributor of this article, is Profes- after her death. It includes her best poem, Contempla-
sor and Head of the Department of English at the University of
nature poem on the briefness of human life.
tions," a
Illinois at Chicago.
Michael Wigglesworths The Day of Doom (1662) was
 American literature 415

the most popular poem of colonial times. But the poem's Europe's latest literary styles and forms. Gradually, how-
jinglingmeter and threatening theme— about sinners ever, American literature began to reflect American ex-
being sentenced to hell on Judgment Day seem quaint periences.
today. The most successful American writer of the early
Philadelphia was the largest city in the American 1 was Washington Irving. He rose to fame with hu-
BOG'S
Colonies by 1710. It replaced Virginia and New England morous and satiric writing about New York City and its
as the cultural center of the emerging nation. past in the magazine Salmagundi (1807-1 808) and in a
During the 1700's, a greater number of people book, A History of New York from the Beginning of the
learned to read, and a growing press served new liter- World to the End of the Dutch Dynasty (1809). The book
ary tastes. Literature addressed such interests as politics is also called Knickerbocker's History of New York be-

and science. The essay, satire, and novel became impor- cause Irving wrote it under the name Diedrich Knicker-
tant literary forms. bocker. In The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon, Gent.
The publisher, statesman, and scientist Benjamin (1819-1820), Irving combined the style of the essay and
Franklin helped make Philadelphia a center of intellec- the sketch to create the first short stories in American

tual life. Autobiography tells the story of how he ran

His literature. The book includes "Rip Van Winkle" and "The
away from Boston to Philadelphia at the age of 1 7. His Legend of Sleepy Hollow," two of Irving's most famous
rise from "rags to riches" through hard work and self- tales. In "Rip Van Winkle," the title character awakens
improvement became a model for American success. from a 20-year sleep to find everything changed by the
Franklin's writings emphasized practical intelligence and Revolutionary War. Irving's doubts about American in-
material success, balanced by charity and public service. dependence, his hostility toward New England culture,
His worldliness differed greatly from the earnest spiritu- and his desire to maintain cultural ties with England run
ality of the Puritans. Franklin's witty and often satiric through all his early writing.
proverbs made Poor Richard's Almanac, published The poet William Cullen Bryant adapted the style of
yearly from 1 733 to 1 758, one of his most popular publi- English romantic poetry to describe the American land-
cations. scape and to find moral significance in its beauty. Such
poems as "Thanatopsis" (1817), "To a Waterfowl" (1818),
The revolutionary period (1765-1787)
and "To the Fringed Gentian" (1832) reflect Bryant's admi-
During the 1 760"s, a movement to end British rule in ration of nature.
the American Colonies began to gain strength. The
United States became an independent nation by win-
The Era of Expansion (1831-1870)

ning the Revolutionary War in America (1775-1783). During the mid-1 800s, the United States gained con-
Much of the literature of this period addressed issues trol of Texas, California, Oregon, and other Western
relating to American independence. lands. By the 1 850s, the nation stretched from coast to
ThomasPaine, a poor and largely self-taught English- coast. Americans moved westward by the thousands.
man, immigrated to Philadelphia in 1774. He soon be- The Indians who occupied many of these lands were
came famous for his fiery essays in support of the Amer- forced to surrender their claims and to resettle on reser-
ican patriots. His pamphlet Common Sense (1776) called vations. During this period, many American writers glo-
for complete independence from Great Britain. In a se- rified the frontier or praised the beauty of nature. Much
ries of pamphlets called The American Crisis (1776- American literature reflected the optimism of a rapidly
1783), he encouraged the rebels to persist during the growing nation. But other American literature focused
darkest days of the Revolutionary War. on the country's problems, including slavery. In 1861,
The French-born essayist Michel-Guillaume Jean de the Civil War broke out between the North and South
Crevecoeur, also an immigrant to America, helped the chiefly over this issue. The North won the war in 1 865,
colonists think of themselves as Americans rather than and slavery was soon outlawed throughout the United
Europeans. One of the letters in his Letters from an States.
American Farmer (1782) begins with the question "What Two main forms of fiction were practiced by Ameri-
is an American?" Crevecoeur saw America as a new land can writers in the mid-1 80CTs: (1) the sentimental novel
where individuals could throw off old prejudices, suffo- and (2) the romance. Other important literary forms in-
cating social customs, and tyrannical government. cluded nonfiction prose and poetry.
Like many writers of the 1 700"s, Franklin, Paine, and The sentimental novel, which had been developed
Crevecoeur wrote in dignified, but plain and clear, by English author Samuel Richardson in the mid-1 700s,
prose. This style reached its peak in the ringing elo- became immensely popular in the United States in the
quence of the Declaration of Independence written by mid-lSOCs. This type of novel emphasized feelings and
Thomas Jefferson. The same type of writing appears in such values as religious faith, moral virtue, and family
the sober language of the Constitution of the United closeness. Its stress on traditional values appealed to
States, much of which was drafted by Gouverneur Mor- many people during a period of rapid social and politi-
ris. Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay cal change.
used this clear style in The Federalist (1787-1 788), a se- The sentimental novel also urged reform. It became
ries of public letters that persuaded New Yorkers to rat- the means for rousing concern about the plight of black
ify the Constitution. slaves, poor people, and other unfortunate members of
society. Harriet Beecher Stowes Uncle Tom's Cabin
Literature of a young nation (1788-183U)
(1851-1852), a powerful description of the evils of slav-
the early years of United States independence,
In became a best seller. It combined an exciting plot,
ery,
many American writers still patterned their writing after memorable characters, stirring appeals to the emotions,
 416 American Literature

William Bradford (1590-1657! Jonathan Edwards 11703-1758)

Anne Bradstreet I1612?-1672) Benjamin Franklin 11706-17901
Edward Taylor I1642?-1729) Michel-Guillaume Jean de Crevecoeur 1 735-1813)
Cotton Mather H663-1728) Thomas Paine H 737-1 809
Washington Irving (1783-1859)
James Fenimore Cooper 11789-1851)
William Cullen Bryant (1794-1878)
Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882)
Nathaniel Hawthorne 11804-1864)
John Greenleaf Whrttier (1807-1892)
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (1807) 8821
Oliver Wendell Holmes (1809-1894)
Edgar Allan Poe (1809-1849)
Harriet Beecher Stowe 1181 1 -1 896)
Henry David Thoreau II 81 7-1 862!
Herman Melville (1819-1891
James Russell Lowell (1819-1891)
Walt Whitman II 81 9-1 892)
Emily Dickinson (1830-1386)
Mark Twain (1835-19101
William Dean Howells 11837-1920)
Henry lames (1843-19161

The Adventures of Tom Sawyer

(1876)
by Mark Twain

The Crapes of Wrath (1939)

by John Steinbeck

1600 1650 1700 1750 1800 1850

 American literature 417

WORLD BOOK illustrations by Anthony Saris

The Old Man and the Sea (1952)

by Ernest Hemingway

Charles Waddell Chesnutt II 858-1 9321

Edith Wharton (1862-19371
Frank Norris (1870-1902)
Stephen Crane (1871-19001
Theodore Dreiser (1871-1945)
Paul Laurence Dunbar (1872-1906)
WillaCather (1873-1 947)
Robert Frost (1874-19631
Carl Sandburg (1878-1967)
Wallace Stevens (1879-1955)
H.L Mencken (1880-1956)
William Carlos Williams (1883-19631
Sinclair Lewis (1885-1951)
Ezra Pound (1885-1972)
Eugene O'Neill (1888-1953)
Zora Neale Hurston (1891-1960)
E.E. Cummings (1894-1962)

Edmund Wilson (1895-1972)

F. Scott Fitzgerald (1896-1940)
John Dos Passos (1896-1970)
William Faulkner(1897-1962)
Ernest Hemingway (1899-1961)
Allen Tate (1899-1979)
Langston Hughes (1902-1967)
|ohn Steinbeck (1902-1968)
Richard Wright (1908-1960)
EudoraWelty (1909-2001)
Tennessee Williams (191 1-19831
)ohnCheever (1912-19821
John Berryman (1914-1972)
Ralph Ellison (1914-1994)
Saul Bellow (1915- )

Arthur Miller (1915- )

Carson McCullers (1917-1967)

Robert Lowell (1917-1977)
Gwendolyn Brooks (1917-2000)
I.D.Salinger (1919- )

Kurt Vonnegut, Jr. (1922- )

Norman Mailer (1923- )

lames Baldwin (1924-1987)

Flannery O Connor (1925-1964)
Allen Ginsberg (1926-19971
John Ashbery (1927- )

Anne Sexton (1928-1974)

Edward Albee 11928- I

Toni Morrison 11931- )

Sylvia Plath (1932-1963)

|ohn Updike (1932- )

Joyce Carol Oates (1938- )

Alice Walker (1944- )

David Mametl 1947-

1900 1950 2000

418 American literature

and humor. Stage adaptations of the book also drew ders in the Rue Morgue" (1841), Poe invented the mod-
large audiences. ern detective story.
Louisa May Alcott's novel Little Women (1868-18691 Nonaction prose. During the 1830s and 1840s. a lit-

was another best-selling sentimental novel. Based erary and philosophical movement called transcenden-
loosely on the author's own life, it tells the story of four talism developed in New England. The transcendental-
sisters growing up. The story centers on the girls' home ists believed that God was present in nature. They also
and personal life. Two of the sisters fall in love, while Jo, believed that human beings intuitively know what is

the heroine, develops a career as a writer. true, and so they stressed self-reliance and individuality.
The romance. Most people use the term novel'to The transcendentalists included Ralph Waldo Emerson;
refer to any long fictional story in prose. Critics of the Henry David Thoreau; George Ripley; Margaret Fuller;
180ffs, however, distinguished a novel from a romance. and Bronson Alcott, Louisa May Alcott's father.
A romance is a long work of fiction that is less realistic Emerson was the leader of the movement. He kept a
than a novel. Instead of everyday events, a romance de- journal in which he recorded incidents, ideas, and reac-
scribes exciting adventures or strange events. Writers tions to his wide reading. Emerson drew on his journal
often use theromance to explore dark passions or to ex- in such essays as Nature (1 836) and Self-Reliance" (1 841 ),

amine the problem of evil. achieving a prose style that was personal and conversa-
James Fenimore Cooper wrote historical romances ' tional.
that explored the moral uncertainties of Americans' Emerson caught the mood of Americans at the time, a
push westward. In Cooper's romances, such as The Last buoyant optimism and sense that the United States was
of the Mohicans (1826) and The Deerslayer (1841 the ), an exciting new beginning in human history. He urged
beauty and majesty of nature inspire a nearly religious Americans to be independent thinkers and to study life
feeling of awe. But civilization intrudes, and settlers turn directly. Emerson declared that individuals had access
the wilderness into property that they selfishly or to the eternal and ideal truths of nature. He therefore
thoughtlessly misuse. urged Americans to trust their own creative instincts
Nathaniel Hawthorne used the romance to study the and not look to Europe for models.
depths of human nature. Many of hisromances show In Walden (1854), Thoreau described his experiences
the psychological effects of the Puritan focus on sin and living close to nature. The book tells how he built a
evil. The Scarlet Letter (1850), set in Puritan New Eng- cabin in the woods on the shore of Walden Pond in
land, dramatizes the suffering caused by the conceal- Massachusetts and lived there alone. He read, enter-
ment of sin. tained visitors, worked the land for his food, and re-
Most critics consider the greatest American romance corded his observations in journals. Thoreau's style
to be Herman Melville's Moby-Dick (1 851 Most of the ). shows his sensitive response to the root meanings,
story is set on a whaling describes the hunt for
ship. It sounds, images, and nuances of words.
Moby Dick, a fierce white whale. Ahab, the ship's cap- In 1838, Frederick Douglass escaped from slavery and
tain, has lost his leg in an earlier encounter with Moby fled North. During the early 18405, he joined the aboli-
Dick and is determined to kill the whale. Ahab eventu- tionists. His fiery attacks on slavery made him a famous
ally loses his life in the pursuit. On a symbolic level, the speaker. In the first edition of his autobiography, the
book describes one man's struggle against fate. Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass (1845), Doug-
A type of romance called the Gothic novel influenced lass vividly describes his life as a slave.
the American poet and short-story writer Edgar Allan Poetry. During the 1 800s, the most famous American
Poe. The Gothic novel featured exotic settings and mys- poets were William Cullen Bryant, Henry Wadsworth
terious or supernatural happenings. These novels were Longfellow, James Russell Lowell, John Greenleaf Whit-
called Gothic because they often took place in gloomy tier, and Oliver Wendell Holmes. They were called the

medieval castles. Poe adapted these elements in short- Fireside Poets" or the Schoolroom Poets because their
ened form in the Gothic horror story. He filled his pow- works were most often read by the fireside" at home or
decaying castles, forbidden passions,
erful tales with in school in anthologies (collections of literary works).
and guilt-ridden and insane criminals. With "The Mur- Like the sentimental novelists, these poets concerned

Brown Bros- Brown Bros Portrait bv Thomas C Comer, Mrs Raymond Emerson
Enoch Pratt Free library Baltimore

Nathaniel Hawthorne Henry W. Longfellow Edgar Allan Poe Ralph Waldo Emerson
 American literature 419

themselves with feelings and called for social reform. Realists. Many American writers of the late 180CTs
tdgar Allan Poe wrote haunting, often mournful were inspired by an international literary movement
poems. The Raven' d 845) and Annabel Lee" (1849) ex- called realism. Realism was in part a revolt against ro-
press despair over the death of a woman. Poe s poetry manticism and its idealized portrayal of life. The realists
did not make an immediate impact on American poets. sought to show life as it is. Realism encouraged writers
But he gained a great following in Europe after two im- to examine the problems and conditions around them
portant French poets, Charles Baudelaire and Stephane and to use the language of ordinary people, including
Mallarme, praised and translated his work. Influenced dialects. In this way, it encouraged the emergence of a
by Poe, they in turn inspired several modern American distinctively American literature.
poets including! S. Eliot and Wallace Stevens. The realists explored the new economic conditions
Walt Whitman and Emily Dickinson were the two and often called for social reforms. The American dream
greatest American poets ot the 1800s. Whitman took in- of "rags to riches" success was captured in popular nov-
spiration from Emerson s call for a self-confident Ameri- els by Horatio Alger. But the American realists focused
can literature. He expressed the variety of American life on the harsh underside of this dream. They feared that
in long lines that caught the flow of operatic singing. His success brought greed, materialism, and corruption.
verse often takes the form of rhythmic lists. It sprawls, William Dean hlowells, an influential magazine editor,
seeming improvised. But Whitman also packed his vigorously argued for realism against romanticism and
poems with vivid images and memorable phrases. He sentimentalism. In such novels as The Rise of Silas
wrote in free verse, a style of poetry that avoids regular Lapham (1 885) and A Hazard of New Fortunes (1 890), he
meter and rhyme. Whitman published the first edition of explored the impact of commercial success and failure.
his masterpiece Leaves of Grass, in 1855. Five more en- Many of the realists focused on particular regions of
larged and revised editions of the collection appeared the United States. Bret Harte portrayed the West of the
between 85b and 1882. Leaves of Grass describes the
1 gold rush insuch short stories as "The Luck of Roaring
best and worst of American life, from exuberant democ- Camp" (1 868) and "The Outcasts of Poker Flat" (1 869).
racy to suffering slaves. The longest poem in the collec- Sarah Orne ]ewett's The Country of the Pointed Firs
tion, "Song of Myself, glorifies a spiritual life grounded (1896) shows a rural New England left behind by eco-
in the body and everyday life. nomic development.
Dickinson wrote more than 1,700 short, puzzling Early Southern realists included George Washington
poems in the mid-1 800s. Her subjects were love, death, Cable and Joel Chandler Harris. Cable's The Grandis-
nature, and immortality Only 1 of Dickinson's poems
1 simes (1880) portrays the tragic clash of races and cul-
were printed in her lifetime. After an accurate, complete tures in Louisiana. Harris' Uncle Remus: His Songs and
edition of her poems appeared in 1955, Dickinson's rep- His Sayings (1881) and later collections of stories were
utation and influence rapidly grew. Critics admired her immensely popular. They retell, in dialect, black folklore
precise observations, her complex and unexpected im- and stories. The black writer Charles Waddell Chesnutt's
ages, and her questioning of established religion and The Conjure Woman (1899) is also a collection of folk
authority. tales in dialect.
Naturalists were the most extreme and pessimistic
The Age of Realism (1871-1913)
Unlike the realists, the naturalists believed that
realists.
The Civil War marked a dramatic change in American people could not make moral choices. They showed
life.The war ended slavery, but it left the deeper prob- their characters as completely controlled
by economic,
lem of race relations. After the conflict, the United States social, or biological forces.
turned its energies to economic concerns. Machines re- Hamlin Garland wrote bitterly of the hardships of
placed hand labor as the chief means of manufacturing, Midwestern farmers in Main-Travelled Roads (1891).
and industry grew enormously. The new business activ- Frank Norris described the struggle of California farm-
ity centered in cities, and people moved to them in ers against the powerful railroads in The Octopus (1901).
huge numbers. While some people made fortunes in Upton Sinclair's The Jungle (1906) exposed unsanitary
business, others lived in poverty. conditions in the Chicago meat-packing industry and

VM'll] l,jl!(n\J\ The Trustees ol Amherst

f
Bettmann Archive
College. Amherst Mass

Herman Melville Walt Whitman Emily Dickinson Mark Twain

420 American literature

helped bring about federal regulation. thoughts flowing through the mind of a character.
In such stories as "The Open Boat" 118971 and "The The economist Thorstein Veblen explored social and
Blue Hotel" (1898), Stephen Crane stressed the need for economic issues with biting satire in The Theory of the
courage and generosity in a universe indifferent to Leisure Class (1 899). In The Story of My Life (1903), Helen
human life. His most famous work, The Red Badge of Keller told how she had been helped to overcome
Courage (18951, shows a young soldier in the Civil War, blindness and deafness. Jane Addams' Twenty Years at
wandering in a state of shock and confusion through Hull House (1912) tells of her work among Chicago's Ital-
scenes of battle. ian, Greek, Russian, and other immigrants. As settlement
Theodore Dreiser was the leading American natural- in the West became more widespread, many Americans

ist. His Sister Carrie traces a young woman's rise to suc- wanted to preserve the unspoiled wilderness. In The
cess and social prominence despite her violation of Mountains of California (1894) and other books, the nat-
moral codes. Her fate contrasts with her first lover's de- uralist John Muir described the American wilderness as
cline into poverty and suicide. Although Sister Carrie God's temple and attacked threats to its preservation.
was printed the publisher refused to advertise
in 1900, One of the most notable nonfiction prose writers of
or distribute the book because his wife thought it lacked this period was the historian Henry Adams. In his auto-
a sense of right and wrong. Another publisher issued it biography, The Education of Henry Adams (privately
in 1912. printed in 1907, published in 1918), Adams contrasted
Mark Twain and Henry James are considered by the power of religion in the Middle Ages with the
critics as the two greatest American novelists of the late power of science in the modern world.
1 800s. Twain's Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1 876) de- Two prominent black leaders disagreed on the best
scribes the adventures of a clever and mischievous boy course for black advancement. In his autobiography, Up
and his friend Huck Finn. Adventures of Huckleberry from Slavery (1901), educator Booker T. Washington
Finn (1884) continues the story. It narrates the adven- urged blacks to temporarily suspend their demands for
tures ofHuck and the runaway slave Jim as they float equal rights in exchange for vocational education and
down the Mississippi River on a raft. In this book, Twain jobs. He predicted that blacks would achieve equal
contrasts nature— where a white boy and a black man rights once they gained economic power. But historian
can become friends— with the hypocrisy of civilization and sociologist W. E. B. Du Bois challenged what he re-
along the shore. Twain also satirized the styles of writing garded as Washington's surrender of rights for eco-
that dominated earlier American literature. nomic gain. Du Bois refused all compromises. He in-
Henry James left the United States in his 30s and set- sisted that the problem of the twentieth century is the
tled in England. In his study of Hawthorne (1879),he ar- problem of the color line."
gued that the lack of a rich cultural tradition made
American novels thin and abstract. James wrote novels
The world wars and depression (1914-1945)

of manners, which first appeared in England in the late In 1914, World War broke out in Europe. In 1917, the
I

1700s. Novels of manners depict realistic characters and United States entered the war against Germany, which
scenes and describe the customs of a particular social was defeated in 1918. After the war, the United States
class. In many of James's works, American characters economy boomed. But prosperity did not last. A stock
travel to Europe, where their innocence and integrity market crash in 1929 led to the Great Depression, a
clash with a culture that is attractive but sometimes cor- deep economic slump in the 1930s.
rupt. In 777e Portrait of a Lady(\%%\), a young American In 1939, World War II began in Europe. The United
discovers too late the immorality of her husband, an States fought in the war from 1941 to 1945 and played an
American who has immigrated to Italy. James's style important role in defeating Germany and Japan.
grew more complex in later novels. He traced with in- About the time of World War I, an international artis-
creasing detail the psychological and moral problems of tic movement called modernism emerged in Europe.

his intelligent and self-conscious characters. Modernist artists believed that the traditional social, re-
Women writers. Kate Chopin powerfully portrayed a ligious, and political order had broken down. They felt
woman's psychological and sexual development in The that realism could not adequately describe how greatly
Awakening (1899). However, the hostile reaction to the
novel ended Chopin's career.
Edith Wharton was a close friend of James's. Like him,
she wrote novels of manners. But many of them have
American, instead of European, settings. Wharton be-
came known for her keen moral and psychological ex-
amination of characters. The House of Mirth (1905) ex-
poses the selfishness and materialism of upper-class
society in New York City.
Nonfiction writers also flourished in the United
States after the Civil War. The philosopher William
James, brother of Henry James, wrote powerfully on
many subjects, including religion and psychology. In
The Principles of Psychology (1890), James invented the
phrase stream-of-consciousness and thus sparked the
development of a new fictional technique. In this tech- Karsh Onawa

nique, the writer tracks the shifting feelings and Henry lames Ernest Hemingway
 American literature 421

modern life differed from the past. As a result, they

sought stylistic innovations that could better portray new
realities.

The American writers who lived in Europe around the

time of World War made important contributions to
I

modernism. Their influence extended to writers in the

United States. The Great Depression led some writers of
the period to focus on social or economic issues.
Modernist poetry leaves out the explanations and
narrative connections that provide unity and clarity in
traditional writing. mixes everyday language with ele-
It

gant phrases and short quotations from earlier poems.

Modernist poets placed contradictory feelings and Robert Frost Carl Sandburg
events side by side to evoke the disconnectedness of
modern life.
Modernism was influenced by a poetic movement now-dead inhabitants of an imaginary Midwestern town
called imagism, which
from 1908 to 191 7. Imagist
lasted tell their lifeVachel Lindsay used strong, chant-
stories.
poetry was characterized by precise images and a spare- like rhythms in such poems as "General William Booth
ness of expression. The most important imagist poets Enters into Heaven" (1913) and The Congo" (1914). Carl
were Ezra Pound, Amy Lowell, and Hilda Doolittle, who Sandburg was influenced by Whitman in his use of
wrote under the initials H. D. plain, everyday language. He aimed to help readers un-
T S. Eliot, one of the first modernists, moved to Lon- derstand the lives of common people. Robinson jeffers
don in he became friends with Pound, who
1914. There, undertook such themes as human corruption and indus-
had already settled in Europe. Together, Eliot and Pound trial society's destruction of nature.
discovered and absorbed a wide range of poetic tradi- The poems of Robert Frost, such as "Mending Wall''
tions. They developed many of the features of modernist (1914) and "Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening"
poetry and made them well known. (1923), are simple and readable on the surface. But they
Eliot mastered the modernist style in The Love Song reveal complex feelings, often through subtle irony and
of J. Alfred Prufrock" (1915). His long poem The Waste dry expressed in ordinary language the puz-
wit. Frost
Z.a/7c/(1922) created an uproar. This complex, pessimistic zling hints of doubt and uncertainty that haunt everyday
reflection on the emptiness of modern life seemed a incidents. These feelings connect him to modernism, de-
masterpiece to some but bewildering to others. Eliot spite his traditional meter, rhyme, and verse forms.
gradually gained a widespread influence in modern po- Paul Laurence Dunbar was perhaps the first black
etry. In many critical essays, he redefined the way peo- American to achieve national recognition as a writer of
ple thought about literature. both poetry and fiction. Many of his poems use standard
Pound's long poem Cantos, published in several in- English and traditional meter, but he achieved greater
stallments from 1925 to 1968, reflects on poetry and the fame for his portraits in dialect of black life in the South.
course of European and American history. Pound was The Lost Generation. A number of writers joined the
also important as a critic, vigorously promoting a wide flourishing arts community in Paris after World War I.

range of ancient and modern poets. Many of these newcomers gathered around the
to Paris
Several important modernist poets emerged in the novelist and critic Gertrude Stein, who had settled there
United States. Hart Crane's The Bridge (1930) weaves before the war. She described these disillusioned writ-
American images and themes, such as the Brooklyn ers as a "lost generation. Her experiments with prose
Bridge, into a visionary modernist poem. Wallace Ste- rhythm, fractured sentence structure, and disconnected
vens's philosophical poems explore the relation of imag- narrative were challenging and influential.
ination to reality. Two of themost important writers of the Lost Genera-
A groupof Southern poets used the modernist style tion were Ernest Hemingway and F. Scott Fitzgerald.
to encourage the preservation of traditional Southern Hemingway's The Sun Also Rises (1 926) describes these
culture. These poets included Allen Tate, John Crowe uprooted Americans in a desperate search for some-
Ransom, and Robert Penn Warren. They were called the thing to believe in after the destruction caused by the
Fugitives because of their contributions to the poetry war. short stories that some critics still consider his
In

magazine The Fugitive, published from 1922 to 1925. finest work, Hemingway crafted a bare, blunt prose that
William Carlos Williams celebrated everyday objects sought to clear away the emptiness of old ideas and val-
and experiences in short poems and an epic, Paterson ues. His prose style has inspired many imitators.
(1946-1958). He favored a clean, direct style that would Fitzgerald focused on American life in the Roaring
capture the individuality of the subject matter. E. E. Cum- Twenties, also called the Jazz Age. In short stories and in
mings experimented with the physical form of poems, such novels as The Great Gatsby (1925) and Tender Is the
particularly punctuation, capitalization, and spacing on Night (1934), he showed how the values of the American
the page. dream had been corrupted by materialism and class di-
Realist poetry. Some poets of the early and mid- sense and way of com-
visions. Fitzgerald's strong visual
1900s practiced realism rather than modernism. Edwin posing a story into scenes showed the influence of early
Arlington Robinson's best poems are realist portraits of motion pictures.
bleak and wasted lives in a New England village. In Modernist fiction. Modernism led writers of fiction
Edgar Lee Masters Spoon River Anthology (1915), the to reexamine the techniques of storytelling. Writers
422 American literature

began to strip away descriptions of scenes and charac- traces a black woman's steady growth
in insight and

ters, explanations, direct statements of theme, and sum- spiritual strength.Her characters are vivid, realistic mix-
maries of the plot. A few writers experimented with tures of strength and weakness. Locke wrote several
prose styles as fragmented and difficult as some mod- nonfiction works on African American culture.
ern poetry. Satirists. Sinclair Lewis' novel Main Street (1920) is a
Some regard William Faulkner as the greatest
critics biting satire on small-town life in the early 1900s. Bab-
American novelist of the 190fJs. Faulkner set most of his bitt (1922) mocks the businessmen of such communities,
novels, such as The Sound and the Fury 1 929) and As I
( ridiculing their civic boosterism and their equation of
Lay Dying (1930), in the imaginary Mississippi county of progress" with real estate development. In 1930, Lewis
Yoknapatawpha. He saw slavery and racism as the great became the first American writer to win a Nobel Prize
sins haunting Southern history. He believed the South for literature.
fought heroically in the Civil War but for an evil cause. The sometimes savagely critical journalism of H. L
Faulkners Southerners live with this heritage of guilt Mencken also satirized American life. Mencken, whose
and useless, misguided nobility. Faulkner absorbed all articles were collected in a six-volume series titled Prej-
the techniques of modernist storytelling. His style is udices (1919-1927), voiced his disgust with middle-class
symbolic, lyric, and sometimes eloquent. He evoked the life and values. In The American Language (1919, with

contradictory feelings of his characters through frag- several later editionsl, he described and praised the
mented and difficult plois. Faulkner often employed the American version of English.
stream-of-consciousness technique. Realist fiction. In O Pioneers! (1 91 3) and My Antonia
The Harlem Renaissance. During the early 190fJs, (19181, Willa Cather described frontier life in Nebraska.
began to flour-
particular!) in the 192fJs. black literature Each story in Sherwood Anderson s Winesburg, Ohio
ish in Harlem, a district of New York City. This move- (1919) explores, from a psychological viewpoint, a differ-
ment became known as the Harlem Renaissance. It was ent personality in a small Ohio town. Ole Rolvaag s Gi-
also called the New Negro after the title of an anthology ants in the Earth 11927; published first as two books in

collected by educator and writer Alain Locke. The major 1924 and 1925 in Norway) concerns Norwegian immi-
writers of the Harlem Renaissance were Sterling A. grants in the Midwest. William Saroyan s novels portray
Brown, Countee Cullen, )essie Redmon Fauset, Langston the Armenian-American community in Fresno, Califor-
Hughes, Zora Neale Hurston, James Weldon Johnson nia. Thomas Wolfe studied American morals and values
Alain Locke, Claude McKay, and Jean Toomer. in four huge, poetic novels. Each novel, beginning with
Johnsons Gods Trombones (1927) consists of seven Look Homeward, Angel (1 929). is based on Wolfe s own
'

black sermons set in verse. His poetry s dramatic and life. James T. Farrell s Studs Lonigan series (1932-19351

musical qualities also reflect his experience writing describes the harsh life of working-class people in Chi-

songs for the musical theater. McKay was one of the cago. One most powerful realist novels is John
of the
most powerful black poets. He began with poems in dia- Steinbecks The Grapes of Wrath 11939), which depicts
lect. Later, he wrote highly formal but emotional verse, the sufferings of Dust Bowl farmers who migrate from
often on explosive topics. Hughes made a deliberate ef- Oklahoma to California during the Great Depression.
fort to bring the rhythms of African American music into The black writer Richard Wright's Native Son 11940) tells
poetry. Brown used dialect in subtly varied ways both to the story of a poor young black man driven to brutal vio-
protest against racial prejudice and to express pride in lence by the hatred and prejudice he meets in a white
the distinctive cultural tradition of African Americans. world.
Cullen was mainly a lyric poet, but he sometimes used During the 1920s and 1930s, many writers and critics
verse to protest racism. debated the relation between literature and social or
Black prose writers also flourished during the Harlem political change. Particularly because of the depression,
Renaissance. Toomers Cane (19231 is a sophisticated many writers felt a responsibility to address economic
mixture of short stories, sketches, poetry, and a play. and social problems. These authors often used journal-
Hurston collected African American folk tales and be- istic techniques to educate a wide audience about

came well known as a skilled oral storyteller. Her best- needed reforms. Other writers, such as John Dos Pas-
known novel, Their Eyes Were Watching God (1937), sos, experimented with new forms and styles. In his tril-
ogy The 42nd Parallel'(1930), 7575(1932), and The Big
Money U9i6)- published together as U.SA. in 1938-
Dos Passos aimed to portray American society fully and
realistically. His novels include what he called News-
reels, which use newspaper headlines, words from pop-
ular songs, and advertisements to surround characters
and action.
Dashiell Hammett and Raymond Chandler pioneered
the hard-boiled" detective novel during the 1930s. The
hard-boiled hero is usually a tough, streetwise private
detective who sometimes uses illegal methods to solve
crimes.
Drama. Most American plays of the 700s and 800s 1 1

were sentimental comedies or melodramatic tragedies.

Random Housi Eugene O Neill broke this tradition in the 1920s. Early in
William Faulkner Eugene O'Neill his career, he created highly realistic plays. He wrote
 American literature 423

about the criminals, homeless, alcoholics, laborers, art- Gary Snyder's poetry reflects his interest in Asian cul-
ists, and radicals he had encountered in several years of ture and in the relation of human beings to their envi-
drifting. These characters spoke in crude, slangy, but ronment. Snyder's poems are collected in Myths and
lively language. Gradually, O'Neill's plays grew longer, Texts (1 960), Turtle Island
'

(1 974), and other volumes.

and he experimented more boldly with artistic tech- Frank O'Hara led a group of poets centered in New
niques. He moved toward a more symbolic, stylized the- York City. His poems read like improvised and casual
ater that could express his characters' inner emotions. records of quickly changing and scattered urban life.
He turned toward autobiographical material for his final John Ashbery, a member of the New York group, wrote
plays, such as Long Day's Journey into Night (written poems that reflect the influence of modern art and
from 1939 to 1941 and first performed in 1956) and A music. Many of his poems hint at their subject only indi-
Moon for the Misbegotten (written from 1 941 to 1 943 and vaguely.
rectly
and first performed in 1957). James Merrill began his career with polished formal
During the 1930"s, vigorous debates took place over verse, often autobiographical but highly restrained. The
the purpose of drama. Some playwrights wanted the Changing Light at Sandover (1982) is a record of mes-
theater to be a force for social reform. Others concen- sages from a Ouija board, a device supposedly used to
trated on experimental technique, and still others aimed communicate with the dead.
at frankly escapist and commercially successful work. A. R. Ammons experimented with verse form and
Clifford Odets' Waiting for Lefty (1935) and Awake and punctuation, seeking a language to express the interac-
5//7<7/(1935) attack social problems of the time. Lillian tion betweena scene being observed and an observer.
Hellman's plays, such as The Children's Hour (1934) and W. Merwin's haunting phrases express his concern
S.

The Little Foxes (1939), explore the destructiveness of with political and ecological issues.
greed, materialism, and sexual repression in American Elizabeth Bishop s highly regarded poems are formal
life. Elmer Rice's The Adding Machine (1 923) is a satire and self-restrained, but express powerful personal feel-
on the growing mechanization of humanity. In Our ings and experiences. Questions of Travel (1965) and Ge-
Town (1938), Thornton Wilder used uncommon staging ography III (1976) explore themes of travel, exile, and re-
techniques, such as the absence of scenery or a curtain, sponse to exotic landscapes. Robert Penn Warren
to balance a somewhat sentimental picture of small- gained fame as a novelist but also wrote verse. His
town New England life. poems center on history, memory, and the effort to deal
with time's erosive power.
Literature since 1945
"Confessional poetry."
Some poets began to write po-
After World War ended in 1945, the United States
II etry, sometimes called "confessional" poetry, that was
underwent many changes. The economy prospered, but more personal and emotional. Robert Lowell's Life
the gulf between the rich and the poor widened. The Studies (1959) and John Berryman's 77 Dream Songs
black rights movement gathered strength in the
civil (1 964) speak frankly of their troubled lives. Theodore

196CTs. Other groups, including women, also began to Roethke explored the themes of growth and childhood
demand fuller rights. The United States remained an im- in elegantly written poems. Sylvia Plath sometimes used
portant world power but was criticized for its participa- the Holocaust, the mass murder of European Jews by
tion in the Vietnam War (1957-1975) and for its influence the Nazis during World War II, as a metaphor for per-
abroad. Much American literature was concerned with sonal crisis. Anne Sexton wrote about her mental illness
these economic and social changes. in a direct and open style. Adrienne Rich moved from
Poetry. By the 195(Ts, modernism was the dominant formal verse to steadily deeper probings of her con-
form. A generation of poets, including Robert Lowell, sciousness as a woman.
John Berryman, and Theodore Roethke, thoroughly mas- The black experience became the subject of many
tered modernist techniques. poets in the 1950"s and 1960/s. The early poetry of Gwen-
Variations on modernist poetry. A number of poets dolyn Brooks showed her skill in traditional rhyming
and groups developed poetic styles that were variations verse and forms like the sonnet, a 14-line poem with a
on modernism. One group, called the Black Mountain formal arrangement of rhymes. Yet her words drew on
poets, gathered around Charles Olson at Black Moun- oral black preaching and street talk. She described the
tain College, an experimental arts school in Black Moun-
tain, N.C.Olson sought to give poetry a physical imme-
diacy. In The Maximus Poems (1953-1975), he let the
rhythm of his own breathing determine the length of his
verse lines. Robert Creeley, Robert Duncan, and Denise
Levertov carried forward Olson's style of verse, seeking
an "open" form that could admit a range of experiences,
feelings, and insights.
A group called the beat poets condemned the failings
of American society and turned poetry into a powerful
tool of social protest. The beat poets shared a disgust
with false values and a desire to achieve spiritual eleva-
tion. One of the most important beat poets was Allen
Ginsberg. Ginsberg's Howl (1956) describes spiritual
ecstasy and the torments of urban life in long lines influ- Bob Black Chicago Oath Vrn
enced by Whitman and William Carlos Williams. Robert Lowell Gwendolyn Brooks
424 American literature

ordinary lives of blacks and the injustices they suffered. grotesque characters. Among these writers were Carson
In the 1960s, with the rise of the civil rights move- McCullers and Flannery O Connor. McCullers depicted
ment, many African Americans rejected earlier hopes the pain of loneliness in many of her works, including
for an integrated society and began to call for a separate The Member of the Wedding (1946) and The Ballad of
black culture. LeRoi Jones s early poems express the the Sad Cafe (1951). In brilliant short stories and in such
personal agonies of living in a prejudiced world. But he novels as Wise Blood i]952) and The Violent Bear It
increasingly saw the problem as social, not personal. He Away (1960), O'Connor presented grotesque characters
began to write plays and helped start the Black Arts and disturbed behavior in a darkly comic style.
movement. The movement rejected the literary forms Eudora Welty sets most of her novels and short sto-
and values of white culture, instead founding magazines ries in her native Mississippi. In her works, comic and
and institutions to support writing that reflected black satiric twists lighten the impact of odd characters or mo-
experience. As Jones became more politically active, he ments of violence. Walker Percy was strongly influenced
changed his name to Imamu Ameer Baraka, then to by European philosophy, especially a movement called
Amiri Baraka, to reflect his African heritage. existentialism, which stresses that individuals must
Fiction and other prose. In the postwar period, choose their own way to live and act. His novels, includ-
many writers continued to create realist fiction. Several ing The Moviegoer 11961) and The Second Coming
authors drew their subjects from World War II, includ- (1980), humorously take up the existential themes of
ing James Jones, Norman Mailer, Irwin Shaw, and Her- alienation and the search for self-fulfillment.
man Wouk. Others described regions of the country or Experimental styles. The stylistic experiments of the
the experiences of certain age groups or races. John modernists opened the way for a technique called self-
Cheever and John O Hara wrote about suburban life in reflexive fiction, an innovative manipulation of language
New England, New York, and Pennsylvania. J. D. Salinger and narrative. Self-reflexive fiction often calls attention
exposed the shortcomings of the adult world as seen to the act of writing itself. For example, it may comment
through the eyes of a New York teen-ager in The on or even argue with and address or even mock
itself

Catcher in the #/e(1951). James Baldwin wrote about the the reader. Self-reflexive fiction and other experimental
black experience in such novels as Go Tell It on the techniques became common among postwar authors. In
Mountain (1953) and Another Country (1962). Ralph Elli- The Sot-Weed Factor WW), Chimera (1972), and other
son, in Invisible Man(\S52), provided a haunting picture works, John Barth created wild comedies mingling an-
of African American life in the United States. John Up- cient myth, history, and highly unreliable autobiography.
dike examined the materialism of middle-class American Thomas Pynchon's massive Gravity's Rain bow (1 973) is
life in the four-volume Rabbit" series, from Rabbit Run a fantastic reimagining of World War II filtered through
(1960) to Rabbit at Rest11990). Joyce Carol Oates pro- the social concerns of the early 1970s. Joseph Heller's
duced a large body of fiction that ranged from realistic Catch-22[\3h\\ and Kurt Vonnegut's Slaughterhouse-
stories of urban life to nightmarish novels. F/Ve(1969) use dark comedy to satirize the self-
Saul Bellow is one of the most widely respected post- satisfaction they felt resulted from the war. Ken Kesey's
war novelists. His early work, such as Henderson the One Flew over the Cuckoos Atejf (1962) uses a mental
Rain King\\9o3\, is exuberant and comic. His later novels hospital and a con-man hero as symbols of modern
focus on mature, thoughtful men who experience and American society. The Polish-born Jerzy Kosinski's child-
reflect on the problems of modern life. hood experiences during World War II inspired the gro-
The beat novelist Jack Kerouac's On the Road M 957) tesque violence of The Painted Bird 1965). The same
'

tells of young rebels against the boredom and pointless- memories haunt the dark comedy of his later novels set
ness of daily life who wander the United States in a in the United States, including Being 7"/7erel1971).

search for meaning. Kerouac's strongly rhythmic flow of In Mumbo Jumbo (1972) and other works, the black

words creates an impression of spontaneity and impro- writer Ishmael Reed drew a satiric and disorienting pic-
visation, like that in jazz. ture of race relations and other aspects of modern life.
Southern fiction. A number of Southern writers, influ- In Snow l4//?/te(1967), The Dead Father (197'5), and other

enced by Faulkner, focused on the poor, outcasts, or books, Donald Barthelme aimed to unsettle readers

Ralph Ellison Joyce Carol Oates Saul Bellow Kurt Vonnegut

 American literature 425

by violating conventions of ture. Wolfe also wrote fiction, satirizing modern Ameri-
realistic storytelling. can culture in the novel 777e Bonfire of the Vanities
John Hawkes used ex- (1987).
perimental and self- Drama. The leading playwrights after World War II
reflexive styles in The Lime were Tennessee Williams and Arthur Miller. Williams'
TwigC\961) and other nov- drama often shows a conflict between sensitive, poetic
The Russian-born Vla-
els. individuals and the brutality and coarseness of modern
dimir Nabokov won fame life. His plays are basically realistic psychological por-
for his brilliant language traits. 777e C/a55 Menagerie (1945) and A Streetcar
and self-reflexive tech- Named Desire (1947) are his most famous. His later work
niques such novels as
in explores grotesque and sometimes disturbed behavior.
Zo//Ta(1958; published in Miller's Death of a Salesman (1949) lends tragic dignity
1955 in France), Pale Fire to the anguish of Willy Loman, a traveling salesman.
and Ada (1969).
(1962), William Styron Loman is destroyed by accepting popularity and mate-

Some postwar writers rial success as the highest values in life.

blend fiction with historic fact. Truman Capote's In Cold In Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf;'(1962) Edward ,

Blood {1966) employed powerful narrative skills to

his Albee explored with biting wit and grotesque humor
tell the story of a brutal multiple murder. Norman Mai- how love and cruelty are entangled within marital rela-
ler's best work has been journalistic and autobiographi- tionships and friendships. Albee also adapted the style
cal, in particular The Armies of the Night(\968), about a of the theater of the absurd'in plays that probed social
mass demonstration against the Vietnam War. The nov- and personal problems, such as The Zoo Story (1959).
elist William Styron gave a fictional version of a slave re- Theater of the absurd was a drama movement of the
volt in Virginia in 1831 in The Confessions of Nat Turner 1950s and 1960s that stressed the absurdity and lack of
(1967). E. L Doctorow used both fictional and real-life meaning the authors saw in modern life.
characters in his reimaginings of American history. During the 1950s and 1960s, black theater often took
Works by minority writers. The civil rights movement up political themes. Lorraine Hansberry's A Raisin in the
of the 1960s brought forth a number of popular autobi- Sun (1959) is a realistic portrait of a black family who
ographies, including The Autobiography of Malcolm X move They must find the courage to
into a white area.
(1965, edited by Alex Haley), Claude Brown's Manchild in resist white prejudice and claim the right to realize their
the Promised Land (1965), and Eldridge Cleaver's Soul on hopes. James Baldwin's Blues for Mister Charlie (1 964)
Ice (1 968). Haley's Roots: The Saga of an American Family traces the racial myths that trap both blacks and whites.
(1976) traces his family's history back through American The poet Amiri Baraka also wrote plays, promoting
slaves to his African ancestors. black nationalism and expressing anger at whites in
The black novelist Toni Morrison wrote about the such dramas as Dutchman (1964), The Slave (1964), and
lives of black women in the North in such novels as Sula Slave Ship i]967).
(1973), Tar Baby C\S%\), and Beloved 11987). The black August Wilson has written powerfully on the black
writer Alice Walker won fame with the novel The Color experience in America in the 1900s in a cycle of plays.
Purple (1982).Walker has presented a range of black The Piano Lesson (1987) describes the conflict between a
characters, some heroic, but others deeply flawed, par- brother and sister over whether to sell or keep the fam-
ticularly black men who treat women unfairly. Like Mor- ilyheirloom, a piano.
rison, she has increasingly found an exuberantly cre- Ntozake Shange's For Colored Girls Who Have
In

ative language and storytelling technique. Considered Suicide/When the Rainbow Is Enuf'(1 976),
N. Scott Momaday, a writer of Kiowa and Cherokee seven women dance, sing, and recite poetry. Their per-
ancestry, used varied modern narrative techniques in formances create a collage of black women's feelings
House Made of Dawn (1968), the story of an alienated and experiences.
American Indian veteran of World War Ceremony II. In plays such as The Basic Training ofPav/o Hummel

(1977), by Pueblo Indian novelist Leslie Marmon Silko, (1971) and Sticks and Bones (1971), David Rabe portrayed
tells about another World War II Indian veteran. This

young man, torn by the conflict between ancient Indian

ways and modern white ways and shattered by his com-
bat experiences, is gradually healed by an Indian cere-
mony. Maxine Hong Kingston's The Woman Warrior
(1976) blends fiction with fact to express the complex ex-
perience of growing up as a Chinese-American woman.
Essays. Such critics as Irving Howe, Lionel Trilling,
and Edmund Wilson played an important role from the
1930s to the 1950s in shaping the public understanding
of literature and in popularizing important new intellec-
tual movements. In the 1960s and 1970s, Susan Sontag
tried to clarify the leading features of contemporary art.
The journalist Tom Wolfe used an exuberant, inven-
tive style to report on popular culture during the 1960s
and 1970s. His writing included cutting satire of those G Bnan Unikt'r from Altred A Knopl Mil Krementz

who pursued fashion in politics and modern architec- Toni Morrison Edward Albee
426 American literature

the disillusionment of soldiers in the Vietnam War. Sam Melville, Herman Transcendentalism
Shepard s dramas, such as True l/Kesf(1980) and Fool for Poe, Edgar Allan Uncle Tom s Cabin
Love (1983), are bitter explorations of family relationships Stowe, Harriet Beecher Whitman, Walt
Thoreau, Henry David Whittier, John Greenleaf
and the dominant values in American society and poli-
tics. David Mamet's plays, including American Buffalo The Age of Realism (1871-1913)
(1975) and Glengarry Glen Ross (1983), are noted for their Short-story and prose writers

vigorous dialogue, often profane and rapidly exploding Adams, Henry Brooks Henry, O.
into arguments. Addams, Jane Holmes, Oliver Wendell
Ade, George James, William
The study of American literature Bierce, Ambrose Jewett, Sarah Orne
Billings, Josh Keller, Helen
During the 1920s, American literature began to be- Burroughs, John Muir, John
come an important field in higher education. Critics and Dunne, Finley Peter Nasby, Petroleum V.
scholars such as Norman Foerster and Bliss Perry played Freeman, Mary E. Wilkins Nye, Bill
Garland, Hamlin Stockton, Frank R.
a key role in editing texts and creating anthologies for
Hale, Edward Everett Tyler, Moses Coit
use in classes. The need to define a curriculum (course
Harris, Joel Chandler Veblen, Thorstein
of study) led to the designation of some works as "clas- Harte, Bret Ward, Artemus
sics" every student should read. Books that did not win Hearn, Lafcadio
this designation were often neglected.
Novelists
Scholars also began to seek common themes that uni-
Alger, Horatio Dreiser, Theodore
fied and distinguished American literature. In a series of
Bellamy, Edward Eggleston, Edward
books during the early 1900 s, Van Wyck Brooks Cable, George Washington Frederic, Harold
stressed the features and outlook that distinguished Chesnutt, Charles Waddell Grey, Zane
American from European writing. Historian Perry Chopin, Kate Howells, William Dean
Millers two-volume The New England Mind {}93>9-1952>) Crane, Stephen London, Jack
was influential in studies of literature. In that work, Mill- De Forest, John Twain, Mark

er traced American culture to the Puritan tension be- Dramatists

tween commercial and religious values and between in- Cohan, George M. Gillette, William Moody, William
dividualism and community. Fitch, Clyde Heme, James A Vaughn
Educators today have sought to broaden the defini-
Poets
tion and scope of American literature. They believe that
the past study of American literature concentrated too
Bates, Katharine Lee Lazarus, Emma
Field, Eugene Markham, Edwin
heavily on white male writers whose works were con- Kilmer, Joyce Miller, Joaquin
sidered "classics. Teachers and critics today pay more Lanier, Sidney Riley, James Whitcomb
attention to works by blacks and other minority groups,
The world wars and depression (1914-1945)
and women. There is also greater interest in nontradi- Short-story and prose writers
tional forms of literature, including journals and other
Anderson, Sherwood Parker, Dorothy
unpublished writing. Donald C. Marshall
Barzun, Jacques Porter, Katherine Anne
Related articles. See Literature for children and its list of Bradford, Roark Runyon. Damon
Related articles. See also the following: Brooks, Van Wyck Santayana, George
Day, Clarence Saroyan, William
Colonial literature (1608-1 764)
De Voto, Bernard Stein, Gertrude
Bay Psalm Book Mather, Cotton Dobie, J. Frank Tate, Allen
Bradford, William (1590-1657) Mather, Richard Gale, Zona Thurber, James
Bradstreet, Anne Dudley Poor Richard s Almanac Lardner, Ring Toomer, Jean
Byrd, William, II Smith, John Locke, Alain LeRoy Welty, Eudora
Edwards, Jonathan Taylor, Edward Lovecraft, H. P. White, E. B.
Franklin, Benjamin Wigglesworth, Michael Marquis, Don Wilson, Edmund
Great Awakening Mencken, H. L
The revolutionary period ( 1 765-1 787) Novelists
Crevecoeur, Michel- Paine,Thomas Adams, Samuel Fitzgerald, F. Scott
Guillaume Jean de Warren, Mercy Otis Hopkins Gardner, Erie Stanley
Federalist, The Wheatley, Phillis Algren, Nelson Glasgow, Ellen
Freneau, Philip Woolman, John Allen, Hervey Hammett, Dashiell
Bromfield, Louis Hecht. Ben
Literature of a young nation (1788-1830) Buck, Pearl Hemingway, Ernest
Brown, Charles Brockden Payne, John Howard Burroughs, Edgar Rice Heyward, DuBose
Bryant, William Cullen Rip Van Winkle Cabell, James Branch Hurston, Zora Neale
Dunlap, William Tyler, Royall Cain, James La Farge, Oliver
Irving, Washington Weems, Mason Locke Caldwell, Erskine Lewis, Sinclair
Cather, Willa Marquand, John P.
The Era of Expansion (1 831 -1 870) Chandler, Raymond McCullers, Carson
Alcott, Louisa May Fuller, Margaret Cozzens, James Gould McKay, Claude
Cooper, James Fenimore Hale, Edward Everett Dos Passos, John Miller, Henry
Dana, Richard Henry, Jr. Hawthorne, Nathaniel Dreiser, Theodore Mitchell, Margaret
Dickinson, Emilv Longfellow, Henry Farrell, James T. Nordhoff and Hall
Emerson, Ralph Waldo Wadsworth Faulkner, William Norris, Frank
Frietchie, Barbara Lowell, James Russell Ferber. Edna O Hara John
 American literature 427

Queen, Ellery Stuart, Jesse McBain, Ed Puzo, Mario Updike, John

Rawlings, Marjorie Kinnan Tarkington, Booth McKay, Claude Rand, Ayn Uris,Leon
Richter, Conrad Van Dine, S. S. McMurtry, Larry Roth, Philip Vidal,Gore
Rinehart, Mary Roberts West, Nathanael Michener, James Salinger, J.
D. Vonnegut, Kurt
Roth, Henry Wharton, Edith Morrison, Toni Shaw, Irwin Walker, Alice
Sinclair, Upton Wolfe, Thomas Nabokov, Vladimir Stegner, Wallace Welty, Eudora
Steinbeck, John Wright, Richard Norton, Andre Styron, William West, Jessamyn
Stout, Rex Oates, Joyce Theroux, Paul Wiesel, Elie
Carol Tyler, Anne Wouk, Herman
Dramatists
Ozick, Cynthia
Anderson, Maxwell Kelly, George
Dramatists
Barry, Philip Kingsley, Sidney
Behrman, S. N. Lindsay, Howard Albee, Edward Miller, Arthur
Connelly, Marc Luce, Clare Boothe Baraka, Amiri Shepard, Sam
Claspell, Susan Odets, Clifford Hansberry, Lorraine Simon, Neil
Green, Paul O'Neill, Eugene Inge, William Wasserstein, Wendy
Hart, Moss Rice, Elmer Mamet, David Williams, Tennessee
Hecht, Ben Sherwood, Robert McNally, Terrence Wilson, August
Hellman, Lillian Van Druten, John
Poets
Howard, Sidney Wilder, Thornton
Kaufman, George S. Ashbery, John Lindbergh, Anne Morrow
Berryman, John Lowell, Robert
Poets
Bishop, Elizabeth McGinley, Phyllis
Aiken, Conrad Masters, Edgar Lee Bly,Robert Merrill, James
Benet, Stephen Vincent Millay, Edna St. Vincent Brodsky, Joseph Merwin, W. S.

Benet, William Rose Monroe, Harriet Brooks, Gwendolyn Olson, Charles

Coffin, Robert P. T. Moore, Marianne Ciardi, John Plath, Sylvia
Crane, Hart Nash, Ogden Creeley, Robert Rexroth, Kenneth
Cullen, Countee Neihardt, John Dickey, James Rich, Adrienne
Cummings, E. E. Pound, Ezra Dove, Rita Roethke, Theodore
Doolittle, Hilda Ransom, John Crowe Duncan, Robert Schwartz, Delmore
Dunbar, Paul Laurence Robinson, Edwin Eberhart, Richard Sexton, Anne
Frost, Robert Arlington Ferlinghetti, Lawrence Shapiro, Karl Jay
Guest, Edgar Sandburg, Carl Ginsberg, Allen Warren, Robert Penn
Hillyer, Robert Stevens, Wallace Giovanni, Nikki Wilbur, Richard
Hughes, Langston Tate, Allen Jarrell, Randall
Jeffers, Robinson Teasdale, Sara
Johnson, James Van Doren, Mark Other related articles

Weldon Williams, William African American Drama Science fiction

Lindsay, Vachel Carlos literature Essay Short story
Lowell, Amy Wylie, Elinor Beat movement Lost Generation Western frontier
MacLeish, Archibald Biography Muckrakers life in

Colonial life in Nobel Prizes America (Litera-

Literature since 1945 America Novel ture)
Short-story and prose writers Westerns
(Literature) Poetry
Agee, James Jackson, Shirley Criticism Pulitzer Prizes Writing
Angelou, Maya McCarthy, Mary Detective story Satire
Asimov, Isaac O Connor, Flannery
Outline
Bradbury, Ray Parker, Robert B.
Carver, Raymond Perelman, S. J.
I. Beginnings of American literature
Cheever, John Singer, Isaac B. II. Colonial literature (1608-1764)
Cleaver, Eldridge Sontag, Susan A. Virginia
Didion, Joan Stafford, Jean B. New England
Ellison, Harlan Sturgeon, Theodore C Philadelphia
Haley, Alex Wolfe, Tom III. The revolutionary period (1765-1787)
IV. Literature of a young nation (1788-1830)
Novelists V. The Era of Expansion (1831-1870)
Auchincloss, Louis Heller, Joseph A. The sentimental novel
Baldwin, James Herbert, Frank B. The romance
Barth, John Hersey, John C Nonfiction prose
Bellow, Saul Hillerman, Tony D. Poetry
Cain, James M. Himes, Chester E. Walt Whitman and Emily Dickinson
Capote, Truman Hobson, Laura Z. VI. The Age of Realism (1871-1913)
Clark, Mary Higgins Irving, John A. Realists
Corn well, Patricia Kerouac, Jack B. Naturalists
Crichton, Michael King, Stephen C Mark Twain and Henry James
August
Derleth, Koontz, Dean D. Women writers
Doctorow, E. L L Amour, Louis E. Nonfiction writers
Ellison,Ralph Lee, Harper VII. The world wars and depression (1914-1945)
Faulkner, William Le Guin, Ursula K. A. Modernist poetry
Grafton, Sue Leonard, Elmore B. Realist poetry
Grimes, Martha MacDonald, John D. C The Lost Generation
Grisham, John Macdonald, Ross D. Modernist fiction
Guthrie, A. B„ Jr. Mailer, Norman E. The Harlem Renaissance
Heinlein, Robert A. Malamud. Bernard F. Satirists
428 American Lung Association

C. Realist fiction H. Drama association's membership includes medical students

VIII. Literature since 1945 and resident physicians, and representatives of govern-
A. Poetry
ment services, medical staffs, and medical specialty soci-
B. Fiction and other prose
eties.
C Essays
D. Drama The AMA publishes a weekly scientific journal, the
IX. The study of American literature journal of the American Medical Association; a weekly
newspaper, American Medical News; monthly specialty
Questions
and other publications on medical subjects.
journals;
Who was the Puritan historian who defended the Salem witch-
The AMA was founded in 1847. Its headquarters are lo-
craft trials?
What did publication of The Federalist help accomplish?
cated in Chicago.
Who wrote what is considered the first American book? Critically reviewed by the American Medical Association
What was realism? naturalism? American Museum of Natural History, in New
What characterized Hemingway's style? York City, was incorporated in 1 869 for the purpose of
Who were the pioneers of the hard-boiled detective novel?
developing the study of natural science. The museum's
What was transcendentalism'.
scientific departments conduct research programs. It
What was the Black Arts movement?
Which two women were the most important sentimental novel- also has a department of education. The museum pro-
ists? duces several publications yearly. A research library is
Who is considered the leading Puritan poet? also located there. The Rose Center for Earth and Space,

Additional resources which includes the Hayden Planetarium, is directed by

the museum.
For additional resources on specific types of literature, see the
lists at the end of such articles as Drama and Poetry. See also
The American Museum of Natural History includes ex-
the following: hibits on various types of animals, dinosaurs and other
Bercovitch, Sacvan, ed. The Cambridge History of American Lit- fossil life, as well as rare gems, minerals, and mete-
erature. Cambridge, 1994-. Multivolume work. orites. Other exhibits illustrate human cultures and biol-
Cerrito, Joann, and DiMauro, Laurie, eds. Modern American Lit-
ogy, and the origin of life.
erature. 3 vols. 5th ed. St. James Pr., 1999.
Critically reviewed by the American Museum of Natural History
Faber, Doris and Harold. Great Lives: American Literature.
Atheneum, 1995. Younger readers. American Party is a conservative political party in the
Hart, James D., and Leininger, Phillip. The Oxford Companion to United States. The party was set up in 1968 under the
American Literature. 6th ed. Oxford, 1995. name American Independent Party to support former
Magill, Frank N., ed. Magill s Suney of American Literature. 8 Governor George C Wallace of Alabama in his cam-
vols., including supplement Cavendish, 1991, 1993 Master-
paign for president Wallace had been governor of Al-
pieces of American Literature. HarperCollins, 1993.
Millard, Kenneth. Contemporary American Fiction. Oxford, 2000.
abama from 1963 to 1967 and had run unsuccessfully for
Perkins, George, and others, eds Benets Readers Encyclopedia the Democratic nomination for president in 1964. Wal-
of American Literature. HarperCollins, 1991. lace had gained national attention by resisting the U.S.
Serafin, Steven R., and Bendixen, Alfred, eds. Encyclopedia of government's efforts to desegregate Alabama public
American Literature. Continuum, 1999.
schools.
Werlock, Abby H., ed. The Facts on File Companion to the Amer-
ican Short Story. Facts on File, 2000.
The roots of the American Independent
Party can be
traced back to the 960 presidential election. Six of Al-
1

American Lung Association is the oldest nation- abama s Democratic electors in the Electoral College
1 1

wide voluntary public health agency in the United rejected the national Democratic candidate, John F. Ken-
States. The agency was founded in 1904 to combat tu- nedy. Instead, they cast their votes for Senator Harry F.
berculosis. Today, the association, its medical arm— the Byrd of Virginia.
American Thoracic Society— and its state and local affili- In 1968, Wallace s supporters succeeded in placing

ates work to control and prevent all lung diseases. In ad- the American Independent Party on the ballot in every
dition, the association and its affiliates work to combat state. That year, Wallace chose retired General Curtis E.
some of the related causes of breathing problems, in- LeMay as his running mate. The party platform con-
cluding smoking, air pollution, and occupational lung demned government welfare programs, the Civil Rights
hazards. Act of 1964, and what the party considered a "no-win"
The American Lung Association provides public policy in the Vietnam War. Republican Richard M. Nixon
health education programs and materials on such dis- won the 1968 election. Wallace ran far behind the Dem-
eases as lung cancer, emphysema, asthma, pneumonia, ocratic candidate, Hubert H. Humphrey. However, Wal-
influenza, tuberculosis, and lung disorders in infants. It lace got 1 3 \ percent of the popular vote and 46 elec-
supports medical research and awards grants to en- toral votes.
courage young medical professionals to specialize in In 1969, representatives from 38 states established the

lung health. The work of the association is funded in American Party as the successor to the American Inde-
part by public contributions to its annual Christmas Seal pendent Party. In 1976, the party split into the American
Campaign. Headquarters of the American Lung Associa- Party and the American Independent Party. Both of the
tion are in New York City. parties have nominated candidates for the presidency
Critically reviewed In the American Lung AsMmation and other offices. But neither party achieved the
American Medical Association (AMA) is a profes- strength of the American Independent Party under Wal-
sional society of physicians. purpose is to promote
Its lace's leadership. The Know-Nothing Party of the 1850 s
the science and art of medicine and the betterment of also used the name American Party [see Know-
public health. Most members join the AMA through Nothings!. Peter N.Carroll

one of its state and territorial medical associations. The See also Wallace, George C.
 American Samoa 429

American Printing House for the Blind is one of see Territory (In the United States). American Samoans
the world's major publishers for the blind. produces It adopted a constitution in 1960. They elect a governor to
books and magazines in braille, in large-type form, and a four-year term. American Samoa has a legislature with
in recorded versions. It also produces educational tools a Senate and a House of Representatives. The Senate
and teaching aids. It is a nonprofit corporation support- has 18 members chosen by county councils to serve
ed through public donations, sales to individuals and two- to four-year terms. The House has 20 members
agencies, and contracts with agencies that furnish mate- elected by the people to two-year terms. Samoans who
rials free or at cost An annual appropriation by Con- are 18 years old or older may vote. American Samoans
gress is used solely for the manufacture and distribution elect a delegate to the U.S. House of Representatives.
of educational materials to blind students at lower than The delegate may only vote in House committees.
college level. People. Almost all American Samoans are Polyne-
The American Printing House for the Blind has head- sians. Samoan, a Polynesian language, is the main lan-
quarters in Louisville, Kentucky. The Kentucky legislature guage, but many people also speak English. Most of the
established the organization in 1858. The federal govern- people live in villages, and their lives center around
ment authorized its first appropriation in 1879. In 1961, their families. Each family group is headed by a chief
the corporation, with the Field Foundation, Inc., and who controls the family's property, represents it in the
Field Enterprises Educational Corporation (now World village council, and takes care of its sick or aged. Most
Book, Inc.), published a braille edition of The World American Samoans are Christians.
Book Encyclopedia (see Braille). In 1980, the American In 1961, economic devel-
the United States began an
Printing House for the Blind and World Book, Inc., pub- opment program American Samoa. Many people left
in
lished a recorded edition of World Book. It included their villages to take jobs in industries around Pago
cassette tapes of the encyclopedia, a special cassette Pago. Thatch-roofed fale (houses) were replaced by hur-
player, and indexes in both braille and large type. ricane-proof concrete buildings. New schools were
Critically reviewed by American Printing House for the Blind built, and teaching by television was introduced. Chil-
American Revolution. See Revolutionary War in dren from the ages of 6 to 18 must attend school.
America. Land. The islands that make up American Samoa have
American Samoa is a United States territory, about a total area of 77square miles (199 square kilometers).
2,300 miles (3,700 kilometers) southwest of Hawaii. Six of Only a third of the land can be cultivated. Rose and
the territory's seven islands are divided among three Swains islands consist of coral. The others are remains
groups— Tutuila and Aunuu; Ofu, Olosega, and Tau (the of extinct volcanoes. Most of the land is mountainous,
Manua group); and Rose. These islands are in the Sa- with some fertile soil in the valleys. Coconuts, bananas,
moan chain. The seventh, Swains Island, lies 200 miles and taro are grown (see Taro). There are few natural re-
(320 kilometers) north. The Jennings family has owned sources. The islands have a wet tropical climate. Yearly
Swains Island since 1856. That year, Eli Jennings, an averages over 200 inches (510 centimeters). Tem-
rainfall
American, and his Samoan wife settled there. peratures range from 70 to 90 F(21 to 32 C).
The largest and most important island is Tutuila. Pago Economy. The leading industry is tuna canning. Fish
Pago (pronounced PAHNC oh PAHNG oh), the capital of products make up over 96 percent of all exports. Other
American Samoa, lies on Tutuila on one of the best and exports include handicrafts. A jet airport and a luxury
most beautiful harbors in the South Pacific. Pago Pago is were built in the 1960s, and tourism increased.
hotel
the territory's only port and urban center. The U.S. government has provided large amounts of
American Samoa's 73,000 people are nationals, but money to give American Samoa a prosperous economy.
not citizens, of the United States. They may freely enter History. The Samoa Islands have been occupied by
the country at any time. Many people Samoan de-
of Polynesian peoples for at least 2,000 years. These peo-
scent live in Hawaii and the continental United States. ples probably migrated from eastern Melanesia. Euro-
Government. American Samoa is administered by pean explorers reached the Samoa Islands in 1722
first

the U.S. Department of the Interior. It is classified as an (see Samoa (History]).

In 1872, the Samoans agreed to let
unorganized and unincorporated territory. For details, the United States use Pago Pago Bay as a naval coaling

American
Samoa t
North Pola I.

ASIA Tutuila Island

JaPan Manua Islands
Vatia
China .Alao
, Olosega Aua
Pago Pago* -
Pacific Fagatogo* Vlotau
Philippines Ocean Fagamalo. Matafao Peak+ Aunuu
m) .Nuuuh
2.141 It (653 I-

Papua
AMERICAN SAMOA Cape Amanave
ndonesia #
New Guinea Taputapu Paraiai
i

LeoneSwJ (
AMERICAN
SAMOA
Australia
South Pacific Ocean Steps Point
Sail Rock Point
Oct
Road
Government center
Village or settlement i ' i i
'
i

50 100 150 200 250 Kilometers

Elevation above sea level

WORLD BOOK maps

430 American Samoa, National Park of

law states that no musical work may be performed pub-

licly without permission of the copyright owner. ASCAP
is a clearinghouse between users and creators of music.

Its license permits users to perform any member's mu-

sic at any time without separate clearance. ASCAP

collects license fees from music users and distributes
the income to members and to associated societies.
Royalties are distributed to members based on the na-
ture of the performance and how often the music is

used. ASCAP has mutual agreements with other per-

forming rights societies in over 40 nations. Its headquar-
ters are in New York City. Critically reviewed by the American

Society of Composers. Authors and Publishers

American Staffordshire terrier is a breed of dog

that originated in the United States. descended from
It

the Staffordshire bull terrier, a breed brought from Eng-

land in the late 1800s. By the early 1900s, American
breeders had developed a dog taller and heavier than
its British ancestors. The American Staffordshire terrier
Cameramann lnt<
has been called Yankee terrier and pit bull. It was once
Pago Pago, American Samoa's capital, lies on one of the most
beautiful harbors in the South Pacific. Pago Pago is the territory's
used in vicious dog fights in pits. The dog is still popu-
only port and urban center. larly called pit bull. American Staffordshire terriers stand
from 1 7 to 19 inches (43 to 48 centimeters) tall and weigh
from 45 to 65 pounds 120 to 29 kilograms). The dogs
station. Later, the United States was given trading rights have a short, stiff coat that may be any color. They re-
in the islands. semble bull terriers. See also Dog (picture: Terriers); Pit
In 1899, the United States, Germany, and the United bull; Staffordshire bull terrier.
Kingdom signed a treaty dividing the Samoa Islands be- Critically reviewed by the American Kennel Club
tween the United States and Germany. Germany took American Stock Exchange, also called the Amex, is

control of the western islands in 1900. The United States one of the largest stock exchanges in the United States.
took control of Tutuila, Aunuu, and Rose Island in 1 900, It the country s
is second largest options exchange—{ba\
and the Manua group in 1904. Swains Island was an- is,marketplace for stock-buying rights. The Amex is also
nexed in 1925. The islands were administered by the U.S. a leader in exchange-traded funds (ETF s), publicly trad-
Navy until 1 951 when they were transferred to the De-
, ed investments similar to mutual funds.
partment of the Interior. Afterward, the governor of The Amex conducts trading through an advanced cen-
American Samoa was appointed by the secretary of the tralized specialist system. Under the rules of the ex-
interior. In the early 1970s, the United States proposed change, Amex specialists seek to maintain fair and or-
that the territory elect its governor. But Samoan voters derly markets in the stocks that are assigned to them.
rejected the proposal three times. Many believed the More than 80 percent of the Amex s buying and selling
change would weaken their ties to the United States. orders come electronically. Other orders are initiated di-
American Samoans approved the proposal in 1976. They rectly on the trading floor by registered brokers. Re-
elected a governor in 1 977. Donald h Rubinstein gardless of where an order originates, orders for any
See also American Samoa, National Park of. particular stock flow through a single specialist.
American Samoa, National Park of, lies in the The American Stock Exchange started in the mid-
United States territory of American Samoa in the South 1800 s as the New York Curb Market. This organization
Pacific Ocean. The park was established primarily to consisted of New York City brokers who met outdoors
protect the area s tropical rain forest on the islands of at the curb to buy and sell stocks. In 1921, trading
Tutuila and Tau. The rain forest is home to many kinds of moved indoors into what has been the Amex s home
plants and animals, including two species of large bats ever since. In 1953, the organization was renamed the
called flying foxes. A white sand beach and a coral reef American Stock Exchange. The Amex became a sub-
on the island of Ofu are also protected. sidiary of the National Association of Securities Dealers,
The national park also protects the way of life of the Inc., in 1998. The headquarters of the American Stock Ex-
Samoan people. The people practice traditional meth- change are in New York City.
ods of farming and reef fishing in certain areas of the Critically reviewed by the American Stock Exchange
park. The park was established in 1988. For its area, see See also Nasdaq; Stock exchange.
National Park System (table: National parks). American System. See Monroe, James (The Ameri-
Critically reviewed by the National Park Service can System Clay, Henry.
I;

American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty American Telephone and Telegraph Company.
to Animals. See Society for the Prevention of Cruelty See AT&T Corp.
to Animals. American water spaniel is a hunting dog that was
American Society of Composers, Authors and developed in the United States. The dog is especially
Publishers (ASCAP) an association of over 100,000
is helpful to pheasant and duck hunters. It flushesbirds
writers and publishers of music. Composer Victor Her- (forcesthem to fly out of their hiding place) so the
bert helped found ASCAP in 1914. The federal copyright hunter can shoot the birds. The dog then brings the
 Amherst, Lord Jeffery 431

dead bird back to the hunter. The dog's thick, curly coat lenger and a United States catamaran defender. The
protects it from both cold water and thorny bushes Its new class is called International America s Cup Class

coat may be //Ver(reddish-brown), brown, or dark (1ACC). The yachts are designed to a formula that speci-
chocolate-brown in color. Some American water fies length, weight, and sail area. The yachts are about 75
spaniels have white markings on the chest or toes. Most feet (23 meters) long, made of lightweight carbon fiber,
of the dogs weigh from 25 to 45 pounds (1 1 to 20 kilo- and have a crew of 16.
grams) and stand 1 5 to 18 inches (38 to 46 centimeters) at The first challenge in IACC yachts took place off San
the Shoulder. Critically reviewed by the American Kennel Club Diego in 1992 when the U.S. yacht America' defeated the
See also Dog (picture: American water spaniel). Italian challenger II Moro di Venezia. In 1995, the New
American's Creed won a nationwide contest for Zealand yacht Black Magic beat the defender Young
U.S.
William Tyler Page of Maryland in 1 91 7 as "the best sum- America to become only the second challenger to win
mary of the political faith of America." It follows: the cup. In 2000, the New Zealand yacht Black Magic de-
"I believe in the United States of America as a govern- feated the Italian challenger Luna Rossa. Charles Mason
ment of the people, by the people, for the people; See also Sailing (America's Cup).
whose just powers are derived from the consent of the Americium, am uh RIHSH ee uhm or am uh REES ee
governed; a democracy in a Republic; a sovereign Na- uhm, is an artificially created radioactive element Its
tion ofmany sovereign States; a perfect Union, one and chemical symbol is Am, and its atomic number is 95.
inseparable; established upon those principles of free- Americium has 1 2 known isotopes, the most stable of
dom, equality, justice, and humanity for which American which has a mass number of 243 and a half-life of 7,400
patriots sacrificed their lives and fortunes. years. Only this isotope and one that has a mass number
"I therefore believe it is my duty to my country to love of 241 and a half-life of 432 years can be produced in
it; to support its Constitution; to obey its laws; to respect large amounts. At 20 C, americium has a density of
its flag; and to defend it against all enemies." 13.67 grams per cubic centimeter (see Density). The
Kenneth janda metal melts at 1 1 73
;
C
Americans for Democratic Action (ADA) is an in- Americium was discovered in 1944 by the American
dependent political organization that urges government scientistsGlenn T. Seaborg, Ralph A. James, Leon O.
action to promote and maintain liberal policies. The Morgan, and Albert Ghiorso when they bombarded plu-
ADA favors action to protect and extend civil rights, to tonium with neutrons. It was named for its place of dis-
expand programs to provide economic security for all, covery, the United States of America. Americium is the
and to improve international cooperation. The ADA op- only radioactive element known to be superconductive
poses United States participation in military conflicts in (see Superconductivity). It becomes superconductive
the developing countries. The
influence ADA tries to when COOIed tO -272.36 C Richard L Hahn
public publishes materials to influence public
officials. It See also Seaborg, Glenn T.; Transuranium element.
opinion, and campaigns to elect liberal candidates. The Amerigo Vespucci. See Vespucci, Amerigo.
ADA was founded in 1947. Its national headquarters are Ames, Adelbert, Jr. (1 880-1 955), was an American sci-
in Washington, D.C Murray Clark Havens entist known for his research in optics and visual per-
America's Cup is the oldest trophy in international ception. His views on visual perception are known as
sports. It is awarded world s best-
to the winner of the the transactional approach.
known sailboat competition. A yacht from
a defending Ames believed that a person's perception of the
country races against a yacht from a challenging coun- world confirms what the individual expects to see. Such
try. The first yacht to win a certain number of races wins expectations, according to Ames, result from past expe-
the cup. Races are held on a course off the coast of the riences—both conscious and subconscious. In one of
defending nation every three or four years. the visual illusions that Ames designed to study this
The cup gets its name from the American schooner problem, a familiar object such as a playing card is in-
America. In 1851 America defeated 14 British yachts in a
, creased in size while an observer views it. The observer
race around the Isle of Wight to win a silver trophy. The would not say the card was increasing in size because
yacht's owners gave the trophy to the New York Yacht the person would not expect it to do so. Instead, the
Club in New York City in 1 857. person would conclude the card was moving closer.
The New York Yacht Club successfully defended the Ames was born in Lowell, Massachusetts. He earned
cup in 16 challenges before the outbreak of World War an LLB. at Harvard University. Robert c vveyam
II in 1939. In the final three prewar races, the competi- Amethyst, AM uh thihst, is a gemstone of a purple or
tors sailed large yachts called j-Class. Competition re- bluish-violet color. used to make rings, necklaces,
It is

sumed in 1958 in a match sailed on /2-/V/eferyachts, and brooches. The amethyst is a variety of quartz. The
which were much smaller than the J-Class. color of the stone is believed to be caused by impurities
In 1970, two countries challenged for the cup for the such as iron and manganese. Amethysts have been
first time, requiring selection trials to determine who mined in Brazil, Uruguay, Siberia, India, Sri Lanka,
would race the defender. In 1983, Australia //defeated Madagascar, Mexico, and Canada. The amethyst is the
the New York Yacht
Club Liberty and became the first birthstone for February. The Oriental amethyst is a pur-
challenger ever to win the cup. In 1987, the United ple variety of the mineral corundum. See also Birth-
States yacht Stars & Stripes defeated Australia s Kook- stone; Gem (picture). Frederick H Pough
aburra ///to return the cup to the United States. Amherst, AM uhrst, Lord Jeffery (1717-1 797), a Brit-
Competition now operates under a code of conduct ish general, helped Britain win Canada from France. He
and design specifications established after a one-sided captured Louisbourg, a French fort in present-day Nova
match in 1988 between a New Zealand monohull chal- Scotia, in 1 758 during the Seven Years War (known as
432 Amiens

the French and Indian War in the United States). Amin Dada, ah MEEN DAH dah, Idi, EE dee
Amherst was made commander in chief of the British (1925?- was the ruler of Uganda from 1971 to 1979.
),

Army in North America after that victory. In 1759, he cap- Amin, an army officer, came to power after leading the
tured Crown Point and Fort Ticonderoga, both in pre- army in overthrowing Ugandas civilian government His
sent-day New York. In 1760, he directed an advance on rule ended when Ugandans who opposed his policies
Montreal, and the city surrendered. and troops from neighboring Tanzania overthrew his
Amherst was then responsible for administering government Amin then fled the country.
Canada until his return to England in 1763. He was made Amin was a controversial leader. In 1972, he forced an
a baron in 1 776 and commander in chief of the British estimated 40,000 to 50,000 Asians living in Uganda to
Army in 1 778. He was born on Jan. 29, 71 7, in River- 1 leave the country. He said that he did so to put control
head, near Tonbridge, England. Phillip Buckner of the nation's economy in the hands of Ugandans. Many
Amiens, AM ee uhnz, or in French ah /VfK4/V(pop. thousands of Ugandans who opposed Amin s policies
139,210; met. area, pop.: 160,815), is a city in northern were killed, at Amin s order or by order of his support-
France. The city lies along the Somme
River (see France ers. Amin also called for the extinction of Israel,"
The old section of Amiens has numerous
[political mapl). praised Adolf Hitler for murdering jews, and de-
buildings that date from the Middle Ages. This section is nounced the leaders of many nations.
dominated by one of the world s largest and most fa- Amin was born in northern Uganda. Amin enlisted in
the army in 1944. He was appointed to the rank of
deputy commander of the armed forces in 1964. From
1951 to 1960, Amin was the heavyweight boxing champi-
on Of Uganda. Robert Rotberg I.

Amino acid, uh MEE noh, is the name for the type of

organic acids that make up all the proteins in living
things. Scientists call amino acids the building blocks of
proteins. All amino acids contain carbon, hydrogen, oxy-
gen, and nitrogen. Some amino acids contain sulfur.
Green plants and some microorganisms can make all
the amino acids they need. But human beings and high-
er animals cannot make all of the 20 amino acids their
bodies need to build tissues. Humans must get at least
nine amino acids from their food. Protein foods, such as
eggs, meat, milk products, and some vegetables, pro-
vide amino acids. The body breaks down these foods
into amino acids. It then links the amino acids to form
new proteins.
The body can make many different kinds of proteins.
A single protein may consist of several hundred amino
acid units linked together by chemical bonds. Also, the
order of the amino acids may vary, producing different
proteins. These different amino acid sequences deter-
mine the functions of the proteins.
Some simple proteins may be made up of only four
different kinds of amino acids. Most of the more com-

Haesler Art Publishers Art Resource

plex proteins contain about 20 amino acids. All amino

The cathedral in Amiensmagnificent Gothic structure. It

is a
acids contain one or more groups of one nitrogen and
was built during the 1 200s and 1 300s. Much of the old section two hydrogen atoms called amino, or NH groups. ,

of Amiens dates from the Middle Ages. Amino acids are made up of amino groups and certain
Organic acids. Kermit L Carraway
mous Gothic cathedrals, which was built during the See also Protein; Cell (The work of a cell); Hormone
1200s and 1300s. Much of the modern section of the (How hormones work).
citywas built after World War (1939-1945). II Amis, AY mihs, Kingsley (1922-1995), was an English
Amiens serves as the capital of the Somme depart- novelist best known for his witty, satirical stories about
ment (administrative district) and the Picardy region. It is British society. His most famous work is his first novel,
also the region's center of commerce, communications, Lucky Jim it, Jim Dixon, a young university in-
(1954). In
and education. The city s chief industries include food structor, is disgusted by the falseness of his colleagues
processing, metalworking, and the manufacture of agri- and their work. Amis s other novels include That Uncer-
and tires. The University of
cultural machinery, textiles, tain Feeling (1 955), Take a Girl Like You (1 960), One Fat
Picardy is in the city. Englishman 964), The Green Man (1 970), Jake's Thing
I 1

Julius Caesar had headquarters at the site of what is (1979), The Old Devils (1986), Difficulties with 67/75(1989),
now Amiens in 54 B.C, during the Gallic War. The city and The Folks That Live on the /V///(1990l.
grew during the Middle Ages, when it became a center Kingsley William Amis was born on April 16, 1922, in
of the textile trade. It was badly damaged in World War I London. In the 1950s, he became identified with the An-
(19141918) and World War II. Mark Kesselman gry Young Men, a group of writers who ridiculed mid-
See also Architecture (picture: Gothic cathedrals). dle-class society. Later, he began writing detective and
 Ammonia 433

spy fiction under the name Robert Markham. Amis was bellion took place on a ship called La Amistad. Joseph
also a noted poet His Collected Poems: 1944-19/9was Cinque, a member of the Mende people of what is now
published in 1979. /V/e/77o/V"5(1991) isa book of autobio- Sierra Leone, led the uprising. The slaves were later
graphical essays. Amis was knighted by Queen Elizabeth tried in courts in the United States for their rebellion
II in 1990. Martin Amis, his son, is a noted English novel- and were found not guilty. This legal decision was a
ist. Michael Seidel landmark because blacks had few rights at the time.
Amish, AM ihsh or AH mihsh, belong to a Protestant The slaves who became the Amistad rebels were cap-
group that originated in Switzerland but is now cen- tured in western Africa. Early in 1839, Spanish slave
tered in the United States and Canada. They are also traders brought them to Cuba illegally on a Portuguese
called Old Order Amish. The Amish teach separation ship. In Havana, two Spaniards, Pedro Montez and Jose
Ruiz, bought Cinque and 52 other captives from the
traders. Montez and Ruiz intended to resell the 53 slaves
in the Cuban town of Puerto Principe (now Camagiiey).
They set sail in the Caribbean Sea on the schooner La
Amistad. They hired a ship captain and two crewmen.
The captain brought a cook and a cabin boy with him.
The slaves were chained to a wall below the deck of
the ship. One night, Cinque saw an opportunity to es-
cape. He used a nail to break his wrist chains and iron
collar. He helped other slaves get free and they, in turn,
helped others. The slaves attacked the crew and took
control of the ship. They killed the captain and his cook.
The two crewmen jumped ship and escaped. Montez,
Ruiz, and the cabin boy were captured by the slaves.
Two slaves died during the rebellion.
The rebels did not know how to sail the ship. Cinque
ordered Montez and Ruiz to sail it to Africa. During the
day, the Spaniards sailed slowly eastward, the direction
changed to a northwest
of Africa. At night, they secretly

Richard Reinhold
course and moved rapidly. The ship ended up at Long
Amish worshipers meet in their homes for services. These Island, New York. Eight more rebels had died by then.
community members have driven to a service in carriages. When La Amistad reached New York, Montez and
Ruiz reported the killings. The rebels were arrested and
taken to Connecticut, where they were put on trial.
from the world. Members are forbidden to go to war, United States district and circuit courts ruled that the
swear oaths, or hold public offices. Their doctrine re- rebels had been free people who were illegally en-
quires farming and personal simplicity as a way of life. slaved and thus were justified in rebelling. The case
Men wear dark clothes and wide-brimmed hats; women went to the U.S. Supreme Court in 1841. John Quincy
wear plain long dresses and bonnets. Strict adherence Adams, who had been president of the United States
to Amish ways prohibits the use of electricity, television, from 825 to 829, defended the rebels in the Supreme
1 1

computers, and telephones in the home. Amish limit ed- Court. He based his defense on the right of every person
ucation to the age of 15. Those who break with the Old to be free. The court ruled in favor of the rebels. Cinque
Order usually join the Mennonites (see Mennonites). and most of the other remaining Amistad rebels re-
The Amish were named for Jacob Ammann, who led turned tO Africa in January 1842. Nudie Eugene Williams
them in breaking away from the Swiss Mennonites in Amman, AHM mahn (pop. 969,598), is the capital and

1693 because of disagreements over church discipline. largest city of Jordan. It lies 25 miles (40 kilometers)
The Amish were stricter and shunned (avoided com- northeast of the Dead Sea (see Jordan [map]).
pletely) excommunicated members. They first came to Most of Amman's buildings stand on several hills. The
North America from 1 71 7 to 1 732, settling in Berks main streets run between the hills. Amman has many
County, Pennsylvania. Today, they live in farm communi- government buildings, churches, and mosques (Muslim
ties in 21 states and in Ontario. Their largest communi- nouses of worship). The city lies on old trade routes and
ties are found in Ohio, Pennsylvania, Indiana, Iowa, and still is a major trading center. Its factories produce more

Illinois. The Amish are part of the group called Pennsyl- than half of Jordan's manufactured goods.
vania Dutch (see Pennsylvania Dutch). There is no long- About 1000 B.C., Amman, then called Rabbath-
er a separate Amish group in Europe. Charles h. Lippy Ammon, was the capital of the Ammonites. The Bible
See also Indiana (Places to visit). describes how the Israelites, led by David and Joab, cap-
tured Creeks, Arab Muslims, and Turks later con-
it.
Additional resources
trolled the city. In 1921, Amman became the capital of
Kraybill, Donald B., and Bowman, C F. On the Backroad to Heav-
thenew state of Transjordan. Transjordan changed its
Johns Hopkins, 2001. Includes Information on the Amish.
en.
Wagner, Katherine. Life in an Amish Community, tucent Bks., name to Jordan in 1949. Bernard Reirh

2001. See also Jordan (picture).

Ammonia, uh MOHNyuh or uh MOH nee uh (chemi-
Amistad Rebellion was a revolt in 1839 by black cal formula NHJ, is a colorless alkaline gas made up of
slaves against Spaniards who had bought them. The re- one part nitrogen and three parts hydrogen. It is lighter
434 Ammons, A. R.

than air and has a sharp, stinging odor. Ammonia can be templated a single stone while trying to imagine all the
inhaled safely if it is greatly diluted in air, but concentrat- forces that affect it gravity the spinning of the earth and
ed ammonia gas can cause suffocation and death. Am- its orbit around the sun and the movement of the solar

monia does not burn in air, but it burns in oxygen with a system and galaxy.
weak yellow flame. The form and language of Ammons s poems often re-
Properties of ammonia. Ammonia is highly soluble flect the complexity he saw in nature. Some of his po-
in water and forms a solution known as ammonium hy- ems adopt a loose, wandering format with lines and
droxide (ammonia water). Ammonia is not very reactive phrases scattered across the page in patterns that sug-
when dry, but it reacts with many chemicals when dis- gest the uneven beauty of a wild landscape. Others un-
solved in water. Ammonium hydroxide neutralizes acids roll in regular groups of lines that resemble the rapid

and forms the corresponding ammonium salts. For ex- flowing of a stream. In their complex sentence structure
ample, hydrochloric acid (HCI) added to ammonium hy- and surprising shifts of vocabulary his poems remind
droxide (NHjOH) produces a solution of ammonium readers of the intricacy and variety of nature.
chloride (NHjCI). When combined with some metals, Archie Randolph Ammons was born in Whiteville,
ammonium hydroxide forms complex compounds North Carolina. His Selected Poems were published in
called ammines. For example, the addition of ammo- 1 969, 1 977, and 1 986. Roger Gilbert

nium hydroxide to a pale blue solution of cupric sulfate Ammunition is any object fired or launched from a
(CuSO,) produces a deep blue solution of cupric am- gun or some other weapon. Such objects, also called
mine sulfate [Cu(NH 4 SOJ. ( ) and rockets.
projectiles, include cartridges, shells,
Ammonia gas changes to a liquid at -33.35 C. Liquid Weapons handguns, can-
that fire projectiles include
ammonia boils at the same temperature. It freezes to a nons, and rocket launchers. Guided missiles and torpe-
clear solid at -77.7 C
going from a liquid back to a
In dos are also examples of ammunition, but this article
gas, ammonia absorbs a large amount of heat from its does not discuss them. For information on these two
surroundings. Upon evaporation, one gram of ammonia
absorbs 327 calories of heat For this reason, ammonia is Kinds of bullets
widely used in refrigeration equipment. Bullets consist of a metal core that is either fully or partly cov-
Preparing ammonia. In the laboratory, ammonia is ered by a metal jacket Bullets with a full metal jacket keep their
prepared by heating an ammonium salt with sodium hy- shape when they strike a target However, partly jacketed bullets,

droxide. called soft point bullets, expand on impact, shown here.

Commercially, ammonia is made by the Haber proc- WORLD BOOK diagram by Steven Liska

ess, which combines free nitrogen and hydrogen gases,

both of which can be obtained easily and cheaply (see
Haber process). One volume of nitrogen is mixed with
three volumes of hydrogen under high pressure and
temperature in the presence of an iron catalyst (see Ca-
talysis). Ammonia is also obtained as a by-product in the

production of coal and coke gas.

Uses. Ammonia is widely used as a fertilizer. Ammo- Soft point
nium and other ammonium salts help to increase
nitrate After impact

crop production because they have a high percentage

of nitrogen. In some farming areas, anhydrous ammonia Common calibers of cartridges
is now applied directly to the fields from large tanks that
Caliber (bullet diameter) is given in decimal fractions of an inch
contain the compressed gas. or in millimeters (mmi. For example, the diameter of a .30-06
Large quantities of ammonia are oxidized to make ni- Springfield cartridge, shown here, is ^
inch. This is the same di-
tric acid, which is needed to make such explosives as ameter as that of the 7 62 mm
Soviet Model 1943. The illustra-
TNT (trinitrotoluene), nitroglycerin, and ammonium ni- tions are not drawn to the same scale.
WORLD BOOK illustrations by Bensen Studios
trate. The textile industry uses ammonia in the produc-
tion of synthetic fibers such as nylon and cuprammoni-
um rayon. Ammonia also used in dyeing and scouring
is

cotton, wool, and other fibers. Ammonia water some- TX Hr>

times serves as a cleaning fluid and can be used to re- 30-06 Spnngfield (rifle) 5 56 X 45 mm (rifle)
store fabrics that have been stained by acids. Ammonia
is also vital in the manufacture of many chemicals, plas-

tics, Vitamins, and drugs. David C Armbruster 7 62 mm NATO (rifle) 7.62 Soviet Model 1943 (rifle)

Related articles in World Book include:

Alkali Gas Refrigeration
Anhydrous ammo- Ice Smelling salts
nia Nitrogen 50 Browning (machine gun)
9 mm Porabellum (pistol)
Ammons, A. R. (1926-2001), was an American poet
whose verse explores natural processes, from the cos-
mic to the microscopic. Trained in science, Ammons
brought to his poetry a subtle understanding of how or-
HZZUnn:
25 mm Oerlikon KBA (machine gun)
ganisms and events interact in nature to produce end-
less complexity. In one poem, Cascadilla Falls, he con-
 Ammunition 435

Kinds of small-arms The various small-arms cartridges differ in the type of projectile they contain. Most cartridges in-

ammunition elude a bullet, left. But shotgun cartridges contain a number of metal pellets called shot, right.
WORLD BOOK diagrams by Steven Liska

Base i ube
1

T '
'

WL
-Shot

h
fj • _y~!\T~^(\A
n^
..J . .. ... 1

Primer Propellant Wadding Shot cup

kinds of ammunition, see the Guided missile and Tor- U.S. armed forces specify caliber in millimeters. Small-
pedo articles. arms cartridges are less than 20 millimeters or .78 cali-
Most kinds of ammunition contain a propellant, ber.
which is an explosive or a fuel that provides the force to The propellant drives the bullet from the gun and
send the projectile to its target. Nearly all ammunition propels it to the target. Propellants used in guns are
also has a primer, a small amount of an explosive that called low explosives.- Low explosives deflagrate (burn
detonates (explodes) and ignites the propellant. Some rapidly). This accelerates the buliet through the gun's
types of ammunition contain an additional explosive that barrel. All small-arms ammunition has a propellant of
shatters the projectile when it reaches the target, thus smokeless powder, which consists of nitrocellulose or a
increasing the damage. mixture of nitrocellulose and nitroglycerin. This powder
Ammunition can be classified into three types, ac- is also used in firing projectiles from cannons.

cording to its effects: (1) penetrators, (2) high explosives, The primer explodes when struck by the firing pin, a
and (3) carrier projectiles. Penetrators pierce targets hammerlike device inside a gun. Lead styphnate is a
using a single bullet. High explosives burst before hit- common primer material.
ting their target,fragmenting into thousands of pene- The casing holds the propellant and the primer and
trating pieces or becoming a high-speed jet of molten also grips the base of the projectile. It remains in the
metal. Carrier projectiles break open near the target to gun or fallswhen the bullet is fired. Most casings
out
deliver leaflets, radar-deceiving materials, or submuni- are made aluminum alloys or brass. Some cartridges
of
tions (small ammunition). have no casing. The propellant in caseless cartridges is
Ammunition can also be categorized by the kind of molded to the base of the bullet. Cased, telescoped car-
weapon from which it is fired. Categorized this way, the tridges hide the bullet inside the propellant.
main types of ammunition are (1) small-arms, (2) artillery, Shotgun cartridges consist of a plastic or paper
and (3) armored-vehicle ammunition. tube with a brass or steel case at one end. They contain
lead or steel shot instead of bullets.
Small-arms ammunition
Riot control ammunition is used by law enforce-
Small arms include light weapons such as pistols, ri- ment officials to subdue rioters without causing serious
fles, and shotguns. Most kinds of small arms fire pe- injury. Most of this ammunition consists of hard rubber
netrators called cartridges. A single cartridge is known bullets.Another type is made of soft rubber rings that
as a round. look like doughnuts and may contain tear gas. These
Cartridges are called fixed ammunition because they rings cause less damage than do the rubber bullets.
are manufactured as completely assembled units. Nearly
alltypes of cartridges have a propellant, a primer, and a
Artillery ammunition
casing. However, cartridges differ in the type of projec- Artillery includes rocket launchers and such mounted
tile they contain. Most cartridges contain a bullet. Car- guns as howitzers, mortars, antiaircraft guns, and naval
tridges fired by shotguns hold metal pellets called shot. guns. Most types of field and naval artillery ammunition
The bullet is the projectile part of a cartridge. Most are called shells. A single shell, like a single cartridge, is

bullets have a steel or lead core covered by a jacket of known as a round. Field artillery projectiles range in size
hard metal. Some types of bullets expand when they from 50 to 240 millimeters and can weigh over 200
strike their target and thus cause severe damage. Inter- pounds (90 kilograms). Most artillery shells taper to the
national law forbids the military use of such bullets. Mil- rear, ashape that gives them greater range. Some have
itary forces use bullets that have a jacket of gilding streamlined ogives (nose shields). Others, known as
metal, an alloy of copper and zinc that prevents expan- base-burner shells, have a small amount of propellant
sion. Cartridges used in weapons other than shotguns burning in the tail during flight. This reduces drag (air
are measured by caliber (the diameter of the bullet). resistance).
Manufacturers and users of ammunition in the United Some shells are high explosives, which detonate on
States have traditionally specified caliber in decimal impact and damage or destroy the target. Detonating
fractions of an inch. For example, a .30-caliber cartridge the shells explosive filler shatters the shell into thou-
has a diameter of -^ inch (7.6 millimeters). However, it sands of fragments. High explosives include TNT; RDX,
is becoming customary to use millimeters instead. The also known as cyclonite or hexogen; composition B, a
436 Ammunition

Artillery ammunition packed into bags that are placed behind the projectile.
Separate loading ammunition consists of separate sections for The number of bags used depends on the distance the
the projectile, the primer, and a propelling charge, upper figure. shell must travel. This type of ammunition is used to fire
The propelling charge and projectile are shown in detail in the the heaviest artillery shells over great distances.
two lower figures.
Separated ammunition two sections.
consists of
WORtD BOOK Illustrations by Bensen Studios
One section is the projectile. The other includes the
Propellent Proiectile primer, the casing, and a fixed amount of propellant.

Primer Guided ammunition can correct its flight in the air

after being fired. It often uses pop-out tail fins to steer it-

Propellent bogs self. Most guided ammunition finds its target by tracking
a laserspot on the target. This spot is usually produced
by a forward observer, a person or object forward of
Igniter the line of fire. Some shells known as smart shells have
pod small radars and computers in them. These shells can
search for and find such targets as armored vehicles or
Body assembly trucks without help.
How shells explode. A shell explodes by means of a
process called the explosive train. This process consists
of a series of explosions that detonate the shell after the

High explosive chorge

projectile has been fired.
The explosive train begins with the explosion of the
fuse (triggering device). The fuse may explode the in-
mixture of RDX and TNT; PETN; and pentolite, a combi- stant the shell hits the target, or it may detonate a few
nation of PETN and TNT. Other shells contain mines or seconds earlier or later. Some armor-piercing shells
small shells that can be expelled at intervals over a spec- have a delayed fuse, which enables the projectile to
ified area or during a certain period of time. penetrate before exploding. Most fuses operate me-
Still other shells are filled with a nonexplosive sub- chanically or electronically. Mechanical fuses are acti-
stance, such as a chemical that is poisonous or that pro- vated by the movement of the shell during launch from
duces smoke or fire. Illuminating, or star, shells light up the weapon, and the rotation of the shell as it travels
the battlefield or seascape. A shell with a chaff warhead through the air. Electronic proximity fuses are activated
expels strips of aluminum, which produce images on a by devices inside the shell that use radar waves to deter-
radar screen similar to those caused by aircraft. Such mine when the projectile is near the target.
images confuse radar operators and thus help protect In most shells, the fuse ignites the primer and thus
aircraft from enemy attack. sets off the first charge in the explosive train. Each suc-
There are five main types of artillery shells: (1) fixed cessive charge in the process is more powerful than the
ammunition; (2) semifixed ammunition; (3) separate load- previous one. The amount of force generated by the ex-
ing, or bag, ammunition; (4) separated ammunition; and plosion of the charges increases until enough power
(5) guided ammunition. The word shell often refers not has been created to detonate the main charge.
only to the entire unit of ammunition but also to the ac-
Armored-vehicle ammunition
tual projectile part of the unit.
Fixed ammunition fired by artillery consists of a pro- Armored-vehicle ammunition consists of projectiles
jectile, a casing, a primer, and a propellant. Like small- fired by guns mounted on tanks and other armored ve-
arms cartridges, fixed artillery ammunition shells are hicles. They have diameters from 20 to 125 millimeters.
manufactured as complete units. A common armored-vehicle penetrator is a projectile
Semifixed ammunition resembles fixed ammunition. with a nose cap of tungsten or another heavy metal. The
However, the projectile fits loosely into the casing so cap helps the projectile penetrate opposing vehicles. A
that the sections can be separated. Thus, the amount of high explosive projectile is a hollow-charge warhead.
propellant in the casing can be increased or decreased, This warhead is hollow in the front and has an explosive
depending on how far the shell is from the target. charge in the back. Its explosion converts a copper cone
Separate loading ammunition, also called bag am- in the warhead to a molten, high-speed jet. The jet pene-

munition, consists of separate sections for the projec- trates the target. Another armored vehicle projectile is a
tile, the primer, and the propellant. The propellant is long dart made of tungsten or depleted uranium (ura-

Armored-vehicle A hollow-charge warhead'is hollow in front with an explosive charge in the back. Upon impact, the
ammunition copper liner collapses, creating a shock wave and a jet of metal particles that penetrates the target.
WORLD BOOK illustrations In Bensen Studios

Propelling charge Fuse Copper liner

Cortridge cose

Impact switch assembly

I v ^T " *

Rear fin Explosive charge

 Amnesty 437

nium with most of its radioactivity removed). The dart One of the earliest recorded amnesties took place in 403
on a device called a sabot, which breaks away af-
travels B.C, whenthe people of the ancient Greek city of
ter the dart leaves the gun's barrel. Athens overthrew their rulers, the Thirty Tyrants, and es-
tablished a democracy. The new leader, Thrasybulus,
History
declared amnesty for all citizens except the Thirty
Stones, which people hurled from slings and other Tyrants and a few other officials.
small weapons, were the form of ammunition. The
first The Constitution of the United States gives the presi-
ancient Romans huge siege weapons,
flung stones from dent authority "to grant reprieves and pardons for of-
such as the ballista and catapult. Arrows fired by long- fenses against the United States." Those words establish
bows were effective ammunition against armored the president's power to declare amnesty because there
knights during the European Middle Ages (A.D. 400s to is no actual difference between an amnesty and a par-

1 500's). By the mid-1 300s, gunpowder was used to fire don. However, a pardon is granted to an individual, and
stones from cannons. By the 1400s, iron and lead balls an amnesty is granted to a group of people. In addition,
were also used as artillery ammunition. most pardons are issued after the offender has been
During the 1400s, people began to use handheld convicted. Most amnesties are granted before trial. Con-
weapons that fired lead balls by the use of a trigger. By gress also can grant amnesties.
the 1500s, the Dutch had developed powder-filled metal During the late 1700's and early 1800's, several
bombs that were fired from mortars. Cartridges became presidents used their amnesty powers. In 1 795, for ex-
common in Europe in the early 1600s. During the 1800s, ample, President George Washington granted amnesty
people began using paper fuses and shotguns that fired to Pennsylvania residents who had participated in an up-
lead shot enclosed in paper shells. Smokeless powder rising called the Whiskey Rebellion (see Whiskey Re-
also was invented in the 1800s. bellion). In 1807, President Thomas Jefferson offered am-
During World War I (1914-1918), high explosive shells, nesty to all Army deserters who returned to their posts
/ncencY/a/y(fire-producing) bullets and shells, and chem- within four months. President James Madison extended
ical shells became common. In 1953, the United States similar amnesty before and during the War of 1812.
Army firedthe first shell with a nuclear charge. In the The Civil War brought a number of amnesty declara-
1960s and 1970s, developments included the produc- tions. In 1863, President Abraham Lincoln granted am-
tion of shells and cartridges made of plastics and lighter, nesty to Confederates who swore to support the Union.
stronger metals. Increasingly powerful propellants and Thousands of soldiers accepted his offer. Lincoln and
more sophisticated guidance systems also came into his successor, Andrew Johnson, issued several more
use. In the 1980s, weapons experts improved ammuni- conditional amnesties. Congress extended un-
In 1898,
tion by increasing its range. Multiple-rocket launchers conditional amnesty to all former Confederates.
took the place of many big guns. Weapons experts con- Since the early 1900's, most amnesties have involved
tinue to work to create projectiles that can disable sev- people who opposed the nation's involvement in a war.
eral targets, such as an entire tank column, at once. In 1 91 7 and 1 91 8, many Americans criticized the U.S.
Steven L Llanso role in World War Nearly 2,000 persons were impris-
I.

Related articles in World Book include: oned for their protests. During the 1920s, Presidents
Artillery Cartridge Grenade Warren G. Harding and Calvin Coolidge pardoned many
Ballistics Depth charge Magazine (military)
individuals on a case-by-case basis. In 1933, President
Bullet Explosive Rocket
Franklin D. Roosevelt issued an amnesty that restored
Cannon Firearm Shrapnel
the voting rights of more than 1,500 of the protesters.
Amnesia, am NEE zhuh, is a partial or, in rare cases, a They had lostthese rights by being convicted of certain
complete loss of memory. Everyone forgets minor daily crimes in connection with their protests.
incidents as time goes by, but a person with amnesia After World War II ended in 1945, President Harry S.

has large gaps in memory. People who suffer from am- Truman established a panel to study the individual cases
nesia lose the ability to recall past or recent experiences of men who had evaded the draft or had deserted. The
(see Memory [Uncommon memory conditions!). They board suggested pardons for 1,523 individuals. But it re-
may even leave their homes, wander for a while, and fused to recommend amnesty for men who, according
start a new life somewhere else. This wandering while to the board, had "set themselves up as wiser and more
experiencing amnesia is called psychogenic fugue. Am- competent than society to determine their duty."
nesia may be caused by emotional shock, disease, or In the 1960s and early 1970s, many Americans op-

physical injury. In emotional shock, amnesia is usually posed the Vietnam War. The government estimated that
restricted to experiences closely related to the cause of about 93,000 U.S. servicemen deserted or were dis-
the shock. Doctors treat amnesia of emotional origin by charged for going AWOL (absent without leave), and
hypnosis or with such drugs as sodium amytal or thio- about 13,000 men evaded the draft. Many fled to foreign
pental. Diseases and injuries may cause changes in the countries or went into hiding in the United States. After
brain, making recall impossible. Nancy c Andreasen U.S. involvement in the war ended in 1973, many people
Amnesty, AM nun stee, is forgiveness by a govern- demanded amnesty for the entire group. The demand
ment for crimes against it. Amnesty restores wrongdo- increased in 1974 after President Gerald R. Ford par-
ers to the legal status they had before committing the doned former President Richard M. Nixon for all federal
crimes.The term comes from the Creek word amnestia, crimes he may have committed as chief executive. Ford
which means a forgetting. offered conditional amnesty to deserters and draft evad-
Throughout history, governments have granted am- ers who agreed to take public-service jobs. Only about
nesty to restore unity after a war or an internal uprising. 22,000 men applied for amnesty. In 1977, President
438 Amnesty International

Jimmy Carter granted a pardon to nearly everyone who used by physicians to determine the health of a fetus are
violated draft laws between 1964 and 1973. The pardon chorionic villus sampling and alpha-fetoprotein analysis
covered all except employees of the draft system and (see Genetic counseling). Henry l Nadier
those who used violence in breaking draft laws. Amoeba. See Ameba.
In 1987, the U.S. government began an amnesty pro- Amon, AH muhn, became the most important god in
gram for aliens who had
entered the country illegally ancient Egyptian mythology. He was worshiped mainly
before Jan. 1, 1982, and had resided
in the United States in the city of Thebes, and was specially honored by the
since then. The program was part of the Immigration Re- kings of Thebes. Amon's temples at Karnak and Luxor
form and Control Act of 1 986. Stanley Kuller I were the wealthiest in the country. Amon gained his
See also Pardon. greatest importance during the period of the New King-

Additional resources
dom (1554-1070B.C.), when Thebes was the capital of

Egypt. The Egyptians eventually identified Amon with

Hagan, John. Northern Passage: American Vietnam War Resisters
the sun god Re to create a new deity called Amon-Re,
in Canada. Harvard Univ. Pr., 2001 Includes discussion of
amnesty for Vietnam War resisters. who was known as King of the Cods.
Moore, Kathleen D. Pardons: justice, Mercy, and the Public Inter- Amon first appeared in Egyptian mythology about
est 1989. Reprint. Oxford, 1997. 2100 B.C. He may have been introduced to Thebes from
Amnesty International, AM
nuh stee, is an inde- Hermopolis, a city north of Thebes. At Thebes, Amon's
pendent, worldwide human-rights organization. It works wife was the goddess Mut. Their child was Khons, a
to free people imprisoned "for their beliefs, color, ethnic moon god. The three became known as the Theban tri-
origin, sex, religion, or language, provided they have ad. Amon was usually portrayed in human form, wear-
neither used nor advocated violence." The organization ing a double plumed crown. He sometimes appeared as
also works for fair and speedy trials for political prison- a goose or a ram. r f c sweet

ers and for an end to torture and executions. It received See also Mythology (Egyptian mythology); Thebes.
the Nobel Peace Prize in 1977. Amos, Book of, is a book of the Old Testament, or
Amnesty International has about 700,000 members in Hebrew named for an Israelite prophet. Amos
Bible,
over 50 nations and includes about 4,000 volunteer
1 was the prophet to have his sayings collected into a
first

groups. Each local group adopts" prisoners in foreign single work. He expressed for the first time in the
countries. It works for their release by pressuring gov- prophetic literature the idea that there is one God for all
ernment officials and arousing public opinion. The or- humanity, for both Israel and the other nations.
ganization also sends observers to political trials and on Amos was a native of the southern kingdom of Judah
missions to investigate human rights abuses. Amnesty and was active at the shrine of Bethel in the northern
International was founded in 1961. Its headquarters are kingdom of Israel. Amos prophesied from about 750 to
in London. Critically reviewed by Amnesty International USA 740 B.C. Most of his statements are announcements of
See also Political prisoner. judgment or prophecies of punishment. He stated that
Amniocentesis, am nee oh sehn TEE sihs, is a med- God was about to intervene in history to punish Israel
ical procedure performed during pregnancy to help de- for its sins. Amos criticized the excesses in the outward
termine the health and maturity of an unborn baby. It in- expression of religion. He declared that the Israelites' re-
volves the withdrawal and study of a small amount of ligion had no worth without demonstrating righteous-
the amniotic fluidthal surrounds the fetus in the moth- ness and social justice. He pointed out that Israel should
er's uterus. With this procedure, physicians can accu- suffer more for its sins than the surrounding nations be-
rately diagnose more than 150 serious disorders that cause the Hebrews knew the true God. Enc m Meyers
may affect the fetus. Such disorders include Down syn- Amoy. See Xiamen.
drome and Tay-Sachs disease. Amniocentesis involves Ampere, AM pihr, is the unit used to measure the rate
little risk to either the mother or the fetus. of flow of an electric current. is one of seven base
It

Amniocentesis is usually performed either late in the units in the metric system. There is an electric current of
fourth month of pregnancy or during the last three 1 ampere when unit of electric charge flows past a
1

months. In the fourth month, its purpose is to detect ge- cross section of an electric circuitin 1 second. The unit

netic disorders. The physician can then immediately of electric charge is called a coulomb (see Coulomb).
treat the fetus for certain diseases or plan to treat other Thus, 1 ampere equals 1 coulomb per second. Physicists
disorders right after birth. Some parents choose to end also define amperes in terms of the magnetic force pro-
the pregnancy if amniocentesis reveals an incurable dis- duced by electric currents in parallel wires.
order. Amniocentesis is performed during the last three A 100-watt light bulb requires about 1 ampere of cur-
months pregnancy primarily to determine whether
of rent at 100 volts. Calculators and computers use currents
the fetus has reached a normal stage of development. so tiny they are measured microamperes (millionths
in

A physician performs amniocentesis with the aid of equipment uses currents

of amperes). Large industrial
ultrasound (high frequency sound waves). The ultrasonic measured in kiloamperes (thousands of amperes). The
waves produce an image of the fetus on a special ampere was named for the French physicist Andre
screen. The physician monitors the position of the fetus Marie Ampere. He was the first person to show that cur-
while inserting a long hollow needle through the moth- rents flowing through parallel wires cause magnetic
er's abdominal wall and into the uterus. The physician forces between the wires (see Ampere, Andre Marie).
then withdraws a small amount of amniotic fluid, which Raymond D. Flndlav

contains cells shed by the fetus. These cells are allowed See also Ohm's law.
to grow under controlled laboratory conditions for a Ampere, ahn PAIR or AM peer, Andre Marie, ahn
few weeks and are then examined. Other procedures DRAY mah REE (1775-1836), a French mathematician
 Amphibian 439

and physicist, discovered the laws of electromagnetism mines may become overly alert, tense, and suspicious.
in the 1820s. He showed that parallel electric currents These users may believe that others want to hurt them,
attracteach other if they move in the same direction, and they may try to injure these "enemies."' Such beliefs
and repel if their directions are opposite. His mathemati- and actions resemble those of some persons with the
cal theory describing these phenomena provided the mental illness called paranoia. Amphetamine users may
foundation for the development of electrodynamics. He also hallucinate (see, hear, or feel things that are not
found that an electric current flowing through a coiled present). If a person stops using the drugs, the paranoid
wire acts like a magnet This led to the invention of the feelings and hallucinations will probably disappear.
galvanometer, an instrument for detecting and measur- Continued use of large amounts of amphetamines
ing electric currents. Ampere used the galvanometer to may cause physical collapse and even death. Constant
show that an electric current completes a circuit supervision, and group discussions with former am-
through the battery which produces the current phetamine users, have helped many users break their
Born in Lyon, Ampere showed early promise as a drug habit Donald J.Wolk
mathematician. He taught at the Ecole Polytechnique in See also Attention deficit disorder; Drug abuse.
Paris. His classic work, Mathematical Theory of Electro- Amphibian. See Airplane (Seaplanes).
dynamic Phenomena, was published in 1827. Amphibian, am FIHB ee uhn, is an animal with scale-
Richard C. Olson less skin that— with a few exceptions— lives part of its life
See also Ampere; Electromagnetism. in water and part on land. There are about 4,000 kinds of
Amphetamine, am FEHTuh meen, is one of several amphibians, and they make up one of the classes of ver-
drugs that increase physical and mental activity, prevent tebrates (animals with backbones). Amphibians include
sleep, and decrease appetite. Many people become psy- frogs, toads, salamanders, and caecilians.
chologically dependent on amphetamines, and some Most amphibians hatch from eggs laid in water or
scientists believe these drugs can also cause addiction. moist ground, and begin life as water-dwelling larvae
The United States and many other countries prohibit the (young). Through a gradual process called metamorpho-
use of amphetamines unless prescribed by a physician. sis, the larvae change into adults. The adults look very

But many people take them illegally for energy or pleas- different from the larvae. Some adults continue to live in
ure. water, but most spend their lives on land. Almost all re-
Amphetamines include such drugs as Benzedrine, turn to water to find mates and produce young.
Dexedrine, and methamphetamine. They are sometimes Amphibians are generally smaller than such other ver-
called "bennies,'' "pep pills," "uppers," or "wakeups." tebrates as fish, birds, and mammals. Most amphibians
Methamphetamine is also called "speed "(see Metham- are no more than 6 inches (15 centimeters) long and
phetamine). weigh less than 2 ounces (60 grams). The smallest frog
Medical uses. Doctors prescribe amphetamines for
three purposes. The drugs decrease appetite, but they
lose this effect in a few weeks. They also control narco-
lepsy, an illness that causes sudden, uncontrollable at-
tacks of sleep. In addition, amphetamines calm children
with hyperkinesis, a brain disorder that causes constant
activity and inability to concentrate. Physicians do not
know why amphetamines have the opposite effect on
hyperkinetic children than on other patients.
Amphetamine abuse. Some people occasionally
take amphetamines to stay awake or to increase their
confidence and energy for such activities as study or
athletics. But amphetamines do speed learning,
little to
and they may slow it down. In athletics, the drugs in-
crease alertness and may quicken reflex actions. But am-
phetamines have an unpredictable effect on strength, Marbled Salamander
AmcH/sfomo opocum
and they may cause poor judgment 3'/2 to 4V4 inches (8 9 to 10.8 centimeters]
A person who uses amphetamines regularly must
take increasingly large doses to get the same effects. In
time, the person may feel dizzy, irritable, nervous, or
•
shaky.
Some people take repeated doses of ampheta-
large,
mines. Most of these users inject the drugs, but some
sniff or swallow them. Such doses produce a sense of
joyous excitement. The user becomes extremely active
and talkative and feels able to do anything. Plains Spadefoot Toad
When the effects of amphetamines wear off, users Scaphtopus bombtfrons
l'/2 to 2' 2 inches (3 8 to 6 3 centimeters
sleep for hours. After awakening, they feel hungry, slug-
gish, and depressed. To feel better, they may start to
WORLD BOOK illustration by Richard lewinglnn
take amphetamines again. Some users feel so de-
Amphibians are divided into three main groups: (II caecilians,
pressed that they attempt suicide. (21 salamanders, and (31 frogs and toads. These drawings show

Persons who take large, repeated doses of ampheta- representatives from each of the three groups.
440 Amphibian

in the world can sit on a person's thumbnail. The largest cies to change color rapidly. For example, some change
amphibian is the Japanese giant salamander. Adults can color when the temperature goes up or down.
be more than 5 feet (1 } meters) long. Breathing. Most land-dwelling adult amphibians
Amphibians are cold-blooded—that is, their body breathe with lungs. Water-dwelling adults and larvae
temperature stays about the same as the temperature of breathe by means of gills, as do fish. Some adults have
their surroundings. Those that live in regions with harsh both lungs and gills. In addition, all amphibians take in
winters hibernate during the cold weather. Many of oxygen through the skin and through the lining of the
those that live in warm, dry climates estivate— that is, be- mouth and throat. Some small salamanders have no
come inactive during summer. lungs and breathe only through the skin and mouth.
Amphibians live on every continent except Antarctica. Digestive system of amphibians includes the mouth,
They generally live in moist habitats near ponds, lakes, esophagus (tube to the stomach), stomach, and intes-
or streams. Certain tropical tree frogs never leave the tines. Food is mixed and partially digested (broken
trees. They lay their eggs in rain water that collects at down) in the stomach, but most digestion takes place in
the base of leaves. Some amphibians live in dry regions. the small intestine. The walls of the stomach and small
They survive for weeks or months in moist places un- intestine contain numerous glands that secrete digestive
derground, waiting for rain to create puddles. After a juices, which break food down into substances that can
rainfall, they gather at the puddles to mate and lay their be absorbed and used by the animal's body. In addition,
eggs. The eggs hatch and the larvae develop quickly, two large glands the liver and pancreas— pour diges-
before the puddles dry up. tive juices into the small intestine. The digested food is
Most amphibians eat insects. In some areas of the absorbed from the small intestine, and the remaining
world, amphibians are quite numerous, and they play an wastes travel down the large intestine to the cloaca, a
important role in maintaining the balance of nature. Am- chamber that opens to the outside of the body. Waste
phibians aid people by eating insects and insect larvae products, eggs, and sperm (male sex cells) all pass out
that destroy crops and carry disease. In some places, of thebody through the cloaca.
people use amphibians as food. Sense organs. Most frogs, toads, and salamanders
have good eyesight, which helps them catch insects.
Kinds of amphibians
Caecilians eyes are either very small or completely ab-
Zoologists divide amphibians into three groups: (1) sent. Caecilians have little use for eyes in their under-
frogs and toads; (2) salamanders; and (3) caecilians. ground burrows. Water-dwelling amphibians also have
Frogs and toads have four legs and no tail. Their a lateral line system, which is a set of sensitive organs
hind legs are very long and are used for jumping. Frogs along the sides of the body. It allows an animal to sense
generally have longer legs than toads. There are about movement in the surrounding water.
3,800 species of frogs and toads. Most of them live in Frogs and toads can hear a wider range of sounds
tropical climates. But two species occur as far north as than salamanders and caecilians. Frogs and toads have
the Arctic Circle, and others are found as far south as well-developed voices. Their calls are important in mat-
Tierra del Fuego, at the tip of South America. ing. Caecilians and most salamanders have no voices.
Salamanders have long tails and four— or in a few Most amphibians smell and taste by means of the/a-
species, two— short, weak legs. There are about 360 spe- cobson's organ, a pair of tiny cavities in the roof of the
cies of salamanders. Most live in temperate zones— that mouth. The tissues that line these cavities respond to
is, in areas of the world having seasonal changes in tem- chemical changes in the mouth or nose.
perature. Salamanders are also common in warm,
humid areas America and South America.
of Central
Ways of life

Caecilians have no legs and look like large earth- Reproduction. Amphibians generally mate during a
worms. There are about 160 species of caecilians, which rainy period. They gather at night into large groups to
are found only in tropical regions. Most caecilians live find partners. Among frogs and toads, fertilization— that
in underground burrows, but some are aquatic. is, the joining of egg and sperm— takes place outside

the female's body. Among salamanders and caecilians,

The bodies of amphibians
fertilization occurs inside the female's body, before the
Skin of amphibians has no external scales, hair, or eggs are laid. In most amphibians, the females lay many
feathers. Most amphibians have smooth skin, but some eggs at one time. The eggs generally develop and hatch
toads have thick, leathery skin. The outer layer of skin, in water or another moist place.
called the epidermis, protects the animal's deeper tis- Amphibian eggs do not have shells but are enclosed
sues. Adult amphibians shed the outermost portion of in a jellylike substance. The adults usually leave the eggs
the epidermis several times a year. The inner layer of unguarded. However, some frogs and toads carry the
skin, called the dermis, contains many nerves and blood eggs until they hatch, and caecilians wrap their bodies
vessels. It also has many glands, which open onto the around the eggs. The eggs hatch into larvae with gills, a
skin surface. Many of them produce mucus, a thick, flattened tail, and tiny limbs or no limbs at all. Frog and
slimy substance that moistens and protects the skin. toad larvae are known as tadpoles or polliwogs. Meta-
Other glands produce poisons that can hurt or kill an morphosis into adults takes from two weeks to several
enemy. months. The larvae slowly lose their gills and develop
Many frogs and salamanders have brightly colored lungs. Among tadpoles, the hind legs develop before
skin. The color results from pigments (coloring matter) the front legs do. The eyes, digestive system, and other
found in special cells that lie just below the epidermis. organs must also undergo changes to prepare the am-
Movement of the pigments in the cells allows some spe- phibian for life on land.
 Amphibian 441

Interesting facts about amphibians

WORLD BOOk illustralit

Some amphibians change color and body form during the mating season. A male smooth
newt is shown in its nonbreeding form, above left, and its breeding form, above right.

s
•v*-
Metamorphosis, which involves striking changes in body structure, occurs during the
growth of most amphibians. The metamorphosis of a southern leopard frog is shown above.

The largest amphibian, the Japanese giant sal-

amander, above, is 5 feet (1 \ metersi long.

Unlike most amphibians, a female

caecilian, above, guards her eggs.

A prehistoric labvrinthodont,
above, was one of the first amphibians.

Food and enemies. Most amphibian larvae eat algae gray or brown. Salamanders and caecilians avoid their
and plant material, but salamander larvae feed on small enemies simply by staying out of sight. Caecilians are so
water animals. Adult amphibians prey on insects and well hidden in their burrows that even scientists know
many other kinds of small animals. Bullfrogs and other about them. Poisons from the skin glands of some
little

large amphibians may eat snakes, small mammals, and frogs and salamanders irritate the mouths of attackers.
birds. One group of South American frogs feeds mainly
The history of amphibians
on other frogs. Most amphibians use their tongues to
capture prey According who study
to paleontologists (scientists
Adult amphibians have many enemies, including prehistoric the oldest fossils of amphibians date
life),

snakes, birds, and mammals. Numerous kinds of fish back to the end of the Devonian Period about 360 mil-
and small water animals prey on amphibian larvae. Am- lion years ago. Amphibians are thought to have been the
phibians use many methods to protect themselves. firstgroup of vertebrates to emerge from the water and
Some amphibians are hard to see because they are the live on land. Most scientists believe the amphibians

same color as their surroundings. Tree frogs are often evolved (developed slowly) from the lobe-finned fish.
green, and ground-dwelling salamanders may be dull Lobe-finned fish had lungs and enlarged fins supported
442 Amphibious ship

by bones and muscles. They could use their fins as legs copters. They also have a garage for trucks and armored
to come out of the water for brief periods. These fins vehicles. Some assault ships have a docking wellthaX
probably developed into amphibian legs. Amphibians can be flooded, enabling landing craft to float out and
were the most important vertebrates on land during the carry troops ashore. Amphibious cargo ships carry pro-
Carboniferous Period— from 360 million to 286 million visions, landing craft, and heavy equipment. Amphibi-
years ago. There were many more kinds of amphibians ous command ships serve as communications centers
then than there are now. that coordinate air, surface, and shore operations.
The groups to which modern amphibians belong did Dock landing ships are combination ships and dry
not appear until the Mesozoic Era— from 248 million to docks. They transport landing craft and dry-dock them
65 million years ago. By then, most of the other amphib- for repairs. Tank landing ships unload troops, cargo,
ians had died out Scientists do not know all the reasons and vehicles directly onto a beach through large doors
why amphibians became less numerous. The world's cli- in the bow. Norman Polmar
mate was becoming drier, and many of the ponds and Amphibious warfare, am FIHB ee uhs, is the con-

lakes needed by amphibians were disappearing. Also, duct of military operations by naval, air, and land forces
reptiles, which first appeared during the Pennsylvanian for the purpose of seizing a beach or coastal area. Am-
Period, were becoming more important. Reptiles are not phibious operations are generally considered the most
so dependent on water because they have hard-shelled complex form of warfare. In the Pacific Ocean region
eggs that will not dry out on land. Reptiles probably ate during World War II (1939-1945), a common objective of
the same foods as many of the early amphibians and United States amphibious operations was to seize is-
probably preyed on amphibians themselves. lands on which to build advance air and naval bases for
Today, there are fewer species of amphibians than of operations against Japan.
any other class of vertebrates. Human activities pose the Steps in amphibious operations.Officers of the var-
biggest threat to amphibians. Amphibians are successful ious forces taking part an amphibious operation first
in

in moist, humid areas of the world, but such habitats are decide where the landing will take place. They plan the
continually reduced by the construction of roads, towns, number and kinds of ships, planes, and troops that will
and farms. JWhitfield Gibbons take part. Even the loading of the ships is carefully
See Frog, Salamander, and Toad with their Related worked out so that the troops will have the equipment
article lists. See also Heart (Amphibians and reptiles). they need in the order that they need to use it
Amphibious ship, am FIHB ee uhs, is a warship that The first step in an amphibious landing is to gain
lands troops, weapons, and vehicles on beaches during complete mastery of the skies over the area to be seized.
amphibious assaults. Some amphibious ships unload Planes from aircraft carriers or land bases destroy ene-
troops and equipment directly onto a beach. Others my defenses. Next, warships bombard the landing
transfer troops and cargo using helicopters and small beach with naval guns and rockets to prevent defenders
amphibious landing craft from shooting at the approaching landing craft and heli-
Amphibious ships generally have only short-range copters.
guns and missiles for defense against aircraft However, Amphibious ships then arrive with troops, weapons,
some amphibious ships also have rocket launchers for vehicles, and other cargo. Some unload the troops and
bombing shorelines. Amphibious ships measure up to equipment directly onto the beach. Others transfer the
820 feet (245 meters) long and travel at speeds of about troops and equipment using small amphibious landing
20 knots (nautical miles per hour). Most are equipped to craft and helicopters. Once a beachhead (foothold) has
handle helicopter take-offs and landings. Both the Unit- been established, amphibious ships and cargo ships
ed States and Russia have many amphibious ships. The send more troops and equipment ashore.
United States Navy has various kinds of amphibious History of amphibious warfare. The ancient Greeks
ships. They include assault, cargo, command, dock land- and Romans carried out early forms of amphibious land-
ing, and tank landing vessels. ings. In 1066, the Normans undertook a successful am-
Large amphibious assault ships carry up to 30 heli- phibious landing when they invaded England (see Nor-
man Conquest).
Amphibious operations played a major role in World
Boat and aircraft crane War The Japanese carried out amphibious assaults on
II.

the Philippines, Malaya, and the East Indies. American

Short-range
forces counterattacked with amphibious landings in the
defensive missile system
Central Pacific. Beginning at Guadalcanal in the Solomon
Aircraft elevator Islands, they worked their way toward Japan by landing
on numerous Pacific islands. Allied troops also made
amphibious invasions of North Africa and Italy. The Al-
lied landing at Normandy in northern France on June 6,
Aircraft elevator
1944— known as D-Day— was the largest amphibious in-
vasion in history. German and Soviet forces also made
amphibious landings during the war.
Landing craft
During the Korean War (1950-1953), U.S. marines
UORLI) Book diagram tq George Suveoka made a difficult but highly successful landing at the Ko-
Amphibious ships, such as the U.S.S. Tarawa, land troops, rean port of Inchon on the Yellow Sea. In 1982, British
weapons, and vehicles for amphibious attacks. The Tarawa, as forces made a major amphibious landing in the Falkland
seen from the stern, is shown in this diagram. Islands after Argentine troops invaded and occupied the
 Amputation 443

islands. U.S. troops undertook an amphibious invasion

of the Caribbean island of Grenada in 1 983 after Com- HBPPfPtwf
-

munists took control of Grenada's government.

After World War II, American and British forces de- V 3B&
veloped techniques for moving troops by helicopter
from ship to shore. Today, air cushion vehicles (ACV's)
1 -

are also used. ACV's can move troops and equipment at

high speeds from amphibious ships to the beach. These
craft travel on a cushion of air and can move over land
^J^ ^HEiIi^
'

or water (see Air cushion vehicle). The U.S. Navy has

large numbers of ACV's. Norman Poimar f
See also Airborne troops; D-Day; Warship (Amphibi
ous warfare ships); World War II. '".
Amphibole, AM
fuh bohl, is any one of a large group >'J
•*'
-MM' '
' ' ^"-

of relatively hard minerals found in many igneous and

© Jany Sauvanet, Photo Researchers
metamorphic rocks (see Rock). Many amphiboles are
shaped like blades. Many are black, brown, or green, An amphisbaenian has a long, wormlike body and tiny eyes. It

spends most of its life underground in tunnels that it digs

though they can be almost any color. through the soil. Amphisbaenians inhabit many warm regions.
An amphibole called nephrite is the chief source of
jade, which is widely used for fine carvings and jewelry.
Amphibole asbestos is used in cement pipe and in fil-
ters that are resistant to harsh chemicals. helps it dig tunnels through the soil. Its loose skin en-
The general chemical formula for amphiboles is ables it to travel underground using rectilinear motion.

A ,X,Y Z 8 JOH),, in which A can be potassium or sodi-

;
In this motion, the reptile moves part of its skin forward
um; A" can be calcium, magnesium, manganese, or sodi- and anchors it against the tunnel walls. It then uses mus-

um; Kcan be aluminum, iron, magnesium, manganese, move the rest of its body forward with the skin.
cles to
or titanium; and Zcan be aluminum or silicon. Amphi- Most amphisbaenians have no limbs. However, three
bole crystals form in the monoclinic or the orthorhom- Mexican species have well developed front limbs with
bic system (see Crystal (Classifying crystals!). They have toes and claws for digging.
pyramid-shaped units of silicon and oxygen that are Amphisbaenians usually lay eggs, but a few kinds give
linked in double chains. David l Bish young. All species are effective predators,
birth to live
See also Asbestos; Jade; Silicate. using good hearing and strong jaws to find and capture
Amphioxus, am fee AHK suhs, also called lancelet, prey. The reptiles feed primarily on such small animals
LANS liht, is a small sea animal that lives in shallow wa- as Worms and insects. D Bruce Means
ter. It is a link between vertebrates and invertebrates. It Scientific classification. Amphisbaenians belong to the or-
has no distinct brain, but it has a nerve cord running der Squamata in the class Reptilia. They make up the suborder
Amphisbaenia.
along its back that is similar to the spinal cord of animals
with backbones. Instead of the hard, jointed backbone Ampicillin, am puh SIHL ihn, is a drug used to treat in-
of the vertebrates, the amphioxus has an organ called fections caused by certain bacteria. It is an antibiotic
(drug produced by microbes). It belongs to the penicillin
group of drugs and is a semisynthetic penicillin.
Ampicillin can kill some bacteria that are not effective-
ly killed by penicillin G, one
of the most widely used
forms of penicillin. For example, ampicillin is used
against Salmonella bacteria, which cause a form of food
S- Stammers, Science Photo Library poisoning. The drug is also effective in treating severe
The amphioxus is a slender, fishlike sea animal that lives in ear and sinus infections, meningitis in children, and uri-
shallow water. The amphioxus is also known as the lancelet. nary and respiratory tract infections.
Some people who take ampicillin suffer side effects.
is a fairly stiff rod of cartilage, found
the notochord. This In most cases, the side effects are minor, such as rashes.
along the back under the nerve cord. This primitive
just But some people who take the drug by mouth develop
form of backbone makes the amphioxus more like a ver- diarrhea. In such cases, physicians prescribe a semisyn-
tebrate than an invertebrate. l Muscatine thetic penicillin called amoxicillin, which produces few-
Scientific classification. Amphioxus is in the family Bran- er side effects involving the stomach and intestines.
chiostomidae. A typical lancelet is Branchiostoma costa. Ampicillin was introduced in 1961. Since then, its ef-
Amphisbaenian, am fihs BAY nee uhn, also known as fectiveness has decreased as some of the bacteria that
worm lizard, is any of a group of wormlike, burrowing were once killed by the drug have developed a resist-
reptiles related to lizards and snakes. More than 100 am- ance tO it. Eugene M Johnson, |r.

phisbaenian species live in warm regions around the See also Penicillin.
world, largely in Africa, South America, and southern Amputation, am pyuh TAYshuhn, is the process of
North America. cutting off a limb, part of a limb, or another part of the
Adult amphisbaenians range from about 3 to 30 inch- body. Amputation may be necessary as a result of se-
es (8 to 76 centimeters) long. All species have long bod- vere injury, infection, tumor, or other diseases.
ies with tiny eyes. An amphisbaenians thick, bony skull Before surgery, the patient is given an anesthetic. The
444 Amritsar

body part to receive the incision is cleaned, disinfected, The old section of Amsterdam lies at the heart of the
and protected with a drape. The surgeon uses a tourni- city. This section jumble of narrow streets, many of
is a
quet (tight cloth wrapped around the limb) to stop the which are closed to automobile traffic. Some of its build-
flow of blood through the large vessels of the limb (see ings date from the Middle Ages. The Royal Palace, built
Tourniquet). The soft tissues are cut apart in a way they in the mid-1 600s, overlooks Dam Square at the center of
can be used to cover the end of the bone. the old section. Next to the palace stands the Nieuwe
Before cutting through the bone, the surgeon severs Kerk (New Church), where the nation's monarchs are in-
and ties the blood vessels to prevent bleeding. The sur- augurated. The church was built in the 1400s. The city's
geon then saws through the bone. After this, the tourni- stock exchange, founded in 1612, is nearby.
quet is released. In most amputations done under war The IJ and the port area are just north of the old sec-
conditions, the wound cannot be closed immediately tion. Three canals— the Herengracht, the Keizersgracht,
because of danger of infection. In such cases, healing and the Prinsengracht— border the old section on the
takes many weeks. In most cases resulting from injury in east, south, and west. Impressive mansions, built during
civilian life, the wound can be sewed up right after the the 1600s by the city's merchants, line the canals. Many
amputation. The most common dangers are infection, of the mansions are now banks or office buildings. Be-
hemorrhage, and shock. James a Hill yond the canals are large neighborhoods and suburbs
See also Artificial limb. built during the 1800s and 1900s.
Amritsar, uhm RIHTsuhripop. 975,695), is a manufac- Amsterdam's major cultural attractions include the
turing center in Punjab, a state in northern India (see In- Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam's principal art museum; the
dia [political mapl). Amritsar was founded in 1577. It is Stedelijk Museum, a municipal museum of modern art;

the holy city of Sikhism, an Indian religion. The city grew and the Van Gogh Museum, which features many works
up around the famous Golden Temple, the main center by the famous Dutch painter Vincent van Gogh. Amster-
of Sikh devotion. The temple stands in a tank (pool) of dam also has a municipal theater, two universities, and
constantly changing fresh water. The city was named for the world-famous Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra.
the tank, which was called Amritsar— meaning the tank Economy. Amsterdam's economy is based on finan-
of nectar or immortality. Sikhs and Hindus live in Amrit- cial services, manufacturing, tourism, and foreign trade.

sar. Factories include steel mills, cement plants, spin- The city is the headquarters of the Netherlands Central
ning mills, carpet and silk-weaving firms, and factories Bank, the nation's major commercial banks, and many
that manufacture electrical and chemical products. See insurance and investment companies. Amsterdam's
also Sikhism (picture). p p Karan
. stock exchange is part of Euronext, an exchange serving
Amsterdam (pop. 724,096; met area pop. 1,100,120) is all of Europe. Its industries include aircraft manufactur-
the capital and largest city of the Netherlands. It lies at food processing, publishing, ship re-
ing, electronics,
the junction of the Amstel River and the IJ, an arm of a pairing, and production of chemicals and steel. Few oth-
large lake called the IJsselmeer. For location, see Neth- er cities attractmore foreign visitors than Amsterdam.
erlands (political map). The city's name means dam of Canals link the city to the North Sea and to the Rhine
the Amstel and refers to a dam built there in the 1200s. River, Europe's chief waterway. Schiphol Airport lies
Amsterdam is the national capital, but the seat of gov- south of Amsterdam.
ernment is The Hague, 34 miles (55 kilometers) away.
in History. Amsterdam was founded about 1200 as a
The city on marshy land slightly below sea level.
lies fishing village. A dam was built there during the 1200s.
Most of its buildings stand on large wooden or con- The village then became the point for cargo transfers
crete piles (posts) driven into the soggy ground. More between seagoing ships on the I) and boats on the Ams-
than 100 canals crisscross the city and help drain the By the 1400s, Amsterdam had developed into a
tel River.

land. The canals and attractive buildings help make Am- prosperous center of European trade.
sterdam one of Europe s most charming cities. The city began to grow rapidly in the 580s. During 1

Handsome mansions line

the Keizersgracht, shown
here, one of the main canals
of Amsterdam. The city's mer-
chants built the mansions dur-
ing the 1600 s. Glass-topped
boats take visitors on tours of
the canals.
 Amundsen, Roald 445

that period, and for about the next 00 year s, thousands

1 locomotives and cars. Amtrak also establishes routes
of politicaland religious refugees fled to Amsterdam to and schedules, and handles ticket sales. It receives in-
escape persecution. They included Jews from Portugal come from ticket sales and from carrying mail and ex-
and Protestant merchants from Antwerp and other cities press parcels. Richard Saunders, |r.

in Flanders. They helped establish a variety of industries See also Rai!road (map: Railroad passenger routes).
and trade links. The city's trade spread to Africa, the Amulet, AMyuh liht, is a charm that supposedly has
Americas, the East Indies, and elsewhere. Amsterdam magic power. It may be worn around the neck. Some
was Europe's greatest trading center during the 1600s, people believe that amulets protect them from evil, sick-
and the city's cultural life also flourished. ness, and witchcraft. Amulets may be made of any mate-
During the 1700s, Amsterdam developed into a great rial, but many are made of stone. Others are small cloth
financial center. Its bankers lent money throughout Eu- bags filled with a supposedly powerful object A tooth
rope, especially to foreign governments. France took or a piece of horn or wood
can also serve as an amulet
control of the Netherlands in 795 and made Amster-
1 Some amulets have a symbolic shape, such as a cres-
dam the capital in 1808. But the Dutch restored their cent. Alan Dundes

government in The Hague after they regained independ- See also Birthstone; Evil eye; Magic (Magic objects);
ence in 1813. Amsterdam's economy was ruined during Superstition.
the period of French rule, but the opening of the North Amundsen, AH muhn suhn or AH muhnd suhn,
Sea Canal in 1876 helped revive it. Roald, ROH ahl (1872-1 928), a Norwegian explorer, led
Amsterdam's people suffered greatly during World the first expedition to reach the South Pole. Amundsen
War (1939-1945). The city was occupied by German
II and four companions discovered the pole on Dec. 14,
troops, and its Jewish community was almost wiped out 191 1. They beat a British expedition led by Robert F.
in Nazi concentration camps. Jews had made up about Scott by five weeks.
10 percent of Amsterdam's population before the war. Amundsen is also noted
The city also suffered a severe famine during the winter for his many Arctic explo-
of 1944, and thousands starved. rations.
Amsterdam had a housing shortage for many years af- The race to the South
ter World War II. To relieve overcrowding, several care- Pole. Amundsen had orig-
fully planned residential areas were built on the out- inally planned on discov-
skirts of the city. One apartment complex, constructed in ering the North Pole. He
the 1970s, houses 100,000 people. A subway connects organized an Arctic expe-
the complex to the old section of the city. jan de vries dition and was about to
See also Architecture (picture: The Euronext Amster- leave when he heard that
dam stock exchange). Commander Robert E.
Amtrak is a semipublic corporation that operates in- Peary, an American ex-
tercity passenger trains in the United States. It was creat- plorer, had just reached
ed by Congress in 1 970 and took over the operation of the pole (see Peary, Roald Amundsen
intercity trains in 1971. It is partly financed by the U.S. Robert E.l. Amundsen
government All members of Amtrak's board of direc- changed his plans and decided to lead an expedition to
tors are nominated by the president or by the Depart- the South Pole instead.
ment of Transportation. Amundsen left Norway secretly in )une 1910 aboard
When Amtrak was created, subsidies (grants) from the ship Fram. At about the same time, Scott, unaware of
Congress covered about 50 percent of its operating Amundsen's expedition, also was on his way to the
costs. But financial support has decreased as the pur- Antarctic. While stopping in Melbourne, Australia, in
chase of new equipment has made Amtrak more effi- October 1910, Scott received a message from Amund-
cient Amtrak owns and maintains the tracks on the busy sen informing him that Amundsen was proceeding to
"Northeast Corridor' between Boston, New York City, Antarctica. The race to the South Pole was on.
and Washington, D.C Elsewhere, it pays freight rail- Amundsen and his crew arrived at the eastern edge
roads for the use of their tracks. Amtrak hires its own of the Ross Ice Shelf in January 1911. They spent an
train crews, operates its own stations, and buys its own Antarctic winter there, making short trips inland to set

Roald Amundsen explored in the Arctic

and Antarctic regions. During a voyage
from 1903 to 1906, he sailed his ship, the
Cjoa, along the water route called the
Northwest Passage. In 1911, Amundsen
crossed the Ross Ice Shelf of Antarctica
and discovered the South Pole. In 1926, he
flew over the North Pole in a dirigible, the
Norqe.

WORLD Book map!

446 Amur River
up stores of food and fuel. On Oct. 19, 1911, after spring es cover about 71 5,000 square miles (1 ,850,000 square
had arrived, Amundsen and his men set off for the pole These branches include the Ussuri, Sungari,
kilometers).
in four sleds pulled by 52 dogs. Near the journey's end, Zeya, and Bureya rivers. Large dams have been built on
when they were no longer needed to pull the sleds, the the Zeya and the Bureya. The Amur becomes wide in
weaker dogs were killed. They were fed to the surviving the Khabarovsk Region, and it often floods there during
animals and to the men. thesummer monsoon season.
Scott's expedition met with disaster. Instead of using Large boats operate on the Amur for most of its

dogs all the way, Scott relied mainly on ponies to pull length from April to November. The cities of Khabarovsk
the sledges. But the ponies became exhausted and had and Komsomolsk stand on the banks of the Amur. Rail-
to be shot. Without ponies, the men had to pull the roads link both cities with the port of Vladivostok to the
sledges, carrying the supplies. The men also had to fight SOUth. Craig ZumBrunnen
severe cold and fierce winds, and they lacked the prop- Amusement park is a permanent outdoor entertain-
er clothes for such conditions. See Scott, Robert F. ment complex that typically offers games, rides, and
Amundsen had a smooth journey by comparison. The shows. There are amusement parks in many countries,
route he had chosen was shorter than Scott's and cov- but most of the larger parks are in the United States.
ered flatter terrain. The dogs withstood the hard work Amusement parks developed in the United States in

and cold well, and the weather was clear. the late 1800s. One of the earliest types was the trolley
On Dec. 14, 1911, Amundsen and his companions cal- end of their lines to en-
park. Railways built these at the
culated that they had reached the South Pole. They be- courage the weekend use of trolleys. The World's
gan their return journey three days later, leaving behind Columbian Exposition, held in Chicago in 1893, stimulat-
them a tent and a Norwegian flag. Five weeks later, Scott ed the development of the amusement park. The first
and his men finally reached the pole, only to discover important park, and the model for all later parks, was
that Amundsen had been there first. Weary and disap- opened in the late 1800s at Coney Island, a beach resort
pointed, they began their return. But injuries, fatigue, in the Brooklyn area of New York City.

and continued bad weather slowed them down. The en- Amusement parks flourished from about 1900 until
tire party soon died of cold and hunger. World War II (1939-1945). Since then, their popularity
Other achievements. Roald Engelbregt Cravning has declined, and many parks have closed. In the United
Amundsen was born in Borge, near Oslo. He studied States, theme parks have replaced many amusement
medicine for two years before going to sea in 1897 parks. They are organized around such themes as local
aboard the Belgica. During this voyage, Amundsen s ef- historical events, pioneer life, and wildlife. They empha-
forts helped to combat scurvy among the crew. In 1898, size cleanliness, courtesy, and family entertainment. The
the Belgica, with Amundsen aboard, became the first first theme park, Disneyland, opened in 1955 in Ana-

ship to winter in Antarctic waters. In 1906, Amundsen heim, California. Its theme is the cartoon characters cre-
completed the first voyage from the Atlantic to the Pacif- ated by Walt Disney. Don b Wilmeth

ic through the Arctic waters of Canada. During this voy- See also California (Places to visit); Denmark (picture:
age through the Northwest Passage, Amundsen deter- wheel; Florida (Places to visit);
Tivoli Gardens); Ferris
mined the precise position of the north magnetic pole. Merry-go-round; Roller coaster; Texas (Places to visit);
From 1918 to 1920, he sailed the Northeast Passage. He Walt Disney Company.
traveled from Norway through the Arctic Ocean to the Amusements. See Recreation.
Bering Sea. Amundsen was the first person to sail both AMVETS an organization of veterans who have
is

the Northwest and Northeast passages. served honorably in the United States military. It was
In 1926, Amundsen made history by flying over the founded in 1944 during World War II and chartered by
North Pole in an airship called the Norge. The aircraft Congress in 1947. Its major aims are to promote world
was piloted by Umberto Nobile, an Italian explorer. In peace, to preserve the American way of life, and to help
June 1928, Amundsen and his crew vanished in the Arc- veterans help themselves. AMVETS has about 1 50,000
tic while searching for Nobile, who had disappeared in members and about 1,400 local posts. Its headquarters
May. Nobile was eventually rescued. Barry m Cough are in Lanham, Maryland. critically reviewed byAMVETS

See also Antarctica (The Heroic Era "); Exploration Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, uh my uh TRAHF
(picture). ihk LAT uhr uhl sklih ROH sihs, also called ALS, is a rare,
incurable disease of the nervous system. It is also called
Additional resources
Lou Gehrig's disease, after a baseball player who died
Roald Amundsen and the Quest for the South
Flaherty, Leo. Pole.
from it. ALS gradually destroys the nerves that control
Chelsea Hse., 1992. Younger readers.
Mason, Theodore K. Two Against the Ice: Amundsen and the muscles. Weakness, paralysis, and eventually death
Ellsworth. Dodd, 1982. result. Physicians advise patients to remain active as
long as possible. No treatment can halt ALS.
Amur River, uh MOOR, is a huge river in eastern ALS develops when certain nerve cells in the brain
Siberia, formed by the joining of the Argun and Shilka and spinal cord degenerate (break down) and die. These
rivers. The Amur-Argun river system is about 2,744 miles cells, called motor neurons, make the muscles work by

(4,416 kilometers) long (see Russia (terrain mapl). sending them impulses (nerve messages). As the motor
The Amur flows east along China's northern border neurons degenerate, they lose the ability to transmit im-
and then turns north into the Khabarovsk Region of Rus- pulses. The muscles they control gradually stop working
sia. It empties into the northern Tatar Strait, a narrow and then waste away. Physicians believe that there may
band of water separating Sakhalin Island from the east be more than one cause of ALS. In 2000, scientists in Cal-
coast of Siberia. The valleys of the Amur and its branch ifornia and France discovered traces of a virus, called
 Anaheim 447

echovirus 7, in the spinal nerves of several patients who Anaconda, an uh KAHN duh, is the name of two kinds
died of ALS. If a viral cause is confirmed, treatments for of large snakes found in Ana-
tropical South America.
ALS might one day be possible. condas are also called water boas. One kind may grow
Small twitches occur in ALS patients as the dying neu- as long as 30 feet (9 meters) or more. But all adult ana-
rons send irregular impulses to the muscles. The arms
and legs grow increasingly weak. Patients find it hard to
walk and to do simple tasks with their hands. They lose
weight and gradually become paralyzed as their mus-
cles grow useless. Talking and swallowing may become
hard. Death occurs when the muscles that control
breathing stop working. In most cases, this happens
within two to five years after the first symptoms appear.
ALS is painless and does not affect the mind. It afflicts

slightly more men than women. Most patients develop

the symptoms in their 50s. wniiam j. weiner
See also Gehrig, Lou.
Anabaptists were one form of what has been called
the radical wing of the Reformation of the 1500s. The
Anabaptists believed that the church was a gathering of
people united by faith, repentance, obedience, and dis-
cipline. Therefore, baptism as an entrance to this com- WORLD BOOK illustration by Richard Levvington The Garden Studio

munity should be limited to believers old enough to The anaconda is the largest snake in the Western Hemisphere.
choose membership. People called them anabaptists (re- A typical anaconda has olive-green skin with black rings or
baptizers) because they baptized adults who had been
spots. It lives in the tropical forests and rivers of South America.

baptized in infancy. The Anabaptists condemned gov-

ernment involvement in religion, which eventually led to condas are more than 15 feet (4.6 meters) long. No other
the idea of the separation of church and state. South American snake approaches this length.
Many Anabaptists were persecuted in both Protestant Anacondas have olive-green skin, often with many
and Roman Catholic countries. Their movement was black rings or spots. These snakes live near water, often
concentrated in Switzerland, southern Germany, Austria, swimming in rivers. Anacondas bear live young. Their

and the Netherlands. The Anabaptists' beliefs survive to- main foods are birds and small mammals. They kill their
day in Mennonite and Hutterite religious communities prey by wrapping their coils tightly around them to
(see Mennonites; Hutterites). Stanley k. stowers keep them from breathing. Only the largest anacondas
See also Reformation (Zwingli and the Anabaptists). ever attack large mammals. Like most snakes, they de-
Anableps, AN uh blehps, also called four-eyed fish, is fend themselves from enemies by retreating or, if cor-
a small fish that lives in freshwater streams of tropical nered, by biting. Their bite is not poisonous, but their
America. This fish swims at the top of the water with its many teeth can inflict deep wounds. Albert f. Bennett

eyes projecting partway into the air. The upper half of Scientific classification. Anacondas are members of the
each eye can see threatening birds of prey in the air. The family Boidae. They are classified as Eunectes murinas and £ no-
taeus.
lower half, different in structure, can see underwater
and enables the fish to find food. John e. McCosker See also Boa; Boa constrictor; Python.
Scientific classification. The anableps belongs to the family Anacreon, uh NAKree uhn (572?-487 B.G), a Greek
Anablepidae. It is Anableps anableps. lyric poet, made wine and love his main themes. Little of
See also Fish (Interesting facts about fish). his work has survived. Most of the so-called Anacreon-
tics, popular in the 1 700s, are imitations. The tune of a
drinking song about him, To Anacreon in Heaven," was
adopted for The Star-Spangled Banner' (see Star-
Spangled Banner). He is called "the Teian bard because
he was born in Teos, in Ionia. The emphasis on wit and
pleasure in his poems is probably due to the taste and
demands of his royal patrons. Cynthia W. Shelmerdine
Anaheim, AN uhHYM (pop. 328,014), is a residential
and light-industrial city and tourist center in southern
California. It lies 28 miles (45 kilometers) southeast of Los
Angeles and 16 miles (26 kilometers) from the Pacific
Ocean (see California [political map]). It is part of the Or-
ange County metropolitan area, which has a population
of 2,846,289. Anaheim's more than 1,000 industries in-
clude aircraft, automotive, electronics, engineering, and
hardware plants. Disneyland, an amusement park that
UOKLl) BOOK illuM
opened in 1955, is the largest employer. A second park,
Disney s California Adventure, opened in 2001. The Ana-
The anableps swims with its eyes projecting partway into the
air. Both eyes are divided into two parts. The top part can see
heim Angels baseball team is in the American League.
above water, while the bottom part can see underwater. The Mighty Ducks play in the National Hockey League.
448 Analgesic

Anaheim was originally part of a Spanish land grant to Analog computers can be extremely fast. However,
the San Gabriel mission. The city was founded in 1857 as they are not as accurate as digital computers because
an agricultural community by a group of former Forty- they work with quantities that cannot be measured pre-
Niners, mostly of German descent (see Forty-Niners). cisely. Digital computers count rather than measure, so
The name Anaheim means home by the Santa Ana River. their accuracy is limited only by the number of digits
Anaheim has a council-manager form of government. they can handle. a k. Dewdney
James J. Rawls Analogous structures. See Homologous struc-
Analgesic, an uhl JEE zihk, any drug that relieves
is tures.
pain without causing unconsciousness. People use vari- Analytic geometry. See Geometry.
ous analgesics to eliminate or reduce many types of Anaphylactic shock, an uh fu LAKtihk, also called
pain. Aspirin, a relatively mild analgesic, relieves head- anaphylaxis, is a rare, life-threatening allergic reaction
aches, muscle pains, and some discomforts of a cold. A that affects thewhole body. The reaction develops rap-
doctor may prescribe more powerful analgesics, such two or more exposures to an allergen (sub-
idly after
as codeine, for the severe pain caused by back injuries, stance that causes an allergy). The allergens that cause
serious burns, and such illnesses as cancer. Analgesics most anaphylactic reactions include bee and wasp ven-
relieve pain by acting on the nervous system or by om, antibiotics, latex rubber, and such foods as eggs,
blocking the formation of prostaglandins, hormonelike nuts, and shellfish.
chemicals found throughout the body. However, scien- Symptoms of anaphylactic shock include skin rashes,
tists do not know exactly how analgesics work. wheezing, chest tightness, and nausea. The blood pres-
There are two kinds of analgesics, narcotic and non- sure drops, and the person may collapse. Without im-
narcotic. Narcotic analgesics, also known as opioid anal- mediate medical attention, death may occur. Doctors
gesics, relieve severe pain but are addictive. Nonnarcot- treat anaphylactic shock with epinephrine or certain
ic analgesics relieve only fairly minor pain but are not other drugs and oxygen to help restore normal blood
addictive. The most commonly used nonnarcotic anal- pressure and breathing.
gesics include acetylsalicylic acid, or aspirin; and aceta- Usually, the speed of an anaphylactic reaction makes
minophen, used by many people who cannot take as- the allergen that caused the attack obvious. If there is
pirin without suffering side effects. Acetaminophen is any doubt, blood and skin tests can help people identify
sold under many trade names, the best known probably and avoid the allergen. People also should wear a med-
being Tylenol. Narcotic analgesics include codeine, ical bracelet identifying the allergen and carry an emer-

morphine, and meperidine, a drug that is often referred gency epinephrine injection for use should another at-
to by the trade name Demerol. tack OCCUr. Carol A. Hirshman

The misuse of any analgesic can cause severe illness Anarchism, AN uhr kihz uhm, is a belief that every
or death. Narcotic analgesics are especially dangerous form of regulation or government
immoral, and that
is

because they are addictive. For this reason, narcotic restraint of one person by another is an evil which must
analgesics can be legally obtained only with a prescrip- be destroyed. Anarchism comes from a Greek word
tion from a physician or dentist. n. e. siadek meaning without government.
Related articles n World Book include:
i Anarchism dates back to ancient times. The legends
Acetaminophen Drug Morphine of many countries tell of a "golden age" of freedom
Aspirin Drug abuse Narcotic
which preceded organized governments. Anarchism
Codeine Ibuprofen
also appeared among early Christian groups.
Analog computer is a device that solves problems Later anarchism proposed a social organization that
by measuring a continuously varying quantity, such as was based on common ownership and free agreements,
weight, speed, or voltage. Many familiar devices, includ- but its disciples differed among themselves in methods
ing speedometers and thermometers, work as analog and forms. Pierre Joseph Proudhon of France, often
computers. An analog computer replaces a calculation called the father of anarchism, became the first to make
with a physical system that performs the calculation. For anarchism a mass movement. Proudhon's philosophical,
example, the rise and fall of mercury in a thermometer or individualistic, anarchism urged the willing coopera-
imitates a change in temperature. tion of free individuals without any regulation or gov-
Analog computers reached the peak of their populari- ernment
ty in the 1940s. During World War (1939-1945), they
II Terroristic anarchism began under the leadership of
were used to calculate the paths of bombs and bullets. Mikhail Bakunin (1814-1876) in Russia during the 1800s.
The development of digital computers since that war Followers of this type of anarchism believed in the de-
limited the use of analog computers. A digital computer struction of the government by violence and terror. They
uses numerical digits to represent a quantity. Today, thought that land and other means of production should
most computers are digital.See Computer. be owned in common. Many anarchists throughout the
An electronic analog computer represents numbers world resorted to revolution and assassination in the be-
with electrical quantities, especially voltages, and solves lief that terror would correct what they thought to be

problems by manipulating those quantities. Electronic evil. They murdered heads of governments, including

analog computers are useful for representing quantities Czar Alexander II of Russia and President William
that change continuously. They are sometimes used to McKinley of the United States. After the death of McKin-
duplicate the behavior of machines and some natural ley, the U.S. government passed a law barring anarchists

systems. Analog computers may be programmed to from entering the country.

solve a wide variety of equations that describe such sys- Anarchism under the leadership of Prince Peter
tems. Kropotkin of Russia, during the late 1800s, assumed a
 Anasazi 448a

more rigid communistic form. Kropotkin rejected the large pueblos made shaped stone. The pueblos were
of
terroristic methods of Bakunin, but he also opposed the two or three many rooms. The largest,
stories high with
authoritative type of communism. Under his kind of an- Pueblo Bonito, had about 800 rooms and may have
archism, the state would be eliminated and society housed as many as ,200 people. The Anasazi in Chaco
1

would be built on the communes, or village communi- Canyon produced turquoise beads and figurines. The
ties, which had existed in feudal Russian society. Each Anasazi of Chaco Canyon traded with peoples in what is
commune would be a self-sufficient group. now Mexico for such items as copper bells, shell trum-
The strength of anarchism declined throughout the pets, and macaws. The Chaco Canyon culture ended
world in the 1900s. Anarchists played a part in the Span- about 50, perhaps due to drought, warfare, or disease.
1 1

ish Civil War (1936-1939). Anarchism also influenced Some of the Chaco Canyon peoples settled in the
such radical groups as Students for a Democratic Soci- Four Corners area, the location of the famous cliff
and the Baad-
ety (SDS) in the United States in the 1960s, dwellings seen at Mesa Verde National Park in Col-
er-Meinhof gang in West Germany in the 1970s. Some orado. These buildings consist of many levels of rooms
groups in Europe practice terroristic anarchism. built one above another. The largest cliff dwellings, con-
lames D. Forman structed of sandstone, could house as many as 2,500
See also Goldman, Emma; Nihilism; Proudhon, Pierre people.
Joseph; Sacco-Vanzetti case. The Anasazi abandoned the area about 1 300. Scien-
tists have developed several theories to explain why the
Additional resources
sites were abandoned, including drought, invasion,
Avrich, Paul Anarchist Portraits. Princeton, 1988. Anarchist Voic-
plague, and resource depletion, but no theory has com-
es. 1994.
Cay, Kathlyn and Martin K. Encyclopedia of Political Anarchy. pletely answered the question. Some people moved to
ABC-Clio, 1999. northern New Mexico, while others settled on mesas
Sonn, Richard D. Anarchism. Twayne, 1992. (flat-topped hills) in eastern Arizona. There they built
Anasazi, ah nuh SAH zee, sometimes called the cliff large multi-story surface pueblos and developed the
dwellers or Ancestral Puebloans, were the ancestors of traits of Puebloan culture seen today in the peoples

the modern-day Pueblo Indians. The Anasazi culture known as Hopi and Zuni.
centered in the southwestern United States, especially Way of life. The Anasazi built large permanent struc-
in what is now the Four Corners
area, where Colorado, tures because their agricultural lifestyle allowed them to
Utah, New Mexico, and Arizona meet. In that region, stay in one place for long periods. In valleys and on top
about A.D. 1100, the Anasazi built homes called cliff of mesas, they grew corn, beans, squash, cotton, and to-
dwellings in canyon walls or under rocky overhangs. bacco. They raised turkeys, but they also hunted both
History. The Anasazi culture developed from Basket- deer and mountain sheep to add to their diet. Hunters
maker ancestors in the Southwest about A.D. 1. They and warriors launched stone-tipped spears using a de-
lived in villages of pit houses, underground pits with vice called an atlatl (AHT laht uhl), a stick with a spur at
roofs formed by a wooden framework covered with one end to hold the butt of the spear. Between 400 and
earth. They farmed and gathered food in the wild. 700, Anasazi hunters had begun to use the bow and ar-
Around 750, they began building pueblos, aboveground row. Anasazi warfare may have included cannibalism.
structures resembling modern apartment buildings. By During the winter, the Anasazi wore robes and blan-
this time, the Anasazi traded extensively with peoples in kets made from rabbit fur and turkey feathers. During
what are now Mexico and California. the summer, both men and women wore skirts made
The Anasazi built their first large pueblos about 900, from cotton and other materials. The men held social
in the area known today as Chaco Canyon, New Mexico. and religious ceremonies in kivas, underground pits ap-
This broad valley in northern New Mexico held many proximately 25 feet (7.6 meters) in diameter. Colorful

A multilevel Anasazi home

known as the Cliff Palace is
the largest cliff dwelling in
Mesa Verde National Park in
southwestern Colorado.
Some sections of the Cliff
Palace are four stories high.
The Anasazi began building
cliff dwellings in about 1 200.
448b Anatolia

symbolic paintings decorated the walls of the ki\as. firstobtained through dissection. The bodies of human
The dry climate of the Southwest and the protection beings and animals are so complex that scientists divide
of the cliffs and canvons preserved manv items made bv anatomy into many branches. Cross anatomy is the study
the Anasazi. Archaeologists have found many artifacts of structures that can be seen with the unaided eye. Mi-
that the Indians used in everyday life including clothing croscopic anatomy, or histology, is the study of tissues
and stone tools. Anasazi potters created fine ceramics under a microscope. Comparath e anatomy compares
the earliest of which were black-on white stvle. Later the structure of different animals. Embr\'ology\s the
pottery featured black-and-red patterns painted on jars studv of the development of plants and animals in their
bowls and pitchers. As pottery techniques improved earliest stages.
these designs became more complex. Bv studving the Human anatomv includes the studv of the structure of
patterns on fragments of potter* archaeologists can de- the skeleton muscles ner%es and the various organs of
termine the age of Anasazi ruins. Thomas r. Hester the human body. A know ledge of the structure of the
Related articles in World Book include: bodv is essential for an understanding of its function in
Cans on de Chelly National Mesa Verde National Park health and disease. Health care professionals must know
Monument New Mexico Indian da\s the structure of the part of the bodv thev expect to treat
Chaco Culture National His- Pueblo Indians
Physical education and health science teachers also
torical Park Zuni Indians
need to know how the body is built
Additional resources In ancient times people believed that the dead bodv
Arnold. Caroline The Ancient Qiff Dwellers of Mesa We/rfe. Clar- was a sacred thing. Cutting it up ranked as a serious
ion. 1992. Younger readers. crime. After 400 B.C the Creeks allowed occasional dis-
Lavender David S. Mother Earth, Father Sky: Pueblo Indians of
sections.The physician Galen, in the AD. 100s. de-
the American Southwest Holida> Hse 1998.
Morrow Baker H.. and Price. V. B. eds. Anasazi Architecture and scribed manv anatomical structures. But he based his
American Design LnK of N Mex. Pr. 1997. w ork mainly on dissections of animals and treatment of
Roberts. David. In Search of the Old Ones: Exploring the Anasazi injured gladiators. After AD. 1300. dissection and anato-
\\ otid of the Southwest Simon & Schuster. 1996. mv became a recognized part of medical education in
Anatolia, See Asia Minor Turkey. western Europe. In 1543 Andreas Vesalius published his
Anatolian shepherd is a breed of large, rugged classic work on anatomy, which was based on human
working dog. It stands about 30 inches 76 centimeters dissections. Since then, steady progress has made possi-
tall at the shoulders and weighs from 80 to 150 pounds ble such discoveries as William Harvev s on blood circu-
36 to 68 kilograms The breed has an outer coat that
. lation. Because of present knowledge of the bodv s
varies from short to medium long and a thick undercoat structure and function, a surgeon can operate on every
Coat colors include fawn light beige white brindle part of the bodv DeJmas L Allen
black body with brown stripes and pinto white bod\
. Related articles. See Human bodv with its list of Related ar-
with beige to dark grav spots .
ticlesSee also the Trans-Vision three-dimensional picture in the
Human body article See also:
Embrvologv Harvey, William Physiology
Galen Histology Vesalius. Andreas

Anaxagoras, a\ ak SAC uhr uhs 500?-428 B.C was an

earlv Creek philosopher. He argued that, in the begin-
ning, the world was a uniform mixture of all the things
that would later emerge during its development Thus,
nothing really comes to be or perishes in the world, and
all change is merelv rearrangement of the original com-

ponents. He also argued that matter is infinitelv divisible,

and that evervthing has a tiny portion of everything else
in it A thing appears to be the thing that makes up its
largest pan Anaxagoras introduced Mind as a cosmic
principle. He regarded Mind as composed of exception-
allv fine and pure matter. Its primary function was to ini-

<A* tiate a rotarv motion in the original mixture of the world

that led to the separation of the various parts. Anaxago-
ras was born in Clazomenae in Asia Minor now Turkey 1

The Anatolian shepherd has a strong, sturd> body. but spent much Athens.
of his life in Carl a Huffman
See also Pre-Socratic philosophy.
The Anatolian shepherd originated in Turkey during Anaximander, uh v-u suh VfAA duhr 61 ?-547? B.C 1

ancient times. Shepherds developed the breed to guard was an Creek philosopher. He was one of the first
earlv
their sheep. The breed can make an excellent famiK pet people to describe the world as governed bv svstematic
and is protectee of children and property. But it must laws rather than bv the actions of the gods. Onlv one
undergo obedience training and become accustomed fragment survives from a book he wrote on nature, but
to the people and surroundings outside its home. we know his views from other ancient authors.
CrmcalK reviewed bv the Anatolian Shepherd Dog dub of America Anaximander believed that the world originated from
Anatomy is the studv of the biological structure of liv- what he called the indefinite or unlimited. He probably
The term comes from the Creek words
ing things. imagined the indefinite as a substance of no definite
meaning to cut up. because knowledge of anatom\ was character that was unlimited in extent Opposites such
 Anchorage 449

as hot and cold and dry and wet emerged from the in- keep the family together, and to maintain the society's
definite and came into conflict with one another, thus traditions. Edward O. Henry
producing the world. None of the opposites gains the Ancestry. See Genealogy.
upper hand. This balancing of opposites in part explains Anchor is a heavy weight used to hold a ship or boat in
such phenomena as the seasons. He anticipated aspects place. A rope or chain is fastened to the anchor and tied
of the theory of evolution by stating that animals came to the ship. When the anchor is lowered, generally it

from a moist environment and that human beings origi- catches at the bottom of the water to keep the vessel in
nally had fishlike forms. Anaximander was born in Mile- place. An anchor may be as simple as a rock tied to the
tus in Asia Minor (now Turkey). carl a. Huffman end of a line. The most common kinds of anchors are
See also Pre-Socratic philosophy. made of iron or steel.
Anaximenes, an ak SIHM uh neez, was an early Greek Anchors come in a wide variety of shapes and sizes.
philosopher who lived in Miletus in Asia Minor (now The shape depends in part upon the expected composi-
Turkey) during the 500s B.C Like other Greek philoso- tion of the land at the bottom of the water. For example,
phers of his time, Anaximenes was interested in giving when the bottom is mud, a small boat may be held in
an account of the natural world. He did so by describing place by a mushroom anchor, a cast-iron bowl on the
how he believed the universe began, followed by a dis- end of a shank. But for a rock bottom, the boat would be
cussion of astronomy and meteorology. Almost nothing secured with a grapnel, an anchor with several hooks on
remains of a book he wrote on nature, and we rely for the end of its shank. The size of the anchor depends
our knowledge of his work on the reports of other an- mainly on the size of the craft. A huge aircraft carrier
cient authors. may use an anchor weighing more than 60,000 pounds
Anaximenes believed that the world developed out of (27,200 kilograms). Anchors are essential for navigation
He argued that air turned into such substances as
air. buoys, which must remain in one place at all times and
water and earth through condensation and into fire in all kinds of weather. Buoys are held to the bottom by

through a process called rarefaction. Anaximenes's theo- anchors made of concrete. Robert l scheina
ry may be partly based on the observation of the phe- Anchorage (pop. 260,283) is Alaska's largest city in
nomenon of evaporation. He also believed that human population and the state's main center of commerce and
souls consist of and he may have chosen air as the
air, transportation. It is also a chief United States defense
original substance of the universe because of this belief. center. Anchorage is one of the largest U.S. cities in area.
Carl A. Huffman It covers 1,958 square miles
(5,071 square kilometers). It
See also Pre-Socratic philosophy. lieson Cook Inlet in south-central Alaska, west of the
Ancestor worship and prac-
refers to certain beliefs Chugach Mountains (see Alaska [political map]).
tices of families with regard to ancestors who
have been Anchorage is a modern city with high-rise buildings,
dead for many years. In some cultures, deceased ances- hotels, and shopping malls. An extensive system of bicy-
tors are worshiped as gods. Such worship may involve cle paths extends in and around the city. Anchorage In-
rituals performed at a shrine decorated with objects that ternational Airport serves as an important transfer point
symbolize the ancestor. In many cultures, people be- for both passengers and freight bound for other desti-
lieve that the spirits of ancestors are angered by viola- nations. The city is The Alaska Rail-
a chief Alaskan port.
tions of law or custom, and they use rituals to pacify road, a freight and passenger line, has its headquarters
them. These rituals commonly include offerings of food in Anchorage. Attractions include an art and history mu-

and other items. Ancestor worship forms a part of many seum and the Alaska Center for the Performing Arts. The
religions, especially in Asia and Africa. In general, it center is the home of the Anchorage Symphony, the An-
serves to uphold the authority and honor of elders, to chorage Opera, and the Alaska Light Opera. Alaska

Some common anchors

These illustrations show four common kinds of anchors: the stock anchor, the stock/ess anchor, the
mushroom anchor, and the grapnel. The stock and stockless anchors are used chiefly on large ves-
sels. The mushroom anchor and the grapnel are used to hold small boats in place.
WORLD BOOK illustrations bv Arthur Crebetz

Stock Anchor Stockless Anchor Mushroom Anchor Grapnel

450 Anchorage

Anchorage, one of Alaska s

chief ports, lies on Cook Inlet
in the south-central part of the
state. The Chugach Mountains
rise behind the downtown
skyline, shown here.

& Danny Daniels Alaska Stock

Pacific Universityand a campus of the University of Alas- Anchovies have tender, oily flesh. Most anchovies
ka are also in Anchorage. Just outside Anchorage are measure less than 4 inches (10 centimeters) long. The
two major military installations— Eimendorf Air Force fish have large eyes and a long snout that sticks out far
Base, and Fort Richardson, an Army post Anchorage is beyond their lower jaw. An anchovy has a silvery under-
the administrative center of Alaskas oil industry. side and a green or blue back. Most species have blue
Athabaskan Indians lived in what is now the Anchor- or silver bands along their sides.
age area before white settlers arrived. Anchorage was Anchovies travel in large schools. Most live in the
founded in 1914 as the construction center of the Alaska shallow coastal waters of warm tropical regions. Large
Railroad. The town, originally called Ship Creek and quantities of the fish are caught in the Mediterranean
then Woodrow, was renamed Anchorage in 1915. Its Sea and along the coast of Peru in South America. The
people chose that name because ships anchored there type of anchovy caught along the Peruvian coast is
with supplies for the railroad. sometimes called an anchovetta. It is used mainly in ani-

The began to grow quickly after the two military

city mal feed Or as fish bait Robert R. Rofen
bases opened in 1940, during World War II. The discov- Scientific classification. Anchovies belong to the family En-
ery of oil 1957 led to further growth.
south of the city in graulidae. The European anchovy Engraulis encrasicholus, and
is

On March 27, 1964, one of the worst earthquakes in the the Peruvian anchovy is £
The northern anchowthat
ringens.
lives off the west coast of North America is £ mordax The bay
history of North America hit the Anchorage area. It killed
anchovy that ranges from Cape Cod, Massachusetts, to the Yu-
131 people and caused S750 million in damage. catan Peninsula, in Mexico, is Anchoa mitchelli.
In Anchorage merged with several other com-
1975,
munities to form an expanded city known officially as Ancient civilization refers to civilizations that flour-
the Municipality of Anchorage. The construction of the ished long ago. The term is used especially for the way

Trans-Alaska Pipeline in 1977 provided a strong boost to of life around the Mediterranean Sea begin-
that existed
the economy. In 2000, government officials passed An- ning before 3000 B.C and ending with the fall of Rome
chorage 2020, a comprehensive plan that will manage in AD. 476. It includes great civilizations developed by

the city s future growth. Anchorage has a mayor-council the Assyrians, Egyptians, Israelites, and Persians. The
form of government F. Patrick Fitzgerald cultures of ancient Greece and Rome are also consid-
See also Alaska (Climate; picture). ered part of it. But great early civilizations also grew in
Anchovy is a popular food fish related to the herring. the Far East, India, central and southern Africa, and
Anchovies are used in salads, pizza, and sauces, and North and South America. Barbara Mere
they are often canned, dried, or made into a paste. Related articles in World Book include:
Some people eat freshly cooked anchovies. Aegean civilization Greece. Ancient Mesopotamia
Aksum Hittites Mitanni
Assyria Indian, American Nok
Bab\ Ionia (The first Ameri- Persia,Ancient
Carthage cans) Phoenicia
Chaldea Indus Valley civi- Rome, Ancient
China iHistorv lization Sumer
Ebla Jews World. History of
Egypt, Ancient Kush the
Etruscans Media
Additional resources
Hawkes, Jacquetta H. The Atlas of Early Man. Rev. ed. St Martin s,

1993.

WORtD BOOK illuMration by lohn F Egcjen

Starr, Chester C. A History of the Ancient World. 4th ed. Oxford.
1991.
The anchovy is a popular food fish.
 Anderson, Marian 451

Andersen, Hans Christian (1805-1875), was Den- Andersen. Carolrhoda, 1994. Younger readers.
mark's most famous author. His fairy tales are among the Gronbech, Bo. Hans Christian Andersen. Iwayne, 1980.
most widely read works in world literature. His stories Anderson, Carl David (1905-1991), an American
of make-believe have enchanted young readers around physicist,discovered two subatomic particles— the
the world for generations. positron and the muon. He identified these particles
Andersen wrote with wisdom, deliberate simplicity, while studying cosmic rays with the aid of a Wilson
and often with sly humor. Like Jonathan Swift's Gulliver's cloud chamber (see Cosmic rays). For his discovery of
Travels, Andersen's fairytales can be considered both the positron, Anderson shared the 1936 Nobel Prize in
children's literature and adult literature. Many of Ander- physics with Victor F. Hess.
sen's fairy tales have serious moral meanings that are in- The positron, which Anderson discovered in 1932,
tended for adults. was the first known antiparticle (see Antimatter). The
Andersen gave each tale its own style, but his stories positron has a mass equal to that of the negatively
can be roughly classified into four groups. These charged electron, but its electric charge is positive. In
groups are (1 imitations of folk tales (The Tinder Box,"
) 1937, Anderson discovered the particle now known as
Little Claus and Big Claus," and The Traveling Compan- the muon. Muons have positive or negative charges and
ion!; (2) tales based on Andersen's life (The Ugly Duck- closely resemble positrons and electrons. But a muons
ling" and "She Was Good for Nothing'!; (3) tales that mass is about 207 times as great as that of an electron.
make fun of human faults (The Emperor's New Clothes" Anderson was born in New York City. In 1930, he re-
and The Rags"); and (4) philosophical tales ("The Story of ceived a Ph.D. degree in physics from the California In-
a Mother" and The Shadow! Some of the tales use set- stitute of Technology. Robert H. March
tings in Denmark (The Wind Tells About Valdemar See also Dirac, Paul A. M.; Meson.
Daae and His Daughters" and "Holger Danske"), but Anderson, Judith (1898-1992), ranked among the
others can take place anywhere. leading English-speaking actresses of the 1900's. Ander-
Andersen was born in Odense. He was the son of a son was a character actress and interpreter of intensely
poor shoemaker who died when Hans was 1 1 years old. emotional roles who appeared in a great variety of parts.
After attending the city school for poor children, Ander- Her greatest stage successes included Strange Interlude
sen left Odense at the age of 14 to seek a career as an (1 928), Mourning Becomes Electra (1 931 ), Macbeth
artist in Copenhagen. He nearly starved while trying to (1 and Medea (1 947). Her major films included Re-
941 ),

earn a living as an actor, singer, and dancer. In Copen- becca (1940) and King's RowC\94M
hagen, he received help from Jonas Collin, who became Anderson was born in Adelaide, Australia. Her real
his lifelong friend. Collin got him a royal scholarship, name was Frances Margaret Anderson. Queen Elizabeth
which permitted Andersen to continue his education IInamed her Dame Commander of the Order of the
from 1822 to 1828. British Empire in 1960, and she became known as Dame
In 1 829, his first play, Love in St. Nicolai Church Tower, Judith Anderson. She was the first Australian actress so
was produced. For several years, Andersen's reputation honored. DonB. Wilmeth
as a writer rested on his many plays and novels. But his Anderson, Marian (1897-1993), was an African Ameri-
plays are no longer produced. His novels, the best of can contralto. She gained fame primarily as a concert
which is The Improvisation (1835), are now seldom read singer. In 1955, Anderson became the first black soloist
outside of Scandinavia. to sing with the Metropolitan Opera of New York City.
Andersen published the first of his 1 56 fairy tales in The famous conductor Arturo Toscanini praised her
1835 and continued writing them until he died. They first voice as one "that comes once in a hundred years."
appeared in a series of pamphlets and later were col- Anderson was born in Philadelphia and sang in
lected and published in books. The stories became pop- church choirs during her childhood. After graduating
ular in the early 1840s, and made Andersen famous. His from high school, she studied voice and began to make
acquaintances included royalty and such fellow artists as concert tours. Anderson then spent several years study-
the composer Franz Liszt, the poet Heinrich Heine, and ing and performing in Europe, where her singing won
the novelists Charles Dickens and Victor Hugo. wide praise. She became a top concert singer in the
Andersen traveled throughout Europe and wrote United States after performing at Town Hall in New York
many lively books about his experiences. A Poet's Bazaar City in 1935.
(1842) and In Sweden (1851) are probably his best travel Racism affected Ander-
books. He also wrote an autobiography called The Fairy son's career. In 1939, the
Tale of My Litems). Daughters of the Ameri-
Andersen was a sensitive man who eagerly sought can Revolution would not
fame and success. He never married, although he fell in let her perform in Consti-

love with three women, including the Swedish singer tution Hall in Washington,
Jenny Lind and the daughter of Jonas Collin. None of the D.C, because she was
women returned his love. But Andersen won admiration black. She sang instead at
and fame for his writing. Niels ingwersen the Lincoln Memorial for
over 75,000 people. An-
Additional resources
derson won the Spingam
Andersen, Hans Christian. Fairy Tales of Hans Christian Ander-
Medal that year. She was a
sen. Ed. by Neil Philip Viking, 1995. Younger readers.
Bredsdorff, Elias. Hans Christian Andersen: The Story of His tile U.S. delegate to the United
and Work, 1805-75. Scribner, 1975. Nations (UN) in 1958 and FmaRupp
Burch, Joann J. A Fairy-Tale Life: A Story About Hans Christian won the UN peace prize in Marian Anderson
452 Anderson, Maxwell

1977. My Lord, What a Morning (1956) is her autobiogra- used a simple, precise, unsentimental style to reveal the
phy. Thomas Bauman and longing in the lives of his
frustration, loneliness,
See also African Americans (The Great Depression; characters. These characters are stunted by the narrow-
picture);Spingarn Medal (table). ness of Midwestern small-town life and by their own
Anderson, Maxwell (1888-1959), an American play- limitations.
wright, brought seriousness and idealism to the theater. In Winesburg, Ohio, Anderson became one of the
He wrote several realistic plays, including the war dra- first American writers to use modern psychological in-
ma What Price Glory?(w\th Laurence Stallings, 1924) and sights, especially those of the Austrian psychiatrist Sig-
the psychological melodrama The Bad Seed (1955). But mund Freud. Anderson's characters tend to make them-
his major contributions were historical plays, verse dra- selves into what the author called grotesques. Anderson
mas, and his attempts to revive traditional heroic believed that there were once hundreds of truths, all of
tragedy in the modern theater. them beautiful. But people tended to adopt only one
Among Anderson s historical plays, Elizabeth the truth and call it theirs. According to Anderson, the mo-
Queen (1 930) is one of the most significant. This tragedy ment "one of the people took one of the truths to him-
in verse is based on the romance of Queen Elizabeth self, called it his truth, and tried to live his life by it, he

and Lord Essex. Like many of Andersons works, it pic- became a grotesque and the truth he embraced became
tures the defeat of good by the inevitable forces of evil, a falsehood.'
but it also praises the counterforces of nobility and love Anderson s most important book after Winesburg,
in humanity. Winterset (1935), his most enduring play, is Ohio is the short-story collection The Triumph of the
based on the Sacco-Vanzetti case (see Sacco-Vanzetti f<7<7(1921). His many novels include Poor White (1920)
case). But it mainly deals with the dilemma created and Dark Laughter11925). He also wrote several volumes
when love conflicts with a crusade for justice against of revealing autobiography. Daniel Mark Fogei
evil. Another verse tragedy, Key Largo (1939), explores Andersonville. See Civil War (Prisons).
the difficulties of deciding to fight evil, as symbolized by Andes Mountains, AN deez, are the world's longest
a gangster. Anderson won the 1933 Pulitzer Prize for his chain of mountains above sea They stretch along
level.
political satire Both Your Houses (1933). the entire west coast of South America from Cape Horn
Anderson was born in Atlantic, Pennsylvania. In 1938, to Panama and Venezuela for a distance of 4,500 miles
he helped found the Playwrights' Company, which pro- (7,200 kilometers).
duced many notable plays. Thomas Adier p. Only the Himalaya of northern India and Tibet are
Anderson, Sherwood (1876-1941), was an American higher than the Andes range. Many Andean peaks rise
short-story writer and novelist Although none of his over 20,000 feet (6,100 meters) high. The chain is about
novels was wholly successful, several of his short stories 400 miles (645 kilometers) wide across its widest part In
have become classics. Anderson was a major influence Spanish, the Andes are called Cordillera de los Andes,
on the generation of which means Andes Mountain Range.
American writers who Physical features. The Andes may be divided into
came after him. These three natural regions: southern, central, and northern.
writers included Ernest The southern Andes are less than 10,000 feet (3,000
Hemingway, F. Scott meters) high near the southern tip of the continent Far-
Fitzgerald, and William ther north, the peaks are higher. Aconcagua (22,831 feet,
Faulkner. Anderson thus or 6,959 meters) is the highest peak in the Americas. It
occupies a place in literary stands in Argentina, about 65 miles (105 kilometers) from
history that cannot be fully Santiago, Chile.
explained by the literary The central Andes form the broadest part of the
quality of his work. mountain system. Two ranges running northwest and
Anderson was born in southeast make up this section. Between these ranges
Camden, Ohio. He never lie the wide, high plains, or plateaus, of Peru and west-
Srhaal Pix; Harrourt Brace
finished high school be- ern Bolivia. The plateaus themselves lie about 13,000
cause he had to work to Sherwood Anderson feet (4,000 meters) above sea level. Farther north, the
support his family. By two ranges draw closer together. The highest peaks of
1912, he was the successful manager of a paint factory in the central Andes include Pissis (22,241 feet, or 6,779
Elyria, Ohio, and the father of three children by the first meters), Huascaran (22,205 feet, or 6,768 meters), Sorata
of his four wives. In 1912, Anderson deserted his family or lllampu (21 ,276 feet, or 6,485 meters), Sajama (21 ,463
and job. In early 1913, he moved to Chicago, where he feet, or 6,542 meters), lllimani (21 me-
,004 feet, or 6,402
devoted more time to his imaginative writing. He be- ters), Chimborazo (20,561 feet, or 6,267 meters), and Co-
came a heroic model for younger writers because he topaxi (19,347 feet, or 5,897 meters).
broke with what they considered to be American mate- The northern Andes have three ranges of mountains.
rialism and convention to commit himself to art. None mountains far-
of these ranges rise as high as the
Anderson's most important book is Winesburg, Ohio ther south. One range runs along the coast through
(1919), a collection of 22 stories. The stories explore the Colombia and into Panama. The central range is located
lives of inhabitants of Winesburg, a fictional version of between the narrow valley of the Cauca River and the
Clyde, Ohio, the small farm town where Anderson lived valley of the Magdalena River. This range includes the
for about 1 These tales made a
2 years of his early life. volcano of Tolima (17,1 10 feet, or 5,215 meters). The third
significant break with the traditional American short sto- range, on the east, runs northeast into Venezuela. Many
ry. Instead of emphasizing plot and action, Anderson mountain peaks in the northern Andes reach 15,000 feet
 Andes Mountains 453

(4,570 meters) or more. The highest peak is Cristobal contain gold, silver, tin, lead, iron, platinum, and quick-
Colon (18,947 feet, or 5,775 meters) in Colombia. silver. Many kinds of wild animals live in the mountains,
Volcanoes and earthquakes. Many of the high including squirrellike chinchillas, condors, deer called
mountains of the Andes are volcanoes. Some of them huemul, and members of the camel family called vicuna.
are active. The most famous of these volcanoes are Co- Llamas and alpacas, which were tamed in prehistoric
topaxi, Tungurahua, and Sangay in Ecuador and Nevado times, graze in the Central Andes in the high grasslands
del Ruiz in Colombia. Earthquakes are common in the called puna or paramos. Below the grasslands, farmers
Andes. Many towns have been wiped out by them. have removed many forests. They have created large ter-
Cities that have been greatly damaged by earthquakes races and irrigation systems, and they grow such crops
include Valparaiso, Chile; Lima and Callao, Peru; as potatoes, corn, and coffee.
Popayan, Colombia; and Quito, Ecuador. Transportation. The passes of the Andes Mountains
Glaciers, lakes, and rivers. Glaciers cover many of are narrow, steep, and winding. The mountains are so
the high peaks of the Andes, even those close to the high and rise so sharply from low plains that they divide
equator. The largest glaciers are in southern Chile. the continent into Pacific South America and Atlantic
Others reach down to the Pacific Coast Many of the South America. Engineers find railroads much harder to
glaciers in the southern Andes have cut deep valleys build in the Andes Mountains than in the Rocky Moun-
into the rocky coastline. These valleys go far below the tains. In the central Andes, engineers have had to climb
water level and make the coastline ragged like that of more than 10,000 feet (3,000 meters) to find a pass suit-
Norway. Many deep inlets and rocky islands lie along able for a railroad.
the coast. Rivers flow into the Pacific through gaps cut Four railroads run up the west slope to the rich min-
by glaciers on the west side of the Andes. eral beds on the plateaus of Peru and Bolivia. One of
Many of the chief headstreams of the Amazon River these, the Central Railway, climbs to over 15,800 feet
rise on the eastern slopes of the Andes. Two other great (4,816 meters) above sea level. It is the highest standard
rivers, the Parana and the Orinoco, also receive tribu- gauge railroad in the world.
taries from the Andes. Rainfall is light on the western In Peru, a paved highway runs from Callao on the
slopes of the Andes, except in the section north of the west coast to Cerro de Pasco, over 100 miles (160 kilo-
equator and in the southern third of Chile. meters) inland. From here, an all-weather road continues
Nature has played an unusual prank in the section be- down a deep canyon in the eastern Andes to a branch of
tween the two ranges of the central Andes in Bolivia and the Amazon River. Other highways lead over the Andes
northern Argentina. Water from the high plateau does into the eastern lowlands. Trucks, buses, and automo-
not flow to the Atlantic or the Pacific. Instead, it collects biles travel over these roads.
in Lake Titicaca, and then flows into Lake Poopo. The lev- Flying also provides an important means of travel in
el of this lake has fallen below its outlet. Now water can the Andes. Regular flights link Santiago, Chile, and
escape only through evaporation, or, when the water is Buenos Aires, Argentina. Large passenger planes fly
high,it overflows into a swamp. through foggy, 12,674-foot (3,863-meter) Uspallata Pass.
Natural resources. The name Andes is believed to Above this pass, passengers may look down and see the
have come from anti, the Quechuan word for copper. "Christ of the Andes." This huge statue, put up by Ar-
Much copper is found in the mountains. The Andes also gentina and Chile, marks the settlement of a boundary

Chip and Rosa Maria Peterson

The Andes Mountains stretch along

the west coast of South America.
Many Andean peaks rise more than
20,000 feet (6,100 metersi above sea

Auk^nL level.

' - '"Si ** -^

v ^y j

'

WORLD BOOK map

454 Andorra

dispute. A weather station located in Uspallata Pass Facts in brief

makes reports tO pilots. Gregory Knapp
Capital: Andorra la Vella.
Related articles in World Book include:
Official language: Catalan.
Aconcagua Chimborazo Ojos del Salado
Area: 175 mi 453 km Greatest distances— north-south, about
->.

Chile (The land; Cotopaxi Pichincha

16 mi (26 km); east-west, about 19 mi (31 km).
picture) Nazca
Elevation: Highest—Coma Pedrosa, 9,665 ft (2,946 ml above sea
level. Lowest— 2,756 ft (840 m) above sea level.
Andorra, one of the smallest countries in the world,
Population: Estimated 2002 population— 69,000; density, 394 per
lies high in the Pyrenees mountains between France and
mi 152 per km distribution, 95 percent urban, 5 percent rur-
1
);

Spain. The official name

Andorra in Catalan, a lan-
of
1996 official estimate-12,766.
al.
guage that closely resembles the Provencal spoken in Chief products: Agriculture— potatoes, tobacco.
southern France, is Vails d Andorra (Valleys of Andorra). Manufacturing— cigarettes and other tobacco products.
Andorra la Vella (Andorra the Old), a town of about Flag: The national flag, used by the people, has blue, yellow, and
red vertical stripes. The state flag, used by the government,
22,000 people, is the capital.
has a coat of arms on the yellow stripe. See Flag (picture:
Many tourists Andorra each year. They enjoy the
visit
Flags of Europe).
mountains' rugged beauty, the old churches, and the Money: Basic unit— euro. One hundred cents equal one euro.
quaintness of the country. Many people also go to An- The French franc and Spanish peseta were taken out of circu-
dorra each year to buy goods that are relatively inexpen- lation in 2002.

sive because Andorra charges almost no tax on them.

The steep, rocky mountains that surround Andorra
cut the country off from the rest of the world for hun- worked as farmers, shepherds, and smugglers became
dreds of years. As a result, Andorra s boundaries have storekeepers and hotel owners. Tourists brought new
changed little since the Middle Ages. Andorra's legal wealth, and fewer people had to move out of the coun-
system is based on ancient laws and common law (rules try. Some people from Spain have moved into Andorra.

based on customs) that date from the Roman Empire. Today, only about one-third of the country's people are
Government Andorra is a parliamentary coprin- Andorran citizens. Over half are citizens of Spain. Other
the bishop of Urgel, Spain, and the
cipality. Until 1993, inhabitants are mainly from France and Portugal.
president of France ruled Andorra jointly under treaties These changes weakened the strong control Andor-
signed in the 1200s. Both rulers, known as the "princes ran fathers had always held over their families. But in
of Andorra," had to agree before any changes could be other ways life has changed little. Life for the average
made in Andorra's government Each prince had the Andorran still centers around the family. Many Andor-
right to veto laws made by the parliament rans still live in big farmhouses with stone walls and
In 1993, Andorra's citizens adopted their first constitu- rough slate roofs. Most of these houses are three stories
tion. It made elected officials responsible for governing high with a barn to house livestock or a tool shed on the
Andorra. The role of the princes became mostly cere- ground floor, a living room and kitchen on the second
monial. But the princes still must approve international
treaties with France and Spain, and some other matters
concerning boundaries, defense, and internal security. Andorra Germany
Switzerland^"
Under the Constitution, a prime minister heads the
government. The people elect the prime minister. The m I
International boundary
Bay of
Biscay
France

EUROPE"-
Italy

prime minister selects an Executive Council of four to six I Rood

counselors to help administer the government. A 28- Railroad

member parliament known as the General Council of ® National capital

the Valleys makes the nation s laws. Two members are • Other city or town

elected from each of Andorra's seven parishes (districts), + Elevation obove sea level
N
and the other 14 members are elected nationwide.
Since Andorra had two rulers for hundreds of years, it
often has two sets of public services. For example, it has ;\
two postal systems— one French and one Spanish. Both
the French franc and the Spanish peseta served as legal
tender\\avAu\ money). They were replaced by the euro,
Europe s common currency, in 2002.
People. From the 1 100s to the 1930s, life in Andorra
changed little. The people worked as farmers and shep-
herds. The villages and parishes owned the grazing
lands, and farmers owned their own cropland. To keep SPAIN
ANDORRA
Andorra
the cropland from being divided into tiny plots, farmers »a Vella® *^caldes
gave at least three-fourths of their inheritance to one of
their children, usually the oldest son. Many of the other
children had to move out of Andorra. As a result, more SPAIN
people of Andorran descent now live in France and
Spain than in Andorra.
The opening of roads to France and Spain in the
1930s and the sudden growth of tourism in the 1950s 20 Kilometers

changed some of the old ways of living. Many who had WORLD BOOK map*
 Andorra la Vella 455

floor,and bedrooms opening onto wooden or iron bal- Napoleon to I rule them, and he accepted in 1806.
conies on the third floor. The people speak Catalan, but France's head of state has been a prince of Andorra
most Andorrans also understand French and Spanish. since then. Today, the French president serves as prince.
The government prints its official documents in Catalan. Until 1993, as the old treaties required, Andorra paid
Almost all Andorrans are Roman Catholics, and their about $2 every other year to the president of France and
religion greatly influences their social life. All public about $8 to the Spanish bishop. The bishop also got 6
records are kept by the church, and only Roman hams, 6 cheeses, and 1 2 hens every other year.
Catholics can get married in Andorra. On their national In the 1800s, Andorran farmers began raising tobac-
holiday, September 8, Andorrans make a pilgrimage co. Until the 1900s, many Andorrans made their living
(journey) to the shrine of Our Lady of Meritxell, patron by smuggling tobacco into France and Spain.
saint of Andorra. Until the 1930s, only male citizens who were the
Children in Andorra must attend school from ages 6 heads of households could vote in Andorra. In 1933, An-
to 16. Andorra has Andorran, French, and Spanish dorran youths stormed the General Council and forced
schools. it to give all male citizens over 25 years old the right to

Land. Steep mountain peaks as high as 9,665 feet vote. In 1970, the voting age was reduced to 21 and fe-
(2,946 meters) above sea level tower over the valleys of male citizens won the right to vote. In 1984, a woman
Andorra. Fields and meadows lie in the valleys, and oak, was elected to the General Council for the first time. In
pine, and fir trees cover the lower mountain slopes. 1985, the voting age was lowered to 18.
Only grass grows farther up the mountainsides. The In 1993, the people of Andorra adopted their first con-

Valira del Norte (Northern Valira) and the Valira del Ori- stitution. The constitution strictly limited the role of the
ertf (Eastern Valira) rivers meet near the town of Andorra princes in government and placed responsibility for
the
la Vella to form the Valira River, which flows into Spain. governing Andorra in the hands of an elected prime
The main roads in Andorra follow the Valira del Norte minister and parliament. William m. Reddy

toward France and the Valira into Spain. See also Andorra la Vella.
Andorra has a dry, sunny climate. Three or four heavy Andorra la Vella, an DA WR uh lah VEHL yah (pop.
snows fall each year, and even powerful snowplows 21 ,630), is the capital and largest town of Andorra. About
cannot keep the mountain road between Andorra and one-third of Andorra's people live in Andorra la Vella.
France open all winter. However, in the valleys south of The town lies beside the Valira River in a valley high
Escaldes, the snows melt in a few days. Winter tempera- amid the Pyrenees. For location, see Andorra (map).
tures at Escaldes range between 20 and 30 F 7 and ( The economy of Andorra la Vella depends on
—1 °C). In the summer, the valleys are warm during the tourism. Many visitors come from neighboring Spain
day and cool at night. Temperatures at Escaldes reach 70 and France. The town has numerous medieval struc-
to 80 °F (21 to 27 °C). tures, including the Santa Coloma church. Andorra's
Economy. Tourism is Andorra's chief source of in-
come. Andorra's beautiful mountains and ancient build-
ings are the main attractions. Ski slopes have been
opened at Pas de la Casa and Soldeu, where the snow
lasts until the end of April. Tourists can buy Swiss
watches, Japanese cameras, French wines, clothing, and
other goods at low prices in Andorra, because import
duties (charges) are low.
A few Andorrans farm. Their main crop is tobacco.
About half the tobacco is raised in the lower valleys of
Sant Julia's parish. Most of the mountain slopes are used
for grazing sheep and cattle. In some areas, farmers
have carved terraces into the mountainsides as high as
5,300 feet (1 ,620 meters) above sea level. Potatoes are the
chief crop raised on the terraces. Other mountain crops
include buckwheat, corn, oats, and rye.
History. According to legends, Charlemagne either
founded or freed Andorra. The first known ruler of An-
dorra was a Spanish noble, the Count of Urgel. He con-
trolled the region in the A.D. 800s, and then gave it to
the diocese of Urgel. In the 1000s, the bishop of Urgel
could not control Andorra by himself, and he asked a
Spanish noble, the Lord of Caboet, to defend the region
A French noble, the Count of Foix, inherited the lord's
duties through marriages. The French count and the
bishop fought over Andorra. They finally ended their
disputes by signing treaties in 1 278 and 1 288. The
treatiesmade them joint rulers.
Through marriages, the king of France inherited the Andorra's capital, called Andorra la Vella, nestles among the
count's rights. During the French Revolution, France re- rocky peaks of the Pyrenees mountains. The quaint old town has
fused to rule Andorra. But the Andorrans later asked become a leading tourist renter.
456 Andrada e Silva, Jose Bonifacio de

parliament meets in the Casa de la Vail, which dates in 1965 and 1966. In 1966, he finished first in eight of the
from the 1500 s. races that made up the U.S. championship circuit. He
For hundreds of years, the Pyrenees kept Andorra la won the national championship in 1969 and in 1983. An-
Vella isolated from the outside world. After the mid- dretti is the only driver who has won the Grand Prix
1900 s, however, modernization proceeded rapidly. To- world driving championship, the Daytona 500, and the
day, the city bustles with commercial activity, and air Indianapolis 500. He retired from Indy car racing in 1994.
pollution sometimes clouds the valley. wniiam m Reddy Andretti was born near Trieste, a city on the Adriatic
Andrada e Silva, an DRAH duh ee SEEL vuh. Jose Sea. He spent more than three years in a displaced per-
Bonifacio de, zhoh ZEH boh nee FAH syoo duh (1 763- sons camp after World War II, and moved to the United
1838), was a Brazilian statesman known as the "architect States in 1955. Michael Andretti, his son, is also a lead-
of Brazilian independence. He supported land reform, ing racing driver. Sylvia Wilkinson
the ending of slavery, and rule by a monarchy. In 1822, Andrew, Saint, was the first of the 1 2 apostles of Je-
he guided Brazil out of the Portuguese empire, and sus Christ. He was the brother of the apostle Peter. An-
served the new emperor, Pedro He fell from favor and
I. drew was a fisherman from Bethsaida, a village on the
was banished temporarily. Pedro later named him north shore of the Sea of Galilee. In Matthew 4: 19, Jesus
guardian of his son, the future Pedro II (see Pedro I; Pe- calls Andrew and Peter to become "fishers of men."
dro II). In the Gospel of John, Andrew is described as a fol-

Andrada was also an accomplished scientist. In 1783, lower of Saint John the Baptist before becoming a disci-
he went to Portugal to study philosophy and law at the ple of Jesus. The Gospel tells that Andrew was present at
University of Coimbra. In 1790, the king sent him on a the feeding of the multitude and received a request
10-year tour. He studied chemistry in Paris, and mining from "certain Greeks' who wanted to meet with Jesus.
and metallurgy in Germany, Norway, Switzerland, and According to later tradition, Andrew preached in Asia
England. He taught at the University of Coimbra and Minor and Greece, and he may have preached in what is
held important government posts. Andrada returned to now Ukraine. He was martyred in Greece by being cru-
Brazil in 1819. He was born in Santos, Brazil. cified on an X-shaped cross. Andrew became the patron
Robert M. Levine saint of Greece, Russia, and Scotland. The X on the Scot-
Andre, AHN dray, John (1751-1780), a British officer, tish flag is a symbol of his crucifixion. His feast day is No-
was hanged as a spy by the American Revolutionary vember 30. Richard A. Edwards

Army. He was the messenger of the British general, Sir See also Apostles
Henry Clinton, who, with Benedict Arnold, had concoct- Andrews, Roy Chapman (1884-1960), was well
ed a plot for taking the vital American fort at West Point known and explorer, and as a leader of ex-
as an author
(see Arnold, Benedict). peditions for the American Museum of Natural History.
Andre was Clinton's personal aide and adjutant gener- As a result of work from 1908 to 1914 in Alaska and Asia,
al of the British forces in America. Clinton chose him to he became an authority on whales. Between 1916 and
meet Arnold and arrange the final details of the plot for 1930, Andrews led expeditions to central and eastern
taking West him up the Hudson River
Point. Clinton sent Asia. In the Gobi Desert, he and his co-workers found
on a British sloop. The men met on shore on the night of the remains of Baluchitherium, the largest land mammal
Sept. 21, 1780. that ever lived. They also discovered the first dinosaur
At dawn, the Americans opened fire on the sloop and eggs ever found and unearthed evidence of a prehis-
forced it to retreat. Andre, caught inside the American toric civilization.
lines, was forced to go overland to New York. Disobey- Andrews was born in Beloit, Wisconsin, and he grad-
ing Clinton's instructions, he discarded his military uni- uated from Beloit College. He served as director of the
form for By this action, Andre lost his
civilian clothes. American Museum of Natural History from 1935 to 1942.
chance, if captured, to be considered an officer instead He wrote several books, including Whale Hunting with
of a spy. Not far from the British outposts, Andre was Gun and Camera (191 6), The New Conquest of Central
stopped by American militia, who searched him and Asia (1 932), and Beyond Adventure 954). c. Kenagy |.

found papers that Arnold had given him. He was taken Andrews Air Force Base, Maryland, is the head-
to the nearest officer, who notified Arnold. This gave quarters of the Air Force Systems Command. The com-
Arnold a chance to escape. mand develops and buys aircraft, missiles, and other
Andre was tried by a military court and sentenced to weapon systems for the United States Air Force. Several
death. In spite of Clinton's efforts to save him, he was passenger aircraft are kept at the base for the use of the
hanged on October 2. president and other government officials. Andrews Air
Andre was born in London. He was handsome, witty, Force Base covers about 5,000 acres (2,000 hectares)
interested in literature and music, and popular in the southeast of Washington, D.C The base was established
British army. While in prison, he won the affection even in 1943. It was named for Lieutenant General Frank M.
of his American captors. His youth, charm, and courage Andrews, who died in an aircraft accident.
in facing death make his story one of the tragedies of \\ a) ne Thompson
the war. Paul David Nelson Andreyev, ahn DREH yuhf, Leonid, leh ah NEET
Andretti, an DREHTtee, Mario (1940- became ), (1871-1919), was and dramatist.
a Russian prose writer
one of America s finest automobile racing drivers. An- Andreyev created moods of extreme pessimism and de-
dretti won the Grand Prix world driving championship in spair in most of his works. A number of his writings deal
1978. He won the Daytona 500 race for stock cars and with the themes of loneliness and human suffering. His
the Indianapolis 500 race in 1969. Andretti won the best-known short story. The Red Laugh" (1904), explores
United States Auto Club national driving championship the horror and terror of war. The short novel The Seven
 Andros, Sir Edmund 457

That Were Hanged" (1 908) examines the feelings of five Andromeda Galaxy is about 2 million light-yearsTrom
revolutionaries and two murderers as they await their the earth. A light-year is the distance that light travels in

executions. a vacuum year— about 5.88 trillion miles (9.46 trillion

in a
Andreyev's most popular plays were The Life of Man kilometers). The Andromeda Galaxy is named for the
(1906) and He Who Gets Slapped (191 5). Leonid Niko- constellation in which it appears. The galaxy is also
layevich Andreyev was born in Orel. See also Russian known as the Great Nebula in Andromeda and as M31.
literature (Symbolism). Anna Lisa crone The galaxy has a thin, circular disk of stars, all of
Androcles, AN druh kleez, also called Androclus, was which rotate about its center. It also has a large central
a Roman slave who ran away from his master and hid in bulge. The disk has two prominent spiral arms consist-
a cave. He took a thorn from the paw of a suffering lion. ing of stars. Next to the arms are dark lanes of dust and
Later, Androcles faced the same lion in the Roman gas. Surrounding the galaxy is a halo of hundreds of
arena. The lion recognized him and refused to harm globular star clusters.
him. George Bernard Shaw's play Androcles and the The disk is greatly tilted with respect to the line of
Z./0/7U912) based on this Story.
is Elaine Fantham sight from the earth. The tilt accounts for the galaxy s
Andromeda, an DRAHM uh duh, is a constellation of oval appearance when viewed from the earth.
the northern celestial hemisphere. It extends from the The Andromeda Galaxy played a key role in the histo-
constellation Perseus to the northeast corner of the ry of astronomy. In 1 924, American astronomer Edwin
great square of the constellation Pegasus. The brightest Hubble discovered individual variable stars (stars whose
star of Andromeda, called Alpheratz, completes the brightness changes) there. At that time, astronomers did
square of Pegasus. The Andromeda Galaxy, which is a not know of any galaxy other than the Milky Way. How-
spiral galaxy close to our solar system, is visible as a ever, they had found thatmany nebulae (the plural of
faint, misty spot in the Andromeda constellation. See nebula), including the Great Nebula in Andromeda, have
also Andromeda Galaxy. David h Levy a spiral shape. Hubbies discovery indicated that the
Andromeda, an DRAHM uh duh, in Greek mythology, Great Nebula isfar beyond the Milky Way, and that all
was the daughter of Cassiopeia and Cepheus, rulers of spiral nebulae are vast collections of stars at great dis-
Ethiopia. Cassiopeia dared to compare her own beauty tances and therefore separate galaxies. Mark Morris
to that of the Nereids (sea nymphs) who attended Posei- See also Galaxy; Milky Way; Nebula.
don. In anger, Poseidon sent a sea monster to attack Andropov, ahn DRAHP awf, Yuri Vladimirovich,
Ethiopia. An oracle said Andromeda should be sacri- YOO rih vluh DYEE myih raw vyihch (1914-1 984), served
ficed to the serpent to save the land. Perseus saw An- as general secretary of the Communist Party of the Sovi-
dromeda chained to a rock, fell in love with her, and et Union from November 1982 until his death in Febru-
killed the monster. He then married Andromeda. Among ary 1984. The post of general secretary was the most
their descendants was Hercules. After her death, An- powerful in the Soviet Union at the time. Andropov also
dromeda became a constellation. ion d Mikaison served as chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme So-
Andromeda Galaxy, an DRAHM uh duh, is the spiral viet—the Soviet Union's head of state at the time— from
galaxy that is closest to our home galaxy, the Milky Way. June 1983 until his death. Andropov had been head of
Like the Milky Way— which is also a spiral galaxy— the the country's secret police, the KGB, from 1967 until May
Andromeda Galaxy contains a few hundred billion stars. 1 982. He then became a member of the Secretariat of
But appears in the sky as an oval nebula (a fuzzy patch
it the Central Committee of the Communist Party.
of light), even when viewed with a high-quality pair of Andropov was born in Nagutskaya, a town in the
binoculars. It looks fuzzy because it is so far away. The Stavropol region between the Black and Caspian seas.
His early career was spent in Komsomol (Young Com-
munist League) Andropov joined the Commu-
activities.
nist Party in 1939. From 1953 to 1957, he served as Soviet
ambassador to Hungary. There, he helped direct Soviet
troops who put down the 1956 uprising by Hungarians
against their Communist government. From 1957 to
1962, Andropov headed the department of the Central
Committee responsible for relations between Commu-
nist-bloc countries. He became a member of the Central
Committee in 1961. In 1967, he was named an alternate
(nonvoting) member of the Communist Party's policy-
making Politburo, as well as head of the KGB. He be-
came a full member of the Politburo in 1973.
Herbert J.
Ellison

Andros, AN druhs, Sir Edmund (1637-1714), an Eng-

lish administrator, served as governor of New York
colony from 1674 to 1681.
Andros became governor of the Dominion of
In 1686,
New England, a group of English colonies. In 1687, he
Galscy eholoqraphv
went to Hartford, Connecticut, to seize the charter that
The Andromeda Galaxy has a large central bulge, a thin disk of gave the people of that colony the right to govern them-
stars, and spiral arms. Our home galaxy, the Milky Way, has simi selves. They refused to surrender it. According to leg-
lar features but is slightly smaller than Andromeda, end, they hid the charter in a tree, which came to be
458 Anemia
called the Charter Oak (see Charter Oaki. stopping the bleeding and, if necessary, providing
The colonists dominion thought Andros ruled
of the blood transfusions.
unfairly. In 1689, Boston citizens imprisoned him. He Excessive destruction of red blood cells. Old red
was sent to England for trial but was not tried. He re- blood cells are destroyed in the liver and spleen by a
turned in 692 as governor of Virginia. Andros was born
1 process called hemolysis. If hemolysis occurs faster than
in London. Donna J. Spindel the production of new red blood cells, anemia results.
Anemia, uh \'EE mee uh, is a condition in which the Such hemolytic anemia may be caused by inherited de-
number blood cells falls below normal.
of healthy red fects in the redblood cells, or it may be acquired.
Red blood cells pick up oxygen in the lungs and carry it Hereditary causes of hemolytic anemia include sickle
to tissues throughout the body. There, the oxygen is cell anemia and thalassemia, disorders that affect the he-
combined with food to release energy. In an anemic moglobin portion of red blood cells. Hemoglobin is the
person, the blood cannot provide the tissues with molecule that enables red blood cells to carry oxygen.
enough oxygen. Thus, the person feels weak or tired. Other hereditary defects may involve the cell mem-
Other symptoms are dizziness, headaches, pale or cool brane—the envelope that encloses a red blood cell— or
skin, rapid heartbeat, and shortness of breath. the enzymes of the red blood cell. All of these heredi-
Anemia, which is not a disease itself, is caused by a tary disorders produce abnormal red blood cells, which
variety of diseases and disorders. The main causes are are destroyed faster than normal.
(1) insufficient production of red blood cells, (2) loss of Acquired hemolytic anemia can occur if the red
blood, and (31 excessive destruction of red blood cells. blood cells are damaged by severe burns or freezing. It

Insufficient production of red blood cells. Each alsosometimes follows infections. Normally, infections
day, about 0.8 percent of the body's red blood cells cause the body to produce antibodies, which attack the
wear out and are destroyed. If the body fails to repiace invading germs. In some cases, the body produces ab-
these cells at the same rate, anemia results. Red blood normal antibodies, called autoantibodies, which attack
cells areproduced in the bone marrow, a tissue in the the person's own red blood cells.
center of certain bones. This process requires the intake Treatment of hemolytic anemia varies according to
of various minerals and vitamins, and the proper func- the cause and severity. Treatments may include drugs,
tioning of certain hormones in the body. blood transfusions, removal of tbe spleen, or a bone
Deficiency anemias develop if the diet lacks suffi- marrOW transplant. Edward E. Morse
cient iron, vitamin B l2 or folic acid (also called folate or
, See also Blood 'Red blood cells); Hodgkin, Dorothy
folacin). These nutrients are essential for the production Crowfoot; Sickle cell anemia; Thalassemia.
of red blood cells. Deficiency anemias also result if the Anemometer, -i\ uh MAHM
uh tuhr. is an instrument
body cannot absorb these nutrients properly. For exam- that measures wind speed. There are several types of
ple, pernicious anemia occurs when vitamin B, 2 cannot anemometers. The most common type has three or four
be absorbed. Physicians treat deficiency anemias by cone-shaped cups at the end of rods that are from 2 to 8
adding the missing nutrient to the diet or by administer- inches [5 to 20 centimeters) long. This unit rotates on a
ing it through injections or in tablets. vertical spindle. The wind
Aplastic anemias occur if the bone marrow loses its pressure is greater on the
ability to produce red blood cells. Some cases are due concave (inward curving^
to diseases that affect the marrow, such as leukemia in side of the cups, than on
its early stages. Other cases result from exposure to the con vex (outward curv-
chemicals or radiation. Many cases have no apparent ing) side. Because of this,
cause. Victims of aplastic anemia may receive a bone the wind makes the cups
marrow transplant if they are young and if an appropri- rotate regardless of wind
ate donor is available. Chances of recovery are good if direction. The faster the
rejection of the transplant and infection do not occur. wind blows, the faster the
Other victims receive regular blood transfusions until cups rotate. The wind
their bone marrow begins to function again. In many speed is measured by the
cases, the marrow never regains function, and the victim number of revolutions the
requires a bone marrow transplant to survive. cups make in a given pe-
Anemia of renal disease occurs as a result of the kid- riod of time. This informa-
ney's lost ability to produce a hormone called erythro- tion often registered on
is Qualimem

poietin. This hormone stimulates bone marrow to make a dialon the anemometer. Anemometer
red blood cells. People whose kidneys have failed or However, it can also be
have been removed, as well as some cancer and AIDS transmitted by electrical means to display devices lo-
patients, suffer from this anemia. In 1989, the Food and cated some distance from the anemometer itself.
Drug Administration approved Epoetin alfa, a drug that David D. Houghton
is a genetically engineered form of erythropoietin. The Anemone, uh NEHM uh nee, is any of more than 1 50
drug stimulates bone marrow to make red blood cells. species of spring flowers that grow in woodlands and
Loss of blood. The body responds to excessive prairies in the United States and Canada. Their name
blood loss by retaining water to replace the fluid part of comes from the Creekword for wind.' They are also
the blood.As a result, the percentage of red cells in the called windfknvers. The best-known anemone is the del
blood decreases and anemia develops. The blood loss icate wood anemone, with white blossoms. Other spe-
may occur rapidly, as from a wound, or slowly, as from cies grow much taller, and may be tinted with pink, pur-
a bleeding ulcer in the stomach. Treatment involves ple, or blue. The wild anemone, or pasqueflower is the
 Aneurysm 459

stateflower of South Dakota and the provincial flower of formed an operation after he had his patient breathe
Manitoba. See Pasqueflower. ether vapor until he was unconscious. In 1845, Long
Scientific classification. Anemones belong to the buttercup used ether for the first time in delivering a child. He did
or crowfoot family, Ranunculaceae. The wood anemone is not publish the facts of his discoveries until 1849, by
Anemone quinquefolia. Massey
|.
which time credit for the discovery of ether anesthesia
Anemone, Sea. See Sea anemone. had been giver, to W. T. G. Morton, a Boston dentist. At
Anesthesia, an uhs THEE zhuh, is the loss of sensa- the recommendation of Charles T. Jackson, a Boston
tion—particularly that of pain— in all or part of the body. chemist, Morton used ether during a tooth extraction in
Drugs called anesthetics are used to produce temporary the mid-1 840s. In 1846, he administered ether during a
anesthesia for medical purposes. Anesthesia is also pro- surgical operation at Massachusetts General Hospital. In
duced by hypnosis and by acupuncture—the insertion of 1847 and 1848, Sir James Y. Simpson, a Scottish physi-
needles at certain points on the body. Some injuries and cian, used chloroform to ease the pain of childbirth.
diseases, especially those of the nervous system, also Queen Victoria was one of the first women to be anes-
can lead to loss of sensation. thetized during childbirth. The use of local anesthetics
Without anesthesia, doctors could not perform most did not begin until the mid-ISSOs.
surgical operations. Because an anesthetic makes the During the early 1930s, medical schools began offer-
patient insensitive to pain, it greatly reduces the physi- ing formal training in anesthesia. Over the following
cal shock and emotional stress of the operation. The use decade, the study of anesthesia and the administration
of anesthetics gives the surgeon time to perform com- of anesthetics was recognized as a separate medical
plicated operations safely. specialty called anesthesiology. Edwin s. Munson
General anesthesia is the loss of feeling in the en- Related articles in World Book include:
tire body. It is accompanied by unconsciousness. Gen- Acupuncture Halothane Morton,
eral anesthetics are inhaled, injected, or swallowed. The
Anesthesiology Hypnotism William T. G.
Benzocaine Lidocaine Nitrous oxide
blood carries them to the brain, where they block pain
Cocaine Long, Crawford W. Procaine
impulses in the nervous system. Common general anes- Ether Thiopental
thetics include enflurane, halothane, isoflurane, nitrous
oxide (laughing gas), and thiopental (sodium pentothal). Anesthesiology, am uhs thee zee AHL uh jee, is a
A person under general anesthesia shows various branch of medicine that deals with the administration of
signs that indicate the depth of unconsciousness. In drugs for the relief of pain and anxiety during surgery
deep levels of anesthesia, the patient loses such reflex and childbirth. Doctors in this field are called anesthesi-
actions as coughing, and heart and respiration rates ologists. They administer drugs called anesthetics.
slow. In surgery, the patient's reactions to the anesthetic Before a surgical operation, an anesthesiologist su-
and to the stress of the operation are monitored by the pervises the preparation of the patient, recommends
anesthetist to maintain a safe level of anesthesia. tests or medications, and selects the appropriate anes-
Local anesthesia involves the loss of pain sensation thetic. During surgery, the anesthesiologist uses various
in only a part of the body. The individual remains con- techniques to anesthetize all, or part, of the patient's
scious. Local anesthetics may be applied to body sur- body. The anesthesiologist carefully monitors the pa-
faces or injected around nerves. Physicians often use tient's important body functions and administers oxy-
them when they operate on the eyes, nose, mouth, or gen, drugs, and fluids to keep these functions normal.
skin. Dentists also use local anesthetics during painful Anesthesiologists also have special knowledge in ob-
procedures. Common local anesthetics include lido- stetrics, pediatrics, internal medicine, and pain manage-
caine, procaine, and tetracaine. These drugs also may be ment. They frequently treat patients with lung problems
used to treat pain associated with injuries or diseases. and supervise intensive care units. They also teach spe-
One type of local anesthesia, called regional nerve cialized breathing therapies to other health workers.
block, involves injecting an anesthetic around large Many anesthesiologists operate pain clinics and con-
nerves. With this technique, only the pain impulses from duct research to improve the care of patients during an-
a particular region of the body are blocked. Spinal anes- esthesia and surgery. Edwin S. Munson
thesia occurs when is injected into the
the anesthetic Aneurysm, AN yuh rihz uhm, is a balloonlike bulge

fluid within thecoverings of the spinal cord. Peridural that forms in a weakened area of the wall of an artery or
anesthesia is caused by injecting the anesthetic into the vein. The most dangerous aneurysms are those that
space just outside the covering of the spinal cord. When form in arteries, especially the arteries of the brain and
this is done at the lower end of the spine, it is called the aorta, the main artery leading from the heart. Most
caudal anesthesia. Both spinal and peridural anesthesia aneurysms result from atherosclerosis, a disease caused
render the lower parts of the body insensitive to pain, by cholesterol build-up in artery walls. Other causes of
but the patient remains conscious. They are commonlv aneurysms include genetic disorders or other defects
used during childbirth and for surgery on the legs. present at birth.
History. Before the discovery of an effective anes- The symptoms of an aneurysm vary with its location
thetic, the great pain and shock of operations severely and size. There may be no symptoms, or pain may de-
limited the usefulness of surgery. In 1800, Humphry velop at the site of the aneurysm. Shortness of breath
Davy, a British chemist, suggested that nitrous oxide be occurs if the aneurysm interferes with the heart's pump-
used as an anesthetic. However, no one tried this until Some aneurysms press on nearby structures,
ing ability.
1844, when Horace Wells, an American dentist, used it producing a cough, hoarseness, or difficulty in swallow-
on himself while having a tooth pulled. ing. An aneurysm may worsen without the patient know-
In 1842, Crawford W. Long, a Georgia doctor, per- ing and then suddenly rupture, causing a coma, paraly-
460 Angel

sis, Many strokes result from the rupture of an

or death. which rises 8,400 feet (2,560 meters) above sea level.
aneurysm an artery of the brain Isee Stroke!.
in The waterfall is named for Jimmy Angel, an American
Physicians can detect aneurysms with X rays and, in pilot. Angel became the first known white person to see

many cases, can repair them surgically. Surgeons re- the falls, when he flew over it in 1935. He was searching
move the diseased portion of the blood vessel. If it is a for gold in the area. Today, small planes carry tourists
minor vessel, they tie off the loose ends. In a major ar- over Angel Falls and its surroundings. Robert CE.dt
tery or vein, they replace the diseased portion with a See also South America (picture); Waterfall (picture).
plastic tube, a fabric patch, or a piece of another blood Angelfish is the name of a type of fish that has a thin,
vessel. TobvREngel oval body and fins. Angelfish also have
long, pointed
Angel, according many religions, is a spiritual being
to stripes or patterns on the body and patches of vivid
created by God. The word angel comes from a Greek color. There are about 75 marine species and 1 freshwa-
word meaning messenger or one who is sent. Accord- ter species. The freshwater angelfish is only distantly re-
ing to religious tradition, angels live in heavenand act lated to the marine angelfishes.
as God's servants and as messengers between God and Marine angelfishes live mainly around coral reefs in
human beings. They also serve as guardians of individu- warm and tropical seas.
als and nations. Angels traditionally are pictured as hav- Most feed on animals or
ing a human body and wings. Poets and artists have por- plants attached to the bot-
trayed angels as symbols of innocence or virtue. tom of the reefs. Some spe-
Many religions have teachings about angels or simi- cies feed on plankton (tiny
lar beings. In some primitive religions, legends tell of water organisms) in waters
bright, powerful spirits that appear in dreams and vi- above the reefs. Many spe-
sions and protect people or tribes. In Hinduism and cies are kept in commer-
Buddhism, many major gods are accompanied by a cial aquariums and are
band or court of spiritual beings. highly valued for their col-
Judaism, Christianity, and Islam developed the most orful patterns.
elaborate doctrines about angels. These religions recog- The freshwater angelfish
nize an order of beings in which angels rank above is among the most popular
human beings but under God. God is all-powerful, and fishes for home aquariums.
the human is sometimes portrayed as in God's image. In It is native to the Amazon
some traditions, Satan and other fallen angels" rebel River Basin in South Amer- The freshwater angelfish of

against this order. According to other traditions, they ica.Because they are easy South America s Amazon
River is popular in many
fell because of their lust for women. to breed, most freshwater
home aquariums.
The concept of angels with a human body and wings angelfishes sold by aquar-
began in the Hebrew Bible, or Old Testament, and in ium shops are raised in
Christianity. Later tradition refers to many archangels captivity.
(angels of high rank), including Saint Michael. Scientific classification. Marine angelfish are in the family
Christian doctrine regarding angels reached full de- Pomacanthidae. The freshwater angelfish is in the family Cichli-
velopment during the A.D. OOs and dae It is Pterophyllum sea/are. Leighton R. Taylor |r
1 1 1 20Os, especially
in the teachings of Saint Thomas Aquinas. Aquinas be- Angelico, an JEHL uh KOH, Fra H400F-1455), was an
lieved angels were necessary to fill the gap between Italian painter. He combined the clarity of form, linear
God and human beings. He taught that countless num- perspective, and light and shade of the new Renaissance
bers of angels existed and that they were immortal. Ac- style with the flowing line, brilliant color, and symbol-
cording to Aquinas, angels knew everything except ism of earlier medieval painting.
what depended on human choice and what was known Fra Angelico was born in Vicchio, Italy, near Florence.
only to God. The concept of angels strongly influenced He was born Guido He became a Dominican
di Pietro.
Paradise Lost II 667), a famous epic by the English poet monk in and took the name Fra Gio-
Fiesole about 1 41 8
John Milton. Paradise Lost includes a version of Satan's vanni da Fiesole. He was a man of legendary piety and
falland of Adam and Eve s expulsion from Paradise. came to be called Fra Angelico (angelic brother).
The Islamic belief in angels resembles that of Judaism In 1450, Fra Angelico became prior of the Dominican
and Christianity. These three faiths place angels near convent of San Marco in Florence. Some of his most fa-
God and give special duties to some. h charieswonh
i mous altarpieces, painted in the 1430s, can be seen in
See also Michael, Saint. the museum of his work in San Marco. He and his assist-
Angel Falls is the highest waterfall in the world. It ants also painted the walls of the monks cells in San
drains into the Churun River in eastern Venezuela. For Marco with religious images using a technique called
location, see Venezuela 'terrain mapl. Angel Falls has a fresco. In 1445, Fra Angelico was called to Rome where
total height of 3,212 feet 1979 meters). Its longest unbro- he painted in the Vatican for two popes during the next
ken drop is 2,648 feet 1807 meters). five years. He also worked in Orvieto and again in Flor-
Angel Falls plunges down a cliff in a highland area ence before his death. His painting The Annunciation
called La Gran Sabana. This region has many huge, col- appears in the Painting article. Dawd Summers
orful mesas (flat-topped hills with sandstone surfaces. See also Aquinas, Saint Thomas (picture).
Grasslands and tropical rain forests cover much of the Angelou, AN /uh loh, Maya, MY uh (1928- is an ),

mesas. Some of the mesas are more than 2,500 feet (760 American author, poet, playwright, editor, actress, di-
meters) high. There are many steep cliffs in the area. rector, and teacher. She is best known for the first in-
Angel Falls is located on the Auvan-Tepui mountain, stallment of her autobiography, / Know Why the Caged
 Angioplasty 461

Bird Sings11970). This work tells the story of a black girl sis (hardening of the arteries), a disease that is the prima-
growing up during the Great Depression. Angelou con- ry cause of angina pectoris. If the coronary arteries are
tinued to chronicle her life in Gather Together in My narrowed, extra blood cannot reach the heart. Part of the
Name (1 Sing in and Swing in and Getting Merry
974), heart muscle is temporarily deprived of oxygen carried
Like Christmas (1 976), The Heart of a Woman (1 981 All ), by the blood, causing pain. Angina can also be caused
God's Children Need Traveling Shoes (1986), and A Song by a spasm in the coronary artery.
Flung Up to Heaven (2002). Most people who experience angina are commonly
Angelou's autobiographical works are realistic and ex- middle-aged or older. Many are overweight, have high
uberant. Her poetry explores issues connected to being blood pressure, eat foods high in cholesterol, smoke
black. The Complete Collected Poems of Maya Angelou cigarettes, and get little exercise. Resting and taking a
was published in 1994. Several of her essays were col- medication called nitroglycerin can relieve most attacks
lected in Wouldn't Take Nothing for My Journey Now of angina. Doctors may also prescribe drugs called beta-
(1993) and Even the Stars Look Lonesome (1997). blockers and calcium channel blockers. These drugs
Angelou was born on April 4, 1928, in St. Louis, Mis- help keep the heart from working harder under stress.
souri. Her given name was Marguerite Johnson. Angel- When medication can no longer control angina, other
ou was her first husband's family name. Nellie y McKay treatments are necessary. Physicians may perform a pro-
Angina pectoris, anJYnuh PEHKtuhrihs, is chest dis- cedure called angiop/astyto clear the narrowed arteries.
comfort or pain that occurs when the blood flow to the Angioplasty involves threading a balloon-tipped
heart is limited. The word angina means to strangle, and catheter (s\ender tube) into the blocked artery. The bal-
angina pectoris feels like a pressing or squeezing sensa- loon is then inflated, flattening the blockage against the
tion in the area of the breastbone. The pain may travel to artery wall. In severe cases of angina, narrowed coro-
the shoulders, especially the left shoulder, and down nary arteries may be by-passed by grafts of vessels taken
the arms. The pain is usually called simply angina. from the leg or chest Surgeons may use lasers to create
An occur any time the heart
attack of angina can channels in the heart muscle to increase blood flow.
works harder than usual and requires an additional sup- Scientists are also investigating ways to increase blood
ply of blood. For example, an attack may occur following flow to the heart by stimulating angiogenesis— that is,
physical exertion or during a time of emotional stress. the growth of new blood vessels. lames w jones
Blood flowing through the coronary arteries carries oxy- See also Calcium channel blocker; Heart (Coronary
gen to the heart. The coronary arteries can become nar- artery disease); Nitroglycerin (As a medication).
rowed by accumulations of fatty deposits, called plaque, Angiography, an jee AHG ruh fee, is a technique that
and scar tissue. These conditions result in arteriosclero- makes blood vessels visible using X rays. The X-ray pic-
ture that is produced is called an angiogram. Angiogra-
phy is usually performed on arteries or veins connected
with such structures as the brain, heart, kidneys, or legs.
Angiography used to decide whether a narrowing
is

of a blood vessel being caused by a clot or by depo-

is

sits of such substances as cholesterol and calcium. Such

deposits are called plaques. Physicians also use angiog-

raphy to decide possible therapies. For example, coro-
nary angiography is often performed on patients whose
coronary arteries have narrowed. This procedure can
help a physician determine whether medication, sur-
gery, or such techniques as angioplasty would be the
best way to treat the condition (see Angioplasty).
During atypical angiographic procedure, a catheter
(long tube) is passed through the skin and inserted into
a vein or artery, usually in an arm or leg. The catheter is
advanced to the structure being evaluated, and special
contrast material, often containing iodine, is injected
into the area. This material makes the area being exam-
ined stand out from its background when an X ray is tak-
en. Julius M. Cardin
See also Stress test
Angioplasty, AN jee oh PLAS tee, is a technique used
to open arteries that have become blocked by deposits
of cholesterol, calcium, and other substances. Such de-
posits are called plaques. Angioplasty is especially im-
portant for patients whose coronary arteries have be-
come critically narrowed and who have angina (chest
pain that occurs during exertion) or a high risk of heart
attack. Angioplasty provides an alternative to surgery.
tic, SI UAArtRew In coronary angioplasty, a catheter (long tube) with a
Annunciation by Fra Angeliro shows the Italian artist s skill in
balloon attached to it is inserted into the blocked artery.
combining delicate colors with simple, graceful figures. After the catheter enters the narrowed part of the vessel,
462 Angiosperm

WORLD BOOK illustration bv Lorraine Moseley Epstein

The flower and fruit of an angiosperm contain the plant s

seeds. The seeds develop in the flower's pistil, which grows into
the fruit The flower and fruit of an apple tree are shown here.

About three-fourths of all angiosperms are dicotyle-

dons, or dicots. Young dicot seedlings bear two tiny
leaves called cotyledons. The remaining angiosperm
species, the monocotyledons or monocots, have
seedlings with one cotyledon. The other major group of
seed plants, collectively called gymnosperms, do not
WORLD BOOK illustrations Tom
by Charles VVellek and Rolain
bear flowers or possess pistils. The most common gym-
In coronary angioplasty, surgeons insert a long tube called a nosperms are pines and other needleleaf trees.
catheter through the patient s groin and guide the catheter lo a
Bruce H. Tiffney
blocked artery in the heart. The close-ups show the interior of
the artery during the procedure. A balloon on the catheter is po- Scientific classification. Angiosperms make up the class

sitioned in the artery (1) and inflated (2) to crush deposits called Anthopsida within the division Tracheophyta.
plaques and expand the artery. The balloon is then deflated (3) See also Flower; Gymnosperm; Seed.
and removed, leaving the inside diameter of the artery wider (41. Angkor, ANG kohr, was an early civilization that flour-
ished in northwestern Cambodia from the early 800 s to
the balloon is inflated. The balloon then pushes the the 1400s. The most famous capital of this civilization
plaque against the artery wall and expands the artery. In was also called Angkor. Ruins of its temples lie near the
most cases, slight injury to the wall of the artery accom- present-day city of Siem Reap (see Cambodia Imap)).
panies the widening of the vessels inside diameter. This Cambodian kings built several cities in the vicinity of
damage may benefit the patient, however, because fur- Siem Reap between 820 and the 1 OO's. The city of Ang-
1

ther widening can occur as the artery wall heals. kor was the most magnificent It may have had a million
Most angioplasties are successful. In about 30 percent people, more than any European city at that time. The
of patients, however, the cleared vessel soon renarrows, city included Angkor Thorn, which was actually a city
requiring another angioplasty or surgery. In a small within the city of Angkor, and covered 4 square miles
number procedure severely tears the
of cases, the (10 square kilometers). The city of Angkor also contained
artery. In those cases, the patient must undergo immedi- many temples and palaces. The city and its temples rank
ate surgery and repair. Doctors have prevented tears as one of the artistic and architectural wonders of the
and abrupt closures of arteries by inserting an expand- world. Carved scenes of Cambodian life and Buddhist or
able metal mesh called a stent'mXo the vessel. The stent Hindu mythology decorate the walls of the temples.
prevents collapse of the artery wall without blocking One of the temples, Angkor Wat, is probably the
blood flow. In some cases, a stent can also reduce the finest architectural monument in Cambodia. It covers
chance that the artery will renarrow. nearly square mile (2.6 square kilometers) and has a
1

Michael H. Crawford pyramidal form. This form imitates the mythological

Angiosperm, AN fee uh spurm, is the technical name home of the Hindu gods. Angkor Wat was constructed
for flowering plants. Angiosperms make up the vast ma- in the OO's to honor the Hindu god Vishnu. It was also
1 1

jority of all plant species (kinds). They also occur in many used as an astronomical observatory. Angkor Wat later
of the world's environments, including Arctic tundra, became the tomb of the Cambodian king who had or-
deserts, and rain forests. Among the most important an- dered its construction. Another temple, the Bayon,
giosperms are broadleaf trees and crop plants. stands at the center of Angkor Thorn. It was dedicated to
Angiosperm flowers contain both male reproductive Buddha and the reigning king. More than 200 giant
organs called stamens and female reproductive organs stone faces adorn its towers.
called pistils. Stamens produce pollen grains that carry The civilization of Angkor reached its peak during the
sperm {male sex cells) to the pistils. Pistils contain ovules, 1 100 s and then began to decline. Invasions from neigh-
or eggs, that become seeds after fertilization by sperm. boring Thailand, epidemics of malaria, and disputes
The pistils develop into fruits, which take a variety of within the royal Cambodian family may have caused this
forms. Berries, for example, are soft and fleshy, while decline. Thai forces captured the city of Angkor in 1431
nuts are hard and dry. but soon abandoned it, and forest growth gradually
 Anglicans 463

covered most of the city. In 1860, Henri Mouhot, a Northumbria, Mercia, and East Anglia in what is now
French naturalist, discovered the city's ruins. From the north, central, and east England. The name England
1860s to the mid-1 900s, French and Cambodian archae- came from an Anglo-Saxon word that meant Angle folk
ologists restored and rebuilt many of its temples. or land of the Angles. John Gillingham
David P. Chandler See also England (History).
See also Architecture (picture: Angkor Wat). Angleworm. See Earthworm.
Angle, in plane geometry, is a figure formed by two Anglicans, ANG gluh kuhnz, are Christians who be-
rays with the same end point A ray is a part of a line ex- long to churches that are part of the Anglican Commu-
tending indefinitely in one direction from a point. The nion. These churches developed from the Church of
point where the rays of an angle meet is called the ver- England. In addition to the Church of England, the major
tex, and the rays themselves are known as the sides. churches in the Anglican Communion include the Angli-
The size of an angle is usually measured in degrees. can Church of Canada and the Episcopal Church in the
When the rays make a square corner, the angle is a right United States. See Church of England; Episcopal
angle. A right angle has 90 degrees (90 An acute angle ). Church.
has less than 90 An obtuse angle has between 90 and
. The Anglican heritage dates back to the earliest days
180 An angle of 180 is a straight angle because its
. of Christianity in Anglo-Saxon England. During the Ref-
sides form a straight line. Two angles are complemen- ormation of the 1 500s, the Church of England separated
tary if their sum is 90 They are supplementary'^ their
. from the Roman Catholic Church. Anglicanism spread as
sum is 180 People use a simple device called a protrac-
. British colonists settled in North and South America,
torXo measure angles. Australia, New Zealand, Africa, and Asia. See Reforma-
In trigonometry, an angle is considered to consist of a tion (In England).
fixed, or initial, side and a rotating, or terminal, side. The Doctrines. Anglicans believe in the ancient faith of
the Christian church as expressed in the Apostles' and
Nicene creeds (see Apostles' Creed; Nicene Councils).
Kinds of angles
Anglicans base their religion on scripture, tradition, and
reason. All Anglicans follow the Book of Common
Prayer, which is the basis for doctrine and discipline as
well as worship. But they acknowledge the right of na-
tional churches to revise the Book of Common Prayer
according to their needs.
Organization. Anglican clergy consist of bishops,
amount and direction of rotation of the terminal side de- priests, and deacons. However, lay people took an in-
termine the size of the angle and whether it is positive creasingly important part in church affairs in the 1900s.
or negative. Positive angles are formed when the rota- The unity of the Anglican Communion is symbolized by
tion of the terminal side is counterclockwise. Negative the Lambeth Conference of bishops, which meets about
angles are formed when the rotation is clockwise. If one every 10 years in London. The Conference can only ad-
hand of a clock is fixed at 3 and the other hand starts at 3 vise the churches it represents. It is mainly a consulting
and turns counterclockwise until it reaches 12, an angle and planning body. The Archbishop of Canterbury ranks
of 90 results. This rotation is known as a quarter turn. A as the senior bishop but has no formal power outside of
half turn results in an angle of 180 a three-quarter turn,
; England. Since 1960, the Anglican Communion has em-
in an angle of 270°; and a full turn, in an angle of 360 A . ployed an executive officer who attends to matters con-
second complete rotation of the terminal side generates cerning the entire Communion.
angles between 360° and 720°, a third rotation produces Christian unity. Under the leadership of such bish-
angles between 720° and 1,080°, and so forth for all posi- ops as Charles Henry Brent, William Temple, Geoffrey
tive angles. Francis Fisher, and A. M. Ramsey, the Anglicans have be-
Negative angles are formed when the terminal side come deeply involved in promoting the unification of

moves clockwise. Compass directions in naval naviga- Christianity. Each church of the Communion belongs to
tion are givenby means of angles measured in the the World Council of Churches and works closely with
clockwise direction from 12. But, the measurements are the Church of Sweden, Eastern Orthodox Churches, and
givenin positive numbers. Arthur f coxford, jr. Old Catholic Churches. Talks between Anglicans and
See also Degree; Protractor; Radian. representatives of the Roman Catholic Church began in
Angle of incidence. See Reflection. the 1 960s.
Angler, a fish. See Fish (How fish get food; picture: A Anglicans seek unity because they believe that most
fleshy bait). Christians follow the Bible, the Apostles and Nicene
Angles made up one of the Germanic peoples who in- creeds, the sacraments of the Eucharist and Baptism,
vaded during the A.D. 400s and 500s. The best
Britain and the historic forms of ministry. Anglicans in several
known of the other invaders were the Saxons and Jutes, dioceses in India showed this desire for unity in 1947 by
to whom the Angles were closely related. The invaders entering thenew Church of South India, along with the
established small kingdoms, some of which lasted until Methodist, Presbyterian, and Congregational mission
the Norman Conquest in 1066. See Anglo-Saxons. churches there.
The Angles came from Angeln, a district in what is Episcopalians. Anglicans first settled in America as

now Schleswig-Holstein, and from the southern part of members permanent English colony in Vir-
of the first

the Danish peninsula. They conquered the Britons who ginia in 1607. In 789, after the Revolutionary War, Angli-
1

lived along the east coast, and founded the kingdoms of cans in the colonies separated from the Church of Eng-
464 Anglo-Saxon Chronicle

land and formed the Protestant Episcopal Church. This

North
church s first bishops were Samuel Seabury of Con-
necticut, William White of Pennsylvania, and Samuel Ocean JUTES
Provoost of New York. From that time, the Episcopal
Church moved westward and spread throughout the Celtic Tribes
\i ANGLES
United States.
Episcopalians differ on how to interpret and practice SAXONS
Britain
their Christian faith.High Churchmen believe in follow-
ing closely the traditional practices and the authority of 200 Miles a Germanic Tribes
the church and often have elaborate worship services. 200 K lometers

Broad Churchmen, or Liberals, care less for tradition,

and believe in expressing their faith in various ways, par-
ticularly through social action. Low Churchmen, or Evan-
gelicals, emphasize the personal and Biblical bases of
faith. Episcopalians today differ over issues such as the North Picts
revision of the Book of Common Prayer and the ordina- Atlantic
Ocean
tion of women as priests and bishops. But they are unit-
ed in their common worship and sense of tradition.
Peter W.Williams

Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, ANG gloh SAKsuhn, is the Scots

first great work prose and the most important
of English Northumbria

source for English history from about 800 to 1066. No ANGLO-SAXON

other European land has a history in its own language as KINGDOMS
old as the Chronicle.
The Chronicle was begun as part of a cultural renewal
by King Alfred the Great following destructive raids by
Essex
Danish invaders. The first part of the Chronicle, dealing .London
.Canterbury
with events up to 891, was adapted from earlier English Kent
historical sources, now lost. After about 892, a number Sussex

of writers contributed to the Chronicle in copies circu- 200 Kilometers

lated among several English cathedrals. WORLD BOOK maps

The Chronicle consists of short yearly descriptions of The seafaring Jutes, Angles, and Saxons who invaded Britain
major events, especially warfare, and the activities of in the A.D. 400 s, smaller map, became known as Anglo-Saxons.
kings and bishops. Many entries consist of only one line. They formed seven kingdoms, larger map.
The longest entry runs more than 100 lines and deals
with the death of William the Conqueror in 1087. Many Saxon words meaning Angle folk or land of the Angles.
years have no entries. The earliest important entry in the The Anglo-Saxons left their mark on the English lan-
Chronicle refers to events in A.D. 449. The final one was guage in its grammar and in thousands of words, in-
made in 1 1 54. David S Chamberlain cluding perhaps a fifth of the words we use today.
See also Alfred the Great. John Gilling

Anglo-Saxons, ANG gloh SAK suhnz, were members Related articles in World Book include:
of the Germanic tribes that settled in what is now Eng- Alfred the Great English langtiage Jutes
Angles English literature Saxons
land in the A.D. 400s and 500s. These tribes were the
Egbert (Old English lit- Teutons
Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes. According to tradi-
England (History) eraturel
tion, a British king named Vortigern invited the German-
ic tribes to help him drive back the invading Picts and
Additional resources
Scots. But the allies quarreled, and soon the Germanic Campbell, James, and others. The Anglo-Saxons. 1982. Reprint
tribes began to drive out the native Britons. By the end Penguin, 1991.
Larey, Robert, and Danziger, Danny. The Year 1000. Little, Brown,
of the 500s, the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes had occupied
1999. Describes life in Anglo-Saxon England.
nearly all of southern and eastern Britain. Williams, Ann. Kingship and Government in Pre-Conquest Eng-
At first there were many Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, and land, c. 500-1066. St. Martins, 1999.
wars between them were frequent. By the 700 s, there
were only seven kingdoms: East Anglia, Essex, Kent, Angola is a country on Africas southwest coast. Its offi-

Mercia, Northumbria, Sussex, and Wessex. Together, cial name is the Republic of Angola. Cabinda, in the
they were known as the heptarchy, which means rule of northwest, is a district of Angola. The Congo River and
seven. In the early 800s, Egbert of Wessex became the Congo (Kinshasa) separate from the rest of the country.
it

first king to establish control over the entire heptarchy. Most of Angolas people live in rural areas and work
In the late 800s, all the kingdoms came under attack on farms. Angola produces a variety of crops, including
from Danish Vikings. Only Wessex, under Alfred the bananas, coffee, corn, sugar cane, and a starchy root
Great, survived the invasion. Alfred eventually captured called cassava. Angola also has many natural resources,
London and other areas. In the 900
s, Alfred s descend- including diamonds, iron ore, and petroleum. Luanda,
ants defeated the Vikings and incorporated the Viking the capital and largest city, is a major African seaport.
territory into their kingdom. This new and larger king- Angola became independent in November 1975. Parts
dom was called England, a word that came from Anglo- of it had been ruled by Portugal for most of the period
 Angola 465

since the 1 500s. Since 1 975, Angola has been torn apart gola as early as 50,000 B.C. Bantu-speaking peoples set-
by a brutal civil was signed in 2002.
war. But a cease-fire tled there about 2,000 years ago. The Portuguese estab-
Government A president is the most powerful offi- lished bases in Angola during the 1500s. By the early
cial in Angola's government. The National Assembly, the 1600s, Angola had become a major source of slave la-
country's legislature, makes the laws. The people of An- bor for Portugal's colony in Brazil. In 1641, the Dutch
gola elect both the president and the National Assembly. forced the Portuguese out of Angola and took over the
The party with the majority of seats in the National As- slave trade. Portugal regained control in 1648. During
sembly chooses a prime minister to help run the day-to- the 1800s, after the decline of the slave trade, Por-
day affairs of the government tuguese planters began to grow corn, sugar cane, and
People. Most of Angola's people are black Africans. tobacco in Angola. Angola was sometimes called Por-
They belong to several ethnic groups, including the tuguese West Africa during Portuguese rule.
Ovimbundu, the Mbundu, the Kongo, and the Luanda- Portugal began to improve Angola's economy after
Chokwe. Before the nation became independent, more the Portuguese dictator Antonio de Oliveira Salazar
than 400,000 Europeans and mestizos (people of mixed came to power in the late 1920s. Thousands of Por-
black African and white ancestry) lived in Angola. Most tuguese moved to Angola and started businesses there.
Europeans fled during the civil war that began in 1975. In the 1950s, many Angolans began to demand free-
People in Angola's rural areas work as farmers and dom from Portuguese rule. In 1956, the Popular Move-
herders. Many raise just enough food for their own use. ment for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) was organized.
Most Europeans and mestizos who did not leave the MPLA members revolted in Luanda in 1961. Rioting
country live in cities. They own small businesses or hold spread throughout the country and developed into a
other jobs that require technical and management skills. bloody war. A Portuguese army that included many An-
Most black Angolans speak a language that belongs
to the Bantu language group (see Bantu). Europeans, Facts in brief
mestizos, and some blacks speak Portuguese, the official
language. About 90 percent of the people are Christians, Capital: Luanda.

mostly Roman Catholics. Others practice religions based Official language: Portuguese.
Area: 481,354 mi' (1,246,700 km'). Greatest distances— north-
on the worship of ancestors and spirits. Most of Ango-
south, 850 mi (1,368 km); east-west, 800 mi (1,287 km).
la's adults cannot read or write. For the country's literacy Coastline-928 mi (1,493 km).
rate, see Literacy (table: Literacy rates). Elevation: Highest— Moco, 8,596 ft (2,620 m). Lowest— sea level.
Land and climate. Angola forms part of the large in- Population: Estimated 2002 population-] 3,684,000; density, 28
land plateau of southern Africa. The country consists per mi' (1 1 per km'); distribution, 68 percent rural, 32 percent
urban. 7570 census— 5,646,166.
chiefly of hilly grasslands, but a rocky desert covers the
Chief products: Agriculture— bananas, cassava, coffee, corn,
south. The land gradually rises from the interior to the sugar cane. Manufacturing— food processing, cement, chemi-
west, where it drops sharply to a narrow coastal plain. cals, textiles. Mining— diamonds, petroleum.
Most of the coastal plain has little natural vegetation. Flag: The top half is red, and the bottom half is black. A yellow
Tropical forests grow in the north. emblem in the center has a five-pointed star that stands for so-

Angola has many rivers and more than 900 miles cialism, a half cogwheel for industry, and a machete for agri-
culture. Adopted in 1975. See Flag (picture: Flags of Africa).
(1 ,400 kilometers) of coastline. Some of the rivers flow
Money: Basic unit— new kwanza.
north into the Congo and others flow west into
River,
the Atlantic Ocean. A few, including the Cunene and the
Cuanza, serve as waterways to the interior.
Temperatures in the coastal plain region average
D
about 70 °F (21 °C) in January and about 60 F (16 °C) in
June. Most of the inland region has slightly higher tem-
peratures. From 40 to 60 inches (100 to 150 centimeters)
of rain annually on the northern coast and in most
falls

of the^ interior. Only about 2 inches (5 centimeters) of

desert
rain falls yearly in the
Economy of Angola is based on agriculture. But min-

ing and manufacturing have become more important

The main food crops include bananas, cassava, corn,
and sugar cane. Angola produces coffee for export Fish-
ing is important in coastal areas. Angola has vast de-
posits of diamonds, iron ore, and petroleum. Diamonds
are a major source of income for both the government
and rebel groups. Cabinda provides most of the petrole-
um, the leading export. Angolan industries produce ce-
ment, chemicals, processed foods, and textiles.
Most of Angola's roads are unpaved. An extensive rail-
road system serves many Angolan cities. The system
also provides neighboring Zambia and Congo (Kinshasa)
Hulihison Library
with an important link to the sea. Luanda has an interna-
An Angolan village the rocky desert terrain of the south-
lies in
tional airport. Angola has one daily newspaper.
ern part o< the country. About two-thirds of Angolas people live
History. Prehistoric peoples lived in what is now An- in rural areas and work as farmers and herders.
466 Angola

golans put down the uprising. The MPLA rebels then set
up guerrilla bases in neighboring countries. mm
Cultural and soon divided the
political differences
rebels. In 1962, a group of northern rebels formed the
National Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA). In
1966, southern rebels organized the National Union for
the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA). In 1974, Por-
tuguese military officers overthrew the government of
Portugal. In January 1975, they decided to grant inde-
pendence to Angola. At first, the Angolans agreed to set
up a government with representatives from all three
rebel groups. But each group wanted to head the gov-
ernment A civil war broke out over which would rule.
Angola gained independence from Portugal on Nov.
11, 1975. But the civil war continued between the MPLA
and the FNLA and UNITA, whose forces had united. The
MPLA received considerable aid from two Communist
nations, the Soviet Union and Cuba. The United States
and South Africa assisted UNITA The MPLA largely de-
feated its enemies in April 1976 and formed a Marxist
government (government based on the philosophy of Hutchison Library

Karl Marx). But MPLA leaders denied the government Luanda, the capital and largest city of Angola, has many modern
was a Communist dictatorship. buildings and broad, treelined streets.

Angolas new government faced major problems.

Members of UNITA continued to wage guerrilla warfare government The FNLA also carried out guer-
against the
1984, when it became inactive. The
rilla activities until

sudden departure of most of Angola s Europeans

Angola
caused a shortage of executives and technicians. Many
industries and large farms could not be managed prop-
erly, and production declined.
The government began several programs to over-
come the effects of the civil war. It took control of many
businesses and started to train teachers and technicians.
The Soviet Union, Cuba, and other Communist countries
provided financial and technical aid. But the government
also encouraged non-Communist nations to invest in
Angolan businesses. Cuba kept troops in Angola to aid
the government in its fight against the guerrillas.
Under an agreement signed by Angola, Cuba, and
South Africa in late 1988, South Africa stopped sending
aid to UNITA, and Cuba began withdrawing its troops.
In 1989, the government and UNITA agreed to a cease-
fire. The two sides signed a peace treaty in May 1991. Vi-

olence continued in the Cabinda area, where guerrillas

demanded Cabinda s independence from Angola.
In 1990, the MPLA renounced Marxism, and in 1991,
legalized all political parties. Multiparty elections were
held in September 1992. The head of the MPLA govern-
ment, Jose Eduardo dos Santos, won the first round of
the elections. But UNITA protested that the elections
were fraudulent, and civil war erupted again. The sec-
ond round of the elections did not take place, but dos
Santos continued as president
The two sides signed a peace agreement in Novem-
ber 1994. However, in 1998 and early 1999, violence in-
creased, and the peace agreement broke down. The
fighting continued, mainly in northwestern Angola. In
February 2002, government troops shot and killed
UNITAs longtime leader, Jonas Savimbi. In April, the
two sides signed a cease-fire agreement Louis a. Picard

See also Bantu; Cabinda; Kongo; Luanda

Angora, ang GAVVR uh, is a hair fiber made from the
fur of the Angora rabbit. The term is sometimes used for
\\ ORUJ BOOK maps hair fiber made from the Angora goat, but the goat fiber
 Aniline 467

is correctly called mohair. Both animals are native to the (CaO), a basic anhydride, make basic calcium hydroxide
Turkish province of Ankara (formerly Angora). Pure an- (Ca(OH) z Anhydrides can be formed by dehydrating
).

gora is used to make soft fabrics. It is usually blended acids and bases, or by synthesis directly from other sub-
with other fibers and then spun into yarn. Angora is also stances. Anhydrides are used in the manufacture of arti-
the name of a type of cat See also Cat (Long-haired photographic films, and medicines.
ficial fibers, plastics,

breeds); Mohair; Rabbit (picture). Keith slater See also Acid; Base. Roger D. Barry

Angstrom, ANG struhm, is a unit of length used to Anhydrous ammonia, an HY drubs uh MOHNyuh,
measure very small distances. For example, the atoms in is the liquid form of pure ammonia gas. Because of its

a salt crystal are only several angstroms apart. Wave- high nitrogen content— about 82 percent— farmers use
lengths of light are sometimes measured in angstroms. anhydrous ammonia as a fertilizer. It may be used alone
The wavelength of visible light measures several thou- or in a commercial mixture containing compounds of
sand angstroms. One angstrom equals ^ nanometer, or phosphorus and potassium. It may be combined with
10,000,000
millimeter (
Z540rx)00fJ inch).The angstrom is abbre- water to form a solution for making a mixed fertilizer.
viated A or A. It is named in honor of the Swedish physi- Anhydrous ammonia is also used as a refrigerant in
cist Anders Jonas Angstrom, who made important stud- cold-storage and ice-manufacturing plants. It is made by
ies Of light. Lawrence P. Brehm compressing dry ammonia gas (NH,). See also Ammo-
Anguilla, ang GWIHL uh, is a coral island in the nia; Ice; Refrigeration. Taylor J.
Johnston

Caribbean Sea. It is an overseas territory of the United Ani, AH nee, is the name of three species of birds in the
Kingdom. Anguilla covers about 37 square miles (96 cuckoo family. Anis live in open, brushy country, mainly
square kilometers) and has a population of about 11,000 from the West Indies and Mexico to southern South
(see West Indies [map]). It has a dry, hot climate and is America. Two of the species are also found in the ex-
covered by low-lying plant life. Tourism has replaced treme southern United States. The smooth-billed ani
fishing and salt processing as Anguilla's major industry. nests in southern Florida, and the groove-billed anilives
A community called The Valley is the island's capital. in southern Texas. The third species, the greater ani,

Christopher Columbus may have sighted the island in ranges only as far north as central Panama.
1493 during his second voyage to the New World. Ex- Anis measure from 1 2 to 15 inches (30 to 40 centime-
plorers named the island Anguilla (Latin for eefl because ters) in length, about half of which is tail. They have a
of its long, narrow shape. It became a colony of Britain huge bill with a high arched ridge and black feathers
in 1650. In 1883, Britain made Anguilla and the that shine with a purple, green, or bronze luster. Anis
Caribbean islands of St. Christopher (now called St Kitts) feed chiefly on insects. They often gather in pastures
and Nevis a single colony. It became an associated state where cattle are grazing. There, they seize large ground-
of Britain in 1967. But most Anguillans favored separa- dwelling insects that are stirred up by the cattle. Anis
tion from St. Kitts and Nevis. In 1980, Anguilla officially sometimes perch on the cattle's backs.
became a separate British dependency (see West Indies Anis live in noisy flocks of up to about 20 birds. Each
[History]). Gerald R. Showalter flock consists of one to four mated pairs and a number
Anhinga, an HIHNG guh, also called American darter, of younger, unmated birds. During the breeding season,
is swamps, ponds, and rivers in
a large bird that lives in the flock claims a territory and prevents other anis from
warm regions of the Western Hemisphere. It is found entering it All of the birds in the flock build a single nest
from the south-central and southeastern United States to of twigs in a tree or thorny bush. Each mated female lays
Argentina. The anhinga measures about 3 feet (91 cen- three to five eggs in the nest The entire flock helps care
timeters) in length, with a long, thin neck; a small head for the eggs and the young. Sandra L Vehrencamp
and pointed and webbed feet. It has glossy black
bill; Scientific classification. Anis belong to the cuckoo family,
feathers, with silver markings on the back of the wings Cuculidae. The scientific name for the smooth-billed ani is Cro-

and neck, and a broad, brown-tipped tail. The anhinga tophaga ani. The groove-billed ani is C sulcirostris, and the
greater ani is C major.
feeds on fish and other water animals, which it spears
with its bill. It is an excellent swimmer and a strong flier. Aniline, AN uh lihn, is a chemical best known for its
The anhinga is sometimes called the snakebird because use in making dyes. Aniline became important in 1856,
it often swims with only its head and snakelike neck visi- when the British chemist William Perkin accidentally
ble above the surface. made a violet dye from aniline.
The Old World darters, which resemble the anhinga, Industries use aniline dyes to color textiles and in
live in tropical and subtropical regions of Africa, Asia, making and varnishes. Bacteriologists use
inks, paints,
New Guinea, and Australia. Most experts recognize the dyes to stain bacteria and other organisms. Indus-
three species of Old World darters, the African, Orien- tries also use aniline in making drugs, explosives, rocket
tal, and Australian darters. James Dinsmore j. fuels, and other products.

Scientific classification. Anhingas and darters make up the In the laboratory, chemists prepare aniline through a
anhinga family, Anhingidae. The anhinga is classified as Anhinga chemical reaction involving nitrobenzene, iron filings,
anhinga. The African darter A rufa;the Oriental
is classified as and hydrochloric acid. In industry, aniline is prepared by
darter as A melanogaster; and the Australian darter as A novae-
heating chlorobenzene and ammonia under high pres-
hollandiae.
sure, or by a process using nitrobenzene
See also Bird (picture: How birds feed). Aniline is a colorless, oily liquid that is only slightly

Anhydride, an HYdryd, is a chemical substance that soluble in water. It has a strong, pleasing odor but is
forms acids or bases when combined with water. For ex- highly poisonous. Aniline boils at 184 C Its chemical
ample, water and sulfur trioxide an acid anhydride, (SO,), formula is QH,NH Howard L Needles
.

make sulfuric acid (H.SOJ. Water and calcium oxide See also Coal tar; Dye; Indigo.
468 Animal

Gibbon

moles are all animals. So are butterflies frogs

Animal pigeons sharks, snakes, and worms.
jellyfish,

Most kinds of animals are less than 1 inch 12.5 cen-

Animal. Animals come in many shapes and
They sizes. timeters) long. Many
are so tiny that they can be seen
live throughout the world. Animals walk or crawl on only with a microscope. The largest animal is the blue
land and dig through the soil. They swim in the water whale. It is about as long as five elephants in a row.

and fly through the air. They even live inside the bodies Animals are not the only kind of living things. Scien-
of other animals. Bats dogs, horses, kangaroos, and tists divide living things into five main kingdoms

(groups)— animals, plants, fungi, protists, and prokary-

otes. Fungi include molds, mushrooms, and yeasts. Pro-
The contributors of this article are Raymond B. Huey. Professor tists such as amebas. cannot be seen without a micro-
ot Zoology at the Universin ot Washington and \ Herbert
\ 1 1
/'/

scope. Prokaryotes, which include bacteria and certain

son, Jr., Assistant Professor ot Biology at Colby College.
algae, are some of the smallest, simplest forms of life.
 Animal 469

Interesting facts about animals

Kinds of animals. No one knows exactly how many

kinds of animals there are. New kinds are found every
year. So far, scientists have identified more than 1 \ mil-
lion types of animals. About 1 million of these are in-
sects. There are about 21 ,000 kinds of fish, 9,700 kinds of
birds, 6,500 kinds of reptiles, 4,000 kinds of amphibians,
and 4,500 kinds of mammals.

Largest ears and eyes. The largest ears of all animals

are those of the African elephant Elephant ears grow as
large as 4 feet 11.2 meters) across. The largest eyes of all
animals are those of the giant squid. They measure
about 10 inches (25 centimeters! wide.

The flying dragon is another name for the draco lizard

This lizard can spread out folds of skin to form "wings"
The huge blue whale is far bigger than the elephant, the biggest
that it uses to glide through the air from tree to tree. It
land animal, or the giraffe, tallest of all the animals.
lives in Asia and the East Indies.

The hummingbird,
Mayfly right can fly straight up
like a helicopter. can It

hover in front of a flower

tosuck the nectar. The
bee hummingbird, which
grows to only 2 inches (5

centimeters) long, is the

smallest of all birds.

The chameleon's tongue is as long as its body. This lizard

swiftly shoots out tongue to capture insects for food. Certain
its

chameleons can quickly change color and even develop spots

and streaks that make them seem to be part of their background.

A tree-climbing crab lives

on many tropical islands. It is

called thecoconut crab be-

cause it cracks coconuts with
its powerful claws and eats

the sweet meat

Lives of animals range from several hours to many

years.An adult mayfly survives only a few hours or days.
Some giant tortoises have lived more than 100 years.
The platypus, a mammal,
The world's only known poisonous bird is the has a bill like a duck and lays
hooded pitohui, which lives on the island of New eggs as birds do, right But it

Guinea. This brilliantly colored orange-and-black bird nurses its young with milk as
has poison on its feathers and skin. This poison serves do other mammals. It lives
as a defense against hawks, snakes, and other enemies. only on mainland Australia
It is the same type of poison as that carried by the and the island of Tasmania.
deadly poison-dart frog of South America.
WORLD BOOK illustrations l>y Alpv EM and Roh.-it kuhn
470 Animal

Animals are different from other living things in many (grouped) and named more than
1 \ million kinds of ani-

ways. For example, the bodies of animals are made up mals. Over these are types of insects. Many new
half of
of manycells. But the bodies of prokaryotes and most species are discovered each year. Scientists believe
protists have only one cell. Like animals, plants and fun- there may be from 2 million to as many as 50 million
gi also are made up of many cells. However, animals kinds of animals alive today. Many other kinds of ani-
can move around. Most plants and fungi are held to one mals used to live on the earth but have died out. They
place in the soil by roots or rootlike structures. For a include dinosaurs and dodos.
more complete discussion of the differences between This article provides general information on animals
the members of the five kingdoms, see the article on other than human beings. It includes a classification
Kingdom. tableand pictures of many animals. Separate World
No one knows exactly how many species (kinds) of an- Book articles give details about hundreds of animals.
imals there are. So far, scientists have classified For information on human beings, see Human being.

Importance of animals
Animals and the web of life. Living things depend dioxide and give off oxygen in a food-making process
on one another. They are connected in what is some- called photosynthesis. Many plants with flowers need
times called the web of life. Plants capture the energy insects or birds to carry their pollen from plant to plant.
from sunlight and use it to make roots, stems, leaves, Without this transfer of pollen, these plants are not able
flowers, and fruits. Animals eat the plants, or they eat to reproduce (create new individuals of their own kind).
other animals that feed on the plants. When animals die, Some seeds are prickly and cling to the fur or feathers
their bodies decay and release materials that help ferti- of animals. When the animals move from place to place,
lize the soil for plants. they take the seeds with them. In this way, the seeds get
Animals and plants are also connected in other ways. dropped in new areas where they can grow into plants.
When animals breathe, they take in oxygen from the air The web of life relies on balance among its parts. A
and give off carbon dioxide. Green plants take in carbon change in one part may mean disaster for others. For

WORLD BOOK lllustra i by John I Eggefl

Animals and plants are linked in a pattern ot nature often called the web of life. his pattern can
I

be seen in a garden or backyard. There, many kinds of animals keep themselves alive In eatmy
some of the plants. Likewise, much of the food thai plants need comes from the body wastes of ani
mals. In most cases, natural forces keep the total numbei ot h\ my thinys in balance.
 Animal 471

example, if all the trees in an area are cut down, then Some domesticated animals help people work. Water
many animals that depend on them will die. For more in- buffaloes pull plows Asian rice fields. Horses and
in
formation on how living things are linked, see Ecology. camels carry people from one place to another. At first,
Animals and people. Animals have provided people people kept cats in their houses to catch rats and mice.
with food and clothing since prehistoric times. Without They raised dogs to help them hunt and to warn them
animals, people would not have such things as meat, when danger approached. Today, cats and dogs are
honey, eggs, wool, leather, or silk. kept largely as pets.
At least 1 0,000 years ago, people began domesticat- Certain insects are useful to people. Bees make
ing (taming) animals. Some of these animals provide honey, which people harvest for food. Bees also polli-
food and clothing. For example, cattle supply meat, milk, nate many food crops, including fruits and vegetables.
and leather. Chickens lay eggs. Sheep provide wool and Silk comes from fiber made by silkworms.
meat. Some animals harm people. On rare occasions, croc-

> Guy Photo Researcher Larry Slessin. Photo Researchers

Some animals make wonderful pets. Cats and dogs are fa- Some animals can be dangerous to people. A great white
vorite pets around the world. They are affectionate and loyal, shark, above, usually feeds on tuna and other large sea animals.
and they provide companionship to people of all ages. But sharks sometimes kill and eat people.

Anna E Zuckerman. Tom Stack & Assoc

Some animals help people

work. Through the centuries,
cattleand horses have pulled
plows, carts, and wagons and
carried products and riders
on their backs. The water buf-
faloes shown at the left are
helping a farmer plow a rice
field in Southeast Asia.
472 Animal

odiles, lions,and tigers attack and kill people. So do person. Certain mosquitoes transmit malaria and yellow
grizzly bears and polar bears. Sharks sometimes kill and fever. Some ticks carry the bacteria that cause Lyme dis-
eat human beings. Bites from such poisonous snakes as ease and Rocky Mountain spotted fever. Some animals
rattlesnakes and cobras can cause death. The black cause disease themselves. Worms called flukes, which
widow spider has a poison that makes people extremely live in human organs, can cause schistosomiasis. This
sick. disease infects millions of people in many African,
Some animals pass diseases along from person to Asian, and Latin-American countries.

Kinds of animals

People often divide animals into various groups insects are warm-blooded. All other kinds of animals are
based on certain similarities the animals share. For ex- cold-blooded.
ample, some animals can be kept as pets, but others are Animals are also commonly divided into groups ac-
wild. Arranging animals according to their similarities is cording to whether they have backbones. Invertebrates
a handy way of remembering and understanding them. do not have backbones, but vertebrates do. The vast ma-
Some common ways of grouping animals. Ani- jority of animals are invertebrates. They include clams,
mals can be grouped in many ways. They can be ar- insects, jellyfish, sea urchins, snails, spiders, sponges,
ranged according to whether they live on land or in and worms. Birds, fish, mammals, and reptiles are verte-
water. Animals that live on land are known as terrestrial brates. So are amphibians frogs, salamanders, and
animals. They include cats, dogs, lizards, mice, and other animals that spend part of their lives in water and
worms. Animals that live in water are called aquatic ani- part on land.
mals. They include eels, fish, lobsters, octopuses, and The scientific classification of animals involves
whales. grouping animals according to the biological relation-
Animals can be arranged by the number of legs they ships among them. This orderly arrangement of animals
have. Dogs, frogs, and lizards have four legs. Bats and depends in part on the features the animals share. In
birds have two legs. Insects have six legs, and spiders general, the more features they share, the more closely
have eight. Snakes and worms have no legs. they are related. However, the scientific classification of
Another way to group animals is according to how animals is based mainly on the belief that certain ani-
they move. Bats, most birds, and many insects fly. mals share a common ancestor. Animals with a more re-
Whales, fish, and squid swim. Snakes and worms crawl. cent common ancestor are more closely related than
Antelope and cheetahs run. Frogs, kangaroos, and rab- those who share an ancestor further back in time. In a
bits hop. somewhat similar way, brothers and sisters are more
Some animals are cold-blooded, and others are closely related than are cousins. Brothers and sisters
warm-blooded. The bodies of cold-blooded animals are share parents. First cousins share grandparents.
warm when their surroundings are warm and cool In classifying animals, zoologists (scientists who study
when their surroundings are cool. Warm-blooded ani- animals) divide them into ever-smaller groups that have
mals, on the other hand, almost always have the same more and more features in common. The largest group
body temperature, regardless warmth of their
of the is the kingdom Animalia which includes all ani-
itself,

surroundings. Birds, mammals (animals whose babies mals. Next, each animal is placed in a group called a
drink the mother's milk), and a few species of fish and phylum. Each phylum is divided into groups called

The cat and its relatives

WORLD BOOK illustration by John D Dawson

The cat family includes many

kinds of wild animals with
similar body characteristics.
Most members of the cat fam
ily have many of the same

habits.They are clever hunt-

ersand stalk their prey on
padded feet. They use their
sharp claws and teeth to tear
their food. Some also use
their claws to climb trees to
seek food or escape enemies.
Jaguar Cheetah Mountain lion
 Animal 473

Length of life of animals

Fig ures in this list are average life spans in years for animals in the wild , unless oth erwise noted.

Mammals Birds
Buffalo, American 20 Horse 20-30* Blue jay 6-9 Owl (snowy) 10
Cat 14" Lion 13 Canada goose 12-23 Penguin (emperor) 20
Chimpanzee 30-40 Monkey (rhesus) 27-28 Canary 6-8 Pigeon 6
Deer (fallow) 20 Mouse (field) 1 Cardinal 13 Raven 5
Dog 12-20* Sheep 10-20 Chickadee 6-8 Robin, American 17
Elephant 50-70 Squirrel 7 Condor 35-40 Skylark 9
Coat, Mountain 14-18 Tiger 20 Heron 10-20 Sparrow 21-7
Grizzly bear 25 Wolf (gray) 12-16 Macaw 64 Starling 9-16
Hippopotamus 41 Zebra 22 Ostrich (African) 40

Fish Reptiles and amphibians

Dogfish (lesser 8 Perch 3-10 Bullfrog 5 Rattlesnake
spotted) Pike 60-70 Chameleon 4-5 (diamondback) 14-15
Goldfish 10 Salmon (Pacific) 4-5 Cottonmouth 18-20 Salamander
Halibut 25 Seahorse 4| Crocodile (Nile) 25-50 (spotted) 20
Lamprey 7 Sturgeon 50 Garter snake 3-4 Turtle (box) 80
Lungfish (African) 18 Trout (rainbow) 11 King snake 3 Water snake 11
Puff adder 14

"Domesticated animal; life span in captivity

classes.The classes are broken down into orders, and order, one family, and one genus. For example, tigers
the orders into families.The families are split into belong to the kingdom Animalia, the phylum Chordata,
genera, and the genera into species. The singular form the class Mammalia, the order Carnivora, the family Feli-
of genera is genus, but the word species may be either dae, and the genus Panthera. They are members of the
singular or plural. species Panthera tigris. Lions are related to tigers. They
Among the animals that scientists have classified are belong to the same kingdom (Animalia), phylum (Chor-
about 13,000 species of flatworms; 50,000 species of data), class (Mammalia), order (Carnivora), family (Feli-
clams, oysters, and other mollusks (soft-bodied animals, dae), and genus (Panthera) as tigers. But lions are classi-
most of which have a hard shell); 1 ,000,000 species of in- fied in a different species— Panthera leo, also written
sects; 30,000 species of spiders; 21,000 species offish; simply as P. leo.
4,000 species of amphibians; 6,500 species of reptiles; A showing some of the
table of animal classification,
9,700 species of birds; and 4,500 species of mammals. major groups of animals, appears at the end of this arti-
Each species belongs to one phylum, one class, one cle. See also Classification, Scientific.

Where animals live

Animals live in many kinds of places. The place where example, African elephants eat both grass and tree parts
an animal lives is Each type of habitat
called its habitat. and so move between grassland and forest. But these
presents a special challenge to animals. For example, an- animals would not be able to withstand the freezing
imals that live in polar regions must withstand bitter temperatures of the polar regions.
cold. Those that inhabit the tropics face extreme heat. In Some habitats, including many forests and grass-
spite of these challenges, animals can be found every- lands, are being destroyed by human beings. The de-
where on the earth. They live on the highest mountains struction of these habitats usually causes the death of
and in the deepest oceans. They roam the driest deserts many animals. Whenpeople convert grassland to farm-
and the wettest rain forests. They swim in fresh water land, for example, they destroy the homes and source of
and salt water. food of many species. Without these necessities, some
Each habitat supports many kinds of animals. In most animals will die immediately. Others may try moving to
cases, the animals are the same kinds that have lived in another grassland. But the new area may not have
those surroundings for thousands of years. As a result, enough food and shelter to support the additional wild-
the animals have developed bodies and ways of life that life. As a result, many more animals will die.

suit them to that particular habitat. No single species of This section tells about some of the major animals,
animal can survive everywhere. For example, tropical grouped according to seven types of habitats: (1) moun-
fish from the Amazon River thrive in warm water but tains, (2) grasslands, (3) temperate forests, (4) tropical for-
cannot withstand the cold streams of the Andes Moun- ests, (5) deserts, (6) polar regions, and (7) oceans. For de-
tains.On the other hand, many kinds of fish that live in scriptions and pictures of animals grouped according to
the Arctic Ocean would die if they were exposed to the the continent on which they live, see the articles on Af-
warm waters of the Caribbean Sea. However, some ani- rica; Antarctica; Asia; Australia; Europe; North Amer-
mals may travel between habitats from time to time. For ica; South America.
474 Animal Animals of the mountains

High mountains WORLD BOOK map

Mountains support a variety of animal life. The num-

bers and kinds of animals found on mountains vary with
altitude. More animals and more kinds of animals live at
lower altitudes than at higher ones, largely because of

the differences in climate between elevations. Generally,

mountain climates become colder, wetter, and windier
with increasing altitude. The air also gets thinner and Vicuna South America
has less oxygen. In addition, fewer plants are found at
higher elevations, and therefore less food is available
for animals.
Bears, deer, elk, and mink make their homes on the
forested lower slopes and in the wooded or grassy val-
leys of mountains. Rainbow trout and graylings swim in
mountain streams. Many mountains have meadows of
grasses and herbs. These meadows are home to chin-
chillas, ibexes, llamas, vicunas, and yaks. Butterflies,
grasshoppers, and spiders also live there.
Above the timber line— that is, the line beyond which
trees will not grow because of the cold— stand rocky
cliffs and peaks dotted with shrubs, mosses, and other

plants. Small meadows are also found there. Sure-footed

bighorn sheep and mountain goats dwell among the
windswept rocks, as do furry marmots and pikas. High
on the snow-capped peaks, only a few insects, spiders,
and ice worms can survive. Golden eagles and some
other birds fly above the mountains. A large African vul-
ture, Ruppell's griffon, has been known to soar as high Brute Coleman Lid

as 36,600 feet I1 1 ,1 50 meters). Chinchilla South America

Rocky Mountain goat

North America

Bighorn sheep North A

Rocky Mountain pika

\octh America
Animal 475
476 Animal Animals of the grasslands

Grassland
phants and rhinoceroses also feed on the grasses there.
WORLD BOOk map
Such meat-eating mammals as cheetahs, hyenas, and
lions roam the savannas in search of prey. The savannas
are also home to giraffes, jackals, ostriches, secretary
birds, and termites. In addition, hippopotamuses live in

and near bodies of water in African grasslands. Animals

of other grasslands include the kangaroos and wombats
of Australia, the caviesand rheas of South America, and
the coyotes and prairie dogs of North America.
Many animals of the grasslands have become endan-
gered due to loss of their habitat and to overhunting.
The rich soils of grasslands are ideal for farming, and
people have converted many such areas to farmland.
Many of the large grassland animals are favorite big
game for hunters. For example, the once-plentiful pam-
Grasslands include the prairies of North America, the pas deer of South America have become extremely rare.
pampas of South America, the plains of Europe, and the As the pampas are converted to farmland, the tall grass
steppes of Asia. The savannas of east Africa have more thatgrows there disappears. Without this grass, the
grassland animals than any other area. pampas deer have no shelter and become easy prey.
Rainfall in grasslands is seasonal, and animals some- Bison once grazed in huge herds in the Great Plains of
times travel great distances to find green grass. Ga- North America. But so many of these animals were killed
zelles, gnus, and zebras migrate by the thousands by hunters or died as their grassland habitat was con-
through the African savannas. Smaller groups of ele- verted to farmland that they were nearly wiped out.
 Ylla. Rapho Guillumetle

Indian rhinoceros Asia

African elephant

"-"•^' ' -
;

Secretary bird Africa

Kangaroo
Australia

African vulture WORIB BOOk illtiMralinn* l» John f tggen and Rone Martin
478 Animal Animals of the temperate forests

Temperate forest
Many forest animals have small bodies that allow
WORLD BOOK map
them move easily through the underbrush. Forest
to
mammals include chipmunks, mice, opossums, porcu-
pines, raccoons, skunks, and squirrels. Bears, deer, and
wild boars also live in temperate forests. Bobcats and
wolves were once common in woodland areas. How-
ever, so many of these predators have been hunted and
trapped through the years that they have become rare.
Salamanders are often plentiful in temperate forests.
They hide in the leaf litter or under rocks, where they
feed on insects and other small organisms. In wet for-
ests, slugs and other snails are common. Beavers, fish,
frogs, muskrats, otters, salamanders, and turtles live in
or near woodland streams, ponds, and lakes. Great num-
bers of birds nest in the trees and shrubs.
Temperate forests consist largely of deciduous trees Many temperate forests have been cleared for farms
and evergreen trees. Deciduous trees shed their leaves and cities, and many others have been cut down for fuel
in the fall and grow new ones in the spring. Evergreen and lumber. This deforestation (destruction of forests)
trees have leaves that live two or more years. Some ev- places woodland animals in danger. Extensive logging
ergreens have needle-shaped leaves. Most temperate in the Pacific Northwest of the United States, for exam-

forests are in Asia, Europe, and North America. Australia ple, has destroyed much of the habitat of the spotted
also has some temperate forests. owl, threatening the existence of that species.

Redstart Gray squirrel

North America North America

Russ kmnc Photo Resean hers

European brown bear Moose North America

Otter North America

Spotted owl Red-backed salamander

North America North America

WK
 r*iX^>0v/4i
Ceoftroy Kinns. Photo Researchers

Wild boar Europe Red deer Europe

Walkingstick
North America

Flying squirrel
North America

UOKII) BOO*, illustrations l>\ lohn 1 Iqqi'n and Slan (.alii

480 Animals of the tropical forests

Tropical forest WORLD BOOK map

Tropical forests stay warm all year and receive plenti-

ful rainfall. These forests are found in Africa, Asia, Aus-
tralia, Central and South America, and the Pacific Is-
lands. More kinds of animals live in tropical forests than
in any other habitat. Scientists estimate that perhaps as
many as 30 million species of tropical animals have not
even been discovered yet.
Insects make up the largest single group of animals
that live in tropical forests. They include brightly colored
butterflies, huge colonies of ants, mosquitoes, and cam-
ouflaged stick insects. Spiders are also plentiful. Many
tropical birds, such as quetzals and parrots, are spectac-
ularly colored.
The broad leaves of trees in tropical forests form a
thick overhead covering called a canopy that blocks
nearly all sunlight from reaching the forest floor. Many
kinds of animals live in the canopies of tropical forests.
They include harpy eagles and toucans; tree frogs; flying
dragons; spider monkeys and howlers; gibbons and
orangutans; sloths; slow lorises; tree boa constrictors;
bats; and wasps, beetles, and leaf-cutting ants.
Jaguars, tapirs, and bushmaster snakes live on the
ground in tropical forests. Chimpanzees and lowland
gorillas alternate between the ground and the trees.
Crocodiles, fish, and turtles inhabit rivers and ponds.
People are rapidly destroying tropical forests for
wood and for farming. The continuing destruction of
this habitat means that many animals will disappear for-
ever. Scientists believe countless species have already
been wiped out.

Parasol ant
 South American
tapir

'^ \ Chevrotain
Asia

^j/ >

^%*
4St*

^^H
Des Banlett. Photo Researchers Nancy Adams, Tom Slack & Assoc

Bongo Africa Gorilla Africa

s Simon, Photo Re:

Woolly monkey South America

Tiger Asia
Ylla, Rapho Guillumerte

* .k^ Jaguar
Central and South
America, Mexico WORK) BOOK illustrations b\ lohn I tqgert and Robert Huhn
482 Animal Animals of the deserts

WORLD BOOK map

Most deserts lie near the edges of the tropics. Food

and water are often scarce in deserts, and temperatures
in the summer can be scorching. Despite these condi-

tions, many kinds of animals live there. They include

geckos, iguanas, and skinks; bees, butterflies, and
moths; spiders; elf owls and roadrunners; sidewinders;
dorcas gazelles and mule deer; and bobcats, coyotes,
and dingoes.
Animals of the deserts have developed special bodies
and ways of life that enable them to survive the extreme
heat. Centipedes, kangaroo rats, rattlesnakes, and scor-
pions spend the day in burrows. They come out to
search for food only when temperatures drop at night.
Many insects, lizards, and tortoises can tolerate high
desert temperatures and are active in the daytime. But Southwestern United States
even they must retreat underground or find the shade of
a tree during the hottest part of the day. Some snails, in-
and ground squirrels estivate
sects, frogs, lizards, mice,
(sleep through the summer).
Many desert dwellers have light-colored skin, which
helps keep them cool by reflecting sunlight. Desert
foxes and hares have long ears. When overheated, these
animals move to a cool cave or burrow where they can
get rid of excess body heat through their ears. The Cape
ground squirrel makes its own shade by using its fluffy
tail like a parasol. Fairy shrimp and spadefoot toads may

spend months or years underground waiting for rain to

create ponds. Then they quickly feed and reproduce be-
fore the ponds dry again.

tioto ResMrchers Boh M(Kce\ec Tom Slack K Assoc

Roadrunner North America Scorpion North America

 Cactus wren
Gila monster

WORLU BOOK illustration by Rudolf Freund

Shovel-nosed snake North America Saiga Asia

Elf owl North America Addax Africa

Lewis W. Walker. Photo Researcher? < Call Rubin Photo Resean he
484 Animal Animals of the polar regions
like creatures called krill. In addition, polar bears, sea
Tundra Permanent ice WORLD BOOK maps
lions,and walruses spend much of their time on floating
sheets of ice in the Arctic. Penguins and seals live on the
Antarctic coast.
Many animals inhabit the vast arctic tundras (cold
treeless plains) of northern Asia, North America, and Eu-
rope.They include caribou, ermine, musk oxen, rein-
deer, lemmings, snowy owls, and wolves. Shallow
ponds in the region provide a place for mosquitoes and
many other insects to lay their eggs. These insects serve
as food for the birds that migrate to the tundra each
summer to nest.
Animals that live in polar regions have developed
bodies and ways of life that enable them to deal with the
frigid winter weather. Caribou, musk oxen, and polar
bears have thick fur, which helps them stay warm. The
Animals that live in polar regions must withstand ex- arctic fox and arctic hare have short ears and tails that
tremely cold temperatures. No land animals except ice keep them from losing much body heat. Arctic ground
worms and a few species of insects live in polar regions squirrels hibernate (sleep through the winterl. They curl
that have ice and snow the year around. But the seas of up in a burrow, and their body temperature drops, sav-
the Arctic and Antarctic have large numbers of wildlife, ing energy during the long winter. They also do not eat
including fish, giant sponges, whales, and tiny shrimp- in the winter. They live off fat stored in their bodies.

Arctic winter
[mil behullhess Black Star

Arctic bumble bee

Polar bear Arctic Emperor penguin Antarctica

 Animal 485

St Meters Okauia Photo Researcher?

Kodiak bear North America

WORLD BOOH illustrations bs lohn F Eggert and Ous Tudor

Arctic summer

Collared lemming
Arctic Walrus Arctic
486 Animal Animals of the oceans
Animals of many kinds are found everywhere in the of organisms called plankton. Many fish and some
vast oceans. Some of the smallest animals live in the sea, whales feed on plankton.
as does the world's largest, the blue whale. Cod, halibut, The great depths of the ocean are completely dark,
seals,and whales swim the frigid waters of the polar re- and the water there is bitterly cold. Even so, anglerfish,
gions. Lobsters, sea urchins, and many types of brightly clams, and certain other creatures live there. On the
colored fish inhabit coral reefs in warm tropical seas. other hand, flyingfish, manta rays, marlins, and por-
Some ocean animals near the shore— in shallow
live poises generally swim near the ocean surface. Alba-
water, in tide pools, and on rocks. They include anemo- trosses, gulls, and petrels fly above the sea.
nes, barnacles, mussels, octopuses, and starfish. Other Oceans provide people with such foods as crab, fish,
marine animals— mostly such tiny shrimplike creatures lobster, and shrimp. However, the demand for seafood
askrill and copepods— are found in the open sea. Krill has led to the overfishing of halibut, herring, and some
and some species of copepods form part of the group other marine animals. Millions of dolphins, which are
mammals, have drowned in fishing nets that were in-
tended to catch cod, tuna, and other fish. In addition,
spills of toxic materials and other forms of pollution
have reduced the numbers of some ocean species.

Killer whale
Pacific
 Animal 487

byTomDolan AtatEbd and John 1 Eggeil

488 Animal The bodies of animals
Animals have special body features that enable them Shrimp have tiny swimming legs, fish have fins and mus-
to survive in their environment. These special features, cular tails, and turtles have flippers. Because animals
called adaptations, result from the ability animal species adapt to their surroundings in many ways, there is a
have to adapt (adjust) over time to changes in their sur- wide diversity of animals in any environment.
roundings. Adaptations for survival enable animals to This section describes some of the ways animal bod-
move about, to eat, to breathe, and to sense their envi- ies are adapted for moving, eating, breathing, and sens-
ronment. Legs, wings, and fins help animals move. Teeth ing the environment. For information on the basic proc-
and jaws help them eat. Lungs and gills help them ob- ess of adaptation, see Adaptation.
tain oxygen. Eyes and ears help them find food and de-
Adaptations for moving about
tect predators.
Animals live in many kinds of environments. The body Legs and feet. Mammals, birds, insects, and many
features of an animal that work well in one type of envi- reptiles and amphibians have legs with feet that enable
ronment may not work in others. For example, the adap- them to walk or run on land. Most amphibians, mam-
tations that enable fish to breathe in water do not let mals, and reptiles walk on four legs. Birds and people
them breathe on land. Even in the same environment, walk on two. Insects have six legs, and spiders have
animals may have different adaptations for survival. eight. Millipedes may have up to 200 legs.
Shrimp, fish, and sea turtles can all swim in the ocean, Animals can crawl without legs and feet. Such tiny
but they have different body features for doing so. creatures as planarians and other flatworms slide by
moving many small hairlike structures, called cilia, back
and forth like miniature oars. Snails move by coating the
Invertebrates and vertebrates
ground with a sticky fluid from their bodies. They then
The animal kingdom is often divided into two main groups— ani-
crawl through the fluid using a muscular organ called a
mals without backbones, called invertebrates, and animals with
backbones, called vertebrates. Invertebrates include sponges, foot. Most snakes slide along the ground by bending

worms, centipedes, starfish, mollusks, and insects. Vertebrates their bodies from side to side. An earthworm crawls
include fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. Inverte- through the soil by alternately lengthening and shorten-
brates are commonly known as the lower animals. Vertebrates ing parts of its body.
are known as the higher animals. The backbone of a vertebrate
Many walking and crawling organisms live in water.
helps protect the spinal (main nerve! cord. The main nerve cord
of invertebrates is unprotected. A small sea animal, the amphi-
Crabs and lobsters have legs that enable them to walk
oxus, has a notochord, which is a rod of cartilage that serves as across the bottom of a body of water.
a backbone and partly protects the animal's main nerve. The am- Wings. Three groups of animals have the ability to fly
phioxus considered to be a
is link between the lower animals under their own power: (1 insects, (2) bats, and (3) birds.
)

and the higher animals.

Most insects have two pairs of wings. Muscles inside
WORLD BOOK Illustrations by Patricia Wynne
the thorax (middle section of an insect's body! move the
wings up and down.
Bats are the only mammals with wings. Batwings are

Invertebrate The main nerve, b/ue, of a centipede is

unprotected by a bockbone.

Amphioxus The main nerve, b/ue, is partly protected by a

notochord, white-

- -

Long, powerful legs and a stride of 1 5 feet (4.6 metersl make

Vertebrate The main nerve blue, of o fish is protected by a
the ostrich one of the fastest land animals. Ostriches can reach
backbone, white
speeds as high as 40 miles (64 kilometers! per hour.
A World Book special feature

Endangered Animals
Each species of animal plays a part in the delicate balance of
all living systems. Today, a growing number of animals
worldwide are threatened with extinction. This World Book
special feature focuses on vanishing wildlife and how it
might be saved.

WORLD BOOK Illustration In nm i

Bernard Thornton Artivtx

 n g e re d

There are three main classifications for animal species in

clanger of becoming endangered, (2) vulnera-
extinct
(1 )
An age of mass extinction? by
ble, and (3) lowerEndangered species face the most
risk. The earth has had several periods
serious threat of extinction. They require direct human of mass extinction. Many scientists
protection for survival. Vulnerable species are sometimes believe we are living in one now.
referred to as threatened species. They are abundant in In past extinctions, animals died
some areas, but their numbers are decreasing or they out due to natural causes. Today,
face serious dangers. Lower risk species either have human activities are mainly
small populations within a narrow geographic area responsible for the destruction of
or are thinly scattered throughout a wider range. species.

Vulnerable. The giant anteater

inhabits Central and South
America. As the population of
Central America has grown,
people have destroyed much
of the anteater's habitat to make
way for farms and cities. As a re-
the animal has disappeared
sult,

from much of this region. In

South America, the giant
anteateris hunted for sport

WORLD BOOK illustrations

by Norman Weaver,
Colin Newman, and
|ohn Eggert
Extinct Dinosaurs
died out from natural
causes about 65 million
years ago. Many scien-
tists believe that these

huge reptiles became

because of a
extinct
rapid change in climate
and the dinosaurs'
inability to survive it
Today, a number of hu-
man activities, such as
the destruction of
tropical rain forests
and pollution of the air,
may result in a change
in the earth's climate
called global warming.
No one knows how
many animals might fail
to survive such a
change.

Lower risk. Harpy eagles are

among the largest and strongest
eagles. They are thinly scattered
over a wide range, from south-
ern Mexico to eastern Bolivia,
southern Brazil, and northern
Argentina The destruction of
tropical rain forests means loss
of habitat for these rare birds of
prey.
 How animals become endangered
Many factors contribute to endangerment They
include the destruction of habitats, pollution,
trade in animal products, overhunting, the
introduction of new species to an area, and the
growing human population. In many cases,
these factors are linked.

The destruction of habitats is one of the main

threats to animals. The photo at the right shows the
beginning of slash-and-burn cultivation of part of a
rain forest Trees are chopped and burned to make
way for farmland. However, the soil in such areas is
relatively unfertile and will support crops for only a
few years before it is exhausted. Then more trees wi
have to be cleared to create more farmland. Mean-
while, the rain forest, which has more species than
any other habitat, is being destroyed— and countless
species along with it. Some experts estimate that
more than 50 rain forest species become extinct each
day because of human activities.

© Gustavo Gilabert. |B Pictures

Trade in animal products. Some animals

become endangered because their fur or some
other body part is considered valuable. For
example, rhinoceros horns are prized in some
parts of the world. In some cases, the animals
themselves are valued. For instance, certain
tropical birds are valued by bird collectors. The
photograph at the left shows some of the booty
seized from poachers (illegal hunters) who killed
protected animals.

© Mark N. Boulton. NAS Other factors that threaten animals

The growing human population will strain existing

resources and require more land in which to live. As a
result, more animal habitats will be destroyed.
Saving the spotted owl:
A policy issue Introduction of new species to an area can mean
The spotted owl inhabits the When Europeans landed
disaster for native animals. in

forests of the Pacific Northwest Hawaii and other Pacific Islands, rats escaped from their
ships and then preyed on native birds. Domestic cats
of the United States. In the late
introduced by Europeans also killed native birds. As a
1980s, conservationists be-
result, more than 100 kinds of Pacific Islands birds have
came concerned that lumber
become extinct since 1600.
companies were destroying
the habitat of the owl. But
Overhunting a species can threaten it with extinction.
loggers argued that unless Sometimes animals are hunted because people consid-
they could continue to cut er them a pest The red wolf of North America was
down the trees, they would trapped, hunted, and poisoned for this reason.
lose their jobs and face eco-
nomic hardship. How would
you solve this problem?

©John Neel Tom Stack & Associates

Pollution in all its forms—

whether of the land, the air, or
the water— is a serious threat
to animals. An oil spill killed

this cormorant
488 Animal The bodies of animals
Animals have special body features that enable them Shrimp have tiny swimming legs, fish have fins and mus-
to survive in their environment. These special features, cular tails, and turtles have flippers. Because animals
called adaptations, result from the ability animal species adapt to their surroundings in many ways, there is a
have to adapt (adjust) overtime to changes in their sur- wide diversity of animals in any environment.
roundings. Adaptations for survival enable animals to This section describes some of the ways animal bod-
move about, to eat, to breathe, and to sense their envi- ies are adapted for moving, eating, breathing, and sens-
ronment. Legs, wings, and fins help animals move. Teeth ing the environment. For information on the basic proc-
and jaws help them eat. Lungs and gills help them ob- ess of adaptation, see Adaptation.
tain oxygen. Eyes and ears help them find food and de-
Adaptations for moving about
tect predators.
Animals live in many kinds of environments. The body Legs and feet. Mammals, birds, insects, and many
features of an animal that work well in one type of envi- reptiles and amphibians have legs with feet that enable
ronment may not work in others. For example, the adap- them to walk or run on land. Most amphibians, mam-
tations that enable fish to breathe in water do not let mals, and reptiles walk on four legs. Birds and people
them breathe on land. Even in the same environment, walk on two. Insects have six legs, and spiders have
animals may have different adaptations for survival. eight. Millipedes may have up to 200 legs.
Shrimp, fish, and sea turtles can all swim in the ocean, Animals can crawl without legs and feet. Such tiny
but they have different body features for doing so. creatures as planarians and other flatworms slide by
moving many small hairlike structures, called cilia, back
and forth like miniature oars. Snails move by coating the
Invertebrates and vertebrates
ground with a sticky fluid from their bodies. They then
The animal kingdom is often divided into two main groups— ani-
crawl through the fluid using a muscular organ called a
mals without backbones, called invertebrates, and animals with
backbones, called vertebrates. Invertebrates include sponges, foot. Most snakes
slide along the ground by bending
worms, centipedes, starfish, mollusks, and insects. Vertebrates their bodiesfrom side to side. An earthworm crawls
include fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. Inverte- through the soil by alternately lengthening and shorten-
brates are commonly known as the lower animals. Vertebrates ing parts ofits body.
are known as the higher animals. The backbone of a vertebrate
Many walking and crawling organisms live in water.
helps protect the spinal [mam nervel cord. The main nerve cord
of invertebrates is unprotected. A small sea animal, the amphi-
Crabs and lobsters have legs that enable them to walk
oxus, has a notochord, which is a rod of cartilage that serves as across the bottom of a body of water.
a backbone and partly protects the animal's main nerve. The am- Wings. Three groups of animals have the ability to fly
phioxus is considered to be a link between the lower animals under their own power: (1 insects, (2! bats, and (3) birds.
)

and the higher animals. Most insects have two pairs of wings. Muscles inside
WORLD BOOK illustrations by Patricia Wynne
the thorax (middle section of an insect's body) move the
wings up and down.
Bats are the only mammals with wings. Batwings are

Invertebrate The mom nerve, b/ue. of a centipede is

unprotected by a backbone.

Amphioxus The main nerve, blue, is partly protected by o

notochord, white.

Long, powerful legs and a stride of 1 5 feet (4.6 meters) make

Vertebrote The main nerve, b/ue, of a fish is protected by a
the ostrich one of the fastest land animals. Ostriches can reach
backbone, white speeds as high as 40 miles 164 kilometers) per hour.
Animals at risk around the world
Animals are endangered throughout the world, from the
sandy deserts of Africa to the steamy forests of South
America, and from the windswept plains of central Asia to
the snow-capped mountains of Europe and the cool waters
of North America. This map shows where some
endangered and vulnerable species live.

'
Some endangered or vulnerable animals
Name Distribution Comments
Adalbert's (Spanish Spain, Morocco, Algeria Overhunted; harmed by pesticides, destruction of
imperial eagle) forest nesting sites, reduction of food supply
American crocodile Southeastern United Overhunted for its hide; suffers from destruction of
States, Mexico, Central habitat
and South America,
Caribbean islands
Arabian oryx Arabian Peninsula Overhunted for its meat, for its hide, and for sport;
saved by captive breeding program
Asiatic lion India Formerly wide-ranging; now survives only in the Gir
Forest in the Gujarat state of western India; has
been overhunted for sport; also suffers loss of
habitat
Cheetah Africa to India Deprived of habitat; overhunted for sport
Florida cougar (or United States Overhunted because people consider it a pest; suffers
Florida panther) from habitat destruction; once ranged from eastern
Texas through Florida and north into Arkansas,
Tennessee and South Carolina; doubtful whether
any live outside Florida now
Golden lion tamarin Brazil Declining due to habitat destruction and overcollec-
tion for medical research and for pets; being saved
through captive breeding
Grevy's zebra Kenya Overhunted for its skin and for sport
Malayan tapir Southeast Asia Forest habitat being destroyed for farms and pasture
Queen Alexandra's Papua New Guinea Habitat being damaged by logging and expanding
birdwing butterfly agriculture
Red wolf Southeastern United been hunted, trapped,
Habitat being destroyed; has
States and poisoned because people consider it a pest
Zanzibar red colobus Zanzibar (Tanzania) Lives in an extremely restricted range; habitat being
destroyed

IUCN (International Union for the Conservation of Nature

and Natural Resources) includes about 2,100 endangered
species and subspecies of animals on its Red List of Threat-
Mammals ened Animals. It also classifies about 3,100 types of animals
as vulnerable (the approximate equivalent of the U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service's threatened category) and more than
2,100 kinds as lower risk. The list does not include the
Birds rain forest species— mainly insects— that are destroyed
before they are identified.

Reptiles and amphibians

Endangered

Vulnerable

Lower risk

Invertebrates
other than insects Blue whale
Alloceans
100 200300 400 500 600 700 800 900 Overhunted for its blubber, for food, and for whale oil
California condor
Southern California
Declined because of habitat destruction,
being hunted for sport, and overcollection
of eggs for food; saved through captive
breeding Imperial parrot
West Indies, Dominica
Pallid sturgeon Declined because of
United States habitat destruction and
Ivory-billed woodpecker Habitat altered to create channels illegal capture for pets
Both subspecies endangered; and dams; pollution of habitat by
one the south-central and
in industrial wastes; overfished

southeastern United States, the

other in Cuba; United States
subspecies possibly extinct;
declined because their habitat
was destroyed and because
people killed them

SOUTH
AMERICA

Woolly spider monkey

Lives on tops of tallest trees in

rain forests in southeastern Brazil

Declined because of habitat
destruction and being
overhunted for food

Green sea turtie

Temperate and tropical seas worldwide
Endangered by overhunting for its meat,
its oil, and its shell; and by overcollection

of its eggs

IS C >RID BOOK r
 Pyrenean ibex
Pyrenees Mountains
Overhunted since the 1300s;
severely reduced range

Mediterranean monk seal

Northwest African coast, Mediter-
ranean Sea, Black Sea
Overhunted by fishing crews who
consider it a pest; has suffered from ASIA
water pollution and from ^p*.
reduction of its food m* Snow leopard
EUROPE supply by overfishing
Mountains of central Asia
Overhunted for its fur

Tiger
Temperate and tropical Asia
s Formerly lived throughout southern
Addax Asia; survives only in isolated pockets;
Sahara declined through habitat destruction
v li and being overhunted for sport
Must compete with
livestock for food; overhunted

Indian elephant
South-central and southern A
Endangered by habitat destn

Black colobus
Cameroon; Equatorial Guinea Indus River dolphii
Formerly overhunted for Pakistan
its skin; now overhunted Suffers from loss of
for food; habitat being river water to
lost to logging irrigation

Black rhinoceros
South of Sahara in Africa
Overhunted for its horn; Aye-Aye
habitat being destroyed Madagascar
Needs large trees to survive;
habitat being lost

Bridled nailtail wallaby

Australia
Suffers from habitat disruption
formerly plentiful in the states
Mountain gorilla of New
South Wales and
Mountain chains of western Queensland; only one
Rwanda, southwestern Uganda, known colony survives
eastern Congo (Kinshasa) in Queensland
Suffers from poaching and from loss
of habitat to farmland; habitat also
damaged in a civil war in Rwanda

ANTARCTICA
 Giant panda
Western and southwestern
China
Suffers from habitat
destruction and periodic
Several organizations compile lists of animals they consider
endangered. They do not always agree on the status of an
animal or on the definition of endangered status. For exam-
J
ple, IUCN (International Union for the Conservation of Na-
dying off of bamboo, its
ture and Natural Resources! suspects that Przewalski's horse
primary food source; slow
reproductive rate also a
may no longer occur naturally in the wild. IUCN puts this
species in a category with other animals that are almost cer-
Tibet factor in its decline
tainly extinct However, more than 1,500 Przewalski's horses
d
and scientists have begun a program to re-
live in captivity,
lease captive-bred Przewalskis into the wild. Because some
of these horses still exist, the United States Fish and Wildlife
Service classifies the animal as endangered. With the excep-
tion of Przewalski's horse, all animals in this special feature
are classified as endangered or vulnerable by IUCN.

Pileated gibbon
Southeast Asia
Declined through loss
of habitat and being
overhunted for food

Orangutan
Borneo, Sumatra
Declined due to habitat
destruction and being
overcollected for zoos

dds
ini-

ey
nt

ps
f

he
WORLD BOOK illustrations by Tim Hayward.

d
Bernard Thornton Artists
 Animal 489

Comparative speeds The speeds of animals vary greatly. Birds are the fastest of all animals, with flying speeds of more
of animals than 200 miles (320 kiloir.etersi per hour. The speediest land animals outstrip the fastest water ani-
mals. Many of the figures given in the table below are estimates because scientists have difficulty
measuring the speeds of wild animals. In addition, the maximum speed of an animal may differ
widely from its usual speed. A rabbit runs faster than a greyhound for a short time. But the grey-
hound can keep up its speed for longer distances.
WORLD BOOK illustrations by Linda Kinnaman and Robert Klunder
 It
Whooping crane
North America
Habitat disturbed by
human contact

Black-footed ferret
Wyoming
Declined due to poisoning of
prairie dogs, its chief prey

NORTH
California condor AMERICA
Southern California
Declined because of habitat destruction,
being hunted for sport, and overcollection
of eggs for food; saved through captive
breeding Imperial parrot
West Indies, Dominica
Pallid sturgeon Declined because of
United States habitat destruction and
Ivory-billed woodpecker Habitat altered to create channels illegal capture for pets
Both subspecies endangered; and dams; pollution of habitat by
one the south-central and
in industrial wastes; overfished
southeastern United States, the
other in Cuba; United States
subspecies possibly extinct;
declined because their habitat
was destroyed and because
people killed them

Woolly spider monkey

Lives on tops of tallest trees in
rain forests in southeastern Brazil
Declined because of habitat
destruction and being
overhunted for food

**&&
Green sea turtle
Temperate and tropical seas worldwide
Endangered by overhunting tor its meat,
its oil, and its shell; and by overcollection

of its eggs

WORLD BOOK map

 How animals become endangered
Many factors contribute to endangerment They
include the destruction of habitats, pollution,
trade in animal products, overhunting, the
introduction of new species to an area, and the
growing human population. In many cases,
these factors are linked.

The destruction one of the main

of habitats is

threats to animals. the right shows the

The photo at
beginning of slash-and-burn cultivation of part of a
rain forest Trees are chopped and burned to make
way for farmland. However, the soil in such areas is
relatively unfertile and will support crops for only a
few years before it is exhausted. Then more trees will
have to be cleared to create more farmland. Mean-
while, the rain forest, which has more species than
any other habitat, is being destroyed— and countless
species along with it Some experts estimate that
more than 50 rain forest species become extinct each
day because of human activities.

© Gustavo Gilabert. J8 Pictures

am Trade in animal products. Some animals

become endangered because their fur or some
other body part is considered valuable. For
example, rhinoceros horns are prized in some
parts of the world. In some cases, the animals
themselves are valued. For instance, certain
tropical birds are valued by bird collectors. The
photograph at the left shows some of the booty
seized from poachers (illegal hunters) who killed
protected animals.

© Mark N. Boulton. NAS Other factors that threaten animals

The growing human population will strain existing

resources and require more land in which to live. As a
result, more animal habitats will be destroyed.
Saving the spotted owl:
A policy issue Introduction of new species to an area can mean
The spotted owl inhabits the When Europeans landed
disaster for native animals. in

forests of the Pacific Northwest Hawaii and other Pacific Islands, rats escaped from their
ships and then preyed on native birds. Domestic cats
of the United States. In the late
introduced by Europeans also killed native birds. As a
1980s, conservationists be-
result, more than 100 kinds of Pacific Islands birds have
came concerned that lumber
become extinct since 1600.
companies were destroying
the habitat of the owl. But
loggers argued that unless
% Overhunting a species can threaten it with extinction.
Sometimes animals are hunted because people consid-
they could continue to cut er them a pest The red wolf of North America was
down the trees, they would trapped, hunted, and poisoned for this reason.
lose their jobs and face eco-
nomic hardship. How would
you solve this problem?

© |ohn Neel. Tom Stack & Associates

Pollution in all its forms—

whether of the land, the air, or
the water— is a serious threat
to animals. An oil spill killed

this cormorant
 H owhuman b e i n g s p r o t e ct a n i ma I s

If people do not offer endangered animals some

kind of protection, such animals will become extinct
Through the years, concern about vanishing wildlife
has led people to take a number of steps. Some
animals are protected in wildlife refuges or parks.
Others live in zoos. Many zoos and research centers
breed endangered animals with the hope of
returning their offspring to the wild.

Wildlife reserves and national parks may

represent the last hope of survival for some
species. In such areas, animals are protected by
law from hunters. However, poachers still
remain a problem. Zebras and gnus are among
the many animals that roam the protected lands
of Tarangire National Park in northern Tanzania,
above.

LuRav Parker \V\ omrng Came and Fish Department

Breeding in captivity. Some animals have been saved by breeding

them in captivity. In the mid-1980s, black-footed ferrets, which lived in
Wyoming, were on the verge of extinction. In 1986, the last surviving
community of these animals— consisting of 18 individuals— was rounded
up to establish a captive-breeding program. In 1991, federal and state
wildlife officials began releasing black-footed ferrets into southeast
Wyoming. Before being released, each ferret was fitted with a special
collar, above, to help track animals in the wild.

© Al Satterwtiite, Camera 5
Some wildlife conservation organizations Rescuing animals in Rescue workers
a crisis.
also help animals when a crisis, such as an oil
For more information on endangered species and what you can do
to help conserve them, write to the following:
spill, occurs. A girl carries an oil-soaked seabird
to a cleaning area to try to save it, above.

Greenpeace National Wildlife Federation

1436 U Street NW 8925 Leesburg Pike
Four reasons why people protect animals
Washington, DC 20009 Vienna, VA 22984

1. For their beauty. Each 3.For their scientific

IUCN Nature Conservancy
animal is different from value. Wildlife study adds
Rue Mauverney 28 4245 N. Fairfax Drive, Suite 100
every other and adds to to knowledge ofhow ani-
CH-1 196 Gland, Switzerland Arlington, VA 22203
the beauty of nature. mals grow and how they
2. For their economic live in their environment
Izaak Walton League of America Sierra Club
value. Limited hunting of 4. For their survival
707 Conservation Lane 85 Second Street, 2nd Floor
wild animals provides fur value. Each animal helps
Caithersburg, MD
20878 San Francisco, CA 94105
and food. Tourists who maintain the balance of
visitprotected areas to nature. The loss of any
National Audubon Society World Wildlife Fund
see animals in the wild species may threaten the
700 Broadway 1250 24th Street NW also bring in money. survival of many others.
New York, NY 10003 Washington, DC 20037
 Animal 489

Comparative speeds The speeds of animals vary greatly. Birds are the fastest of all animals, with flying speeds of more
of animals than 200 miles (320 kilometers) per hour. The speediest land animals outstrip the fastest water ani-
mals. Many of the figures given in the table below are estimates because scientists have difficulty
measuring the speeds of wild animals. In addition, the maximum speed of an animal may differ
widely from its usual speed. A rabbit runs faster than a greyhound for a short time. But the grey-
hound can keep up its speed for longer distances.
WORLD BOOK illustrations by Linda Kinnaman and Robed Klundf

In the air

sfc Housefly
5mph(8kph)
Owl
40 mph (64 kph)
A
Common swift
Golden eagle
120 mph (193
^ kph)
"([

60 mph (97 kph)

Bat
15 mph (24 kph)
?r* ' Canvasback duck
70 mph (110 kph)

c
Wm Robin Hummingbird
30 mph (48 kph) 60 mph (97 kph)

Blue jay W Dragonfly

20 mph (32 kph) I 50 mph (80 kph)
WORLD BOOK illustration bv
Venner Artists Lid

On land The fastest animal is the

^g^v. Race horse with rider
peregrine falcon. With power-
Turtle 45 mph (72 kph)
JSmM' mph (0.16 kph)
fulwings and a streamlined
To body, this bird can reach a
Cheetah
Snake 70 mph (110 kph) speed of more than 200 miles
2 mph (3 kph) (320 kilometers) per hour as it
swoops down on prey.

House mouse
8 mph (13 kph)

ronghorn
62 mph (100 kph)

Greyhound
40 mph (64 kph)

African elephant
22 mph (35 kph)

In the water
Barracuda Sailfish
Goldfish
>* 4 mph (6 kph)
30 mph (48 kph) 65 mph (105 kph]

Trout Swordfish
5 mph (8 kph) 35 mph (56 kph)
Human being
5 mph (8 kph) Bluefintuna

Pike
40 mph (64 kph)

15 mph (25 kph)

Sea turtle
20 mph (32 kph)

<*~ Dolphin
25 mph (40 kph)

Whale
20 mph (32 kph)

mph 40 60 80 100 120

490 Animal

E- R Degginge

Long, slender front wings and small hind wings enable the The measuring worm crawls by pulling the back part of its
fast-flying hawk moth to hover like a hummingbird. body toward the front, then pushing the front part forward.

E- R- Deggmger Stephen Oalton Animals Animals

A tail and finsserve most fish in swimming. The tail of a male Powerful hind legs make the frog a champion jumper on land,
fancy guppy, above, may grow longer than its body. above, and an expert swimmer when in the water.

made up mostly of skin stretched over long finger that eat plants are called herbivores. Zebras, cows, and
bones. Muscles in the wings raise and lower them. moose are herbivores. Animals that eat other animals
Birds have powerful muscles attached to their wings are called carnivores or meat-eaters. Dogs, lions, and
and breastbone. Bird wings are covered with feathers, sharks are carnivores. Animals that eat both plants and
which also aid in flight animals are known as omnivores. Bears are omnivores.
Some animals, including flying squirrels and flying le- Biologists describe the relationships between animals
murs, can glide but not fly. Such animals jump from in a habitat and the foods they eat as a food chain. Tech-

trees or mountains. They have big feet or folds of skin nically, a food chain involves the flow of energy from
that spread out to serve as "wings" for gliding. the sun to green plants to animal consumers. For exam-
Fins, tails, and flippers. Many types of animals swim ple, a simple food chain in a meadow links the grasses,
in fresh or salt water. Fish have well-developed tails and the deer that eat the grasses, and the wolves that eat the
fins. Most fish swim by bending their powerful, muscu- deer. Sometimes, many kinds of animals and plants are
lar tail from side to side. Fins on the top, bottom, and involved in complex networks of food chains. Such net-
sides of fish are used to maintain balance and to maneu- works are called food webs.
ver in tight areas. Dolphins, porpoises, and whales swim Most animals eat a variety of foods. For example, pi-
by moving their massive tails up and down rather than geons eat fruits, grains, and nuts, and they sometimes
side to side. Turtles swim by paddling with their feed on insects, snails, and worms.
webbed feet or their flippers. Some animals eat only a few foods. A snail called a
Jellyfish and squids swim by jet propulsion. When a cone shell preys only on a single species of marine
jellyfishpushes water out from under its body, it is worm. Several kinds of snakes eat only slugs or other
thrust in the opposite direction. A squid takes water into snails. Hummingbirds and honey possums live on the
its body cavity and then squirts the water out through a nectar of flowers. A sapsucker drills holes in trees and
small opening called a funnel. This action repeated eats the sap that flows from the holes. The koala of Aus-
many times pushes the squid forward. tralia dines only on the leaves of eucalyptus trees.
A number of species of birds can swim. Some ducks Filtering mechanisms. Huge numbers of tiny organ-
and gulls paddle on the surface of the water using their isms called plankton float or swim slowly near the sur-
webbed feet as oars. Torrent ducks and loons dive un- face of oceans, lakes, and other bodies of water. Plank-
derwater, where they swim by kicking their feet. Pen- ton make up a part of an important food chain in the
guins use their feet and their wings to swim. ocean. Plankton are too small to be captured individually
by animals that feed on them. Some animals, such as
Adaptations for eating
barnacles, sweep water past themselves while straining
All animals need food to survive. Animals eat plants, out the tiny plankton, which are thereby captured. This
other animals, or both plants and other animals. Animals process is called filter feeding.
 Animal 491

Baleen whales are probably the best-known filter

feeders. These animals, which do not have teeth, feed by
gulping huge mouthfuls of water containing plankton,
small fish, and other marine organisms. They then force
the water out of their mouths through a series of strain-
ers called baleen. The food is captured on the baleen
and then swallowed. A baleen whale can consume as
much as 4 tons metric tons) of food a day.
(3.6

Teeth and jaws. A large number of animals eat food

that they need to tear into pieces small enough to be
swallowed and digested easily. Teeth and jaws are adap-
tations for tearing food. Teeth may also be used to kill
prey.
Teeth are adapted for the particular type of food an
animal eats. Deer, giraffes, and other herbivores have
teeth with broad surfaces for grinding grasses and
plants into small bits. The powerful front teeth of
beavers enable these animals to cut down trees for food
and shelter. Lions have razor-sharp canine (pointed)

©Francois
teeth for killing and then tearing prey.

A gray whale filters food from water by squeezing the water Birds have bills that are adapted for certain types of
out of its mouth through thin plates called baleen. feeding. A hawk has a sharp, hooked beak for tearing
prey. A woodpecker uses its long, pointed bill to drill
into the bark of trees to find insects.
Insects have jaws and movable mouthparts that act
The jaws of grasshoppers are adapted for cut-
like teeth.
ting and chewing plants. Mosquitoes have needle-
shaped mouthparts for piercing skin and sucking blood.

Adaptations for breathing

Most animals need a continuous supply of oxygen to

The entire process of obtaining and using oxy-
survive.
gen is called respiration. That part of the process that in-
volves how an
animal takes oxygen from its environment
and gives carbon dioxide is known as breathing. This
off
section focuses on breathing. For a complete descrip-
tion of how oxygen flows to various cells of an animal's
E. R. Degginger
body and how it is used by those cells, see Respiration.
A snake swallows food whole. It has loose jaws that enable it to
The way that animals breathe depends on where they
swallow eggs or animals much larger than its own head.
live. Land animals get oxygen from the air. Aquatic ani-

mals obtain oxygen from water.

Many land animals have lungs for breathing. As blood
Wl flows through the lungs, it picks up oxygen from the air

Alan Root OkapE nwto Retain inn IKIorii Snrntltii I ilins limn AmnuK \iiim.its

A lion has long, razor-sharp canine (pointed) teeth for killing and A water spider breathes underwater by means of large air
tearing such prey as antelope and zebras. It does not have teeth bubbles held close to its body. Small bubbles of air trapped by
for chewing, however. It swallows its food in chunks the spider s hairlike body pans help supply extra air.
492 Animal

and releases carbon dioxide. The blood then carries oxy-

gen to the rest of the body. See Lung.
Many aquatic organisms, such as fish and tadpoles,
use gills to obtain oxygen that is dissolved in water.
Some animals pump water across their gills to increase
the efficiency of breathing. Sharks do this by swimming
continuously.
Tiny tubes called tracheae allow insects to breathe in

Tracheae branch throughout an insects body. They

air.

open to the outside air through holes called spiracles.

When air enters the tracheae, oxygen is carried to every
cell in the body. Touch. Woodcocks and many other birds can use the

Some animals that live in damp environments have tips of their beaks to locate worms underground.
unusual ways of breathing. For example, some small sal-
amanders have no lungs or gills. They breathe through
their moist skin.

Adaptations for sensing the environment

Most kinds of animals have special body parts that re-
spond to changes in the animal's environment. Such a

Smell. The forked tongues of snakes and some lizards

are used to smell as well as to touch.

Spiracles are openings on the outside of an insects body. Air

enters the body through these openings and flows into air sacs.
A tracheal (air tubel system distributes the air.

Taste. Catfish and certain other fish have cells called

taste buds in the skin that covers their bodies.

Gills are the breathing organs of most fish. The thin tissues of
*
the absorb oxygen from the water. A fish gulps in water,
gills
and then forces it out through the gill openings.

WORLD BOOK illustrations b> Pain.

Lungs supply vital oxygen Hearing. Bats navigate by the echoes that result from
to the blood of the higher their high-pitchedsounds striking objects.
animals. Air containing ox-
ygen flows through the Sight A dragonflys large
trachea into the lungs. compound eyes enable it

There, the oxygen is ab- \ to detect moving objects

sorbed by the blood. at great distances.

Trachea

WORLD BOOK illustrations

b> lohn f Eggert
 Animal 493

A table of animal intelligence

Many animals can learn to do some tricks if they are carefjNy properties like those of language. For example, dolphins
trained. But the ability to do tricks is not a sign of intelligence. seem to recognize differences in meaning based on the order
Even fleas can be trained as circus performers. in which the symbols are presented.
Scientists measure the intelligence of animals by giving Carnivorous mammals in the cat and dog families show learn-
them problems to solve and by studying their behavior. In the ing ability as good as, or better than, all animals except apes,
past, most animals were studied in isolation from other ani- some monkeys, and large aquatic mammals. Lions, tigers, and
mals. They were tested for how they performed tasks when wolves probably can learn more rapidly than domesticated
given food as a reward. cats or dogs can.
Today, however, many studies of animal intelligence focus Hoofed animals. Elephants and pigs are the best problem solv-
on animals in group settings. Such research concentrates on ers among the hoofed animals.
the intelligence animals use in their dealing with others of Rodents are generallygood at solving problems that involve
their kind and in solving group problems. Scientists believe finding their way through complicated pathways.
this social intelligence may be closely related to the develop- Birds, such as the raven and the pigeon, can solve simple
ment of language skills. The ability to use language repre- counting problems. Parrots can learn to say human words and
sents a high degree of intelligence. use them meaningfully in naming and counting objects.
The following table provides information on the intelli- Amphibians and reptiles are difficult to test, but alligators,
gence of a number of types of animals, based on various sci- crocodiles, turtles, and large monitor lizards may rival mam-
entific studies. mals and birds in locating sources of food and in some other
forms of nonsocial learning.
Fish. Salmon and some other kinds of fish can remember odors
for as long as several years. Sharks have brains as large as
Apes and monkeys have the most humanlike intelligence. those of some birds and mammals. They have keen senses,
Chimpanzees seem to be the most advanced. They can make and they are surprisingly clever at finding food and avoiding
tools, plan complicated searches for food, and even count. danger.
They can also communicate by means of symbols. For exam- Animals without backbones often seem to learn very little.

ple, they may use certain gestures to symbolize particular ob- But some have remarkable and specialized abilities involving
jects, actions, or states of being. communication, food, and place learning. Many scientists
Large aquatic mammals, such and sea
as dolphins, whales, consider octopuses to have the most complex brains of all the
lions, have brains much like those of human beings. They are invertebrates. Octopuses learn rapidly and have distinct per-
capable of learning symbolic communication that may have sonalities.

stimulus (change) might come from an odor, a sight, a cannot see it. Hearing is vital to bats. If the ears of a bat
sound, a taste, or a touch. The simplest kinds of animals, are covered, the animal will crash into objects when it
such as sponges, have no special body parts and react tries to fly. A keen sense of smell enables dogs and
to stimuli with their body cells. Animals with more com- wolves to find food, follow trails, and recognize danger.
plex physical structures, especially vertebrates, have Taste is highly important to many insects. The butterfly
highly developed organs for reacting to stimuli. These finds its food by sensing the sweetness of flowers with
organs are described in the articles on Brain and Nerv- its feet. A cat's long whiskers serve as touch organs.

ous system. They enable the cat to feel its way through underbrush
Some simple animals, such as hydras, react to stimuli and avoid bumping into objects.
with special cells. These sensory cells are scattered A number of animals have special senses. A rattle-
among the outermost cells of the body. The reactions of snake has pit organs on the side of its face that sense
most other kinds of animals depend largely on one or heat. These organs enable the snake to tell if a mouse or
more of the major senses. These senses are sight, hear- some other warm-blooded prey is nearby, even in total
ing, smell, taste, and touch. See Senses. darkness. Many scientists believe that some birds and
Some senses are more important to one kind of ani- insects can detect the direction of the earth's magnetic
mal than to another. Most birds cannot find food if they field. This ability may help these animals navigate.

How animals protect themselves

The world of an animal is filled with danger from ene- Camouflage. Many animals are difficult for enemies
mies. This section describes some of the many ways ani- to see because they resemble their surroundings. The
mals protect themselves from such danger. various ways animals blend with their surroundings are
Hiding in a safe place. The best protection against a called camouflage. For camouflage to be effective, the
predator is to avoid being seen by it. Many animals rest animals must remain motionless or nearly so.
or sleep in a safe hiding place. Some desert toads crawl Protective coloration is coloring that helps animals to

down a crack in the mud. A cricket hides under a large hide. A

dark moth lying against the brown or black bark
rock or under the loose bark of a tree. Worms and of a tree is hard to see. However, that same moth would
moles dig underground tunnels. be clearly visible if it sat on a green leaf.

Many species, such as rabbits, leave their nests A number of animals can change their colors and
mainly or only at night, when they are harder for ene- thus remain camouflaged even when moving among
mies to spot. Other species become active for only short backgrounds that have different colors. The chameleon,
periods so they are not exposed to predators for long. a type of lizard, is green when surrounded by leaves but
494 Animal defenses and weapons
Animals defend themselves from enemies by a variety of means.
Some use such weapons as sharp teeth and claws. Others sim-
ply run away from attackers. In some cases, the weapons an ani-
mal uses for defense are the same ones it uses to capture prey.

A lobster's claws are powerful weapons. The animal uses its

claws to seize crabs, fish, snails, and other prey. The strong,
toothed claws then crush the prey and tear it into pieces.

The armadillo's armor protects the animal from harm. The

bony plates of the armor together so well that the armadillo
fit

can roll up tightly into a ball when an enemy comes near.

Irdtewn Animal*. AnunaK

Sharp claws called talons are used by owls to defend their

nests from intruders and to capture prey. A saw-whet owl
spreads its talons to catch a mouse, above.

E R. Deqqinqer

Speed is the impala main defense. An unpaid can run as

s fast as
50 miles 180 kilometers) per hour in bounding leaps.

Large, heavy horns protect the slow-moving Cape buffalo of

southern Africa from enemies. A fierce and powerful fighter,
this animal can kill even an attacking lion.

Mjn Blank Bruce Coleman In

Sharp quills help protect a porcupine from attack. When Rattlesnake fangs inject deadly poison. The needlelike fangs
touched, the barbed quills come off the porcupine and hook fold back against the roof of the mouth when not in use. They
into the attackers flesh, where they can cause painful wounds move forward when the snake opens its mouth to strike.
Animal camouflage Animal 495

David C- Allen

Protective coloration helps many animals hide from their enemies. In winter, ptar-
migan feathers match the snow, top left. The roe deer is hard to see because its col-
ors resemble those of its woodland home. The gray bark crypsis is typical of many
moths whose coloring makes them seem to disappear when they rest on certain
trees. The pheasant's colors make it seem part of its surroundings.
* Vx I v
'^<*rd&i
Alexander B Klots

Pierre Labout Jacana

ym*
B^i

BBt £?y
,Jgf^ _-/]iL'X'~

E R- Deggmger

Brerk Kent Animals Animals

Denise Tacken, Tom Slack & Assoc

Mimicry helps many animals avoid pred-

ators. Some animals mimic (resemble)
other objects in their environment or
other animals. The wings of a dead-leaf
mantis, above, resemble leaves. Some
robber flies look so much like a bumble
bee that enemies often avoid them. The
razor fish has a long, slender body that
resembles the thin leaves of a sea plant. A
treehopper on the stem of a rosebush
looks so much like a thorn that birds
often overlook the insect.
496 Animal

turns brown when moving slowly on bark or on the tles can pull in their head, legs, and tail when attacked.
ground. The ptarmigan, an arctic bird, is brown in sum- Armadillos and pangolins are covered by hard, bony
mer but becomes white in winter, when snow covers plates. When frightened, these animals roll into a tight
the ground. ball that is difficult for enemies to penetrate.
Mimicry helps many animals avoid predators. Some Playing dead. A few species sometimes fool preda-
animals mimic (resemble) other objects in their environ- tors by lying motionless and appearing to be dead. If the
ment. For example, many green insects are shaped like predator does not deliver a killing blow or bite, then the
leaves. Some caterpillars look like lizards or bird drop- animal may have a chance to escape. A threatened opos-
pings. Walkingstick insects are shaped and colored like sum goes limp. The hognose snake flips onto its back
twigs. Anglerfish resemble rocks on the ocean floor. when a predator approaches.
Bates/an mimicry is a form of mimicry in which an Giving up a body part. Many animals break off a
otherwise harmless animal strongly mimics an offensive nonessential part of their body when attacked. The glass
animal. This type of mimicry was named after the Eng- lizard breaks off which flops about and attracts
its tail,

lish naturalist Henry W. Bates, who studied it in the the attention of the predator. While the attacker strug-
1800s. Bates observed that some harmless species have gles with the tail, the lizard escapes. In most cases, the
coloring and behavior that make them look like a dan- lost body part grows back quickly.
gerous or bad-tasting animal. A predator spotting such a Fighting. Many
animals have special weapons for
species may mistake it for the undesirable animal and fighting predators. The sharp hooves of a moose or the
leave it alone. For example, viceroy butterflies are be- claws of an ostrich can rip open an enemy. Porcupines
lieved to be tasty to birds. But birds rarely attack them have long, sharp quills on their back, sides, and tail.
because they look like foul-tasting monarch butterflies. These animals strike attackers with their quilled tails.
See Protective coloration. The quills come out easily and stick in the attackers.
Escaping by flight. Many
animals run away from an Bees and wasps sting animals that approach their nests.
attacker. Antelope sprint away at high speed when Chemical defenses. A number of animals use spe-
charged by a lion or a cheetah. Many animals stay near cial chemicals for defense. Hagfish and one kind of star-
safe places, such as burrows, and run to them if at- fish give off huge quantities of slime when disturbed.
tacked. The octopus squirts a black inky fluid to conceal The bombardier beetle squirts irritating chemicals at an
itselfand then quickly swims for safety. enemy. Some cobras spit blinding venom at the eyes of
Armor. Some species have a hard shell or covering attackers. Skunks spray foul-smelling chemicals. Birds
that is used as armor against predators. Clams pull back from New Guinea called hooded pitohuis have poison-
into their shells when a predator approaches. Many tur- ous feathers and skin.

How animals reproduce

All types of animals reproduce. Many animals have Sexual reproduction. Most animals that reproduce
special organs that are used in reproduction. These or- only sexually do so with special sex cells known as gam-
gans are called gonads. Some simple animals do not etes. Female sex cells are called eggs and are produced
have gonads, but they are still able to reproduce. The in the female gonads, the ovaries. The male sex cells are
various methods used by living things to reproduce are known as sperm and are made in the male gonads, the
described in detail in the Reproduction article. testes. Sperm are much smaller than eggs and have a
There are two general forms of animal reproduction: tail that enables them to swim toward eggs. When a

(1) asexual reproduction and (2) sexual reproduction. In sperm cell unites with an egg cell, a new animal starts to
asexual reproduction, only one parent produces the off- form. The process in which the sperm unites with the
spring. In sexual reproduction, two parents of opposite egg is called fertilization.
sexes are needed to produce the offspring. Many of the External fertilization occurs outside an animal's body.
simplest animals, including sponges, sea anemones, Many aquatic animals reproduce sexually without ever
and some flatworms, reproduce asexually most of the meeting. Female sea urchins release millions of egg
time. Sometimes, they reproduce sexually as well. Most cells directly into the water. About the same time, the
other kinds of animals reproduce only sexually. males release their sperm. The sperm swim through the
Asexual reproduction. Planarians and some other water, and some unite with eggs, leading to fertilization.
flatworms can reproduce by fragmentation, the division The fertilized eggs develop into swimming offspring,
of the body into two or more pieces. When a planarian which are called larvae. The larvae grow and eventually
reproduces asexually, it typically divides into two sec- sink to the bottom of the sea, where they become small
tions, one with the head and the other with the tail. Each sea urchins with bodies similar to those of their parents.
section then grows the parts that are missing and be- Internal fertilization occurs within an animal's body. If
comes a complete new individual. gametes are released on land, they dry up and die. Con-
Hydras and some sea anemones reproduce by bud- sequently, land-dwelling animals that reproduce sexu-
ding. The animal produces small projections, called ally have developed ways for fertilization to take place
buds, from its side. These buds develop into miniature inside their bodies.
copies of the parent. The buds eventually detach from Animals mate in many ways. Males of such species as
the parent, and the individuals produced by budding snakes, lizards, birds, and mammals mate by releasing
grow to be as large as their parents. Then they can put sperm directly into an opening in the female's body. Fer-
forth buds to create their own offspring. tilization occurs in the female's reproductive organs.
 Animal 497

Male salamanders do not release sperm directly into Animal reproduction

the female's body. Instead, they deposit a packet of
Approximate Typical number
sperm at the bottom of a stream or pond. When the fe- gestation of newborn
male passes over the sperm, she draws them into an Animal period
Alligator (American) 9 weeks* 50-60t
opening in her body that leads to her reproductive or-
Bat (common vampire) 210 days 1

gans. Several other animals, including mites and scorpi- Cat 65 days 4
ons, mate in a manner similar to that of salamanders. Dog 9 weeks 1-10
Males deposit packets of sperm on the ground, which Elephant 21 -22 months 1

are then picked up by females. Frog (bullfrog) 5-20 days' 20,000t

Cerbil 19-21 days 4-7
In almost all mammals and some reptiles, the embryo
Guinea pig 68 days 1-5
(undeveloped animal) grows inside the female's body
Hamster (golden) 16 days 6-9
after fertilization. However, in birds and some reptiles, Horse 332-342 days 1

the embryo develops outside the body. The female lays Lion 100-119 days 3-4

an egg in which the embryo develops. See Fertilization. Monkey (spider) 226-232 days 1

Courtship behavior consists of actions that help ani- Mouse (field) 21-23 days 5-6
Rabbit (cottontail) 25-40 days 3-6
mals find and choose suitable mates. This behavior
Robin, American 12-14 days' 4t
tends to follow a specific pattern according to species. Sheep 150-1 80 days 1-2
As a result, courtship behavior helps ensure that ani- Squirrel (red) 33-35 days 4-6
mals mate with members of their own species. If two Tiger 104-106 days 2-3

different species mate, they may not produce young, or 'Approximate incubation period
Approximate number them hatch newhon
their offspring may be unhealthy or unable to repro- t ol eggs a female lavs Not all ol into

duce. Such courtship behaviors as singing and display-

ing colors help animals recognize their own species. male. The peacock spreads his fantastic tail feathers,
Animal mates find each other in a number of ways. hoping to coax a peahen into becoming his mate. Pea-
Female birds are attracted to the beautiful songs and hens choose males with many spots on their tail feath-
bright feathers of males. Female grasshoppers, cicadas, ers. Male birds of paradise gather in a tree. When a fe-
bullfrogs, and toads also are attracted to the calls made male appears, the brilliantly colored males strut and
by males of their species. Female silkworm moths re- dance to show off their bright feathers. If a female
lease into the air a perfumelike chemical called a phero- chooses to watch this display, she will usually mate with
mone to attract males from as far away as several miles the male that has the brightest colors.
or kilometers. At certain times of the year, female dogs Male bowerbirds build chambers or runways, called
give off a pheromone that attracts male dogs. Female bowers, made of sticks or other material. They decorate
fireflies watch for male fireflies that flash their lights in a these structures with brightly colored stones, bones, or
certain rhythmic pattern. Male fence lizards bob their other objects. The male dances and bows in front of his
heads rhythmically when a female approaches. Siamese bower, hoping that a passing female will accept him as a
fightingfish perform a complicated courtship dance, fol- mate, if one does, she enters the bower with him, and
lowed by the release of eggs and sperm into the water. they mate there.
Some animals choose particular mates. The female Some male animals give food to possible mates. A
anole lizard typically prefers to mate with the largest male tern catches a fish and places it into the mouth of

Animal Animal reproduction may be asexual or sexual. Planarians and hydras can reproduce asexually. Pla-
reproduction narians, left, split into two worms. Hydras, middle, grow from projections called buds on the par-
ent. In sexual reproduction, right, a sperm cell fertilizes an egg, which develops into a new animal.

WORLD BOOk illustrations b\ Patricia Wvnne

Asexual reproduction Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction

Reproducing by dividing Reproducing by budding Sperm cell of male unites
with egg cell of female

Planarians Hydras
Sperm cells

^5 Adult planorian

Division begins

Division completed

Two odult
planarians Adult and
offspring
Developing zygote
498 Animal

The courtship ritual of the

albatross involves an elabo-
rate dance between a male
and female, left, before they
mate. Through courtship ritu-
als, animals can identify mem-
bers of their own species for
mating. In some cases, such
rituals help them choose spe-
cific mates.

no.. Photo Respar< her-

the female he wants for his mate. A male dance fly ments will grow into new sponges. Earthworms and
brings a dead insect to a female. She eats the insect their marine relatives can regenerate their heads or tails
while mating with the male. A male that does not bring a if those parts are broken off. Crabs and lobsters can

dead insect risks being eaten by the female. grow new claws. Sea cucumbers sometimes throw out
Mating is dangerous for some male spiders and in- their intestines and other internal body parts to distract
sects. Male black widow spiders are sometimes eaten attackers. New parts grow back quickly.
by females after mating. A female praying mantis may Even some vertebrates can regenerate parts of their
pounce unexpectedly on a male in her vicinity. Some- bodies. A salamander that loses a leg will grow a new
times, she mates with a male and then eats him. one. Many salamanders can break off their tails to es-
Regeneration. Some kinds of animals, mostly simple cape the grip of an enemy. These animals soon grow
animals, can replace lost body parts by regeneration. If a new tails. Mammals can regenerate hair, nails, and some
sponge is broken into small pieces, some of the frag- other body tissues.

How animals raise their young

The newborn young of many species need no care small. Female birds, on the other hand, lay only a few
from their parents. Even from birth, they can move eggs, each with large amounts of yolk. Offspring from
about and find food on their own. The young of other these eggs are relatively large and have a higher chance
species need parental care for some time after birth. of survival.
One or both parents provide them with food and pro- Some animals that do not see their offspring provide
tection until they are old enough to manage for them- their young with food in addition to that in the egg.
selves. Many flies lay their eggs on rotting fruits, which supply
Most kinds of animals never see their parents. For ex- the young flies with food. The female digger wasp lays
ample, clams and many other invertebrates release their her egg on a grasshopper that she has stung, paralyzed,
eggs and sperm into the water, where fertilization takes and buried. After hatching, her offspring feeds on the
place. Carried around by ocean currents, the young of grasshopper. The female dung beetle finds fresh dung
these animals may travel far from where their parents (manure), rolls a piece into a ball, and then buries She it.

live. The female leatherback turtle swims thousands of lays her egg on the dung ball. After hatching, the young
miles or kilometers in the ocean to tropical beaches. beetle feeds on the dung.
She then digs a hole on the beach and lays her eggs. Mammals nurse their babies— that is, they feed them
The eggs hatch in the warm sand after the female has re- on the mother's milk. The nursing period lasts only a few
turned to the sea. weeks in mice, hares, and many other species. But
Providing food is one of the main ways animals care among some larger mammals, such as elephants and
for their young. Even females who never see their off- rhinoceroses, the young may nurse several years before
spring provide them with food. The female's eggs con- they are weaned— that is, taken off the mother's milk.
tain yolk and other nourishing substances that serve as Incubation. In many species, the mother and some-
food for the developing embryos. Female sea urchins times the father remain with their eggs and young. Birds
and herring produce vast numbers of small eggs, each incubate their eggs by sitting on them in a nest. Incuba-
of which has little yolk. Offspring from these eggs are tion keeps the eggs warm and helps the embryo inside
extremely tiny when they hatch and must find their own to develop quickly into a young bird. After the eggs
food to grow. Their chance for survival is relatively hatch, the parents may make many hunting trips each
 Animal 499

Monkeys take good care of their babies. These crab-eating A baby wallaby stays in its mother's pouch until it can care for
macaques show great affection for their young and train them Wallabies belong to a group of animals called marsupials,
itself.

carefully. Most monkeys fight fiercely to protect their babies. which give birth to extremely undeveloped young.

day, trying to catch enough insects to feed the hungry

nestlings (young birds). When the young are old enough
to hunt, they leave the nest and fly away.
Among many species of birds, including pigeons and
starlings, the parents take turns incubating the eggs.
Among ducks, geese, and some other birds, the females
are the only incubators. In most species of hornbills, the

Names of animals and their young

Animal Male Female Young
Ant queen antling
Antelope bull doe kid
Bear boar sow cub
Caf torn tabby kitten
Cattle" bull cow calf
Chicken cock. rooster hen chick
Deer buck, stag doe fawn
Dog dog bitch, dam puppy, whelp
Dolphin bull cow calf
Duck drake duck duckling
Elephant bull cow calf
Fox renard, dog vixen, bitch kit, cub
Coat billy. suck nanny, doe kid
Hog boar sow piglet, shoat
Kangaroo buck, boomer doe, flier joey
Lion lion lioness cub
Sheep buck, ram dam, ewe lamb, lambkin
Swan cob pen cygnet
Tiger tiger tigress cub
A male Allelic penguin incubates an egg by holding itbe-
Turkey cock. torn hen poult
tween his feet to protect it from the Antarctic chill. The male
does not eat while incubating a period of 33 to 38 days. Than in numerous iltemtfa names foi tins inimal nml its young
500 Animal

Fur seals start life in a group

with many other pups and
their mothers. Mother seals
divide their time between eat-
ing at sea and nursing their
pups on Each mother
land.
seal nursesand tends only
her own young.

Kdrl W kenynn NAS

female even imprisons herself inside a walled-up nest Names of groups of animals
chamber to incubate eggs. The male passes food to the
Animal Croup Animal Croup
female through a tiny slit in the wall. In a few species of Bear sloth Lion pride
birds, the male does all the incubating. For example, a Cat clowder troop
female emperor penguin lays a single egg, which the Dog kennel Monkey troop
male then incubates on top of his toes. He tucks his toes Donkey pace Quail covey
and the egg under the fluffy feathers of his belly. When Fox skulk Seal herd
Frog army trip
the egg hatches, the little penguin stays warm and
Goose lin fl ghtl skein Toad knot
grows in this cozy "nest." (on land or Whale herd
Female pythons also incubate their eggs. They pro- in water) gaggle pod
duce the heat to warm their eggs by twitching their Kangaroo herd Wolf pack
muscles, much as people do when shivering. After the mob
baby pythons hatch, they must find food and shelter on
their own.
Providing shelter. Some species provide shelter for will sometimes attack hikers who venture too close to
their young. A female lizard may lay her eggs in an un- her cubs. A
female pet dog may attack even her owner if
derground nest, where they are hidden from predators. she fears that her puppies are threatened.
The huge nests of sociable weavers, a type of African Croup care. Some animals live together in groups of
bird, protect the baby birds from bad weather and ene- several families. As many as a hundred pairs of sociable
mies.Some frogs and fish build nests for their eggs and weavers raise their chicks together in a large nest. Sev-
young. A few tropical frogs carry their tadpoles around eral female lions may care for their young cubs to-
on their backs until they find a safe pool of water for the gether. Naked mole underground colonies.
rats live in
young frogs. One female produces offspring. Most of the other fe-
Parents sometimes provide shelter for their offspring males help tend the young. Many monkeys and baboons
within their own bodies. The male seahorse carries the live in small groups. All the adults in a group will work

female's eggs in a pouch. When the young seahorses together to defend their young from an attacking leop-
hatch, the male releases them from the pouch. Female ard. When attacked by a wolf, a herd of musk oxen will
kangaroos, koalas, opossums, wallabies, and other mar- protect their calves by placing them between adults.
supials give birth to tiny, poorly developed offspring. Learning and play. Young animals may learn many
The babies mature in a pouch on the mother's abdomen. things about the world from their parents. By watching
There, they nurse and are protected by the mother. One what foods its parents eat and reject, a young animal
kind of Australian frog swallows her eggs into her stom- can learn to recognize the kinds of foods that are safe. If

ach, where they develop. After the eggs hatch, the fe- young animals see their mother show fear of another
male opens her mouth, and tadpoles and small froglets type of animal or of certain locations, they learn to avoid
come out. those animals and places. Thus, they learn which types
Providing protection. Parents often protect their of animals, foods, and environments are safe and which
young from enemies. A male stickleback fish will attack are dangerous.
any predatory fish or insect that approaches its young. A Many animals play while they are young. Lion cubs
female scorpion carries her babies on her back and de- may try to pounce on the twitching tail of an adult lion.
fends them with the poisonous sting on the tip of her They also play with one another as though they were
long tail. Female crocodiles guard their nests and will fighting. Such games help young animals develop coor-
fight any predator that comes near. As young crocodiles dination and strength. Play also helps them learn how to
begin to hatch, they cry out, and the female helps them defend themselves and to fight effectively. In addition, it
dig out of the nest. She then gently picks them up in her enables some animals to learn how to stalk and capture
jaws and carries them to a nearby pond. A female bear prey.
 Animal homes and communities Animal 501

Animals' homes provide shelter from harsh weather

or protection against enemies. Some animals have shel-
ters that they use only once. Others make homes where
they live for many years. However, a number of animals,
such as fish that live in the ocean, spend their whole
lives moving about. They never have homes.
A number of animals in the ground,
use caves, cracks
logs, plants, or rocks as temporary shelter. Garter
snakes and many insects spend the night under rocks
but leave this shelter the next day to hunt for food.
Some animals build their homes. Field mice collect
dried grass and then construct a small nest under a pro-
tective log. Many birds and squirrels collect grass and
twigs to build nests in the trees or on the ground. Go-
phers and moles dig burrows in the soil.
Home ranges. Most animals live within certain areas
that form their home range. An animal's home range in-
cludes all the resources an animal needs to survive. By
living within a specific area, an animal can learn where
best to find food or shelter there. Dennis C e Coleman Ltd

The size of an animal's home

range depends typically A raven's nest is usually built on a wi nter. The bird
cliff in late

on the animal's size. Crickets and sea urchins have small makes its nest out of sticks and lines it with bark, moss, cattle
home ranges. But elephants and lions may have home hair, wool, seaweed, grasses, or rabbit fur.

ranges that cover vast distances. Big animals require ex-

tensive home ranges to obtain the large amounts of
food they need to survive.
Some animals defend their home ranges from other
animals. A defended home range is called a territory.
The song of a warbler, the hoot of an owl, or the roar of
a lion warns other animals of their kind to stay away.
Some animals use chemical warnings rather than
sounds to ward off invaders from their own species. In-
truders can easily smell the urine of wolves and the
scent marks of cats and hyenas and know that a territory
is already occupied. Often the intruder leaves without a

E R Degojnger

A mountain lion's den is usually in a hidden, protected place.

The animal may use a cave, a thicket, or a group of rocks.

A male antelope marks his territory by rubbing his face on WORLD BOOK illustration b\ lames Tea

plants within borders. His facial glands release a fluid with a

its A hermit crab's home is an empty sea snail shell. When the
scent that warns other males to stay away. crab grows too large for the shell, it hunts for a larger one.
502 Animal

Meerkats live in colonies of

up to 30 individuals. These
burrowing animals of south-
ern Africa leave their under-
ground homes only during
the day. Meerkats stand up-
right to watch for large birds
that may attack them, left.

. |r, Tom Stack & Assoc

fight. Sometimes, however, fights break out over terri- The dominant individuals have first choice of such re-
tory, resulting in injury or death. sources as food and water. They also have their pick of
Group living. Many animals live in groups. Some mates. See Dominance.
groups, such as herds of elephants, remain together for Some groups are large and complex. Ants, bees, and
many years. Others are small families that come to- termites live in huge colonies that consist of many thou-
gether only during the breeding season. A mother and sands or even millions of individuals. The individuals in
father bird may cooperate in raising their nestlings but these colonies often have specific tasks. With honey
may separate when the young leave the nest. bees, the queen bee is responsible for producing eggs.
Wolf packs and some other animal groups have a so- Workers search for pollen, make honey, and feed and
cial order called a dominance hierarchy. In such groups, care for the queen and her offspring. Drones do little
every member has a certain rank in the hierarchy. High- but fertilize the queen's eggs.
ranking members are called dominant individuals, and Fish may form large schools in the open ocean. Her-
low-ranking ones are known as subordinate individuals. ring schools may consist of hundreds of millions of fish.

Animal migration

Why animals migrate. The environment of some an-

imals becomes extremely harsh at certain times of the
year. In winter, for example, high mountains become bit- - *--\
,,

terly cold. Snow and ice cover the peaks, and food be-
comes hard for animals to find. Some animals survive by ASIA
hibernating. Others travel to places where the weather
is milder and more food is available. The next spring,

these animals return home. This type of regular round-

trip journey is called a migration. Many animals that mi-
grate live in the mountains or far from the equator. Mi-
grating animals usually travel in large groups.
Animals migrate for other reasons than to escape
cold weather. Some travel to favorite feeding areas or to
special places to produce their young.
Animal travelers. Many birds make seasonal migra-
tions. Some simply move short distances from the
mountains to the valleys below. Others make remark-
able long-distance journeys. In the fall, huge flocks of Indian
Ocean
ducks and geese fly south for the winter. European
South Atlantic
white storks spend the spring and summer in northern Ocean
Europe, where they breed and raise their young. They
fly as far south as southern Africa for the winter.

The arctic tern is the champion long-distance traveler.

Terns breed on islands in the Arctic Ocean. In late sum-
mer, they begin a long journey and fly all the way to Ant-
arctica. They feed on the fish that are plentiful there be-
WORLD BOOK map
fore flying north to the Arctic to breed the following
Repeated round-trip migrations are made by the European
summer. A tern making this round trip may fly as many white stork. This bird lives in northern Europe in spring and
as 22,000 miles (35,400 kilometers). summer. Every fall it flies to Africa over one of the routes on the
Humpback whales and blue whales also make long map. The white stork returns to Europe by the same route.
 Animal 503

migrations. They spend the summer in polar oceans, ters) of open ocean to breed on Ascension Island, a
which have plentiful food. In the autumn, they swim to- small island in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean. When
ward the equator until they reach the warm tropica! the baby turtles hatch, they swim to South America,
seas. There, the females that are pregnant give birth. where they may remain for many years. When they are
Others mate and then give birth the next year. The warm mature, they swim back to Ascension Island and breed.
waters provide a comfortable environment for the ba- Most salmon live for years in ocean waters. When the
bies. The whales spend the winter in the tropics before time comes for them to spawn (lay their eggs), they
returning to the polar feeding area in the spring. travel thousands of miles or kilometers. The salmon
Monarch butterflies and many other insects also mi- swim to inland waters, where they produce