NAME: PRATHMESH SAMPAT KAKADE

ROLL.NO: 2630

MIS.NO: 19161031

SEM: IV

CLASS: SE-MECHANICAL
EXPERIMENT NO. 1
AIM: Study of Differentiator and Integrator using Operational
Amplifier.

THEORY:
Objectives
At the end of the experiment, the student would be able to
1. Explain Differentiator using Opamp
2. Explain Integrator using Opamp
Operational Amplifier commonly known as Op-Amp, is a linear
elcectronic device having three terminals, two high impedence input
and one output terminal. Op-Amp can perform multiple function
when attached to diffrent feedback combinations like resistive,
capacitive or both. Generally it is used as voltage amplifier and the
output voltage of the Op-Amp is the diffrence between the voltages
at its two input terminals.
Op-Amp shows some properties that make it an ideal amplifier, its
open loop gain and input impedance is infinite (i.e.,practically very
high), Output impedance and offset voltage is zero(i.e.,practically
very low) and bandwidth is infinite(i.e.,practically limitted to
frequency where its gain become unity).
The Integrator:
It is a circuit designed with Op-Amp in such a way that it performs
the mathametical Integration operation, its output is proportional to
the amplitude and time duration of the input applied. The
integrator circuit layout is same as a inverting amplifier but the
feedback resistor is replaced by a capacitor which make the circuit
frequency dependent. In this case the circuit is derived by the time
duration of input applied which results in the charging and
discharging of the capacitor. Initially when the voltage is applied to
integrator the uncharged capacitor allows maximum current to pass
through it and no current flows through the Op-Amp due to the
presence of virtual ground, the capacitor starts to charge at the rate
of RC time constant and its impedence starts to increase with time
and a potential diffrence is develops accross the capacitor resulting
in charging current to decrease.This results in the ratio of
capacitor's impedance and input resistance increasing causing a
linearly increasing ramp output voltage that continues to increase
until the capacitor becomes fully charged.
where (-) sing indicates 108 degree phase shift. The Differentiator
In the differentiator circuit the input is connected to the the
inverting output of the Op-Amp through a capacitor(C) and a
negetive feedback is provided to the inverting input terminal
through a resistor(Rf), which is same as an integrator circuit with
feedback capacitor and input resistor being replaced with each
other. Here the circuit performs a mathematical differentiation
operation, and the output is the first derivative of the input signal,
180' out of phase and apmlified with a factor Rf*C. The capacitor on
the input allows only the AC component and restrict the DC, at low
frequency the reactance of capicitor is very high causing a low gain
and high frequency vice varsa but and high frequency the circuit
becomes unstable.
PROCEDURE:
● Integrator using OpAmp
1. Connect the components as mentioned below:
L1-L7 or L1-L3, L3-L7, L4-L5, L11-L8, L12-L6, L8-L9,
L4-L10.(For eg. click on 1 and then drag to 3 and so on.)
2. Click on 'Check Connection' button to check the connections.
3. If connected wrong click on 'Delete all connection' button to
erase all the connections.
4. Set the resistance(R) and the capacitance (C) (Intially set R=10
kΩ and C=0.1 µF).
5. Click on 'ON' button to start th experiment.
6. Click on 'Square Wave' button to generate input waveform.
7. Click on 'Oscilloscope' button to get the output waveform.
8. Vary the Amplitude, Frequency, volt/div using the controllers.
9. Click on "Dual" button to observe both the waveform.
10. Channel 1 shows the input square waveform, Channel 2
shows the output waveform.
11. Repeat the experiment by applying 'Sine wave' as input.
12. Click on 'Sine Wave' button to generate input waveform.
13. Click on 'Oscilloscope' button to get the output waveform.
14. Vary the Amplitude, Frequency, volt/div using the
controllers.
15. Click on "Dual" button to observe both the waveform.
16. Channel 1 shows the input sine waveform, Channel 2
shows the output waveform.
17. Note : Sometimes due to page load or cache, the graph may
not come exact at one click. So it is better to double click on
the channel-1 function/ channel-2 function/ dual function/
ground function to get the respective signals.
● Differentiator using opamp
1. Connect the components as mentioned below:
L1-L7 or L1-L3, L3-L7, L4-L5, L11-L8, L12-L6, L8-L9,
L4-L10.(For eg. click on 1 and then drag to 3 and so on.)
2. Click on 'Check Connection' button to check the connections.
3. If connected wrong click on 'Delete all connection' button to
erase all the connections.
4. Set the resistance(R) and the capacitance (C) (Intially set R=1
kΩ and C=0.1 µF).
5. Click on 'ON' button to start th experiment.
6. Click on 'Square Wave' button to generate input waveform.
7. Click on 'Oscilloscope' button to get the output waveform.
8. Vary the Amplitude, Frequency, volt/div using the controllers.
9. Click on "Dual" button to observe both the waveform.
10. Channel 1 shows the input square waveform, Channel 2
shows the output waveform.
11. Repeat the experiment by applying 'Sine wave' as input.
12. Click on 'Sine Wave' button to generate input waveform.
13. Click on 'Oscilloscope' button to get the output waveform.
14. Vary the Amplitude, Frequency, volt/div using the
controllers.
15. Click on "Dual" button to observe both the waveform.
16. Channel 1 shows the input sine waveform, Channel 2
shows the output waveform.
17. Note : Sometimes due to page load or cache, the graph may
not come exact at one click. So it is better to double click on
the channel-1 function/ channel-2 function/ dual function/
ground function to get the respective signals.
OBSERVATION:
1. INTEGRATOR:
1.1SINE WAVE:
R = 1KΩ
C = 0.1µF
SQUARE WAVE:
R =1KΩ
C = 0.1µF
DIFFERENTIATOR:
SINE WAVE:
R = 1kΩ
C = 0.1µF
SQUARE WAVE:
R = 1kΩ,
C = 0.1µF

CONCLUSION: We studied about integrator and differentiator.

 EXPERIMENT.NO-2

AIM: Analysis and Synthesis of Boolean Expression using Basic

Logic Gates.
THEORY:
Analysis of Logic gates using 7400(quad 2-input NAND
gates),7402(quad 2-input NOR gates), 7404(HEX
inverter),7408(quad 2-input AND gates),7432(quad 2-input OR
gates). Diagrams of each chip are shown in Figure.
(a)AB+AC+BC=AB+AC
According to consensus theorem,the Boolean identity holds.

In the above picture both circuits are equivalent.

(b)AB+AC=(A+C)(A+B)
According to consensus theorem,the Boolean identity holds.

In the above picture both circuits are equivalent.

(c)Verify eqivalence of AND-OR and NAND-NAND structure

In the above picture both circuits are equivalent.

(d)Verify eqivalence of OR-AND and NOR-NOR structure

In the above picture both circuits are equivalent.

Student may be asked to wire up the network of gates shown in the
above figures. They can next verify that the output of the two
circuits,viz z1 and z2 should attain the same value for each of the
eight possible input combinations assigned to the variables
A,B,C,and D.
PROCEDUCE:
Part 1:
1. At first go through the structure of 7404 Hex inverter,
7408(quad 2-input AND gates), 7432(quad 2-input OR gates).
2. Next, apply a high level voltage to all the inputs A,B,C.
3. Next, check that both LEDs glow. This is because both the
outputs z1 and z2 attain the same value.
4. Thus, AB+AC+BC=AB+AC holds for the condition A=B=C="1".
5. For all the combinations of the variables A,B, and C verify that
both the LEDs are glowing or not glowing. If the LED glows, it
indicates that the corresponding output has reached logic 1
level. Similarly a dark LED indicates low level output voltage.

Part 2:
1. At first go through the structure of 7400(quad 2-input NAND
gates), 7408(quad 2-input AND gates), 7432(quad 2-input OR
gates).
2. Next, apply a high level voltage to inputs A,B.and apply low
level voltage to the input C.
3. Next, check that both LEDs glow. This is because both the
outputs z1 and z2 attain the same value.
4. So, the equivalence of AND-OR and NAND NAND structure can
be verified.
5. For all the combinations of the variables A,B and C verify that
both the LEDs are glowing or not glowing. If the LED glows, it
indicates that the corresponding output has reached logic 1
level. Similarly a dark LED indicates low level output voltage.
OBSERVATION:
PART 1:
TRUTH TABLE:

INPUT OUTPUT
A B C Y
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1
PART 2:
TRUTH TABLE:

INPUT OUTPUT
A B C Y
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1

CONCLUSION: We studied about basic logic gates.

 EXPERIMENT NO – 3
AIM: STUDY INVERTING AND NON- INVERTING AMPLIFIER.
THEORY:
Objectives
At the end of the experiment, the student would be able to
1. Explain Inverting Opamp
2. Explain Non- Inverting Opamp
3. Explain Gain
4.
Operational Amplifier commonly known as Op-Amp, is a linear
elcectronic device having three terminals, two high impedence input
and one output terminal. Op-Amp can perform multiple function
when attached to diffrent feedback combinations like resistive,
capacitive or both. Generally it is used as voltage amplifier and the
output voltage of the Op-Amp is the diffrence between the voltages
at its two input terminals.
Op-Amp shows some properties that make it an ideal amplifier, its
open loop gain and input impedance is infinite (i.e.,practically very
high), Output impedance and offset voltage is zero(i.e.,practically
very low) and bandwidth is infinite(i.e.,practically limitted to
frequency where its gain become unity).
Inverting Op-Amp
The open loop gain(Ao) of the Om-Apm is very high which makes it
very unstable, so to make it stable with a controlable gain, a feed
back is applied through some external resistor(Rf) from its output to
inverting input terminal(i.e.,also known as negative feedback)
resulting in reduced gain(cloosed loop gain, Av). So the voltage at
inverting terminal is now the sum of the actual input and feedback
voltages, and to separate both a input resistor(Ri) is introduced in
the circuit. The non inverting terminal of the opamp is grounded,
and the inverting terminal behaves like a virtual ground as the
junction of the input and feedback signal are at the same potential.
Non-Inverting Op-Amp
In this configuration of Op-amp the input signal is directly fed to
the non inverting terminal resulting in a positive gain and output
voltage in phase with input as compared to inverting Op-amp where
the gain is negative and output voltage is out of phase with input ,
and to stabalize the circuit a negative feedback is applied through a
resistor(Rf) and the inverting terminal is grounded witha input
resistor(R2).This inverting Op-Amp like layout the at inverting
terminal creates a virtual ground at the summing point make the Rf
and R2 a potential divider accross inverting terminal, Hence
determines the gain of the circuit.
PROCEDURE:
Let us go through the experiment of Inverting Amplifier.
1. Connect the components as mentioned below:
2. L1-L3, L4-L7, L4-L5, L6-L9, L8-L12.(For eg. click on 1 and
then drag to 3 and so on.)
3. Click on 'Check Connection' button to check the connections.
4. If connected wrong click on 'Delete all connection' button to
erase all the connections.
5. Set the Resistance (R1) Value (1 Kohm - 50 Kohm).
 6. Set the Feedback Resistance (Rf) Value (2 Kohm - 100 Kohm).
7. Set input voltage (Vin) (-15 to 15 V).
8. Now note the output voltage and click on 'Add to table' button.
9. Increase the input voltage by a factor of 2
10. Click on 'Plot' button to plot the output voltage vs input
voltage.
11. Repeat the experiment for another set of resistance value.

Let us go through the experiment of Non Inverting Amplifier.

1. Connect the components as mentioned below:
2. L1-L8, L4-L7, L4-L5, L6-L9, L3-L12.(For eg. click on 1 and
then drag to 3 and so on.)
3. Click on 'Check Connection' button to check the connections.
4. If connected wrong click on 'Delete all connection' button to
erase all the connections.
5. Set the Resistance (R1) Value (1 Kohm - 50 Kohm).
6. Set the Feedback Resistance (Rf) Value (2 Kohm - 100 Kohm).
7. Set input voltage (Vin) (-15 to 15 V).
8. Now note the output voltage and click on 'Add to table' button.
9. Increase the input voltage by a factor of 2
10. Click on 'Plot' button to plot the output voltage vs input
voltage.
11. Repeat the experiment for another set of resistance value.
OBSERVATION:

INVERTING AMPLIFIER:
NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIER:

CONCLUSION: We studied about Inverting and Non Inverting

Amplifier.
EXPERIMENT.NO-4
AIM: Full Wave Rectifier
THEORY:
Objectives
At the end of the module the student would be able to
1. Explain Rectification
2. Explain Center Tapped Full Wave Rectification
3. Explain Bridge Full Wave Rectification
RECTIFICATION

A rectifier is a device that converts alternating current (AC) to direct

current (DC), a process known as rectification. Rectifiers are
essentially of two types – a half wave rectifier and a full wave
rectifier.
Full Wave Rectifier
A full-wave rectifier is exactly the same as the half-wave, but allows
unidirectional current through the load during the entire sinusoidal
cycle (as opposed to only half the cycle in the half-wave). A full-wave
rectifier converts the whole of the input waveform to one of constant
polarity (positive or negative) at its output. Let us see our half wave
rectifier example and deduce the circuit.
For a half wave Rectifier this is what we have observed

If we change the phase of the input waveform by 180 degrees

Now if we add these two circuits, we would get

Full Wave Rectifier - Circuit

So, we have seen that this rectifier circuit consists of two sources
which have a phase difference along with two diodes. When V1 is
positive, V2 is negative. Hence the top diode(D1) will be a short and
the bottom diode(D2) will be an open. On the other hand, when V1
is negative, V2 is positive. Hence the bottom diode(D2) will be on
and the top diode(D1) will be an open circuit.

Full Wave Rectifier – Waveforms

The resulting waveform of the schematic is shown above. This
configuration is rarely used because sometimes it may be
impractical to obtain two voltage sources and it is difficult to SYNC
the sources. Let us see how a single source can be used.
Full Wave Rectifier – Center Tapped Transformer
A Full-Wave Rectifier can be constructed using Center-Tapped
transformer – which give us two shifted sinusoids so that exactly
one of the waveforms is positive at one time and two diodes. As
compared to the half wave rectifier we use two diodes instead of
one, one of the two diodes remains in conduction in both of the half
cycles. At any point in time, only one of the diodes is forward
biased. This allows for continuous conduction through load.
Bridge Rectifier
Bridge rectifier uses 4 rectifying diodes connected in a "bridged"
configuration to produce the desired output but does not require a
special centre tapped transformer, thereby reducing its size and
cost. The single secondary winding is connected to one side of the
diode bridge network and the load to the other side as shown below.

Bridge Rectifier – Positive Half Cycle

During the positive half cycle of the supply diodes D1 and D2
conduct in series while diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased (ideally
they can be replaced with open circuits) and the current flows
through the load as shown below.
For Positive Half Cycle D1 and D2 is Forward Biased and D3 and
D4 is Reverse Biased.
VI−VO=0
⇒VO=VI

VO=VI−2×Vb
VO=VI−2×Vb−2×Ird
where,
VI is the input voltage,
Vb is barrier potential,
rd is diode resistance
Bridge Rectifier – Negative Half Cycle
During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4
conduct in series, but diodes D1 and D2 switch of as they are now
reverse biased. The current flowing through the load is the same
direction as before.
Peak Inverse Voltage
For rectifier applications, peak inverse voltage (PIV) or peak reverse
voltage (PRV) is the maximum value of reverse voltage which occurs
at the peak of the input cycle when the diode is reverse-biased.The
portion of the sinusoidal waveform which repeats or duplicates
itself is known as the cycle. The part of the cycle above the
horizontal axis is called the positive half-cycle, the part of the cycle
below the horizontal axis is called the negative half cycle. With
reference to the amplitude of the cycle, the peak inverse voltage is
specified as the maximum negative value of the sine-wave within a
cycle's negative half cycle.
For Bridge Rectifier,
D1 and D2 is Forward Biased
D3 and D4 is Reverse Biased
Vm−VO=0
⇒VO=Vm

−VO+PIV=0
⇒PIV=Vm

PIV≥Vm
For Center Tapped Rectifier,
D2 is Forward Biased,
PIV at D1,
Vm−VO=0
⇒VO=Vm

VO−PIV+Vm
⇒PIV=2Vm

PIV≥2Vm
Note
An alternative representation of full-wave bridge rectifier circuit is
easier both to remember and to comprehend. It's the exact same
circuit, except all diodes are drawn in a horizontal attitude, all
“pointing” the same direction.

PROCEDURE:
1. Set the resistor RL.
2. Click on 'ON' button to start the experiment.
3. Click on 'Sine Wave' button to generate input waveform
4. Click on 'Oscilloscope' button to get the rectified output.
5. Vary the Amplitude, Frequency, volt/div using the
controllers.
6. Click on "Dual" button to observe both the waveform.
7. Channel 1 shows the input sine waveform, Channel 2
shows the output rectified waveform.
8. Calculate the Ripple Factor.Theoretical Ripple Factor=0.483.
OBSERVATION:
CONCLUSION: We Studied about full wave rectifier.