RADAR

0301. PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION: Radar is an electromagnetic

system for the detection and location of reflecting objects such as aircrafts,
ships, spacecraft, vehicles, people and the natural environment. It operates by
radiating energy into space and detecting the echo signal reflected from an
object or target. The reflected energy that is returned to the radar not only
indicates the presence of a target but by comparing the received echo signal
with the signal that was transmitted, its location can be determined along with
other target-related information. It can operate in darkness, haze, fog, rain and
snow. Its ability to measure distance with high accuracy and in all weather is one
of its most important attributes.

TRANSMITTED SIGNAL
ANTENNA

TRANSMITTER

TARGET

RECEIVER

ECHO SIGNAL

TARGET DETECTION
AND INFORMATION
EXTRACTION

RANGE TO
TARGET

A transmitter generates an electromagnetic signal (such as a short pulse

of sinewave) that is radiated into space by an antenna. A portion of the
transmitted energy is intercepted by the target and re-radiated in many
directions. The re-radiation directed back towards the radar is collected by the
radar antenna, which delivers it to a receiver. There it is processed to detect the

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presence of the target and determine its location. A single antenna is usually
used on a time-shared basis for both transmitting and receiving when the radar
waveform is a repetitive series of pulses. The range, or distance, to a target is
found by measuring the time it takes for the radar signal to travel to the target
and return back to the radar.

The most common radar signal, or waveform, is a series of short duration,

somewhat rectangular-shaped pulses modulating a sinewave carrier. The range
to a target is determined by the time Tr it takes the radar signal to travel to the
target and back. Electromagnetic energy in free space travels with the speed of
light, which is c = 3 x 108 m/sec. Thus the time for the signal to travel to a
target located at a range R and return back to the radar is 2R/c. The range to a
target is then
R = c Tr
2

0302. RADAR FREQUENCIES: Conventional radars generally operate in

what is called the microwave region.

Band Designation Frequency range

HF 3 – 30 MHz
VHF 30 – 300 MHz
UHF 300 – 1000 MHz
L 1 – 2 GHz
S 2 – 4 GHz
C 4 – 8 GHz
X 8 – 12 GHz
Ku 12 – 18 GHz
K 18 – 27 GHz
Ka 27 – 40 GHz
V 40 – 75 GHz
W 75 – 110 GHz
mm 110 – 300 GHz

0303. PULSED RADAR: The transmitter may be a power amplifier,

such as the klystron, traveling wave tube or transistor amplifier. It might also be
a power oscillator, such as magnetron. The magnetron oscillator has been widely
used for pulse radars of modest capability but the amplifier is preferred when
high average power is necessary.

The radar signal is produced at low power by a waveform generator,

which is then the input to the power amplifier. A modulator turns the transmitter

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on and off in synchronism with the input pulses. When a power oscillator is used,
it is also turned on and off by a pulse modulator to generate a pulse waveform.
The output of the transmitter is delivered to the antenna by a waveguide or
other form of transmission line, where it is radiated into space. Antennas can be
mechanically steered parabolic reflectors, mechanically steered planar arrays or
electronically steered phased arrays.

On transmit the parabolic reflector focuses the energy into a narrow

beam. A phased array antenna is a collection of numerous small radiating
elements whose signals combine in space to produce a radiating plane wave.
Using phase shifters at each of the radiating elements, an electronically steered
phased array can rapidly change the direction of the antenna beam in space
without mechanically moving the antenna.

The rotation of a surveillance radar antenna through 360 o in azimuth is

called as antenna scan. A typical scan rate for a long-range civil air traffic control
air-surveillance radar might be 6 rpm. Military air-surveillance radars generally
require a higher rotation rate. The duplexer allows a single antenna to be used
on a time-shared basis for both transmitting and receiving. The duplexer is
generally a gaseous device that produces a short circuit (an arc discharge) at the
input to the receiver when the transmitter is operating, so that high power flows
to the antenna and not to the receiver. On reception, the duplexer directs the
echo signal to the receiver and not to the transmitter. Solid-state ferrite
circulators and receiver protector devices, usually solid-state diodes, can also be
part of the duplexer.

The receiver is almost always a superheterodyne. The input, or RF, stage

can be a low-noise transistor amplifier. The mixer and local oscillator (LO)
convert the RF signal to an intermediate frequency (IF) where it is amplified by
the IF amplifier. The signal bandwidth of a superheterodyne receiver is
determined by the bandwidth of its IF stage. The IF amplifier is designed as a
matched filter, that is, one which maximizes the output peak-signal-to-mean-
noise ratio. Thus the matched filter maximizes the detectability of weak echo
signals and attenuates unwanted signals.

The IF amplifier is followed by a crystal diode, which is traditionally called

the second detector or demodulator. Its purpose is to assist in extracting the
signal modulation from the carrier. The combination of IF amplifier, second
detector and video amplifier acts as an envelope detector to pass the pulse
modulation (envelope) and reject the carrier frequency. In radars that detect the
Doppler shift of the echo signal, the envelope detector is replaced by a phase
detector. The combination of IF amplifier and video amplifier is designed to
provide sufficient amplification, or gain, to raise the level of the input signal to a

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magnitude where it can be seen on a display, such as CRT or to be the input to a
digital computer for further processing.
At the output of the receiver a decision is made whether or not a target is
present. The decision is based on the magnitude of the receiver output. If the
output is large enough to exceed a predetermined threshold, the decision is that
a target is present. If it does not cross the threshold, only noise is assumed to be
present. The threshold level is set to that the rate at which false alarms occur
due to noise crossing the threshold (in the absence of signal) is below some
specified, tolerable value. This is fine if the noise remains constant, as when
receiver noise dominates. If , on the other hand, the noise is external to the
radar or if clutter echoes are larger than the receiver noise, the threshold has to
be varied adaptively in order to maintain the false alarm rate at a constant value.
This is accomplished by a constant false alarm rate (CFAR) receiver.

A radar usually receives many echo pulses from a target. The process of
adding these pulses together to obtain a greater signal-to-noise ratio before the
detection decision is made is called integration. The integrator is often found in
the video portion of the receiver. The signal processor is that part of the radar
whose function is to pass the desired echo signal and reject unwanted signals,
noise or clutter. The signal processor is found in the receiver before the
detection decision is made. The matched filter is an example of a signal
processor.

A typical radar display for a surveillance radar is the PPI or plan position
indicator. The PPI is a presentation that maps in polar coordinates the location of
the target in azimuth and range. The amplitude of the receiver output modulates
the electron-beam intensity as the electron beam is made to outward from the
center of the tube. The sweep of the electron beam rotates in angle in
synchronism with the pointing of the antenna beam.

0304. RADAR RANGE EQUATION: The radar equation relates the

range of a radar to the characteristics of the transmitter, receiver, antenna,
target and the environment. It is useful not only for determining the maximum
range at which particular radar can detect a target, but it can serve as means for
understanding the factors affecting radar performance.

If the transmitted power Pt is radiated by an isotropic antenna (one that

radiates in all directions), the power density at a distance R from the radar is
equal to the radiated power divided by the surface area 4‫ ת‬R2 of an imaginary
sphere of radius R.

Power density at range R from an isotropic antenna = Pt____

4‫ ת‬R2

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 Power density is measured in units of watts per square meter. Radars,
however employ directive antennas to concentrate the radiated power Pt in a
particular direction. The gain of an antenna is a measure of the increased power
density radiated in some direction as compared to the power density that would
appear in that direction from an isotropic antenna.

G = _____max. power density radiated by a directive antenna__

Power density radiated by a lossless isotropic antenna

The power density at the target from a directive antenna with a

transmitting gain G is then

Power density at range R from a directive antenna = _G Pt

4‫ ת‬R2

The target intercepts a portion of the incident energy and reradiates it in

various directions. It is only the power density reradiated in the direction of the
radar that is of interest. The radar cross section of the target determines the
power density returned to the radar for a particular power density incident on
the target. It is denoted by σ and is called cross section.

Reradiated power density back at the radar = _G Pt . _σ__

4‫ ת‬R2 4‫ ת‬R2
The radar antenna captures a portion of the echo energy incident on it.
The power received by the radar is given as the product of the incident power
density times the effective area Ae of the receiving antenna. The effective area is
related to the physical area A by the relationship Ae = ρa A where ρa is antenna
aperture efficiency. The received signal power Pr (watt) is then

Pr = _G Pt . _σ__ . Ae = _PtGAe σ_
4‫ ת‬R2 4‫ ת‬R2 (4‫) ת‬2 R4
The maximum range of a radar Rmax is the distance beyond which the
target cannot be detected. It occurs when the received signal power Pr just
equals the minimum detectable signal Smin.

(Rmax)4 = _PtGAe σ_
(4‫) ת‬2 Smin

0305. PULSE REPETITION FREQUENCY: The prf is often

determined by the maximum unambiguous range beyond which targets are not
expected.

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 Once a signal is radiated into space by a radar, sufficient time must elapse
to allow all echo signals to return to the radar before the next pulse is
transmitted. The rate at which pulses may be transmitted, therefore, is
determined by the longest range at which targets are expected. If the time
between pulses Tp is too short, an echo signal from a long-range target might
arrive after the transmission of the next pulse and be mistakenly associated with
that pulse rather than the actual pulse transmitted earlier. This can result in an
incorrect or ambiguous measurement of the range. Echoes that arrive after the
transmission of the next pulse are called second-time-around echoes (or multiple
time around echoes). Such an echo would appear to be at a closer range than
actual and its range measurement could be misleading if it were not known to be
a second-time-around echo. The range beyond which targets appear as second-
time-around echoes is the maximum unambiguous range, Run given by

Run = c Tp = c_
2 2 fp

where Tp is pulse repetition period

fp is pulse repetition frequency

0306. TRANSMITTED POWER: The power Pt in the simple radar

equation is usually peak power of the pulse (It is not the instantaneous peak
power of a pulse of sinewave, but one half the instantaneous peak value). The
average power Pav of a radar is a more important measure of radar performance
than the peak power. It is defined as the average transmitter power over the
duration of the total transmission. If the transmitter waveform is a train of
rectangular pulses of width ζ and constant pulse repetition period Tp = 1/ fp ,
the average power is related to the peak power by

Pav = _Pt ζ_ = Pt ζ fp
Tp

0307. MODULATION: It is the process of combining a low-frequency

signal with a radio-frequency carrier wave. The low frequency signal is also
called the modulating signal and the resultant wave produced is called
modulated wave.

During modulation, some characteristics of the carrier wave is varied in

time with the modulating signal and is accomplished by combining the two. The
waveform can be varied by any of its three factors and accordingly there are
three types of sine wave modulation:

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 (a) Amplitude Modulation: The information or AF signal changes
the amplitude of the carrier wave without changing its frequency or
phase.

(b) Frequency Modulation: In this case, the information signal

changes the frequency of the carrier wave without changing its amplitude
or phase.

(c) Phase Modulation: Here, the information signal changes the

phase of the carrier wave without changing its other two parameters.

0308. AERIAL ROTATION: A phased array is a directive antenna

made up of a number of individual antennas, or radiating elements. Its radiation
pattern is determined by the amplitude and phase of the current at each of its
elements. The phased array antenna has the advantage of being able to have its
beam electronically steered in angle by changing the phase of the current at
each element. The beam of a large fixed phased array antenna therefore can be
rapidly steered from one direction to another without the need for mechanically
positioning a large and heavy antenna. They can provide:

(a) Agile, rapid beam-steering.

(b) Potential for large peak and large average power. Each element
can have its own transmitter.

(c) Multiple-target tracking.

(d) A convenient means to employ solid-state transmitters.

(e) Convenient shape for flush mounting.

(f) Control of the aperture illumination.

(g) A lower radar cross section.

The revisit time is the time that an antenna takes to return to view the
same region of space. It usually represents a compromise between

(a) the need to collect sufficient energy for the detection of weak
targets.

(b) the need to have a rapid re-measurement of the location of a

moving target so as to quickly determine its trajectory.

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 The revisit time is also called the scan time and both are inversely
related to the rotation rate (rpm) of a scanning antenna. When the antenna
scans rapidly enough, relative to the round-trip time of the echo signal, the
antenna gain in the direction of the target on transmit might not be the same as
that on receive. These results in an additional loss called scanning loss.

0309. ONBOARD RADAR:

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 The main components of the Radar system include:

(a) the Flat Screen Display (TFT Technology).

(b) the Track ball, or alternatively the Radar Operator Panel to operate
the Radar.

(c) the Radar Processor which is, in addition to the software, the
interface to the radar antennas (X/S--Band) and peripheral equipment
(Gyro Compass, GPS, Log Sensor).

(d) Inter-switch specifics allow complex combinations between X and S

Band antennas and downstream Radar Displays.

0310. SWITCHING PROCEDURE:

(a) Positioned on front, lower left side.

(b) Pressing the button switches on the power.

(c) The Radar Utility Selector window appears in the display.

(d) Select the RADAR softkey in the window and press the Enter
button on the trackball.

(e) After about 40 seconds, the message STANDBY appears in the

image center.

(f) The system configuration diagram is shown in the center of the

display area.

(g) Select the desired transceiver combination XCVR ..... and the
master/slave assignment if possible (system specific).

(h) The STANDBY message changes to WARM UP.

(j) After a few minutes (for X or S Band) the warm up period is

complete and the WARM UP message changes back to STANDBY.

(k) Radar is in STANDBY mode.

(l) The system beeps when the radar software detects an internal or
external malfunction; a simultaneous alarm message is displayed.

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 (m) Acknowledging the alarm message switches off the acoustic signal.
The alarm message is hidden, but it can be called up again.

(n) System status:

(i) The transceiver is not transmitting.

(ii) The antenna is not rotating.

(iii) No radar video in PPI, STANDBY.

(p) Service and setup menu accessible.

(q) The operating temperature is maintained by the magnetron.

0311. BEACON: A radio beacon is non-directional transmitter at a

known location, that usually transmits a constant signal on a specified radio
frequency. In addition most beacons transmit some form of self-identification.
Radio beacons have many applications, including air and sea navigation,
propagation research, robotic mapping, radio frequency identification (radio-
frequency identification, RFID) and indoor guidance as with real time locating
systems (RTLS). In some applications beacon functions are combined with
telemetry transmission.

0312. RADIO NAVIGATION BEACONS: A most basic radio

navigational aid is a the NDB or Non-directional Beacon. These are simple low
frequency and medium frequency transmitters and they are used to locate
airways intersections, airports and to conduct instrument approaches, with the
use of a radio direction finder located on the aircraft.

These are beacons that are used to study the propagation of radio signals. They
can be found on HF, VHF, UHF and microwave frequencies. The microwave
beacons are also used as signal sources to test antennas and receivers.
operational".

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0313. DISTRESS RADIOBEACONS: Distress radio beacons, also
collectively known as distress beacons, emergency beacons, or simply, beacons,
are those tracking transmitters that operate as part of the international
Cospas-Sarsat Search and Rescue satellite system. When activated, these
beacons send out a distress signal that, when detected by non-
geostationary satellites, can be located by triangulation. In the case of
406 MHz beacons which transmit digital signals, the beacons can be uniquely
identified almost instantly (via GEOSAR), and furthermore, a GPS position can
be encoded into the signal (thus providing both instantaneous identification &
position.) distress signals from the beacons are homed by Search and
Rescue (SAR) aircraft and ground search parties who can in turn come to the
aid of the concerned boat, aircraft, and/or persons.

0314. NON-DIRECTIONAL BEACON: A Non-Directional Beacon

(NDB) is a radio transmitter at a known location, used as an aviation or marine
navigational aid. The signal transmitted does not include inherent directional
information, in contrast to newer navigational aids such as VHF omni-directional
range (VOR) and TACAN. NDB signals follow the curvature of the earth, so they
can be received at much greater distances at lower altitudes. However, the NDB
signal is affected more by atmospheric conditions, mountainous terrain, coastal
refraction and electrical storms, particularly at long range. Even with the advent
of VHF omni-directional range (VOR) systems and Global Positioning System
(GPS) navigation, NDBs continue to be the most widely-used radio navigational
aid worldwide.

NDB navigation consists of two parts – the Automatic Direction Finding (or
ADF) equipment that detects an NDB's signal, and the NDB transmitter itself.
ADF equipment determines the direction to the NDB station relative to the
aircraft. This may be displayed on a relative bearing indicator (RBI). This display
looks like a compass card with a needle superimposed, except that the card is
fixed with the 0 degree position corresponding to the centre line.

0315. CORNER REFLECTOR: A corner reflector is a retro-reflector

consisting of three mutually perpendicular, intersecting flat surfaces, which
reflects electromagnetic waves back towards the source. The three intersecting
surfaces often have square shapes. This is also known as a corner cube.

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 Such devices are often used as radar targets or markers and are often
employed on ships and, especially, lifeboats. These normally consist of three
conducting metallic surfaces or screens perpendicular to one another. In optics,
corner reflectors typically consist of three mirrors or reflective prisms which
return an incident light beam in the opposite direction. Arrays of such retro-
reflectors are used in bicycle reflectors, automobile tail lights and as targets for
laser range finding. Microscopic corner reflector structures can be incorporated
into reflective paint for increased visibility at night, although retro-reflective
spherical beads are more common for this purpose.

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