TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. INDIA IN MID-18TH CENTURY ................................................................................................................... 3

2. VARIOUS DEVELOPMENT UNDER THE BRITISH RULE .......................................................................... 4
2.1 Administrative and Political changes under the British ................................................................... 4
2.2 Evolution of Civil Services under the British ..................................................................................... 5
2.3 Evolution of Judiciary under the British ............................................................................................ 6
2.4 Social reforms under the British ........................................................................................................ 7
2.5 Development Of Education Under British ......................................................................................... 8
3. GOVERNOR GENERALS/VICEROYS ....................................................................................................... 11
4. REASONS AND IMPACT OF 1857 REVOLT ........................................................................................... 14
5. IMPACT OF SOCIO RELIGIOUS REFORMS IN NINETEENTH CENTURY ............................................. 15
6. DEVELOPMENT OF NATIONALISM ....................................................................................................... 16
7. DEVELOPMENT OF IDEA OF SWARAJ AND SWADESHI ...................................................................... 17
7.1 Non-Co-operation movement .......................................................................................................... 18
7.2 Civil disobedience movement ......................................................................................................... 19
7.3 Quit India ........................................................................................................................................... 20
8. MANY VOICES - ROLE PLAYED BY DIFFERENT SECTIONS IN THE FREEDOM STRUGGLE .............. 21
8.1 Students ............................................................................................................................................ 21
8.2 Women .............................................................................................................................................. 21
8.3 Business class.................................................................................................................................. 22
1. INDIA IN MID-18TH CENTURY
In 1700, Mughal India accounted for about 1/4th of the world's Gross Domestic Product (GDP).
Following this, Indian economy continued to deteriorate with gradual decline of Mughal empire.
Mid-18th century situation of India:
• Rising regional state thriving to establish independence from Mughals
o Successor States—Mughal provinces that broke away from the empire and became states.
e.g., Awadh, Bengal, and Hyderabad.
o Independent Kingdoms –arose mostly as a result of the breakdown of Mughal sovereignty
over the provinces. E.g., Mysore, Kerala, and the Rajput states.
o The New States - established by the Mughal empire's rebels. e.g., States of Maratha, Sikh, and
Jat.
• Entry of European traders
o Industrial Revolution in Europe: Development of steam engine improved the production
capacity and efficiency of European industries. This led to a surplus production that
consequently required new markets to be sold.
o India as producer of raw materials and spices: Fine qualities of silk and cotton were chief raw
materials. They were taken back to Europe to manufacture finished goods. Spices from India
had great market in Europe.
o State of Indian industries: Indian industries got destroyed due to cheap imported the goods.
India got reduced to mere supplier of raw materials. Planters strengthened their clout over
Indian agriculture.
• Rise of colonial forces.
o Institutional decline of Mughal empire – There was a crisis in the Mughal Jagirdari system
due to increase in the number of Jagirdars for smaller parcels of Jagirs.
o Constant tussle for supremacy over India weakened Indian rulers – Lot of resources were
exhausted in wars between Indian rulers. E.g., state of Hyderabad had frequent wars with
Maratha and Mysore.
o Lack of trust among Indian rulers – There was rampant distrust among fellow rulers in India.
This helped Europeans successfully implement colonial policy of divide and rule.
o Lack of resources with smaller Indian rulers – Individual rulers were not able to confront the
might of European military forces and their superior techniques of warfare.
o Lack of united front against the colonial forces – Frequently, individual rulers had independent
tiffs with the Europeans with little or no support from other rulers. At times, fellow rulers sided
with the adversary.
o Vacuum in centralised polity –This led to strengthening of control of colonial powers,
particularly the British, over Indian territory.
• Prevalent Social Conditions
o Divided society - India was a bunch of feuding princely states. There were a whole group of
castes, communities, races, religions feuding against each other, which were kept simmering
by local rulers and landlords.
o Caste driven Political Structure - Caste was the dominant factor at that time, political power
was in hands of upper castes only. Thakurs and Patils/Patels were political head of villages.
There were three levels of administration. Central (Hajoor Office), District (Subha and Pargana)
and Village. Village was lowest autonomous unit of administration. Panchayati raj institution
was strong. Mukhiya was the head of village. Panchayat was the dispute resolution body.
o Caste hierarchy plagued judicial system – the Panch and Mukhiya were essentially from
dominant caste of thakurs, Patils or brahmins.
o Social evils - ‘Untouchability’ and caste discrimination was at its peak.
o Status of women - Woman had no place in social, political and economic decisions. Inhuman
practices like sati and child marriage were prevalent.
2. VARIOUS DEVELOPMENT UNDER THE BRITISH RULE
2.1 Administrative and Political changes under the British
Pre-1773 • After Battle of Buxar in (1764), East India Company got the Diwani (right to
collect revenue) of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.
• 1765-72- This period was characterized by:
o Rampant corruption among the Company Employees, who also used
private trading to their benefit.
o Excessive revenue collection and oppression of peasantry.
• 1767- The first intervention in Indian affairs by the British government came
in 1767 in the form of a tax on the company.

1773-1858

The Regulating • Intent: British government started getting involved in Indian affairs with the
Act of 1773 intent to control and regulate the functioning of the East India Company.
(Issues • Reason: The British government recognized that the Company’s role in India
addressed: extended beyond mere trade to administrative and political fields and
Centralized introduced the element of centralized administration.
Administration, Actions taken under the Act:
Corruption, • Bengal Presidency was made Supreme - Governor of Bengal now called the
Nepotism, Governor-General of all British territories in India. Warren Hastings became
Judicial body) the first Governor General.
• A Supreme Court of judicature was to be established in Bengal with original
and appellate jurisdictions where all subjects could seek redressal. In
practice, however, the Supreme Court had a debatable jurisdiction vis-a-vis
the council which created various problems.
• Governor-general could exercise some powers over Bombay and Madras (a
vague provision which created many problems)

Pitt’s India Act of • Company became a subordinate department of the State. The Company’s
1784 (Issues territories in India were termed ‘British possessions.
Addressed: • A Board of Control consisting of the chancellor of exchequer, a secretary of
Power of Court state and four members of the Privy Council (to be appointed by the Crown)
of Directors, were to exercise control over the Company’s civil, military and political
Princely States, affairs. All dispatches were to be approved by the board. Thus, a dual
Power of G-G) system of control was set up.
• The Court of Directors were to manage the commercial affairs.
• The Act also introduced the principle of non-intervention in the affairs of
Indian Princely states to end further wars and conquests (breached often).

The Act of 1786 • The new Act gave the Governor- general powers of commander-in-chief as
(Issues well.
Addressed: G-G • The Governor-general was allowed to override the council’s decision if he
Powers) owned the responsibility for the decision.

The Charter Act • Royal approval was mandated for the appointment of the governor-general,
of 1793 the governors, and the commander in- chief.
(Issues • Senior officials of the Company were debarred from leaving India without
Addressed: permission- doing so was treated as resignation.
Payment to • The Home Government members were to be paid out of Indian revenues
Home which continued up to 1919.
Government,
Renewal, more
control)
The Charter Act • A sum of one lakh rupees was to be set aside for the revival, promotion and
of 1813 encouragement of literature, learning and science among the natives of
(Issues India, every year.
Addressed: • The constitutional position of the British territories in India was thus
Monopoly of explicitly defined for the first time.
Company, • The Company’s monopoly over trade in India ended, but the Company
Napolean retained the trade with China and the trade in tea.
Continental • Christian missionaries were also permitted to come to India and preach
System, Funds their religion.
for education,
Christain
Missionaries)

The Charter Act • Company’s monopoly over trade with China and in tea also ended.
of 1833 • It provided for the education and employment of Indians in Public service.
(Issues Provision was made for the training of Civil Servants at the company’s
Addressed: New college at Haileybury.
Market after IR, • Governor-general was given the power to superintend, control and direct all
Post Reform Act civil and military affairs of the Company.
1832, Liberal • All revenues were to be raised under the authority of the governor-general
ideas, Abolition who would have complete control over the expenditure too.
of Slavery) • Governments of Madras and Bombay were drastically deprived of their
legislative powers and left with a right of proposing to the governor-general
the projects of law which they thought to be expedient.
• A law member was added to the governor-general’s council for professional
advice on law- making. (Lord Macaulay was the first law member.)
• Indian laws were to be codified and consolidated.
• No Indian citizen was to be denied employment under the Company on the
basis of religion, colour, birth, descent, etc
• Administration was urged to take steps to ameliorate the conditions of
slaves and to ultimately abolish slavery. (Slavery was abolished in 1843.)

The Charter Act • Company was to continue possession of territories unless the Parliament
of 1853 provided otherwise.
• Company’s patronage over the services was dissolved—the services were
now thrown open to a competitive examination.
• It separated, for the first time, the legislative and executive functions of the
Governor- General’s council.

The Act for • India was to be governed by and in the name of the Crown through a
Better secretary of state.
Government of • Governor-general became the viceroy. William Bentick became the first
India, 1858 Viceroy.

2.2 Evolution of Civil Services under the British

Reforms under • Cornwallis (governor-general, 1786-93) was the first to bring into existence
Cornwallis and organise the civil services. He tried to check corruption through—
o raising the civil servants’ salary,
o strict enforcement of rules against private trade.
o debarring civil servants from taking presents, bribes etc.,
o enforcing promotions through seniority.

Reforms under • In 1800, Wellesley (governor-general, 1798-1805) set up the Fort William
Wellesley College for training of new recruits which was later disapproved.
 Charter Act of • The Charter Act of 1853 took away the power of Court of Directors to
1853 appoint the Civil Servants and introduced public competitive exam.
• This exam was to be held every year in London in English language thus
making it virtually impossible for Indians to Compete.

Indian Civil • Following Lord Macaulay’s Report of the Select Committee of British
Service Act, 1861 Parliament, the concept of a merit based modern Civil Service in India was
(based on Lord introduced in 1854.
Macaulay Report) • The maximum permissible age was gradually reduced from 23 (in 1859) to
22 (in 1860) to 21 (in 1866) and to 19 (1878). In 1863, Satyendra Nath
Tagore became the first Indian to qualify for the Indian Civil Service.

Statutory Civil Lytton introduced the Statutory Civil Service consisting of one-sixth of
Service 1878-79 covenanted posts to be filled by Indians.

Demand of the The Indian National Congress raised the demand, after it was set up in 1885, for
INC. lowering of age limit for recruitment, and holding the examination
simultaneously in India and Britain.

The Aitchison It recommended—

Committee on • classification of the civil service into Imperial Indian Civil Service
Public Services (examination in England), Provincial Civil Service (examination in India) and
(1886), set up by Subordinate Civil Service (examination in India); and,
Lord Dufferin • raising the age limit to 23.
• In 1893, the House of Commons in England passed a resolution supporting
holding of simultaneous examination in India and England; but the
resolution was never implemented.

Montagu- • It recommended the long pending demand of holding of simultaneous

Chelmsford examination in India and England. (First ICS exam held in India in 1922)
Reforms (1919) • It proposed forming the Public service commission.
• It recommended that one-third of recruitments be made in India itself—to be
raised annually by 1.5 per cent.

Lee Commission • Secretary of state should continue to recruit the ICS, the Irrigation branch of
(1924) the Service of Engineers, the Indian Forest Service, etc.
• Direct recruitment to ICS on basis of 50:50 parity between the Europeans
and the Indians be reached in 15 years.

Government of 1935 Act recommended the establishment of a Federal Public Service

India Act, 1935 Commission and Provincial Public Service Commission under their spheres.

2.3 Evolution of Judiciary under the British

The beginning of a common law system, based on recorded judicial precedents, can be traced to the
establishment of ‘Mayor’s Courts’ in Madras, Bombay and Calcutta in 1726 by the East India Company.

Reforms under • District Diwani Adalats were established in districts to try civil disputes.
Warren Hastings These adalats were placed under the collector and had Hindu law
(1772-1785) applicable for Hindus and the Muslim law for Muslims.
• District Fauzdari Adalats were set up to try criminal disputes and were
placed under an Indian officer assisted by qazis and muftis.
• Under the Regulating Act of 1773, a Supreme Court was established at
Calcutta which was competent to try all British subjects within Calcutta
and the subordinate factories, including Indians and Europeans.
 Reforms under • The Cornwallis Code, a set of administrative and judicial reforms, was
Cornwallis (1786- laid out
1793)— Separation o There was a separation of revenue and justice administration.
of Powers o European subjects were also brought under jurisdiction.
o Government officials were answerable to the civil courts for actions
done in their official capacity.
o principle of sovereignty of law was established.

Reforms under • The four Circuit Courts were abolished, and their functions transferred to
William Bentinck collectors under the supervision of the commissioner of revenue and
(1828-1833) circuit.
• In 1833, a Law Commission was set up under Macaulay for codification of
Indian laws. As a result, a Civil Procedure Code (1859), an Indian Penal
Code (1860) and a Criminal Procedure Code (1861) were prepared.

Later • 1860: It was provided that the Europeans can claim no special privileges
Developments except in criminal cases, and no judge of an Indian origin could try them.
• 1865: Supreme Court and the Sadar Adalats were merged into three High
Courts at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras.
• 1935: Government of India Act provided for a Federal Court (set up in
1937) which could settle disputes between governments and could hear
limited appeals from the High Courts.

Evaluation:
• Positive Aspects:
o Rule of law was established.
o Codified laws replaced the religious and personal laws of the rulers.
o Even European subjects were brought under the jurisdiction, although in criminal cases, they
could be tried by European judges only.
o Government servants were made answerable to the civil courts.
• Negative Aspects:
o Judicial system became more and more complicated and expensive. The rich could
manipulate the system.
o There was ample scope for false evidence, deceit and chicanery.
o Dragged out litigation meant delayed justice.
o Courts became overburdened as litigation increased.
o Often, the European judges were not familiar with the Indian usage and traditions

2.4 Social reforms under the British

• Rise of new middle class: There were new job opportunities due to introduction of law courts
government officers commercial Agencies and spread of English education led to rise in new
service holder middle class. This class later give the most Nationalist leaders.
• Status of women
o Laws like widow remarriage act 1856, banning of sati in 1829, Sharda act 1929- saved women
from torturous practices.
o New education system did not discriminate on gender lines. Anandibai Gopalrao Joshi
became the first woman graduate. Later on, many women leaders like Sarojini Naidu Aruna
Asaf Ali, Pandita Rama Bai emerged.
o Many women were successful in getting official positions, example Captain Lakshmi Sehgal.
Later she also served as captain of Rani Lakshmi Bai regiment in INA.
• Caste system
o Law sanctioned inter caste and inter communal marriages. Succession act allowed to retain
property right even after conversion.
o New job opportunities did not discriminate on caste lines.
o Mercantilism was solely driven by profits. Caste had no role to play in it.
• Lifestyle changes
o Food- bread, coffee, tobacco, potato, tomato, chilly introduced by Europeans
o dress - shirt, pant and tie
o Ceremony - reception party, birthday party, Tradition of candle March etc.
Evaluation of Social policies of the British:
• Effect of Renaissance in Europe: As the Industrial revolution and intellectual revolution had already
taken root in England and Europe, it was filled with modern ideas of Humanism, Liberty, equality,
and fraternity. Initially, British policy was that of cautious intervention wherein various laws were
enacted to introduce western liberal values in India.
• Spread of Christianity: Charter Act of 1813 allowed missionaries to go to India and even settle there
under license.
• Changes made in law:
o Female Infanticide: Jonathan Duncan was the first official to suppress infanticide. Bengal
Regulations of 1795 and 1802 banned infanticide.
o In 1813, government fixed the minimum age for sati at 16 years. It also declared that that a
widow whose child was less than 3 years could not become sati unless the child was entrusted
in someone else care.
▪ Raja Ram Mohan Roy, actively agitated for the abolition of Sati through his journal Samvad
Kaumudi. In 1829, Sati was finally abolished in Bengal presidency by means of a legislation
passed by Governor General Bentick.

2.5 Development Of Education Under British

Early developments (1773-1813):
• Calcutta Madrasah was established by Warren Hastings in 1781 for the study of Muslim law and
related subjects.
• Sanskrit College was established by Jonathan Duncan, the resident, at Benaras in 1791 for study
of Hindu law and philosophy.
• Fort William College was set up by Wellesley in 1800 for training of civil servants of the Company
in languages and customs of Indians (closed in 1802).
• The Charter Act of 1813 directed the company to direct a fund of one lakh rupees annually for
promoting knowledge of modern sciences in the country. Calcutta College was set up in 1817 by
educated Bengalis, imparting English education in Western humanities and sciences with funds
sanctioned by the government. The government also set up three Sanskrit colleges at Calcutta,
Delhi and Agra.
• James Thomson, lieutenant-governor of NW Provinces (1843- 53), developed a comprehensive
scheme of village education through the medium of vernacular languages.
• Engineering College at Roorkee was set up in 1847 while the Calcutta College of Engineering came
up in 1856.
• The Bethune School founded by J.E.D. Bethune at Calcutta (1849) was the first fruit of a powerful
movement for education of women which arose in 1840s and 1850s.
Orientalist-Anglicist Controversy:
The money sanctioned by the Charter Act of 1813 led to a debate on the aim of education and medium
of instruction. Thomas Macaulay as the president of General Committee of Public Instruction (GCPI),
presented his ‘Minute on Indian Education’ that sought to establish the need to impart English education
to Indian ‘natives.’
• Within the General Committee on Public Instruction, the Anglicists argued that the government
spending on education should be exclusively for modern studies.
• The Orientalists said while Western sciences and literature should be taught to prepare students
to take up jobs, emphasis should be placed on expansion of traditional Indian learning.
As envisaged by Macaulay, British planned to educate a small section of upper and middle classes,
thus creating a pool of Indians “Indian in blood and colour but English in tastes, in opinions, in morals
and in intellect,” who would act as interpreters between the government and the masses. This section
of individuals would enrich the natives with the knowledge of Western sciences and literature. This was
called the ‘downward filtration theory.’
Later developments (1854-1947):
Wood’s • Magna Carta of English Education in India.
Despatch • It asked the government of India to assume responsibility for education of the
(1854) masses, thus repudiating the ‘downward filtration theory,’ at least on paper.
• It declared the aim of government’s education policy was the teaching of
Western education.
• It laid stress on female and vocational education, and on teachers’ training.
• It laid down that the education imparted in government institutions should be
secular.
• It also recommended setting up technical schools and colleges.
• It recommended a system of grants-in-aid to encourage private enterprise.
Some developments it led to:
• Department of education were set up in all provinces.
• Establishment of University of Madras, Bombay and at Calcutta on the Model of
University of London.

Hunter • Emphasized that state’s special care is required for extension and improvement
Education of primary education, and that primary education should be imparted in
Commission vernacular medium.
(1882-83) • Drew attention to inadequate facilities for female education, especially outside
presidency towns and made recommendations for its spread.
More teaching-cum-examining universities were set up like the Punjab University
(1882) and the Allahabad University (1887).

Indian In 1902, Raleigh Commission was set up to go into conditions and prospects of
Universities universities in India and to suggest measures for improvement in their constitution
Act, 1904: and working. Based on its recommendations, the Indian Universities Act was passed
in 1904. As per the Act, Universities were to give more attention to study and
research.

Saddler The commission was set up to study and report on problems of Calcutta University,
University but its recommendations were applicable more or less to other universities also. Its
Commission observations were as follows:
(1917-19) • School course should cover 12 years. Students should enter university after an
intermediate stage (rather than matric) for a three-year degree course in
university.
• Female education, applied scientific and technological education, teachers’
training including those for professional and vocational colleges should be
extended.

Education Under Dyarchy

Under Montagu-Chelmsford reforms education was shifted to provincial ministries and the
government stopped taking direct interest in educational matters.

Sergeant The Sergeant Plan (Sergeant was the educational advisor to the Government) was
Plan of worked out by the Central Advisory Board of Education in 1944. It recommended
Education • Pre-primary education for 3-6 years age group; free, universal and compulsory
(1944) elementary education for 6-11 years age group; high school education for 11- 17
years age group for selected children, and a university course of 3 years after
higher secondary; high schools to be of two types: (i) academic and (ii) technical
and (iii) vocational.
• Adequate technical, commercial and arts education.
• Stress on teachers’ training, physical education, education for the physically and
mentally handicapped.
Evaluation of British Policy on Education
Even the inadequate measures the government took for the expansion of modern education were
guided by concerns other than philanthropic. The government measures for promotion of education
were influenced by—
• Agitation in favour of modern education by enlightened Indians, Christian missionaries, and
humanitarian officials.
• Need to ensure a cheap supply of educated Indians to manage an increasing number of
subordinate posts in administration and in British business concerns.
• An expectation that Western education would reconcile Indians to British rule, particularly as it
glorified British conquerors and their administration.

Critical View-
• Traditional system of Indian learning gradually declined for want of support.
• Mass education was neglected leading to widespread illiteracy (1911—84 per cent and in 1921—
92 per cent) which created a wide linguistic and cultural gulf between the educated few and the
masses.
• There was an almost total neglect of women’s education because
o The Government did not want to arouse wrath of orthodox sections
o It had no immediate utility for the colonial rule.
• Scientific and technical education was by and large neglected.
3. GOVERNOR GENERALS/VICEROYS
The Actions or Policies Impact of their decision

Warren Hastings (1773-1785)

Known for "Ring fence policy “ • Administrative control of

Political British East India Company
• Regulating Act of 1773 established with a legal basis.
• Supreme Council of Bengal • Abolished the Dual System in
• Abolished the Dual System in Bengal Bengal.
• Pitt's India Act (1784) • Establishment of Modern
Economic Judicial system
• Experimentation on land settlements. (1772-five years • Beginning of ruthless
settlement, changed to 1 year in 1776) annexation on Indian territory.
Socio-cultural • Polity of India began to be
• English Translation of Bhagwat Gita by Charles Wilkins centralised.
• Bengal Gazette- First Indian newspaper published by James • Some focus on vernacular
Augustus Hicky (in 1780) education – established
• Asiatic Society of Bengal (1784) Madrasas and Sanskrit
Military colleges
• Treaty of Surat- 1775, Treaty of Purandhar- 1776, Treaty of
Salbai- 1782

Lord Cornwallis (1786-1793)

Known for Cornwallis Code, which comprise of the following: • Land became a commodity
Economic • Secured source of income for
• Permanent settlement in Bihar and Bengal in 1793, "Sunset the British company officials
Law" from Indian taxes.
• Zamindars were relieved of police duties. • Peasantry class started ruining.
Political • Beginning of Civil services.
• Company personnel divided in 3 branches: revenue, judicial and • Promoted the practice of merit-
commercial, collector only responsible for revenue and local based promotion in the career.
administration. • Promoted the practice of
• Introduction of Civil Services in India racism by putting white British
Educational personnel at all top position.
• Sanskrit Vidyalaya at Benares (now Varanasi) established by
Johnathan Duncan (then Governor of Bombay)
Military
• Treaty of Seringapatam 1792- Tipu’s sons were taken as
hostage
Lord Wellesley (1798-1805)

Political • Successfully isolated French from

• Known for Subsidiary Alliance Policy of non-intervention (1798) forming any alliance with Indian
with Hyderabad, Mysore, Awadh, Maratha (to defend India in Princes.
case of Napoleon's attack.) • Capability of Civil servant improved
• Raj Bhavan at Calcutta was established in 1803 dramatically hence the British
• Fort William College at Calcutta (1800) for training new recruits control over the Indian territory
of ICS strengthened.
Military • Created trust deficit among the
• Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803–05) Indian Kings to hide the motive of
• Treaty of Bassein 1802 protecting Indian colony against
• Took over the administration of Tanjore (1799), Surat (1800) and Napoleon invasion, hence
Carnatic (1801). subsidiary alliance system became
prominent tool of annexation.

William Bentinck (1828-1835)

• Known for social reforms • Gave legal basis for eradication of

• First Governor General of India social evil through legislation
Social • Large scale conversion to
• Bengal Sati Regulation, 1829 (abolition of sati, female Christianity
infanticide) • Control over crime (Against Thugi
• Suppression of thugi (1830). and Pindaris)
• Christian Missionaries get exclusive rights to spread Christianity • Practice of legal reform began with
• Medical College and Hospital, Kolkata (1835) first law commission
Administrative/political • Anglicization of Indian elites
• First law commission set up in 1833 under Lord Macaulay (Civil
procedure code 1859, IPC 1860, CrPC 1861)
• Mahalwari System in Central India, Punjab and Western UP.
• Option introduced for using vernacular language in courts
Education
• English Education Act 1835: English made official language
Lord Dalhousie (1848-1856) – Founder of Modern India

Military • Brutal face of company’s

• Known for Doctrine of Lapse in 1848- Satara (1848), Jaitpur and administration got revealed.
Sambhalpur (1849), Udaipur (1852), Jhansi (1853), Nagpur • Territorial expansion of British
(1854) and Awadh (1856) – For Awadh reason of reached its peak.
misgovernance was also cited. • Communication infrastructure got
• The Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848-1849) (The British completely boost hence British control over
crushed the Great Sikh Empire) Dalhousie himself lead the troop. polity and the economy of annexed
Administrative territory enhanced.
• Charter act 1853: recruitment through open competition • Created large scale discontent
• First Passenger train between Bombay and Thane (1853) among the Indians.
• First telegraph Line was laid between Diamond Harbour to • Vernacular language got some
Calcutta. (1851) then also b/w Madras and Peshawar. attention at primary level.
• Post Office Act, 1854 • Overall improvement of western
• Established Public Works Department (1854) education and condition of women
Education in India
• Charles Wood Despatch (1854)
• Bethune Collegiate School (1849) (was also known as Calcutta
Female School)

Lord Canning (1856-1862)

Sociocultural • Heavy restructuring of Indian army

• Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act, 1856 (Reaction to 1857 revolt)
• Archeological survey of India 1861 • Beginning of criminal law
Economic codification
• System of Budget introduced • Emphasis on education to supply
Administrative workforce in the company's
• The Government of India Act, 1858 administration.
• Formation of Imperial Civil Services
• Indian Councils Act of 1861
• Enactment of Indian Penal Code in 1862
Education
• University of Calcutta, University of Bombay, and University of
Madras were set up in 1857

Lord Ripon (1880-1884)

Administrative • Enhance Indian participation in

• First Factory Act (1881)-regulating child labour and working local self-government (Lord Ripon
hours is regarded as the father of local
• Repeal of the Vernacular Press Act (1882) self-government in India.)
• Government resolution on local self-government (1882) • Improved working condition in
Education factories (Factories act 1881)
• Hunter Commission on education
Lord Curzon (1899-1905)

Administrative • Rise of nationalist feeling

• Famous for Partition of Bengal (1905) • Weakness of moderates
• Official Secrets Act 1904 to curb free press. revealed
• Establishment of Department of Commerce and Industry. • It became clear that extremists
• Appointment of Police Commission under Sir Andrew Frazer were to lead the freedom
Military struggle
• Younghusband’s Mission to Tibet (1904). • Rift between Hindu and Muslim
• Treaty of Lhasa, 1904- Tibet became British protectorate. started to become deeper.
Education • Freedom of universities lost.
• Appointment of Raleigh University Commission (1902)
• Passing of Indian Universities Act 1904
Cultural
• Restored post of director general of ASI: John Marshal was
appointed DG- discovered IVC in1921
• Ancient Monuments Preservation Act (1904).

Lord Irwin (1926-1931)

• Gandhi–Irwin Pact (1931) • It became clear that Purna

• Appointment of the Harcourt Butler Indian States Commission Swaraj has to be the main
(1927) demand for INC. (Lahore
• Deepavali Declaration’ by Lord Irwin (1929). session,1929.)
• Led to the launch of CDM
• Rise of revolutionary activities.

Lord Mountbatten (1947-1948)

• Introduction of Indian Independence Bill in the House of • Partition of India

Commons • Communal riots
• Mountbatten plan/ Dickybird plan/ June plan • Permanent rift between India
• Appointment of two boundary commissions under Sir Cyril and Pakistan
Radcliff for the partition of Bengal and Punjab

4. REASONS AND IMPACT OF 1857 REVOLT

Reasons
• Immediate Causes
o Discontent among Indian officials in the Army – issues like bone-dust in wheat flour, use of
cow and pig fat in new cartridge, issue of losing caste on travelling beyond sea, discrimination
in salary and promotion.
• Brewing Issues
o Destruction of Indian industries and merchant class due to “One-way free trade.” This led to
the increase in dependence and tax burden on agriculture increased. Tax on agriculture was
as high as 60% at some places in Ryotwari area.
o Loss of income to Zamindari class due to new land revenue system e.g. In Awadh over 20000
talukdar lost their revenue collection rights
o Annexation of Indian states through policies like Ring Fencing, Subsidiary Alliance and
Doctrine of Lapse irked Indian rulers.
o Rampant corruption in company’s rule caused a lot of difficulties to civilians. – like corrupt
system of judiciary and police threat of false case and lengthy and costly judicial system on
poor and illiterate population.
o Racist approach towards Indians – white supremacy. British considered Indians as barbarians
who needed to be civilized.
 o Socio-Religious reform irked superstitious orthodox class. Abolition of Sati, Widow
remarriage, education to female, etc., were considered encroachment on spiritual domain of
upper class.
Impact of 1857 revolt
• Government of India act - 1858 → End of Company rule → direct control of British parliament →
Queen’s Proclamation → No more annexation of new territory in India.
• The complete structure of the Indian government was remodeled and based on the notion of a
master race—justifying the philosophy of the ‘Whiteman’s burden.’
• Policy of non-interference with Indian society → slowing down of social reform.
• Heavy restructuring of Indian army (Reaction to 1857 revolt)
• Beginning of criminal law codification with IPC 1860 to tighten the law-and-order situation against
British → Sedition law in 1870
• The focus of uprising shifted from British to intermediaries such as Zamindars and Planters. E.g.,
Indigo Revolt and Deccan Revolt
• British started ruthless suppression of Indian voice through irrational and unethical acts like
Vernacular Press Act 1878, Indian University Act 1905, Rowlatt Act 1919, etc.
• Started the policy of “decentralization” and “divide and rule” to avert the rise of nationalism which
ultimately led to partition.
• Civilians became aware of the power of mass uprising hence it was termed as “First War of
Independence” by V.D. Savarkar.

5. IMPACT OF SOCIO RELIGIOUS REFORMS IN

NINETEENTH CENTURY
In the nineteenth century, Indian society was a tangled web of religious and social violations. Reformers
who believed in religious universalism and rationality attempted to transform society in a variety of
ways. These transformative movements had the following impacts:
Impact of Socio religious reforms
Legislative • The regulation of 1829 declared the practice of sati illegal and punishable by criminal
impact courts in all jurisdictions of India under East India Company rule.
• Hindu Widow's Remarriage Act of 1856 legalised remarriage of Hindu widows in all
jurisdictions of India under East India Company rule.
• The Bengal regulations of 1795 and 1804 declared infanticide illegal and equivalent to
murder. Female Infanticide Prevention Act, 1870 made the practice illegal in the British
Indian regions of Punjab and the North-Western Provinces and Oudh
• The Native Marriage Act (or Civil Marriage Act), 1872 signified legislative action in
prohibiting child marriage.
• Age of Consent Act (1891) raised the age of consent for sexual intercourse for all girls
• The Child Marriage Restraint Act 1929, also called the Sarda Act was enacted to restrict
the practice of child marriage. It was amended in 1978 to raise the lawful age of marriage
of girls and boys from 15 to 18 years and 18 to 21 years respectively.
Condition of • The number of girls joining schools increased at a consistent pace with contribution from
women reformers like Pandit Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, J.E.D. Bethune, Jyotiba Phule.
• Bethune College of Calcutta was the only women's college under the British Empire that
was outside Britain.
• In 1883, Chandramukhi Basu and Kadambini Basu of Calcutta University became the first
women graduates in India.
• Healthcare facilities for women improved (opening of Dufferin Hospitals in the 1880s).
Kadambini Ganguly and Anandibai Joshi became the first female doctors of India in 1886.
• Women started to organize themselves. e.g. In 1910, Sarla Devi Chaudhurani convened
the first meeting of the Bharat Stree Mahamandal in Allahabad, Pandita Ramabai
Saraswati founded the Arya Mahila Samaj to serve the cause of women.
 Idea of • Reform movement such as by Brahmo Samaj and Arya Samaj led to rejection of caste
Rationality system and caste distinction.
and • School for untouchables was started in Pune.
humanism • A sense of national awakening was created among the masses.
• Human development – movements like Aligarh movement and Ahmadiyya movement
tried to fight irrational orthodoxy in religious practices and improved human capital with
better education.
• Movements like that of Shree Narayan Dharam Paripalana (SNDP) and Justice movement
helped uplift lower caste. Gandhi, in 1932, founded the All-India Harijan Sangh.
Though the Socio -Religious movement was significant in bringing new values and attacking the social
evils, it had its own limitations
• Social base was narrow - appeal only to a small elite group who were the economic beneficiaries
of colonial rule. For example, In Brahmo samaj, Prarthana samaj members were mostly English
educated and elite people.
• High Caste/ class character- Most of these reformists belonged to the high caste/class. Hence,
the movement could not take a universal character.
• Dependent on legislation - Lacking a broad social base, the reformers relied more on legislation.
• Localised and isolated - Brahmo samaj and Arya samaj were confined to Bengal and Punjab
respectively. Brahmo samaj concerned with that of bhadraloks.
• Reform on Paper - Even after passage of Sati abolition act, infanticide act, the evil continued in the
society.
The 19th century reform movements were a forerunner to the growth of Indian nationalism, but with
significant restrictions. They contributed to national reconstruction and nation building, either directly
or indirectly.

6. DEVELOPMENT OF NATIONALISM
In India and many other colonies, the growth of modern nationalism is intimately connected to the anti-
colonial movement. People began discovering their unity in the process of their struggle with
colonialism. In India, the following factors contributed to the rise of nationalism:
• Financial burden on rural community (More than 90% of India at that time) due to exploitative land
revenue system, Planters, and destruction of handicraft industries.
• Rise of intelligentsia class – people like Swami Vivekananda, Dadabhai Naoroji, Debendranath
Tagore, Raja Ram Mohan Roy etc.
• Growth of press – Increased capacity of printing press helped idea of nationalism to spread easily
through Newspapers, journals, novel. E.g., Young India, Yugantar, The Gadar, The Hindu, Etc.
• Growth of western education – Rational ideas like liberty and equality got to the Indians and shook
their conscience to stand up for their rights.
• International events – French revolution and Irish movement motivated Indians to fight against
unjust and tyrant rule and establish self-rule.
• Revivalist movements – Arya Samaj, Faraizi movement had glorified India’s past cultural history
thus reinstated the lost confidence among Indians to fight against the idea of White supremacy.
• Growth of Communication infrastructure – Development of Rail, Telegraph and postal service
helped the leaders to influence the national conscience in much inclusive way.
• Discriminatory attitude of British – In every field e.g.,
o In military, Indian were provided with inferior quality food, position and salary.
o In Judiciary, Indian judges were not allowed to take sit on cases involving Europeans also
judiciary was financially out of reach to most of the Indians,
o In administration, many laws such as – Vernacular press Act 1878, Sedition law, Arms Act,
Official secret Act 1904, Indian University Act 1904, etc. all were derogatory to Indians.
7. DEVELOPMENT OF IDEA OF SWARAJ AND SWADESHI
Awakening to the idea of Swaraj
• Formation of Political associations: These were created to put forward the specific demands of
Indians to British government. E.g., Landholders Society by Dwarkanath Tagore in 1838 (demand
of Zamindars), British Indian Association of Calcutta (1851) to convey Indian grievances to the
British Govt., Bombay Association (1852) to increase the participation of Indians in legislature,
Congress in 1885 to put forward general Indian demands.
• Rise of underground activities like Anushilan Samiti in Bengal and Abhinav Bharat in Maharashtra,
use of cultural festivals to build the sense of belonging among Indians and personification of Bharat
Mata by Abanindranath Tagore in 1905.
• Swadeshi Enterprises: Mohini Mills, Bengal Chemicals Factory, Tata Steels, etc. were formed to
replace foreign goods with Swadeshi goods.
• Swadeshi education infrastructure: Establishing self-managed schools, colleges, Establishment of
National Council for Education and the Bengal Technical Institute
• Personification of Bharat Mata by Abanindranath Tagore in 1905 created an emotional bonding
among Indians for the country. The reality that British were exploiting Bharat Mata was enough to
project the necessity for ‘Swaraj.’
• Swadesh Bandhav Samiti (1906), was created to give physical and moral training as well as social
activities like community upliftment. This is a symbol for the self-governance.

Provocation by British
• Insensitive British regime: They were reluctant to honor the rights of Indian to rule themselves.
E.g., In Indian council act 1892 and 1909 majority of council member were to be British officials.
Direct election was introduced only after Govt. of India Act 1919.
• Bengal partition: It was done against the popular will to create rift between the Hindus and Muslims.
Swadeshi Movement: Launched in 1905 in protest of Bengal Partition.
• War time hardship: This was due to diversion of supplies to the World war.
• Passing of harsh Acts such as Rowlatt Act 1919, to suppress the rising voice of nationalist.
• Inhuman treatment by British and the events like Jallianwala Bagh massacre reflected the real
character of British rule.

Capitalization of the Discontent by Indian National Congress (INC)

• In 1906, the Indian National Congress passed four resolutions on Swaraj, Swadeshi, Boycott, and
National Education at its Calcutta session. Swaraj, or self-government, was declared the political
goal for the first time.
• Failure of Moderate politics: This led to the rise of extremists, as moderates were not able stop the
Bengal Partition.
• Home rule movement by Annie Besant and Tilak provided the platform for Indian to take stand for
the goal of Swaraj.
• Beginning of Gandhian movements – Champaran satyagraha, NCM. It entangled the national
movements with the mass struggle and linked it to greater goal total welfare “Sarvodaya”
• Demand for more representation in the council. There was rising demand for Self-rule and inclusive
governance.
• Poorna Swaraj: The Lahore resolution of 1929 was instrumental in passing the demand of complete
Independence. After repetitive denial of British to grant even some minimum liberty to Indians, the
nationalist leaders like Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose saw complete overthrow of British rule
from India as only recourse.
• The idea of swaraj matured in the Lahore Session of Congress where the Poorna Swaraj resolution
was passed and the fruit of which was the Independence achieved in 1947.
7.1 Non-Co-operation Movement
Reasons:
• Khalifa or Caliphate during WW1: The Khalifa, the highest leader of Muslims around the world, was
abolished as Ottoman empire lost against British in WW1.
• Rowlatt act: It gave unprecedented power to police to arrest anyone without warrant.
• Jallianwala Bagh massacre: It reflected the brutality of British against Indians
• No penalty to General Dyer by Hunter committee and Endorsement of Dyer’s action by British parliament –
Projected that British were not at all concerned with the sentiments of Indians.
• Lucknow pact (1916) united Hindu and Muslim as single front against British.
• Gandhi’s action to take all section together in national movement.
• Strengthening of the Idea of swaraj.
Method Consequences
• Boycott of Institutions: • Reach of the Nationalist Movement:
o Boycott of government schools and colleges. Nationalist sentiments reached every nook and
o Boycott of law courts and dispensation of justice corner of the country. It politicised every
through panchayats instead. stratum of population—the artisans, peasants,
o Boycott of legislative councils. students, urban poor, women, traders.
• Foreign Goods: Goods like foreign cloth were • Change in People’s mindset: The movement
boycotted and use of khadi was promoted instead. imparted a revolutionary character to the
Hand-spinning of Khadi threads was also done. national movement.
• Renunciation of government honours and titles. E.g., o The masses lost the all-pervasive fear of
Rabindranath Tagore surrendered his title. the colonial rule.
• Work for Hindu-Muslim unity like - renouncing cattle o Women gave up purdah. Urban Muslims
meat by Muslims and funds for madrasa by Hindus joined the national movement.
• Gandhiji’s nationwide tour with the Ali brothers: It o Peasants turned against the landlords and
established that taking care of the religious the traders
sentiments of all religion in sync with the concept of o Non-cooperation proved to be a viable
nationalism. political alternative to terrorism in order to
• From attainment of self-government through fight against a colonial government.
constitutional means congress changed goal to have • Strengthening of INC: Congress working
swaraj through peaceful means of extra-constitutional committee (CWC) of 15 members was set up.
mass struggle. Provincial congress committees on linguistic
basis were organised. Entry fee to congress
was reduced to four annas.
• Education: Many national education
institutions were opened. Thousands of
students left government schools and colleges
and joined around 800 national schools and
colleges.
• Local Revolts: Spirit of defiance and unrest
gave rise to many local struggles- Sikh agitation
for the removal of mahants in Punjab, Awadh
Kisan movement, Eka movement, etc.
7.2 Civil Disobedience Movement
Reasons:
• Dissatisfaction among the younger leader with dominion status envisaged in Nehru report.
• Rejection of demand made in “Delhi manifesto” by Irwin. The demands were:
o Purpose of Round table conference to be to draft constitution for Dominion India.
o Congress to have majority at round table conference
o Amnesty for political prisoners and policy for Conciliation.
• Calcutta Congress Session (December 1928) 1 year ultimatum to British to grant dominion status.
• Lahore session of the Congress 1929 under J L Nehru- Purna Swaraj adopted
• Rejection of Gandhi’s 11 demands (one demand was abolition of salt tax) by Irwin.
Method Consequences
• Salt chosen as central theme. • Imports of foreign cloth and other items fell.
• Dandi march from March 12th to April 6th, 1930, to • Government suffered a loss of income from
disobey the salt law. liquor, excise, and land revenue.
• Disobedience and non-cooperation against govt as • Elections to Legislative Assembly were largely
much as possible. boycotted.
• Truth and non-violence as a means to attain Swaraj. • Gandhi arrested.

After Gandhi’s arrest: Gandhi-Irwin Pact- 5 March 1931

• Massive protests in Bombay, Delhi, Calcutta and in • Immediate release of all political prisoners not
Sholapur convicted of violence
• CWC sanctioned i.e., INC was declared an illegal • Right to make salt in coastal villages for
organisation. personal consumption only
• Non-payment of revenue in ryotwari areas: Peasants • Right to peaceful and non-aggressive picketing
were disobeying the law of paying tax in protest. • Withdrawal of emergency ordinances
• No-Chowkidari-tax campaign in zamindari areas • Remission of all fines and return of all lands not
• Violation of forest laws in the Central Provinces – yet sold to third parties
Tribals were denied of their traditional right to access
forest due to colonial Forest law. Therefore, in support Irwin did not accept:
of CDM, they violated Forest law. • Public inquiry into police excesses
• Movement across India • Commutation of Bhagat Singh and his
• Tamil Nadu- Choolai mills strike and peasant riot comrades’ death sentence
against falling Agri price
• Andhra region- District salt marches and Sibirams Gandhi accepted:
(military style camps) were set up, mass support not • To suspend the civil disobedience movement
as much as was in non-cooperation- • To participate in the next round table
• Assam- Conflicts between Assamese and Bengalis, conference (Indian responsibility, reservations,
Hindus and Muslims, and the inflow of Muslim and safeguards)
peasants affected the movement
• Bengal - salt satyagraha and Chaukidari tax. Muslims
did not take part with enthusiasm
• Bihar - No-Chaukidari tax agitation replaced the salt
satyagraha
• Jharkhand - Boycott of foreign goods and meat, use of
khadi, Santhals took up illegal distillation of liquor on a
large scale
• NWFP- Volunteer brigade ‘Khudai Khidmatgars’/ Red
shirts led by Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan. Garhwal Rifles
soldiers refused to fire on an unarmed crowd.
• Dharasana - raid on the Dharasana Salt Works.
• Gujarat - No-tax movement, Villagers crossed the
border into neighboring princely states to escape
police repression.
 • Maharashtra, Karnataka, Central Provinces - defiance
of forest laws
• United Province - No-revenue campaign for Zamindars
an no rent campaign to tenant. Since Zamindars were
loyalist, it became essentially no rent campaign.

7.3 Quit India Movement

Reasons:
• Failure of the Cripps Mission to solve the constitutional deadlock.
• Popular discontent because of war time hardship as all the essential goods were diverted to war zone.
• Factors such as commandeering of boats in Bengal and Orissa by British government to save them from
being used by Japan led to considerable public anger.
• Fear of scorched earth policy by British in Assam, Bengal, and Orissa.
o A scorched-earth policy is a military strategy that aims to destroy anything that might be useful to the
enemy.
• Defeat of British in south-east Asia –Britain’s conflict with Japan could have turned India into a war zone.
• Indian subjects in South-East Asia were exposed to the racist attitude of the ruler.
o E.g., The British Prisoners of War were rescued from South-east Asia, and Indians were left behind.
Method Consequences
• Civil disobedience movement against British rule • August 9, 1942, in a single sweep, all the top
• ‘Do or Die’ call by Gandhi leaders of the Congress were arrested and
Gandhi’s instruction to people: taken to unknown destinations.
• Government servants: Do not resign but declare • CWC, AICC and Provincial Congress
allegiance to the Congress Committees were declared unlawful
• Soldiers – do not leave army but do not fire on associations under the Criminal Law
compatriots Amendment Act of 1908.
• Students – if confident leave college • It was established that it is impossible to rule
• Peasants – support nationalist zamindars India without the wishes of Indians.
• Princes – acknowledge subject’s sovereignty
• Princely states’ people support anti-government ruler
Underground activity: Underground radio by Usha Mehta –
as all the leaders were arrested to keep the momentum of
the movement participants were to be communicated from
time to time the strategy of the action.
Parallel Governments- (To project that British do not have
authority over India)
• Ballia (in August 1942 for a week)—under Chittu
Pandey
• Tamluk (Midnapore, from December 1942 to
September 1944)—Jatiya Sarkar
• Satara (mid-1943 to 1945)-Y.B. Chavan, Nana Patil
8. MANY VOICES - ROLE PLAYED BY DIFFERENT SECTIONS IN
THE FREEDOM STRUGGLE
8.1 Students
• For the first time students took part in large number in freedom movement when Lord Curzon
partitioned Bengal in 1905. The youth majorly supported the Indian National Congress at that time.
• When the Congress was split in its Lahore Session in 1907, in its Lahore Session in 1907, the
students also distributed between these groups. They rallied later on under Mahatma Gandhi and
became a formidable force in India from the 1920s.
• In 1920, the First All-India Students’ Conference was held in Nagpur under the Presidentship of
Lala Lajpat Rai. Students could now get the support and guidance of leader like, Subhas Chandra
Bose and others.
• Students also played a vital role in various campaigns launched by Gandhi against the British such
as — the ‘No Tax’ Campaign 1921, the Civil Disobedience Movement, the Dandi Satyagraha of
1930, etc.
• Students also participated in programmes such as — removal of untouchability and casteism, adult
education, popularising the ‘Swadeshi’ articles and the use of ‘Khadi,’ cleaning of the villages,
promotion of communal harmony, and so on.
• In 1936, the All-India Students’ Federation, the first student organisation of India, was born in order
to support the Indian National Congress in its struggles.
• All India Students’ Federation was divided into two factions (in 1938) such as — the All-Indian Youth
Congress and All-India Students’ Federation (AISF).
• Students had active role in ‘Quit India’ Movement launched by the Indian National Congress. It was
almost the climax of the youth movement. They boycotted schools and colleges in large number.
They organized mass processions and rallies in towns and cities all over the country.
• A few sections of the students took to some violent actions to paralyze the British administration
by cutting telephone wires, blocking transport routes, destroying public property, disturbing postal,
police, banking and other services. Thereby they brought the government machinery to a standstill.

8.2 Women
• Prominent leaders like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chand Vidyasagar, Justice Ranade, Gandhi
etc. had empowered and inspired women by waging a battle against cast, discrimination, child
marriages and encouraging women education. The leaders of the struggle motivated the women
to participate in huge numbers.
• Non-cooperation movement witnessed unprecedented women activism, specially of the educate
and middle classes. Rajkumari Amrit Kaur, Aruna Asaf Ali, Sarla Devi and Muthulaxmi Reddy
emerged as prominent leaders.
• During the Civil Disobedience movement Sarojini Naidu, inspired by Gandhian ideals, led a peaceful
protest at Dharsana Salt works against the Salt law, even after the arrest of Gandhi. She fought for
voting right and was elected as first Indian women president of Indian National Congress.
• In Quit India movement the underground activism led by Usha Mehta, Aruna Asaf Ali was crucial in
sustaining the movement.
Prominent women:
• Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay: In 1930’s she participated in Salt Satyagraha. She promoted
handicrafts, handlooms and theatre. The Government of India conferred on her the Padma Bhushan
in 1955 and Padma Vibhushan in 1987.
• Annie Basant: She became the first president of Indian National Congress in 1917. Her associate
Margaret cousins drafted the Indian women’s voting rights bill and launched the “Women’s Indian
Association.”
• Vijayalakhsmi Pandit: Mrs. Pandit was jailed for her nationalistic activities thrice in 1932, 1940 and
1942. During the Salt Satyagraha she led processions and picketed the liquor and foreign cloth
selling shops along with her sister and her baby daughters. She has fought many battles and broken
many barriers for the women in India.
8.3 Business class
• They lent their support to the Congress in protest against the colonial policies that restricted
indigenous business enterprises.
• They also gave financial assistance to the freedom struggle and refused to buy or sell foreign
goods. They formed associations like the Indian Industrial and Commercial Congress in 1920 and
Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce & Industry (FICCI) in 1927.
• FICCI refused to negotiate with the British in economic or political issues without the participation
or approval of Congress.
• They viewed Swaraj as freedom from the domination of market by foreign goods.
• They withdrew their support when the Second Round Table Congress failed and were also
concerned about the rise of socialist ideology in the Congress.
• Purshottamdas Thakurdas and G.D. Birla attacked the colonial control over Indian economy.
• A small group of significant business executives in Bombay developed the Bombay plan for the
development of India's post-independence economy in 1944 and 1945. It was inspired by the
philosophical tenets of the Indian freedom movement.