Section 1.1 What is Remote Sensing?

Page 5

1. Introduction to Fundamentals

1.1 What is Remote Sensing?

So, what exactly is remote sensing? For the purposes of this tutorial, we will use the
following definition:

"Remote sensing is the science (and to some extent, art) of acquiring

information about the Earth's surface without actually being in contact
with it. This is done by sensing and recording reflected or emitted energy
and processing, analyzing, and applying that information."

In much of remote sensing, the process involves an interaction between incident radiation
and the targets of interest. This is exemplified by the use of imaging systems where the
following seven elements are involved. Note, however that remote sensing also involves the
sensing of emitted energy and the use of non-imaging sensors.

1. Energy Source or Illumination (A) - the

first requirement for remote sensing is to have
an energy source which illuminates or
provides electromagnetic energy to the target
of interest.

2. Radiation and the Atmosphere (B) - as

the energy travels from its source to the
target, it will come in contact with and interact
with the atmosphere it passes through. This
interaction may take place a second time as
the energy travels from the target to the
sensor.

3. Interaction with the Target (C) - once the energy makes its way to the target through the
atmosphere, it interacts with the target depending on the properties of both the target and the
radiation.

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Section 1.1 What is Remote Sensing? Page 6

4. Recording of Energy by the Sensor (D) - after the energy has been scattered by, or
emitted from the target, we require a sensor (remote - not in contact with the target) to collect
and record the electromagnetic radiation.

5. Transmission, Reception, and Processing (E) - the energy recorded by the sensor has
to be transmitted, often in electronic form, to a receiving and processing station where the
data are processed into an image (hardcopy and/or digital).

6. Interpretation and Analysis (F) - the processed image is interpreted, visually and/or
digitally or electronically, to extract information about the target which was illuminated.

7. Application (G) - the final element of the remote sensing process is achieved when we
apply the information we have been able to extract from the imagery about the target in order
to better understand it, reveal some new information, or assist in solving a particular problem.

These seven elements comprise the remote sensing process from beginning to end. We will
be covering all of these in sequential order throughout the five chapters of this tutorial,
building upon the information learned as we go. Enjoy the journey!

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Section 1.2 Electromagnetic Radiation Page 7

1.2 Electromagnetic Radiation

As was noted in the previous section, the first

requirement for remote sensing is to have an
energy source to illuminate the target
(unless the sensed energy is being emitted by
the target). This energy is in the form of
electromagnetic radiation.

All electromagnetic radiation has fundamental

properties and behaves in predictable ways
according to the basics of wave theory.
Electromagnetic radiation consists of an
electrical field(E) which varies in magnitude in
a direction perpendicular to the direction in
which the radiation is traveling, and a
magnetic field (M) oriented at right angles to
the electrical field. Both these fields travel at
the speed of light (c).

Two characteristics of electromagnetic

radiation are particularly important for understanding remote sensing. These are the
wavelength and frequency.

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Section 1.2 Electromagnetic Radiation Page 8

The wavelength is the length of one wave cycle, which can be measured as the distance
between successive wave crests. Wavelength is usually represented by the Greek letter
lambda (λ). Wavelength is measured in metres (m) or some factor of metres such as
nanometres (nm, 10-9 metres), micrometres (µm, 10-6 metres) (µm, 10-6 metres) or
centimetres (cm, 10-2 metres). Frequency refers to the number of cycles of a wave passing a
fixed point per unit of time. Frequency is normally measured in hertz (Hz), equivalent to one
cycle per second, and various multiples of hertz.

Wavelength and frequency are related by the following formula:

Therefore, the two are inversely related to each other. The shorter the wavelength, the higher
the frequency. The longer the wavelength, the lower the frequency. Understanding the
characteristics of electromagnetic radiation in terms of their wavelength and frequency is
crucial to understanding the information to be extracted from remote sensing data. Next we
will be examining the way in which we categorize electromagnetic radiation for just that
purpose.

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Section 1.3 The Electromagnetic Spectrum Page 9

1.3 The Electromagnetic Spectrum

The electromagnetic spectrum ranges from the shorter wavelengths (including gamma and
x-rays) to the longer wavelengths (including microwaves and broadcast radio waves). There
are several regions of the electromagnetic spectrum which are useful for remote sensing.

For most purposes, the ultraviolet or UV

portion of the spectrum has the shortest
wavelengths which are practical for remote
sensing. This radiation is just beyond the
violet portion of the visible wavelengths,
hence its name. Some Earth surface
materials, primarily rocks and minerals,
fluoresce or emit visible light when illuminated
by UV radiation.

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Section 1.3 The Electromagnetic Spectrum Page 10

The light which our eyes - our "remote

sensors" - can detect is part of the visible
spectrum. It is important to recognize how
small the visible portion is relative to the rest
of the spectrum. There is a lot of radiation
around us which is "invisible" to our eyes, but
can be detected by other remote sensing
instruments and used to our advantage. The
visible wavelengths cover a range from
approximately 0.4 to 0.7 µm. The longest
visible wavelength is red and the shortest is
violet. Common wavelengths of what we
perceive as particular colours from the visible
portion of the spectrum are listed below. It is
important to note that this is the only portion
of the spectrum we can associate with the
concept of colours.

„ Violet: 0.4 - 0.446 µm

„ Blue: 0.446 - 0.500 µm
„ Green: 0.500 - 0.578 µm
„ Yellow: 0.578 - 0.592 µm
„ Orange: 0.592 - 0.620 µm
„ Red: 0.620 - 0.7 µm

Blue, green, and red are the primary

colours or wavelengths of the visible
spectrum. They are defined as such because
no single primary colour can be created from
the other two, but all other colours can be
formed by combining blue, green, and red in
various proportions. Although we see sunlight
as a uniform or homogeneous colour, it is
actually composed of various wavelengths of
radiation in primarily the ultraviolet, visible
and infrared portions of the spectrum. The visible portion of this radiation can be shown in its

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Section 1.3 The Electromagnetic Spectrum Page 11

component colours when sunlight is passed through a prism, which bends the light in differing
amounts according to wavelength.

The next portion of the spectrum of interest is

the infrared (IR) region which covers the
wavelength range from approximately 0.7 µm
to 100 µm - more than 100 times as wide as
the visible portion! The infrared region can be
divided into two categories based on their
radiation properties - the reflected IR, and
the emitted or thermal IR. Radiation in the
reflected IR region is used for remote sensing
purposes in ways very similar to radiation in
the visible portion. The reflected IR covers
wavelengths from approximately 0.7 µm to
3.0 µm. The thermal IR region is quite
different than the visible and reflected IR
portions, as this energy is essentially the
radiation that is emitted from the Earth's
surface in the form of heat. The thermal IR
covers wavelengths from approximately 3.0
µm to 100 µm.

The portion of the spectrum of more recent

interest to remote sensing is the microwave
region from about 1 mm to 1 m. This covers
the longest wavelengths used for remote
sensing. The shorter wavelengths have
properties similar to the thermal infrared
region while the longer wavelengths approach
the wavelengths used for radio broadcasts.
Because of the special nature of this region
and its importance to remote sensing in
Canada, an entire chapter (Chapter 3) of the
tutorial is dedicated to microwave sensing.

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Section 1.4 Interactions with the Atmosphere Page 12

1.4 Interactions with the Atmosphere

Before radiation used for remote sensing reaches the Earth's surface it has to travel through
some distance of the Earth's atmosphere. Particles and gases in the atmosphere can affect
the incoming light and radiation. These effects are caused by the mechanisms of scattering
and absorption.

Scattering occurs when particles or large gas molecules present in the atmosphere interact
with and cause the electromagnetic radiation to be redirected from its original path. How much
scattering takes place depends on several factors including the wavelength of the radiation,
the abundance of particles or gases, and the distance the radiation travels through the
atmosphere. There are three (3) types of scattering which take place.

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Section 1.4 Interactions with the Atmosphere Page 13

Rayleigh scattering occurs when particles are very small compared to the wavelength of the
radiation. These could be particles such as small specks of dust or nitrogen and oxygen
molecules. Rayleigh scattering causes shorter wavelengths of energy to be scattered much
more than longer wavelengths. Rayleigh scattering is the dominant scattering mechanism in
the upper atmosphere. The fact that the sky appears "blue" during the day is because of this
phenomenon. As sunlight passes through the atmosphere, the shorter wavelengths (i.e. blue)
of the visible spectrum are scattered more than the other (longer) visible wavelengths. At
sunrise and sunset the light has to travel farther through the atmosphere than at midday and
the scattering of the shorter wavelengths is more complete; this leaves a greater proportion of
the longer wavelengths to penetrate the atmosphere.

Mie scattering occurs when the particles are just about the same size as the wavelength of
the radiation. Dust, pollen, smoke and water vapour are common causes of Mie scattering
which tends to affect longer wavelengths than those affected by Rayleigh scattering. Mie
scattering occurs mostly in the lower portions of the atmosphere where larger particles are
more abundant, and dominates when cloud conditions are overcast.

The final scattering mechanism of importance is

called nonselective scattering. This occurs when
the particles are much larger than the wavelength of
the radiation. Water droplets and large dust
particles can cause this type of scattering.
Nonselective scattering gets its name from the fact
that all wavelengths are scattered about equally.
This type of scattering causes fog and clouds to
appear white to our eyes because blue, green, and
red light are all scattered in approximately equal
quantities (blue+green+red light = white light).

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Section 1.4 Interactions with the Atmosphere Page 14

Absorption is the other main mechanism at work

when electromagnetic radiation interacts with the
atmosphere. In contrast to scattering, this
phenomenon causes molecules in the atmosphere to
absorb energy at various wavelengths. Ozone,
carbon dioxide, and water vapour are the three main
atmospheric constituents which absorb radiation.

Ozone serves to absorb the harmful (to most living

things) ultraviolet radiation from the sun. Without this
protective layer in the atmosphere our skin would
burn when exposed to sunlight.

You may have heard carbon dioxide referred to as

a greenhouse gas. This is because it tends to absorb radiation strongly in the far infrared
portion of the spectrum - that area associated with thermal heating - which serves to trap this
heat inside the atmosphere. Water vapour in the atmosphere absorbs much of the incoming
longwave infrared and shortwave microwave radiation (between 22µm and 1m). The
presence of water vapour in the lower atmosphere varies greatly from location to location and
at different times of the year. For example, the air mass above a desert would have very little
water vapour to absorb energy, while the tropics would have high concentrations of water
vapour (i.e. high humidity).

Because these gases absorb

electromagnetic energy in very
specific regions of the spectrum, they
influence where (in the spectrum) we
can "look" for remote sensing
purposes. Those areas of the
spectrum which are not severely
influenced by atmospheric absorption
and thus, are useful to remote
sensors, are called atmospheric
windows. By comparing the
characteristics of the two most
common energy/radiation sources
(the sun and the earth) with the
atmospheric windows available to us, we can define those wavelengths that we can
use most effectively for remote sensing. The visible portion of the spectrum, to
which our eyes are most sensitive, corresponds to both an atmospheric window and
the peak energy level of the sun. Note also that heat energy emitted by the Earth
corresponds to a window around 10 µm in the thermal IR portion of the spectrum,
while the large window at wavelengths beyond 1 mm is associated with the

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Section 1.4 Interactions with the Atmosphere Page 15

microwave region.

Now that we understand how electromagnetic energy makes its journey from its source to the
surface (and it is a difficult journey, as you can see) we will next examine what happens to
that radiation when it does arrive at the Earth's surface.

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Section 1.5 Radiation - Target Interactions Page 16

1.5 Radiation - Target Interactions

Radiation that is not absorbed or scattered in

the atmosphere can reach and interact with
the Earth's surface. There are three (3) forms
of interaction that can take place when energy
strikes, or is incident (I) upon the surface.
These are: absorption (A); transmission
(T); and reflection (R). The total incident
energy will interact with the surface in one or
more of these three ways. The proportions of
each will depend on the wavelength of the
energy and the material and condition of the
feature.

Absorption (A) occurs when radiation (energy) is absorbed into the target while transmission
(T) occurs when radiation passes through a target. Reflection (R) occurs when radiation
"bounces" off the target and is redirected. In remote sensing, we are most interested in
measuring the radiation reflected from targets. We refer to two types of reflection, which
represent the two extreme ends of the way in which energy is reflected from a target:
specular reflection and diffuse reflection.

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Section 1.5 Radiation - Target Interactions Page 17

When a surface is smooth we get specular or mirror-like reflection where all (or almost all) of
the energy is directed away from the surface in a single direction. Diffuse reflection occurs
when the surface is rough and the energy is reflected almost uniformly in all directions. Most
earth surface features lie somewhere between perfectly specular or perfectly diffuse
reflectors. Whether a particular target reflects specularly or diffusely, or somewhere in
between, depends on the surface roughness of the feature in comparison to the wavelength of
the incoming radiation. If the wavelengths are much smaller than the surface variations or the
particle sizes that make up the surface, diffuse reflection will dominate. For example, fine-
grained sand would appear fairly smooth to long wavelength microwaves but would appear
quite rough to the visible wavelengths.

Let's take a look at a couple of examples of targets at the Earth's surface and how energy at
the visible and infrared wavelengths interacts with them.

Leaves: A chemical compound in leaves

called chlorophyll strongly absorbs
radiation in the red and blue
wavelengths but reflects green
wavelengths. Leaves appear "greenest"
to us in the summer, when chlorophyll
content is at its maximum. In autumn,
there is less chlorophyll in the leaves, so
there is less absorption and
proportionately more reflection of the red
wavelengths, making the leaves appear
red or yellow (yellow is a combination of
red and green wavelengths). The
internal structure of healthy leaves act as excellent diffuse reflectors of near-infrared
wavelengths. If our eyes were sensitive to near-infrared, trees would appear extremely bright
to us at these wavelengths. In fact, measuring and monitoring the near-IR reflectance is one
way that scientists can determine how healthy (or unhealthy) vegetation may be.

Water: Longer wavelength visible and near

infrared radiation is absorbed more by water
than shorter visible wavelengths. Thus water
typically looks blue or blue-green due to
stronger reflectance at these shorter
wavelengths, and darker if viewed at red or
near infrared wavelengths. If there is
suspended sediment present in the upper
layers of the water body, then this will allow
better reflectivity and a brighter appearance
of the water. The apparent colour of the
water will show a slight shift to longer

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Section 1.5 Radiation - Target Interactions Page 18

wavelengths. Suspended sediment (S) can

be easily confused with shallow (but clear) water, since these two phenomena appear very
similar. Chlorophyll in algae absorbs more of the blue wavelengths and reflects the green,
making the water appear more green in colour when algae is present. The topography of the
water surface (rough, smooth, floating materials, etc.) can also lead to complications for
water-related interpretation due to potential problems of specular reflection and other
influences on colour and brightness.

We can see from these examples that, depending on the complex make-up of the target that
is being looked at, and the wavelengths of radiation involved, we can observe very different
responses to the mechanisms of absorption, transmission, and reflection. By measuring the
energy that is reflected (or emitted) by targets on the Earth's surface over a variety of different
wavelengths, we can build up a spectral response for that object. By comparing the
response patterns of different features we may be able to distinguish between them, where
we might not be able to, if we only compared them at one wavelength. For example, water
and vegetation may reflect somewhat similarly in the visible wavelengths but are almost
always separable in the infrared. Spectral response can be quite variable, even for the same
target type, and can also vary with time (e.g. "green-ness" of leaves) and location. Knowing
where to "look" spectrally and understanding the factors which influence the spectral response
of the features of interest are critical to correctly interpreting the interaction of electromagnetic
radiation with the surface.

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Section 1.6 Passive vs. Active Sensing Page 19

1.6 Passive vs. Active Sensing

So far, throughout this chapter, we have made

various references to the sun as a source of
energy or radiation. The sun provides a very
convenient source of energy for remote sensing.
The sun's energy is either reflected, as it is for
visible wavelengths, or absorbed and then re-
emitted, as it is for thermal infrared
wavelengths. Remote sensing systems which
measure energy that is naturally available are
called passive sensors. Passive sensors can
only be used to detect energy when the naturally
occurring energy is available. For all reflected
energy, this can only take place during the time
when the sun is illuminating the Earth. There is
no reflected energy available from the sun at night. Energy that is naturally emitted (such as
thermal infrared) can be detected day or night, as long as the amount of energy is large
enough to be recorded.

Active sensors, on the other hand, provide their own

energy source for illumination. The sensor emits radiation
which is directed toward the target to be investigated. The
radiation reflected from that target is detected and
measured by the sensor. Advantages for active sensors
include the ability to obtain measurements anytime,
regardless of the time of day or season. Active sensors can
be used for examining wavelengths that are not sufficiently
provided by the sun, such as microwaves, or to better
control the way a target is illuminated. However, active
systems require the generation of a fairly large amount of
energy to adequately illuminate targets. Some examples of
active sensors are a laser fluorosensor and a synthetic
aperture radar (SAR).

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Section 1.7 Characteristics of Images Page 20

1.7 Characteristics of Images

Before we go on to the next chapter, which looks in more detail at sensors and their
characteristics, we need to define and understand a few fundamental terms and
concepts associated with remote sensing images.

Electromagnetic energy may be detected either

photographically or electronically. The
photographic process uses chemical reactions
on the surface of light-sensitive film to detect
and record energy variations. It is important to
distinguish between the terms images and
photographs in remote sensing. An image
refers to any pictorial representation, regardless
of what wavelengths or remote sensing device
has been used to detect and record the
electromagnetic energy. A photograph refers
specifically to images that have been detected as well as recorded on photographic
film. The black and white photo to the left, of part of the city of Ottawa, Canada was
taken in the visible part of the spectrum. Photos are normally recorded over the
wavelength range from 0.3 µm to 0.9 µm - the visible and reflected infrared. Based
on these definitions, we can say that all photographs are images, but not all images
are photographs. Therefore, unless we are talking specifically about an image
recorded photographically, we use the term image.

A photograph could also be

represented and displayed in a
digital format by subdividing the
image into small equal-sized and
shaped areas, called picture
elements or pixels, and
representing the brightness of each
area with a numeric value or digital
number. Indeed, that is exactly
what has been done to the photo to
the left. In fact, using the definitions
we have just discussed, this is
actually a digital image of the
original photograph! The photograph was scanned and subdivided into pixels with
each pixel assigned a digital number representing its relative brightness. The
computer displays each digital value as different brightness levels. Sensors that

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Section 1.7 Characteristics of Images Page 21

record electromagnetic energy, electronically record the energy as an array of

numbers in digital format right from the start. These two different ways of
representing and displaying remote sensing data, either pictorially or digitally, are
interchangeable as they convey the same information (although some detail may be
lost when converting back and forth).

In previous sections we described the visible portion of the spectrum and the
concept of colours. We see colour because our eyes detect the entire visible range
of wavelengths and our brains process the information into separate colours. Can
you imagine what the world would look like if we could only see very narrow ranges
of wavelengths or colours? That is how many sensors work. The information from a
narrow wavelength range is gathered and stored in a channel, also sometimes
referred to as a band. We can combine and display channels of information digitally
using the three primary colours (blue, green, and red). The data from each channel
is represented as one of the primary colours and, depending on the relative
brightness (i.e. the digital value) of each pixel in each channel, the primary colours
combine in different proportions to represent different colours.

When we use this method to display a single channel or range of wavelengths, we

are actually displaying that channel through all three primary colours. Because the
brightness level of each pixel is the same for each primary colour, they combine to
form a black and white image, showing various shades of gray from black to white.
When we display more than one channel each as a different primary colour, then the
brightness levels may be different for each channel/primary colour combination and
they will combine to form a colour image.

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