REMOTE SENSING

AND GIS
Dr. Jane Mugo
 Introduction
• Environmental scientists in one way or the other deal with
spatial data i.e. they are involved in collection,
processing, analysing or using it for decision making.
• Collection of the data is the most time consuming and
methods of quickening the process are continuously
sought
• Remote sensing offers such a method of data gathering
hence its importance when dealing with spatial data
 What is remote sensing?
• The science of acquiring, processing and interpreting
images that record the interaction between the
electromagnetic (EM) energy and matter.
• We could also describe it as the science consisting of
instrumentation, techniques and methods to observe
earths surface at a distance.
Remote Sensing
Scope and steps to be followed
The class will be held along the following line:
1. Energy Source or Illumination (A)
2. Radiation and the Atmosphere (B)
3. Interaction with the Target (C)
4. Recording of Energy by the Sensor (D)
5. Transmission, Reception, and Processing (E)
6. Interpretation and Analysis (F)
7. Application (G)

These seven elements comprise the remote sensing

process from beginning to end
Energy Source or Illumination
• An understanding of EM is important if one is to fully
appreciate the principles of remote sensing i.e.
• What is the physics behind the EM spectrum and what
are the sources?
• What parts of the spectrum are useful in remote sensing
data acquisition and why?
• Are there interferences which need consideration in
interpretation?
 Definitions
• The EM energy can be modelled in two ways; waves and
energy bearing particles called photons.
• In wave theory the EM is considered to propagate
through space in form of sine waves characterized by
two fields, electrical (E) and magnetic (M), which are
perpendicular to each other.
• It is described in terms of wavelength, frequency and
velocity
• In particle theory, EM energy is composed of discrete
units called photons. This approach is taken when
quantifying the amount of energy measured by
multispectral sensors
• The wavelength is the length of one wave
cycle, which can be measured as the
distance between successive wave crests.
Wavelength is usually represented by the
Greek letter lambda (λ).
• Wavelength is measured in metres (m) or
some factor of metres such as nanometres
(nm, 10-9 metres), micrometres (μm, 10-6
metres) (μm, 10-6 metres) or centimetres
(cm, 10-2 metres).
• Frequency refers to the number of cycles
of a wave passing a fixed point per unit of
time. Frequency is normally measured in
hertz (Hz), equivalent to one cycle per
second, and various multiples of hertz
• Wavelength and frequency are related by the
following formula:

• Therefore, the two are inversely related to each

other. The shorter the wavelength, the higher the
frequency.
• The longer the wavelength, the lower the
frequency.
 The Electromagnetic
Spectrum
• All matter with temperature above zero are sources of
energy due to molecular agitation though the major
source for RS applications is the sun.
• The amount of energy radiated by an object depends on
its absolute temperature and different parts of the EM
spectrum find use in our day to day life.
 Important regions for RS

• RS operates in several regions of the EM spectrum i.e.

the ultraviolet (uv), optical, thermal infrared and the
microwave regions.
• For most purposes, the ultraviolet or UV portion of the
spectrum has the shortest wavelengths which are
practical for remote sensing. This radiation is just beyond
the violet portion of the visible wavelengths, hence its
name. Some Earth surface materials, primarily rocks and
minerals, fluoresce or emit visible light when illuminated
by UV radiation.
 Continued…
• The optical part refers to those regions where
optical laws can be applied as relates to
reflectance and refraction and is the portion of
the spectrum that is associated with the concept
of colour.
• The visible wavelengths cover a range from
approximately 0.4 to 0.7 μm. The longest visible
wavelength is red and the shortest is violet.
• It is important to note that this is the only portion
of the spectrum we can associate with the
concept of colours.
 Continued…
• The longer wavelengths used in RS are the thermal infrared and
microwave regions
• The infrared region can be divided into two categories based on
their radiation properties - the reflected IR, and the emitted or
thermal IR.
• Radiation in the reflected IR region is used for remote sensing
purposes in ways very similar to radiation in the visible portion. The
reflected IR covers wavelengths from approximately 0.7 μm to 3.0
μm.
• The thermal IR region is quite different than the visible and reflected
IR portions, as this energy is essentially the radiation that is emitted
from the Earth's surface in the form of heat. The thermal IR covers
wavelengths from approximately 3.0 μm to 100 μm.
 Continued…
• Thermal infrared gives information on surface
temperature and could be used to establish
vegetation stress and rock compositional
minerals
• Microwave (radar) range from about 1 mm to 1
m. The shorter wavelengths have properties
similar to the thermal infrared region while the
longer wavelengths approach the wavelengths
used for radio broadcasts.
• The range provides information on surface
roughness and such other properties as water
content
 Atmospheric Effect/ Radiation and the
Atmosphere (B)
• Both the sun (source) and satellites (data gathering) are
above the earth atmosphere thus the need to understand
EM interactions with the atmosphere of which there are
three namely; absorption, transmission and scattering.
• Of these transmission is the most useful while scattering
and absorption are destructive, though upon the energy
reaching the surface both become useful
 Absorption
• Various molecules in the atmosphere absorb EM
travelling through them, the most efficient of which are
ozone, water vapour and carbon dioxide.
• It is only the wavelength regions outside the main
absorbing bands which can be used for remote sensing
and they are popularly referred to as atmospheric
transmission windows.
They consist of;
• A window in the visible and reflected infrared region,
(0.4-2 µm)
• Three windows in the thermal infrared region i.e. two
narrow windows around 3 and 5 μm, and a third
relatively broad from 8-14 μm.
 Scattering
• Scattering it is a result of particles in the atmosphere
causing redirection of EM waves from the original path.
• The amount of scattering is dependent on several factors
including wavelength, amount of particles and the
distance travelled within the atmosphere
• Scattering is of three types; Rayleigh, Mie and non-
selective scattering.
•
Continued..
Rayleigh predominates where the EM interacts with particles that
are smaller than the wavelength of the incoming light e.g. NO2and
O2.
• Shorter wavelengths are more readily scattered that longer
wavelengths. Light at shorter wavelengths (like blue and violet
visible light) are scattered by small particles that include NO 2and O2.
• Since blue light is at the short wavelength end of the visible
spectrum, it is more strongly scattered in the atmosphere than
longer wavelength red light. Rayleigh scatter is responsible for the
blue color of the sky.
• At sunrise and sunset the incoming sunlight travels a longer
distance (path length) through the atmosphere. The longer path
leads to scatter of the short (blue) wavelengths that is so complete
that we only see the longer wavelengths of light, the red and
orange.
• In RS this scattering is important since it causes distortion of
spectral characteristics of reflected light when compared to
measurements taken on the ground.
 Continued..
• Mie scattering is due to wavelength of incoming radiation
being similar in size to the atmospheric particles and is
restricted to the lower atmosphere where these particles
abound and dominate under overcast clouds. Pollen,
dust and smog are major cause of mie scatter
• Non-selective scattering occurs when particles are much
larger than the radiation wavelength e.g. water droplets
• It is independent of wavelength with all wavelengths
scattered equally e.g. the clouds effect where all
radiation is scattered equally thus the cloud appearing
white.
 Transmitted/ Interaction with the Target (C)

• It is the transmitted energy that is useful since it is either

its reflection or absorption by the surface material that
gives information on nature of the material.
• For reflection, there are two extremes of the way in
which energy is reflected from target i.e. specular and
diffuse.
 Continued..
• Specular causes what is usually referred to as hotspots
in the image consisting of very white spots.
• Diffuse reflection is the most useful of the two since it
provides information on the material from which it is
reflected.
• Sensors are designed so as to pick this reflected EM
loaded with information from these surface. This makes
the subject of remote sensing as we know it today and a
good topic on sensors for our next class.