CHAPTER I

WHAT IS A PARAGRAPH

A paragraph is much more than a collection of connected sentences. It is a building block of essay
development, and paragraphs provide the structure needed to develop the thesis of a paper. In fact, a useful
way to think about a paragraph is as a “mini-essay,” or an essay within an essay, with its own mini-thesis
(the topic sentence), middle or body (the supporting details) and end or conclusion (the concluding
sentence).
 Types of paragraphs in a basic essay

In an essay, there are four parts of paragraphs—introductory, body, transitional and concluding—and
each serves a slightly different function in the paper. In the simplest terms, introductory paragraphs
introduce your thesis, body paragraphs develop it, transitional paragraphs move your readers from one
aspect of it to another, and concluding paragraphs sum up the development of the thesis and restate it. Thus,
while all four types support the thesis, they support it in different ways.

1. Introductory paragraphs

An introductory paragraph supports the thesis in three ways. First, it engages readers’ interest with a strong
opening sentence. Some writing texts advise using a quotation or an anecdote to capture readers’
attention, and this can work well. Whatever kind of opening you use, however, it should be relevant to
your subject and move your readers quickly and smoothly toward your thesis. An introductory paragraph
also supports the thesis by giving relevant background information and context, such as important facts or
theory. For example, if you were writing an introduction to a paper about Napoleon’s loss at Waterloo
before presenting your thesis statement, you might offer a sentence or two about the ongoing hostilities
that led up to the final battle. This sketch of important background should be accomplished quickly with
just enough information to help your readers understand why your subject and thesis are important.

The third, and perhaps most important function of an introductory paragraph, is to introduce the thesis
statement and thereby focus your readers on the central idea of your paper. Definitions of a thesis statement
vary somewhat, but almost all instructors take a thesis to mean the central idea, opinion, assertion, claim or
attitude of the paper. At the core of a thesis statement is the writer’s controlling idea on the topic, e.g.
“Unchecked northern development raises serious concerns.” Some instructors understand a complete thesis
statement also to include specific reasons in support of the controlling idea, e.g. “Unchecked northern
development raises serious concerns because it jeopardizes and contaminates the biospheres, depletes energy
resources before alternatives are available, and magnifies social problems.” Some instructors also think of
the thesis as the answer to a question implied by the assignment. Although some methods of topic
development place the thesis near the end of the paper or even in the conclusion, in most academic writing,
it appears near the end of the introductory paragraph. Placed there, the thesis provides a preview of the main
idea you will develop in your essay and prepares your readers for that development.

A good introduction paragraph is an essential part of any academic essay. It sets up your argument and tells
the reader what to expect. The main goals of an introduction are to:
 Catch your reader’s attention.
 Give background on your topic.
 Present your thesis statement—the central point of your essay.
This introduction example is taken from our interactive essay example on the history of Braille
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 The invention of Braille was a major turning point in the history of disability. The writing system of
raised dots used by visually impaired people was developed by Louis Braille in nineteenth-century
France. In a society that did not value disabled people in general, blindness was particularly
stigmatized, and lack of access to reading and writing was a significant barrier to social participation.
The idea of tactile reading was not entirely new, but existing methods based on sighted systems were
difficult to learn and use. As the first writing system designed for blind people’s needs, Braille was a
groundbreaking new accessibility tool. It not only provided practical benefits, but also helped change
the cultural status of blindness. This essay begins by discussing the situation of blind people in
nineteenth-century Europe. It then describes the invention of Braille and the gradual process of its
acceptance within blind education. Subsequently, it explores the wide-ranging effects of this invention
on blind people’s social and cultural lives.

 Step 1: Hook your reader (menarik perhatian pembaca)

 Your first sentence sets the tone for the whole essay, so spend some time on writing an effective
hook.
 Avoid long, dense sentences—start with something clear, concise and catchy that will spark your
reader’s curiosity.
 The hook should lead the reader into your essay, giving a sense of the topic you’re writing about
and why it’s interesting. Avoid overly broad claims or plain statements of fact.

Examples: Writing a good hook

Take a look at these examples of weak hooks and learn how to improve them.
 Braille was an extremely important invention.
 The invention of Braille was a major turning point in the history of disability.
The first sentence is a dry fact; the second sentence is more interesting, making a bold claim about
exactly why the topic is important.

 The internet is defined as “a global computer network providing a variety of information and
communication facilities.”
 The spread of the internet has had a world-changing effect, not least on the world of education.

Avoid using a dictionary definition as your hook, especially if it’s an obvious term that everyone knows.
The improved example here is still broad, but it gives us a much clearer sense of what the essay will be
about.

 Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein is a famous book from the nineteenth century.

 Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein is often read as a crude cautionary tale about the dangers of scientific
advancement.

Instead of just stating a fact that the reader already knows, the improved hook here tells us about the
mainstream interpretation of the book, implying that this essay will offer a different interpretation.

 Step 2: Give background information

 Next, give your reader the context they need to understand your topic and argument.
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  Depending on the subject of your essay, this might include: Historical, geographical, or social
context.
 An outline of the debate you’re addressing.
 A summary of relevant theories or research about the topic,
 Definitions of key terms

The information here should be broad but clearly focused and relevant to your argument.
Don’t give too much detail—you can mention points that you will return to later, but save your evidence and
interpretation for the main body of the essay. How much space you need for background depends on your
topic and the scope of your essay. In our Braille example, we take a few sentences to introduce the topic and
sketch the social context that the essay will address:

Example: Background information

The writing system of raised dots used by blind and visually impaired people was developed by
Louis Braille in nineteenth-century France. In a society that did not value disabled people in general,
blindness was particularly stigmatized, and lack of access to reading and writing was a significant
barrier
 to social participation. The idea of tactile reading was not entirely new, but existing methods
based on sighted systems were difficult to learn and use.

 Step 3: Present your thesis statement
Now it’s time to narrow your focus and show exactly what you want to say about the topic. This is
your thesis statement—a sentence or two that sums up your overall argument. This is the most important
part of your introduction. A good thesis isn’t just a statement of fact, but a claim that requires evidence and
explanation. The goal is to clearly convey your own position in a debate or your central point about a topic.

Example: Thesis statement

As the first writing system designed for blind people’s needs, Braille was a groundbreaking new
accessibility tool. It not only provided practical benefits, but also helped change the cultural status of
blindness.

 Step 4: Map your essay’s structure

Particularly in longer essays, it’s helpful to end the introduction by signposting what will be covered in each
part. Keep it concise and give your reader a clear sense of the direction your argument will take.

Example: Sign posting. This essay begins by discussing the situation of blind people in nineteenth-century
Europe. It then describes the invention of Braille and the gradual process of its acceptance within blind
education. Subsequently, it explores the wide-ranging effects of this invention on blind people’s social and
cultural lives.

 Step 5: Check and revise

As you research and write, your argument might change focus or direction as you learn more. For this
reason, it’s often a good idea to wait until later in the writing process before you write the introduction
paragraph—it can even be the very last thing you write. When you’ve finished writing the essay
body and conclusion, you should return to the introduction and check that it matches the content of the

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essay. It’s especially important to make sure your thesis statement accurately represents what you do in the
essay. If your argument has gone in a different direction than planned, weak your thesis statement to match
what you actually say.

You can use the checklist below to make sure your introduction does everything it’s supposed to.

Checklist: Essay introduction

 My first sentence is engaging and relevant.
 I have introduced the topic with necessary background information.
 I have defined any important terms.
 My thesis statement clearly presents my main point or argument.
 Everything in the introduction is relevant to the main body of the essay.
 Body paragraphs

Once you have engaged your readers and presented your thesis in your introduction, use your body
paragraphs to fully develop your ideas. You can do this by first introducing a sub-topic of the thesis in a
topic sentence. For example, if you were expanding a theme about Napoleon’s loss at Waterloo, you might
have a topic sentence that reads like this: “Napoleon brought on one of the first financial crises of the French
government by emptying government coffers for his war with Britain.” Notice that the topic sentence
doesn’t provide details, just the general topic of the paragraph. Notice also that the topic sentence tells
readers how the paragraph’s topic/main idea relates to the essay’s core thesis. In other words, a topic
sentence not only gives a fact but makes a point or gives an interpretation about that fact, showing how it is
relevant or significant to the essay’s core purpose. It is important to remember, too, that the topic sentence is
your idea, based on the interpretation of your sources.

With your topic sentence in place, you can now develop your idea with sentences that provide supporting
details. In the above example, these details might be facts about the repercussions of Napoleon’s financial
crisis or about opposition that he faced as a result. In a history paper, these details would most likely take the
form of quotations or paraphrases from sources, but depending on your writing purpose, audience, and
discipline, supporting details might also be facts, personal anecdotes, or logical reasoning. Whatever form of
evidence you use, make sure it is convincing to your audience within the context of your writing purpose
and that it supports the statement you make in your topic sentence.

Your paper should be organized in a manner that moves from general to specific information. Every time
you begin a new subject, think of an inverted pyramid - The broadest range of information sits at the top,
and as the paragraph or paper progresses, the author becomes more and more focused on the argument
ending with specific, detailed evidence supporting a claim. Lastly, the author explains how and why the
information she has just provided connects to and supports her thesis (a brief wrap-up or warrant).

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  The Four Elements of a Good Paragraph (TTEB)
A good paragraph should contain at least the following four elements: Transition, Topic sentence,
specific Evidence and analysis, and a Brief wrap-up sentence (also known as a warrant) –TTEB!

1. A Transition sentence leading in from a previous paragraph to assure smooth reading. This acts as a
hand-off from one idea to the next.
2. A Topic sentence that tells the reader what you will be discussing in the paragraph.
3. Specific Evidence and analysis that supports one of your claims and that provides a deeper level of
detail than your topic sentence.
4. A Brief wrap-up sentence that tells the reader how and why this information supports the paper’s
thesis. The brief wrap-up is also known as the warrant. The warrant is important to your argument
because it connects your reasoning and support to your thesis, and it shows that the information in
the paragraph is related to your thesis and helps defend it.

 Induction
Induction is the type of reasoning that moves from specific facts to a general conclusion. When you use
induction in your paper, you will state your thesis (which is actually the conclusion you have come to after
looking at all the facts) and then support your thesis with the facts. The following is an example of induction
taken from Dorothy U. Seyler’s Understanding Argument:

Facts:

There is the dead body of Smith. Smith was shot in his bedroom between the hours of 11:00 p.m. and 2:00
a.m., according to the coroner. Smith was shot with a .32 caliber pistol. The pistol left in the bedroom
Here, then,
contains is the fingerprints.
Jones’s example in bullet
Jonesform:
was seen, by a neighbor, entering the Smith home at around 11:00 p.m.
Conclusion:
the night of Smith’sJones
death.killed Smith heard Smith and Jones arguing in Smith’s office the morning of the
A coworker
daySmith died. Smith was shot by Jones’ gun, Jones was seen entering the scene of the crime, Jones and
Support:
Smith argued earlier in the day Smith died.
Conclusion: Jones killed Smith.
 Assumption: The facts are representative, not isolated incidents, and thus reveal a trend, justifying
the conclusion drawn.

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  Deduction
When you use deduction in an argument, you begin with general premises and move to a specific
conclusion. There is a precise pattern you must use when you reason deductively. This pattern is
called syllogistic reasoning (the syllogism). Syllogistic reasoning (deduction) is organized in three steps:

Premis:
Major premise:
Minor premise
1. Conclusion :
In order for the syllogism (deduction) to work, you must accept that the relationship of the two premises
lead, logically, to the conclusion. Here are two examples of deduction or syllogistic reasoning:

 Socrates
1. Major premise : All men are mortal.
2. Minor premise: Socrates is a man.
3. Conclusion: Socrates is mortal.
 Lincoln
1. Major premise: People who perform with courage and clear purpose in a crisis are great leaders.
2. Minor premise: Lincoln was a person who performed with courage and a clear purpose in a
crisis.
3. Conclusion: Lincoln was a great leader.

So in order for deduction to work in the example involving Socrates, you must agree that

(1) all men are mortal (they all die); and

(2) Socrates is a man. If you disagree with either of these premises, the conclusion is invalid. The example
using Socrates isn’t so difficult to validate. But when you move into more murky water means situation or
circumtances that is foreign or unclear, unfamiliar (when you use terms such as courage, clear purpose,
and great), the connections get tenuous (weak or poor).

For example, some historians might argue that Lincoln didn’t really shine until a few years into the Civil
War, after many Union losses to Southern leaders such as Robert E. Lee.

The following is a clear example of deduction gone awry:

1. Major premise: All dogs make good pets.
2. Minor premise: Doogle is a dog.
3. Conclusion: Doogle will make a good pet.

If you don’t agree that all dogs make good pets, then the conclusion that Doogle will make a good pet is
invalid.

 Enthymemes
Berasal dari bahasa Yunani ‘’en’’ artinya di dalam, dan thymos artinya pikiran. Sejenis
silogisme yg tidak lengkap tdk utk menghasilkan pembuktian ilmiah.

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When a premise in a syllogism is missing, the syllogism becomes an enthymeme. Enthymemes can be very
effective in argument, but they can also be unethical and lead to invalid conclusions. Authors often use
enthymemes to persuade audiences. The following is an example of an enthymeme:

If you have a plasma TV, you are not poor.

The first part of the enthymeme (If you have a plasma TV) is the stated premise. The second part of the
statement (you are not poor) is the conclusion. Therefore, the unstated premise is “Only rich people have
plasma TVs.” The enthymeme above leads us to an invalid conclusion (people who own plasma TVs are not
poor) because there are plenty of people who own plasma TVs who are poor. Let’s look at this enthymeme
in a syllogistic structure:

 Major premise: People who own plasma TVs are rich (unstated above).
 Minor premise: You own a plasma TV.
 Conclusion: You are not poor.

To help you understand how induction and deduction can work together to form a solid argument, you
may want to look at the United States Declaration of Independence. The first section of the Declaration
contains a series of syllogisms, while the middle section is an inductive list of examples. The final section
brings the first and second sections together in a compelling conclusion.

Here is a good essay paragraph example to make it a bit clearer:

“[Start with a topic sentence] J K Rowling, in her first book – Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s
Stone, claims that the appearance of a person can sometimes be misleading, [followed by
supporting details] showing one of the kindest and most favorite characters – Hagrid as a scary
person. His eyes are 'glinting like black beetles', his face is 'almost completely hidden by a long,
shaggy mane of hair and a wild, tangled beard' says the author (Rowling 46). [Then goes an
explanation] The author declares that the main character of the book – Harry Potter is frightened by
this intimidating figure, which misleads the reader, making Hagrid appear as a villain. [Explains the
significance] However, this image is wrong. Later the reader gets to know Hagrid’s true character,
which is the opposite. [Ends with a conclusion and transition to the following part] This example
proves how misleading an appearance of someone can be, which is easily proved by many other
examples from literature and real life.”

In any case, remember that the body paragraph of any paper has to be the strongest part of the
whole text.

 Transitional Paragraphs

There may be times when you want to shift from one sub-topic of your thesis to another or from a general
discussion to a more detailed treatment of an idea. At these times, you can use a transitional paragraph to
sum up and hint at the material to come. In other words, transitional paragraphs act as signposts that
guide readers to the next part of your essay. Because transitional paragraphs serve such a specific
function, you will not find many of them in an essay, and in a shorter piece, there may not be any. Save
transitional paragraphs for times when you think your readers might be confused or lost if you introduce the
next part of your essay before reviewing the ground you have already covered.

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Using transition words in your writing can help you improve the readability and flow of your paragraph to
the next. These words help your text flow seamlessly into the next idea, which shows your readers the
relationship between paragraphs and phrases. To connect ideas between paragraphs, writers typically
utilize transition phrases that identify the logical connection between the two. These phrases can either be at
the end of the paragraph with the concluding remark or at the beginning of the new paragraph with the topic
sentence. Longer works that have multiple sections incorporate transition paragraphs to connect large
portions of the text. These paragraphs often summarize the information that preceded it while connecting it
to what follows.

When transitioning within and between paragraphs, writers incorporate certain connecting words and
phrases that help organize their thoughts and ideas. These words and phrases can also indicate shifts,
comparisons, results, examples, and importance. Regardless of the purpose of the transition word or phrase,
they can be at the beginning, middle, or end of a sentence.

The main types of transitions include addition, contrast, emphasis, and summary:

Types of transitions

Type Use Examples

Addition to add an idea also, furthermore, in addition to, in

other words, besides

Causal to show cause and as a result, for this reason,

effect consequently, therefore

Comparison to highlight similarly, likewise, in the same way, in

similarities a similar fashion

Concession to show an although, even though, despite the fact

unexpected result

Contrast to identify alternatively, conversely, nonetheless,

differences however, but, yet

TUGAS: Emphasis to stress an idea Especially, indeed, as a matter of fact,

without a doubt, so much so

Example to illustrate or for example, such as, including, to

explain illustrate

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 Types of transitions

Type Use Examples

Sequence to indicate time next, eventually, finally, earlier, after,

in the first place, in due time

Space to stress above, beyond, nearby, in the distance,

place/position off to one side, adjacent

Summary to summarize an in conclusion, therefore, to sum up, in

idea the end, in other words

How to transition to another paragraph

To transition from one paragraph to another, consider the connection, transition, focus, and sentence:
 Determine how each paragraph connects to the writer's purpose.
 Identify the type of transition needed.
 Briefly highlight the focus or key topic of each paragraph.
 Compose a sentence utilizing a transition word/phrase while detailing the purpose of the paragraph
before and after the transition.

11. Concluding Paragraphs

The conclusion is the final paragraph of your essay. A strong conclusion aims to:
 Tie together the essay’s main points
 Show why your argument matters
 Leave the reader with a strong impression

Your conclusion should give a sense of closure and completion to your argument, but also show what new
questions or possibilities it has opened up. This conclusion is taken from our annotated essay example,
which discusses the history of the Braille system. Hover over each part to see why it’s effective.

Example:

Braille paved the way for dramatic cultural changes in the way blind people were treated and the
opportunities available to them. Louis Braille’s innovation was to reimagine existing reading
systems from a blind perspective, and the success of this invention required sighted teachers to
adapt to their students’ reality instead of the other way around. In this sense, Braille helped drive
broader social changes in the status of blindness. New accessibility tools provide practical
advantages to those who need them, but they can also change the perspectives and attitudes of those
who do not.

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Some students think that the purpose of a conclusion is to restate the thesis and this is partly true. The
conclusion should reassert the core idea of your paper, but it should also clearly flow from the material you
have carefully developed in your body paragraphs and thus, it should be more than a mechanical restatement
of your thesis. Rather, an effective concluding paragraph should reinforce the central idea of your paper and
leave your readers satisfied that you have made your case.

One way to ensure that you have written an effective conclusion is to ask, “Does it strengthen the main
message of my paper?” If it draws conclusions from the points you have made in your paper or suggests the
implications of them, chances are your conclusion is fully developed. Here are some steps to make a good
concluding paragraph:

 Step 1: Return to your thesis

To begin your conclusion, signal that the essay is coming to an end by returning to your overall
argument.Don’t just repeat your thesis statement—instead, try to rephrase your argument in a way that
shows how it has been developed since the introduction.
Example: Returning to the thesis Braille paved the way for dramatic cultural changes in the way blind
people were treated and the opportunities available to them.

 Step 2: Review your main points

Next, remind the reader of the main points that you used to support your argument. Avoid simply
summarizing each paragraph or repeating each point in order; try to bring your points together in a way that
makes the connections between them clear. The conclusion is your final chance to show how all
the paragraphs of your essay add up to a coherent whole.
Example: Reviewing the main points Louis Braille’s innovation was to reimagine existing reading
systems from a blind perspective, and the success of this invention required sighted teachers to adapt to
their students’ reality instead of the other way around. In this sense, Braille helped drive broader social
changes in the status of blindness.

 Step 3: Show why it matters

To wrap up your conclusion, zoom out to a broader view of the topic and consider the implications of your
argument. For example:
 Does it contribute a new understanding of your topic?
 Does it raise new questions for future study?
 Does it lead to practical suggestions or predictions?
 Can it be applied to different contexts?
 Can it be connected to a broader debate or theme?
Whatever your essay is about, the conclusion should aim to emphasize the significance of your argument,
whether that’s within your academic subject or in the wider world. Try to end with a strong, decisive
sentence, leaving the reader with a lingering sense of interest in your topic.
Example:
Showing why it matters New accessibility tools provide practical advantages to those who need them, but
they can also change the perspectives and attitudes of those who do not.
 What shouldn’t go in the conclusion?
The easiest way to improve your conclusion is to eliminate these common mistakes.

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  Don’t include new evidence
Any evidence or analysis that is essential to supporting your thesis statement should appear in the main body
of the essay. The conclusion might include minor pieces of new information—for example, a sentence or
two discussing broader implications, or a quotation that nicely summarizes your central point. But it
shouldn’t introduce any major new sources or ideas that need further explanation to understand.
 Don’t use “concluding phrases”
Avoid using obvious stock phrases to tell the reader what you’re doing:
 “In conclusion…”
 “To sum up…”
These phrases aren’t forbidden, but they can make your writing sound weak. By returning to your main
argument, it will quickly become clear that you are concluding the essay—you shouldn’t have to spell it out.
 Don’t undermine your argument
Avoid using apologetic phrases that sound uncertain or confused:
 “This is just one approach among many.”
 “There are good arguments on both sides of this issue.”
 “There is no clear answer to this problem.”
Even if your essay has explored different points of view, your own position should be clear. There may be
many possible approaches to the topic, but you want to leave the reader convinced that yours is the best one!

CHAPTER II
WRITING EFFECTIVE PARAGRAPHS
In general, in order for a paragraph to be effective, it must have three characteristics: unity, development and
coherence.
 Unity
The first characteristic of an effective paragraph is unity, which means that all sentences in the paragraph
explain, develop, and support a central idea in some way. In other words, every paragraph must have a
purpose within your paper, and all the sentences must somehow advance that purpose. This means that ALL
sentences—topic sentence, supporting ones, and concluding sentence—must be more than loosely related to
the subtopic. They must all advance the paragraph’s purpose as well as the thesis. Why should you aim for a

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unified paragraph? Because in a dis-unified one, a writer’s purpose and the connections between the
sentences can be unclear, as in this one:
(1)Firstly, the Olympic Games provide an outlet for competition. (2) Friendly competition among many
countries occurs around the world. (3) Regardless of each country’s financial situation, the competition is in
the field of sports and not in politics. (4) It provides to people who have trained very hard a form or basis of
comparison to others around the world, giving these competitors the opportunity to find out if they are the
very best. (5)Also, along with providing an outlet for competition the Olympic Games creates a sense of
nationalism. (6) Nationalist pride is always a component of the Olympics, each country having its
representatives. (6) The Olympics unifies a country, giving its citizens something in common-- a victory--
that brings them together. (7) For example, the acquisition of a gold medal or a number of gold medals can
be a source of national pride. (Adapted from a student paper, used with permission.)
Here, the topic sentence is about how the Olympic Games provide an outlet for competition, and in
sentences (2), (3) and (4) the writer sticks to that idea. However, in sentence (5), she shifts focus to how the
Olympic Games create a sense of nationalism. It’s possible that this second idea is connected to the key
concept in the topic sentence, but the writer doesn’t make that connection, and as a result, the paragraph
ends weakly with an example supporting the shift in topic. The writer never makes her point about how the
Games provide a competitive outlet.
To achieve unity, begin with a clear topic sentence. This doesn’t mean that it has to appear at the beginning
of the paragraph, although a topic sentence usually does in academic writing. What is important however, is
that the main idea or purpose, stated in the topic sentence, sets the agenda for the rest of the paragraph.
Because the topic sentence provides the unifying idea, this sentence must be clear, concise and make a point
about your thesis. You can think of it this way: a good topic sentence provides the bones of a paragraph that
support the skin and muscle of all the sentences that follow. Once you know what point you want to
introduce in your topic sentence, you can create a unified paragraph by making sure that all the rest of the
sentences are clearly related to the first one.
For example, a paragraph might begin like this: “In the second chapter of the “Mountain People,” Turnbull
(1972) uses an informal, colloquial writing style to involve his readers in the lives of the Ik people of
Africa.” In this paragraph, to maintain unity, the remaining sentences should all relate to the central
concepts in the topic sentence: Turnbull’s informal writing style and/or how that style involves his readers.
A sentence that mentions the informal writing style of another author would be a digression and would
destroy the unity of the paragraph. Thus, unity is created when the topic sentence makes a promise to
readers, and all the other sentences fulfill that promise.
One way to ensure that your paragraphs have unity is to underline the subject of each supporting sentence to
see if it points back to the key concepts in the topic sentence. In the topic sentence about the “Mountain
People,” for example, you might have sentences that begin, “Turnbull’s word choice is more informal…..”
or “The author’s level of language…” In each case, the subject noun group relates to one of the main
concepts in the topic sentence. If all of your sentence subjects develop one of the key concepts, chances are
that you have a unified paragraph. If they don’t, you have probably digressed from your original purpose
and must recast some sentences to get back on track

 Development
Effective paragraphs are not only unified, they are fully developed, which means that they don’t leave any
significant questions in readers’ minds. If you were drawing a map to show a fellow traveler how to get from
a mountain pass to a source of water, you would be careful to draw a line that followed the trail down the
mountain, along the valley to a spot where there was a lake. You wouldn’t stop the line halfway down the
mountain, hoping that those who used your map would be able to figure out the rest of the way for
themselves. Similarly, when you are writing a paragraph, you must be sure to trace the full development of
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your ideas for readers so they will understand the assumptions, evidence and reasoning you used. There are
three ways to ensure that your paragraphs are fully developed: by providing the right level of supporting
detail, choosing the right kind of evidence and choosing the right pattern of development for your purpose.
 Developing paragraphs with the right level of detail
To fully develop the sub-topic of the essay’s main idea in a paragraph, you must provide your readers with
details. It is not enough to make assertions. Your readers must understand fully how you reached your
conclusion. What leads you to the conclusion you make in the paragraph? What texts and ideas do you refer
to that influenced your thinking? What reasoning do you use? To make sure you’ve provided the right level
of detail, try using the 5Ws to imagine what questions an informed reader might ask. Does your paragraph
give enough detail to answer important what and when questions? Does it answer who, where, and why
questions? Although you will probably not have to address all of these, a fully developed paragraph provides
enough supporting detail to answer questions any engaged, informed reader might ask.
 Developing paragraphs with the right kind of detail
Not only is it important to provide enough detail for your readers, it’s important to provide the right kind of
detail, and that will depend on the purpose of your essay. The kind of detail will also depend on the demands
of the assignment and the discipline you are writing in. For example, if you are asked to write a personal
essay, your details might be examples of personal experiences. If you are asked to write a history paper, the
“right” kind of details might come from your analysis of a historical text, and support in an argumentative
essay might come from both analysis and reasoning.
Another way to think about choosing the right kind of detail is in terms of warm or cool proofs (Brundage,
D. on Tarver, J., personal communication, March 17, 2008).Warm proofs are those that appeal to emotions,
and they are what classical rhetoricians call appeals to pathos. On the other hand, cool proofs, like logical
arguments and statistics, appeal to reason and are more in keeping with classical ideas of logos, or logical
thought. If you think about choosing details in this way, then a history paper might use a combination of
warm proofs (e.g., personal histories and letters from the historical era) in addition to the cool proofs (e.g.
reasoning and logic). Again, the choice of detail will depend on your writing purpose, which flows from the
demands of the assignment and the requirements of the discipline you are writing in.
In the example below, a writer explains how classical ideas of pathos can be used to enhance the
persuasiveness of a message. As you read, consider the details the writer has chosen, and why she might
have chosen those and not others:
Appeals to pathos, or what modern rhetoreticians call emotional appeals, begin by making an audience more
open to the message. Aristotle himself suggested this approach to persuasion in the Rhetoric when he stated
that “(o)ur judgments when we are pleased and friendly are not the same as when we are pained and hostile”
(as cited in Horner, 1988, p.57). In other words, Aristotle proposed that writers persuade, in part, by
affecting the mood of their audience and by making them better disposed towards the message. To maximize
this effect, writers need to know and identify with their audience. Are audience members all the same age, or
a mixed group? What socio-economic group are they likely to be part of? What is their level of education?
Asking questions like these will help writers to know their audience’s hopes and fears, and prepare the
audience to be more sympathetic to the message (Horner, 1987).
In this paragraph, the writer has selected details from a text in the form of quotations and summary because
she is trying to support her explanation of pathos. In doing so, she uses quotes from Aristotle, one of the
founding fathers of rhetoric, and Horner, a wellrespected modern rhetorician. Although this explanation
would have been more persuasive if the writer had quoted more than one source, the kind of details she has
provided are appropriate and convincing for her purpose.

 Developing paragraphs with the right pattern of development

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The particular kind of support you provide will depend largely on the pattern of development you use for
your paragraph, which, in turn, depends on its purpose. If you are trying to make a point by telling a story,
then you might use narrative. If the purpose is to explain, step by step, how something is done, then a
process pattern might be better. The key is in selecting the right pattern of development, keeping in mind
that you can use a variety of patterns in the same essay.
One way to think about different types of arrangements or patterns is on a continuum from the types most
likely to be found in creative writing to the types found in analytical writing. On such a continuum, narration
would be on the most creative end and cause and effect and definition on the analytical end:
Creative---Narration---Description---Process---Exemplification--Comparison/Contrast---Definition---Cause
and Effect---Analytical.
In academic writing, it’s a good rule of thumb to use the more creative types of patterns sparingly, for a
defined purpose and to rely more on analytical types of arrangements.
What follows is a list of different patterns with samples of each one; as you read, keep one point in mind.
Although these classifications are ones that many books on writing and rhetoric use, the divisions between
them are somewhat arbitrary and are not exclusive. In other words, a paragraph that uses definition as a
method of development is also likely to use elements of cause/effect and process development; a paragraph
of narration will likely use elements of description. Although the list is not exhaustive, it will give you an
idea of some of the most commonly used patterns of development.

CHAPTER III

NARRATIVE PARAGRAPHS

The narrative paragraphs talk about a scene, place, story, or event. In most cases, narrative paragraphs
encompass ideas about natural phenomena, account for a person’s life, or document a novel. When writing a
narrative paragraph, you need to organize the events chronologically in their order of occurrence. This
means detailing what came first, what followed, and what came last. Ensure that your narrative paragraph
has a central idea and details the characters involved when writing. This means that you should provide a
clear description and set up your reader so that they will follow, understand, and flow with the story.

When organizing ideas in a narrative paragraph, the topic sentence should announce the ideas related to the
topic. In most cases, the topic sentence bears the plot of the story. Where, when, and why of the story.
Therefore, it should highlight the event, where it occurred, and how it happened. You should then have a
series of sentences that support the topic sentence, giving a detailed account and examples. Your paragraph
should then end with a concluding sentence that crowns it. The latter summarizes the entire paragraph.
When writing about an event, organize it into the three stages of an event: beginning, middle, and
end/climax of the story. These stages are the sequence of action. The introduction or beginning of your
account should highlight the main issue or problem. The middle of the story should highlight the series of
important activities in your story. Finally, the end concludes the story, offering insights to the reader.
In most cases, narrative paragraphs are used when writing an autobiography, bibliography, narrative essays,
and personal statements.

 Example of Narrative Paragraph

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I had already given up hope of getting a donor. I was on the first list, waiting to get an organ donation from
a lady who had volunteered her kidney for me. However, as it would later emerge, the lady in question could
no longer fulfill her promise. Then, on September 30th, my birthday, we received the dreaded call. The
hospital committee for organ transplants notified us of the possibility of scrapping my name off the list.
Mary had wholeheartedly volunteered her kidney for me, but as fate would have it, she was in the fatal plane
crash, and all that was left of her were ashes. She was my favorite pilot, my mentor, and my role model. The
news broke me into pieces. I never lost hope, though; I prayed and hoped that soon enough, I would get
another donor.

In this paragraph, the author takes us through her encounter with kidney failure prompting a kidney
transplant. However, as we advance through the paragraph, it emerges that the transplant could not take
place. It leaves us with the suspense of whether she got another donor. That there is how to hammer a
narrative paragraph.

 Tips for writing a resounding Personal Narrative Essay

 Choose a focused and narrow experience, as a "too big" experience will result in less
development and less detail. Flesh out the details of a "smaller" story, but an important one.
 Plan your narrative essay and avoid pantsing. Planning a personal narrative means writing a
story based on a specific blueprint or roadmap of how you want to tell the story. You first figure
out the parts of your story before writing. On the other hand, pantsing is when you write the
personal narrative based on a chosen essay topic from the start to the end without planning or
thinking things through.
 Have a clear purpose. The personal narrative essay must mirror a unique perspective on life.
Even though this is hard to attain than it sounds, watch your tone in the essay.
 Be sure to use your introduction to "sell" your audience on your topic. In other words,
"HOOK" them into your story by providing an interesting and engaging opening paragraph.
 Draft your story using the first-person pronoun, "I." (This is among those assignments where
you can use first-person pronouns, so "I" away!). Remember, you are the author. So, take
ownership of your story. However, overusing "I" only makes your story redundant and self-
centered.
 Mind attention to tenses”when writing a personal narrative, choose to write in the past tense. It
helps in separating your current, narrative voice and your past self. You are, in fact, narrating the
latter more. However, if you flip the story and decide to use present tense, ensure there is
consistency.
 Be sure that the audience/reader understands precisely what your narrative will be
about with the background information to understand that narrative fully. Give the reader
appropriate background, but don't go overboard.
 Your story should have a point, a message, and/or a clear lesson that the reader can
understand. In a personal narrative, the point of your story can also be called a thesis statement.
Make sure you make your point or thesis clear to the reader. In a personal narrative, the thesis
statement should be located within the introduction:and most commonly, it is usually woven into
the introductory paragraph, as the last sentence.
 Use your conclusion to "wrap up" the topic and the narrative. Be sure to return to what the
point of your story is.

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  Ensure that you use proper sentence structure. For example, mix long and short sentences and
try as much as possible to avoid run-on sentences.
 SHOW, Don't Tell! Since it is a narration, it should show your readers exactly what happened
instead of telling them what transpired. You, as the writer, become one of the characters.
Showing helps you to shape the perspective and attitude of your readers towards your story. It
equally impacts how the audience views your predominant plot. Therefore, do not fall into the
temptation of explaining everything descriptively but show your readers some action.
 Use descriptive language and tone when writing
 Use vivid language so that your readers can imagine the whole scene.
 Use sensory-driven details to describe moods, actions, theme, and the overall plot. Adding
emotions to your essay helps the reader to know about the feeling. Describe the feelings and
emotions using descriptive words.
 Zoom into the important moments that are the most significant and interesting parts of your
story. You must also prove the significance of your experience through adequate personal
evidence and examples.
 Maintain consistency when writing this essay. Any professional essay writer will tell you that
consistency is vital. Stay focused on one idea and add as many details that relate to the specific
point as possible. Avoid detours into irrelevant details.

 Features of an excellent personal narrative essay

When writing your personal narrative essay, ensure that these six personal narrative features are all
addressed. The features include:
1) Proper Essay Organization
The Personal Narrative is organized with a clear beginning, middle, and end like any other story. It should
read like a story: with an exposition, a rise action, a climax, falling action, and a resolution or denouement.
While the Personal Narrative is certainly less formal than other academic essays, the point or moral of the
story (i.e., the thesis) should be very clear to the reader.
2) Description of characters
It is vital to develop the characters in the story so that the reader understands the people in the story:even if
the one person in the story is YOU. Mainly, doing this helps your reader learn about the characters both by
what they say and by what they do.
3) Use Transitions
An excellent personal narrative utilizes paragraph breaks and transitional words and phrases that help the
audience (or reader) flow in and around the story.
4) Dialogue
You are allowed to include either external or internal dialogue when writing a personal narrative to connect
your characters and help propel the story forward. Dialog is instrumental in showing rather than telling the
story to the reader.
5) Sensory Details
As you write the essay, develop some sense of imagery within your story. You can achieve this by using
sensory-driven details. You must create a vivid story by helping your reader/the audience perceive, see,
hear, taste, touch, and feel as the characters in your story do. The sensory details invite the readers into your
world, so much so that they resonate and own the story. In addition, it helps the audience experience the
story you are sharing with them in the most intended way.
6) Thesis Statement
Like all essays you will ever write, a personal narrative has a thesis, the central idea or message that drives
the story. Thus, it is a thesis-driven storytelling approach where you share with others, a story about you.
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A thesis helps to show the significance of themes, events, lessons, or morals from the events. When the
purpose of your story is structured as a thesis statement, you convince your readers off the bat. When writing
other academic essays, the thesis appears in the last sentences of the first paragraph. However, when writing
your personal narrative, you have the freedom and flexibility to determine where your story's main point
appears. This means that as long as your point of the story is clear, the location of the thesis can vary
depending on how to develop the story. If anything, be sure to underline the thesis statement before
submitting your personal narrative for grading.

 Format of a Personal Narrative Essay

When you are typing your personal narrative essay, you need to do it in:
 Times New Roman, font size 12.
 Double-paces
 MLA or APA format (depending on your institution or professor)
In terms of flow, a personal narrative is written in prose form. It is a piece of writing assignment that uses
the story format. This is to say that it has a beginning, middle, and end. When writing it, ensure that you
have a clear introduction paragraph with a hook, background story, and thesis. Next, the body of the story
develops as body paragraphs. Last, your personal narrative has to have a concluding paragraph. Although
personal narratives are less formal compared to traditional academic writing, your story must have a thesis
statement to allow your readers to understand the focal point in your story.

 Outline of a Personal Narrative

When doing any piece of writing, having an outline makes work easier. It enables you to determine the flow
of ideas and plan the organization of your content. A personal narrative essay follows the five-paragraph
essay structure. That means that it has: the introduction paragraph, three body paragraphs, and a concluding
paragraph.

 Introduction
In a personal narrative essay, the introduction is as essential a paragraph as with conventional essays. It is
the first impression on your reader, which can be used to judge if the essay is worth their time. It further
defines the quality and scope of your essay. Therefore, it has to beckon your readers by grabbing their
attention-stealing them off their feet.
Begin the introduction with a hook that catches the attention of the reader and sets the scene.
 Where is the event set?
 When did the event occur?
 How old were you when this occurred?
After your hook, present some background of the story or the setup of your story. Finally, round up the essay
by stating the thesis: What did you learn, or how did the event become significant in your life?

 Body Paragraphs
Your essay can have three significant moments from the beginning, middle, and end of the event. As you
write the body paragraphs, show and don't tell. Use spatial relationships, sensory details, and transition
words to mark the passage of time. Each body paragraph should have an outstanding topic sentence
followed by a detailed explanation and a concluding sentence. Ensure that every paragraph focuses on a
specific encounter chronologically. Also, place your characters in an excellent position to tell your story for
a better flow.

 Conclusion
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In the conclusion of your personal narrative conclusion, provide the climax of the story. Wrap up the entire
story and do not introduce new ideas or points either. In your conclusion, analyze and reflect on the story's
action, including letting the reader know what the event taught you or how it is important/significant to you.
Your conclusion should be satisfying enough so that your readers find your personal narrative unforgettable,
relatable, and exciting. Ensure that you reiterate the climax of your story to make it more interesting. Write
the lessons learned or takeaways from your story without forcing them on your readers. Instead, show and
don't tell. For example, instead of telling your readers what you learned, narrate to them how different you
are now or how the encounter contributed to who you are today. Doing this helps build the moral of your
story without forcing issues.

Anatomy/Structure of a Personal Narrative Essay

 Introduction Paragraph
Hook.
Setting the scene.
Thesis
 Body Paragraphs
 Closing Paragraph or Conclusion.
State your thesis differently
Close with an interesting parting shot.

 How to Choose A Personal Narrative Topic

To choose a great personal narrative topic, you need to brainstorm and then evaluate the personal narrative
topic you've chosen.
Brainstorming means walking through your life, encounters, and experiences and choosing one that you
want to share with your readers. Here are some questions to help you:
 What memorable encounters have occurred in your life?
 What challenges have you faced so far in life?
 Are there any important memories that you have?
 What are some of the saddest or happiest events that have occurred in your life?
 What obstacles or challenges have you faced in life?
 What stories matter the most to you as a person?
 What memories define you?

When brainstorming, you can list such topics; you are sure to come up with vivid and outstanding topics.
You can equally select personal narrative topics from the personal narrative essay prompts from class. When
brainstorming, use divergent and convergent thinking. Divergent thinking helps generate as many ideas as
possible, whereas convergent thinking helps you narrow down to the best ideas. Having chosen a topic,
evaluate if it is the best you can tell your story through. If a story is boring to you, it will most likely be
boring to your audience. This is enough a signal to change the personal narrative topic. With the topic, write
an outline with your beginning, middle, and end of the story. We are saying that you need to critically and
deeply analyze the personal narrative ideas developed when brainstorming to help you write a great essay.

 Some valuable tips for choosing the topics

 Avoid overdone topics. Instead, come up with fresh ideas.
 Narrow down to a topic you are comfortable writing about
 Do not choose a topic that triggers stress in your life
 Choose a topic you relate with, know about, and care to share about
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  Choose a topic about something you are passionate about
 Have a topic you can relate to at a personal level
 Choose a topic you are sure will interest the audience

Personal Narrative Topics to consider in your assignment

1. A teacher I will never forget
2. My first job
3. A memorable childhood experience
4. How I developed the love for football
5. A story of how I lost a close friend
6. A birthday surprise party I will never
forget
7. Personal advice to my generation
8. What I regret the most
9. My favorite subject
10. My dream job
11. The most important principle in my life
12. The most challenging decision I ever made
13. My pains as a child who was neglected
14. My experience as an orphan
15. My experiences as an adopted child
16. An embarrassing moment in my life
17. A first love that never was
18. The stepmother from hell

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  Examples of Personal Narrative Essay Prompts
We have compiled some of the personal narrative essays prompts we came across as we researched,
interacted with the content, and from works that our writers have completed. Here some examples:
1. Experiencing Gratitude
For this assignment, you will write a personal narrative:a story:illustrating an event, moment (or series of
moments), or experience exemplifying gratitude. Share a story about a moment, experience, or event where
you experienced gratitude either during the experience itself or after the experience took place.
2. A Favorite School Memory
Write a story about your favorite school memory. Who was there? Where was it? How did it happen? How
does it end? Focus on one single event. For example, if you played the violin in school, you could tell a story
about playing the violin in a concert. Or, if you played on a soccer team, you could tell the story of your
tryout.

3. Unresolved personal experience

Describe something that happened to you but where there's no resolution. What was the experience, and how
did it occur? What don't you understand or know about the experience? Then, instead of having a resolution
to the story, convey how you feel about not knowing what happened.
4. Family Story
Write a personal narrative about something that happened within your family. What occurred, who was
there, and what did you do? Is there an important, funny, sad, or happy event in your family? Did you do
something important or special with your family? Some examples of this topic are the birth of someone in
your family, the death of a loved one, or something fun you did with your parents, siblings, grandparents,
etc.
5. The Memorable Journey
Write a story of the best, strangest, or worst thing that happened to you on a vacation or trip to another place.
Focus on one event or experience. When assigned such, you can focus on a robbery encounter when in a
new town, an encounter with pickpocketers, getting lost in a place, experiencing a new culture in a place,
getting to demystify your personal beliefs while on a journey, meeting new people while on transit, being
left by a plane, or being stuck on the roads in a forest, etc.
6. An International or National Event or Incident
Write a personal story describing how you acted, witnessed, or responded to a significant national or
international event or incident. For example, did you play in the Olympics or join a protest? Did you
survive a natural disaster? What was your role in this circumstance? What did you do? For example, if you
were in a hurricane, describe what happened, who you were with, and how you survived.
7. Meaningful Life Experience
Write a powerful short story about a meaningful life experience. This was a prompt used in the
September 2020 New York Times Personal narrative essay contest. Look at how glittery, composed,
organized, and well-thought-out the winning personal narrative essays were and hone your skills. The best
ones, including the honorary mentions, were sieved from over 8000 entries sourced globally.
8. Accident
Write a story about an accident you caused or an accident that happened to you. This could be negative, as
in a car accident, or maybe it's an accident of good fortune. Describe how the accident occurred, who was
involved, and how it ended. For example, was it a bicycle accident? How did it happen? Did someone get
hurt?
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 CHAPTER IV

COMPARE AND CONTRAST ESSAY

So, what exactly is a compare and contrast essay? Students and tutors alike, must understand compare and
contrast definition before beginning to write or grade one. Simply put, a compare and contrast essay is a type
of essay that evaluates the similarities and differences between the two subjects.

Mostly, the two subjects might belong to the same category but have different characteristics or features. For
instance, when asked to write this type of essay, you might compare and contrast different kinds of farming
practices, two novels, two books, two modes of transport, two authors, two poets, or two artworks from the
same historical era. The purpose of compare and contrast essay is to weigh either side of an idea through
outlining the strengths and weaknesses of both sides given the central theme.

Mostly, the thesis statement of a compare and contrast essay must highlight the two central ideas that are
being compared and contrasted in the essay. Besides, the thesis should be clear, concise, and convincing.
We have, at the end of this article compiled a step-by-step guide on how to write an excellent compare and
contrast essay. So, if you are planning to write an essay about writing an essay on a subject and feel
overwhelmed our guide will introduce you to writing a coherent essay about two subjects under one
compare and contrast topic.

 How do you start a compare and contrast essay?

Once you receive the assignment prompt highlighting the two subjects to be compared and contrasted, your
next step is to first begin by seeking as much information on both topics. While searching for information,
your first focus should be on identifying the similarities as well as differences of both subjects. Sometimes,
you can get too much information that confusion eventually sets in. However, with a good strategy to
organize the information, your work will be easy.

Preferably, it would be prudent to begin such an essay by drawing a Venn diagram. The Venn diagram is a
helpful tool that helps in organizing ideas. It comprises of two concentric circles that overlap and create a
single overlapping area and two similar areas that are not overlapping. It helps filter information through
elimination and combination of ideas. It is wise to have similar properties of both subjects in the mid-
overlapping areas and the contrasting properties in the non-overlapping ends.

Besides, you can also use a table to classify the similarities and the differences for better and straightforward
comparison and contrasting. You can make a list of one or more similarities and another list for the
differences then enter them into the table. The latter remains most writer’s favorite according to our internal
survey on our expert essay writers.

 Structure of Compare and Contrast Essay

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There are numerous standard methods of structuring compare and contrast essays. As previously
highlighted, the introduction must have a catchy and informative thesis statement. Sometimes, authors have
expressed their concerns on the introduction having an essay hook or attention grabber at the beginning to
grab the attention of the readers. The body paragraph is the meat of your essay, ensure that each has an
introductory sentence, supporting facts, and a concluding sentence. In the body, you can begin to write about
one subject in detail, then switch to the other. For instance, let’s assume you are comparing air and road
transport. In this case, you could begin with two paragraphs on common qualities between air and road
transport. For instance, you could highlight that both are costly in terms of infrastructure, both connect two
places, and both involve engineered machines. Then the next section would lay emphasis on the salient
qualities of the two modes of transport that are different.

Alternatively, you can do a point-by-point comparison and contrast. Here, you will be comparing and
contrast the qualities side-by-side. For instance, “while road transport can only connect countries in a
continent, air transport connects different countries internationally.” You can also begin by enlisting the
similarities. For example, “both air transport and road transport are alike in that they facilitate the movement
of goods, information, and people.”After the structure, decide on the outline of your essay.

 Developing the Body of a Compare and Contrast Essay

After choosing the similarities, the next step is to delve beyond the regular. An outstanding compare and
contrast essay apart from only listing the similarities and differences declares a meaningful statement
reflected on the larger topic.

This must be well-evident within the introduction, body, and conclusion. However, the main argument is
developed and expounded upon in the body of the compare and contrast essay. So, here is where you outline
and explain the outstanding feature in the similarities and differences. You can then always relate the
striking similarities and differences to your compare-and-contrast topic. Connecting ideas in your essay
forms the main argument in the compare and contrast research essay.

 How many paragraphs should compare and contrast essay have?

Fundamentally, compare and contrast essays follow the classic five-paragraph essay format. The paragraphs
include an introduction, three body paragraphs, and a conclusion, in that order. Even though most of the
compare and contrast essays have three body paragraphs, you are allowed to use as many as the ideas can
last. However, be mindful of the word count on the essay prompt. The last paragraph of the body should
acknowledge competitive arguments or concessions. Modestly, it highlights the counterarguments just like
in an argumentative essay. The conclusion should summarize the evidence presented and the major points.
Here, it would be best if you restated the thesis but make a solid argument than in the introduction.

 Different Organizations of Compare and Contrast Essays

There are a plethora of ways to organize a compare and contrast essay. They include point-by-point,
subject-by-subject, or compare-then-contrast organization. The point-by-point approach switches
between different points when comparing and contrasting ideas. It goes from the notable dimensions in a
step-by-step form. It is very clear. However, if you miss a useful transition, your compare and contrast essay
becomes flat.

The subject-by-subject approach entails dealing with all the points for one topic and then focusing on those
of the other. It allows clarity and flow and is devoid of confusion. Nevertheless, the comparison and
contrasts only become visible in the later sections of the essay.
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Finally, the compare-then-contrast approach is similar to the subject-by-subject approach. It involves
presenting the comparisons first based on identified aspects, then the contrast. It is the most common form
of compare and contrast essay. All the points come out clearly.

Cause and effect essay is one of the essays students like writing. Mainly, when writing a cause-and-effect
essay, you are required to determine a scenario where an event or action results in some effects or
consequences. You are then required to explain what transpired. It is a type of essay that helps you tie
different patterns to occurrences. Let us help you choose the best cause-and-effect essay topics. One worry
of most students is “, how do I choose the best topic for my cause-and-effect essay?” well, here are some
nuggets.
 Choose major events in and outside your life;
 Conduct research online on current events that have affected people;
 Focus on those events that are of historical importance;
 Always choose a topic that interests you;
 Be sure to choose not so broad or narrow topics;
 Consider the ability to break down the topic into different subtopics

 Outline of a Compare and Contrast Essay

With the table you can craft the best outline for your essay. As we have highlighted before, an essay must
have an introduction, body, and conclusion. In this case, it would be ideal to have at least four body
paragraphs, two for the characteristics of each subject for balance.

 Conclusion of a Compare and Contrast Essay

Most students want to understand how to conclude a compare-and-contrast essay. Well, the conclusion of a
compare and contrast research essay summarizes the main points in the body of the essay. Like many
conclusions in essays, the conclusion should reflect a reorganized and restated thesis statement. Re-
organizing the thesis statement means paraphrasing it to have the same meaning but different wording. The
statement comes after the closing sentence, which signals the conclusion.

After the closing sentence and the restated thesis, the next few lines should highlight and evaluate the points
in the essay's body. The essay's overall discussion and main argument must also feature here. Your
concluding paragraph should highlight why the essay writer compared and contrasted two subjects and on
what bases. Sometimes, although debatable, your opinion should also come up in the conclusion. As an
essay writer who is aware of the topic discussion, you can do that without using the passive voice of first-
person unless stated in the essay prompt.

 Step-by-step Approach in Writing a Compare and Contrast Essay

 Choose a good topic from the essay prompt. A good topic is that which you are passionate
about, can find information to support, and is relevant to the subject and assignment prompt.
 Brainstorm and research the similarities and differences. Good organization skills such as the
use of listicles, Venn diagram, or table is expected.
 Develop your major argument. Comes automatically as you research and sometimes from the
prompt. Should be outstanding, relevant, and factual.

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  Organize your ideas in a chosen format. You can do a point-by-point approach to compare and
contrast. Alternatively, you can also begin by exhaustively writing on one subject in detail then
switching to the other.
 Draft your essay outline. Have what you will write in the introduction, body, and conclusion
declared in an essay sketch or skeleton. Refer to the previous sections for an appropriate structure
in our sample compare and contrast essay structure.
 Choose and use strong compare-and-contrast phrases and transitional words. A well-
written essay avoids run-on sentences or being flat by having carefully selected and utilized
transitive words. Such words include both, similarly, by the same token, again, equally,
identically, uniquely, as, too, moreover, as well as, in like manner, in the same fashion, as with,
and just as, to show similarity. You can also use phrases/ transition words like comparatively, in
contrast, comparable, on the one hand, on the other hand, while, and whereas, to show contrast.
We have attached a visual image of transition words and phrases for comparison and contrast.
 Use only credible sources to support ideas in your essay. We have mentioned that you need to
find scholarly sources such as journals, peer-reviewed articles, books, publications, and trusted
industrial websites as sources of information. Use only recent sources.
 Write the first draft. Fill in every part of the outline with meat and ensure you neatly use the
transition words. This forms your first draft. You can take a break after the first draft and settle in
later for the next step.
 Proofread and edit your essay carefully. Once you are done with writing the essay, take some
time to check its coherence, length of paragraphs, the flow of ideas, grammar, choice of words,
and punctuation marks. You can use a range of grammar-checking tools in the word processor or
online such as Hemingway and Grammarly. Alternatively, you can seek a second opinion from a
friend on your compare and contrast essay. Better yet, our team can help correct and improve
your essay. Silly and unintended mistakes have a way of hiding from a subjective eye, which you
are after long hours of writing.

 Important Tips when Writing a Compare and Contrast Essay

Our parting words would be that now that you understand how to write a compare and contrast essay, can
you really do it on your own. However, here are some things to think about when writing compare-and-
contrast essays.
 Avoid bias when presenting your ideas. Make sure that your facts are supported through the use
of in-text citations.
 The title should not be wide. Ensure that the title is catchy and self-explanatory. Read the prompt
for guidance.
 Format your essay using the instructed format. It could be MLA, APA, Chicago, Turabian, or
Harvard.
 You can always use the PEEL Strategy in your compare and contrast for easy organization and
supporting ideas.
 Proofread and edit your essay before submission.
Example:
The Effect of TV Program
TV, or television, has transformed our lives dramatically since it was first introduced in 1954. It especially
took off in 1962, when color television came to the public. It seems that the world never was the same after
TV was shown to the world. It has prompted us to stay indoors more, has changed how we operate political
campaigns, caused family interactions to decrease, and made obesity skyrocket, among other effects.

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More than ever before, people—especially children—have been staying indoors. This is largely due to the
access to TV and other pieces of technology. According to The Guardian, there has been a study by the
National Trust, and the findings were that “…on average, children were playing outside for just over
four hours a week, compared to 8.2 hours a week when the adults questioned were
children” (“Children Spend Only Half as Much Time Playing Outside as Their Parents Did”). This leads to
many damaging effects to our body and mental state.

On a more grandiose scale, TV has affected the way we go about political campaigns. The Kennedy-Nixon
election of 1959 is a case in point, with the first ever US presidential debate broadcast on TV. The result was
Kennedy winning over Nixon in the polls after the broadcast despite being down in numbers before.
According to HowStuffWorks, “Television gave elected officials and candidates for office an unprecedented
way to speak directly to millions, face-to-face. Of course, it didn’t take long for that direct contact to be
mediated, mostly by the network executives, producers and reporters who put together nightly news
programs. Trends like sound bites, talking heads and the dramatic nature of television news coverage have
led critics to accuse TV of creating a less factual, more negative form of political coverage” (Sailor, Matt).
With the advent of TV, voting has decreased and voters have become more negative towards the political
process.

Another negative effect of TV in our lives is the way they make children and parents interact less. Often,
parents see TV has a form of parenting, and also as a form of bonding (though this type of bonding is very
low on the spectrum of interaction). Science Daily states that, “Since the first television screens lit up our
living rooms scientists have been studying its effect on young children. Now scientists in Ohio have
compared mother-child communication while watching TV to reading books or playing with toys to reveal
the impact on children’s development. The results, published in Human Communication Research, show that
watching TV can lead to less interaction between parents and children, with a detrimental impact on literacy
and language skills” (“TV Found to Have Negative Impact on Parent-Child Communication and Early
Literacy Compared to Books and Toys”). So, not only are parents and children socializing less, but
children’s language skills are dropping because of the introduction of TV to the masses.

With less time outdoors and less interaction, it would not be surprising to say that TV is a factor in rising
obesity numbers. In fact, the amount of hours one watches TV is directly correlated to weight gain.
According Rosiek, Anna et al. in their report “Effect of Television on Obesity and Excess of Weight and
Consequences of Health,” “… watching TV and time spent in front of the screen are clearly associated with
unhealthy dietary behaviors in children, adolescents, and adults. People who watch television more rarely,
and drink less sweet drinks during the day, were characterized by lower BMI. In 2003 the World Health
Organization (WHO) and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Organisation (FAO)
officially reported that commercials of food products directed to children can foster the development of
obesity…” (International journal of environmental research and public health). Though TV affects the
obesity of all demographics, children are probably the most influenced.

As you can see, TV has had mostly a negative influence on our world. People are staying indoors more than
ever, political campaigns have become more corrupt and about visuals, parents and children are interacting
less than before, and obesity has shot up. This means we need to pay attention to how much TV we watch
and how it is affecting our lives.

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\

CHAPTER V

DESCRIPTIVE ESSAY

A Kind of Paragraph that creates pictures in words

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A description is a piece of writing that paints a vivid and accurate image of the subject. A description is an
act of expressing your sentiments about someone, somewhere, or something in words, generally using the
five senses: touch, hearing, sight, taste, and smell.
Four Basics of Good Description
 It provides a major impression of the subject – an overall impact, sensation, or picture.
 It supports the primary point with particular instances.
 Details that appeal to the five senses: sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch, are used to support
those instances.
 For the reader, it brings a person, a location, or a physical thing to life.
Main Point in Descriptive Paragraph
The essential thing in the description is the overall image you want to give your readers. If you don’t have
a powerful impression of your subject, consider how it smells, sounds, feels, looks, tastes, or looks.

Main Point Example in Descriptive Paragraphs

Support in Description
Supporting is the particular, tangible elements in the description that depict the sights, sounds, scents,
tastes, and textures of your topic. Instead of just telling your readers what you mean, your description
should demonstrate it. Adding sensory elements to your description may help it come to life. Here are a few
traits to think about.
Organization in Descriptive Paragraphs
Depending on the aim of the description, any of the organizational orders — time, space, or importance —
can be used. You could utilize temporal sequence if you’re writing to convey the major impression of an
event (for example, a description of fireworks, an explosion, or a storm). If you’re describing how someone
or something appears, the most frequent technique to structure a description is to utilize space order. You
might utilize the order of priority and save the most important detail for last if a detail within your subject is
the most important.

4. Process Analysis Paragraph

A Paragraph that explains how things happen step-by-step
Process analysis discusses either how to accomplish something (so that your readers can do it) or how
anything works (so your readers can understand it). The phases engaged are shown in both forms of process
analysis.
Four Basics of Good Process Analysis
 Informs readers well about the process you’d like them to be aware of and makes a statement about
it.
 Outlines the key steps in the procedure.
 Goes over each stage in great detail.
 Lays out the methods in a logical sequence (usually in time order).
Examples: You use process analysis in many situations
 AT COLLEGE: In a science class, you describe how shadows go by us.

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  AT WORK Y PLACE: You give instructions to describe how to perform something (a computer
task).
 IN EVERYDAY LIFE: You compose a recipe for your mother.
Main Point in Process Analysis
The goal of the in-process analysis is to show how to accomplish something or how something works by
describing the steps involved in the process. Your major point should state what you want readers to know
about the process. Your topic sentence (paragraph) or thesis statement (essay) should make a point about the
process rather than just stating it.

Main Point Example in Process Analysis Paragraph

Support in Process Analysis
In a process analysis, the steps provide support for your primary point. You probably aren’t aware of the
procedures needed in tying your shoes, for example; you simply do them. When describing a process in the
paper, though, you must think carefully about the different phases to avoid omitting any crucial ones. You
must also know specific data, facts, or instances that will assist them in comprehending each stage.
Consider what you’d need to know about each stage to comprehend or do it as you explain the procedure.
Organization in Process Analysis
Because it describes the phases of the process in the course of daily life, process analysis is
frequently structured by time sequence (chronological). Time crossovers are used in process analysis to
shift readers seamlessly from one phase to the next.
Transitions Used in Process Analysis Paragraph
After first meanwhile

As finally now

During eventually next

Before last second

at last later since

Conjunctions use in Process Analysis Paragraphs
5. Classification Paragraph
Paragraph writing that categorizes things into Groups and Categories
Writing that classifies or arranges persons or stuff into groups is referred to as classification. It employs an
organizing concept in the sorting of people or objects. The organizing concept is inextricably linked to the
classification goal. For instance, you may sort clean clothes (your goal) according to one of
the organizational principles below: property (yours, your classmates’), or where it goes (the bed-chamber,
the washroom).
Four Basics of Good Classification
 It makes sense
 It organizes a collection of people or stuff into categories to make sense of them.

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  Its function is to sort individuals or objects.
 It uses a single organizing concept to classify.
 It provides thorough examples or explanations of what each category encompasses.
 EVERYDAY EXAMPLE: You classify your typical monthly expenses to make a life budget.
Main Point in Classification
The most important aspect of categorization is that it employs a single organizing principle to arrange
objects in a way that best fits your needs. The categories should assist you in achieving your goal.
Support in Classification
Support in categorization refers to the categories into which you classify data and the examples of items
that fall into each category. You must first choose relevant categories, after which you must locate the
greatest examples and explanations for these categories. Use transitions to lead your readers seamlessly
from one group to the next as you compose your categorization.

6. Definition Paragraph
Specific kind of Paragraph that puts What something actually Means
Four Basics of Good Definition
 Informs readers about the definition.
 Provides a straightforward definition that is easy to understand.
 Employs instances to demonstrate the writer’s point of view.
 It goes into great depth regarding the instances so that readers may comprehend them.

Main Point Example in Definition Paragraph

Main Point in Definition Paragraphs
The major point of a definition generally defines a word or idea. The major point is connected to your goal:
to assist your readers in comprehending the phrase or notion as you use it.
Support in Definition
Definition support clarifies what a phrase or idea means by offering particular examples and
providing information about the examples so that your readers understand what you’re talking about.
Organization in Definition
The definition’s examples are frequently arranged in order of relevance, which means that the example that
will have the most influence on readers is reserved until last. In a definition, transitions let readers navigate
from one example to the next. To connect paragraphs, use transitions inside each paragraph and also go
from one to the next.

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 CHAPTER VII

COMPARISON AND CONTRAST PARAGRAPH

A Paragraph that shows Similarities and Differences

A comparison is writing that demonstrates the similarities between subjects – persons, ideas,
circumstances, or products; a contrast, on the other hand, demonstrates the differences.
Four Basics of Good Comparison and Contrast
 Compares and contrasts subjects that have enough in common to be usefully compared and
contrasted.
 It provides a function, either in assisting readers in making a decision or in assisting them in
comprehending the subject matter.
 Presents several significant parallel comparative points.
 Organises data in a logical sequence.

Comparison
and Contrast Example
Understand Similarities and Differences with Examples
 IN COLLEGE: you try comparing and contrasting the side effects of two medicines recommended
for the same condition in a pharmacy course.
 AT WORK: You have a task to compare and contrast this year’s sales to those of the previous year.
 IN EVERYDAY LIFE: You compare varieties of the very same LIFE food at the store to determine
which to purchase.
Main Point in Comparison and Contrast
The major objective of a comparison/contrast paragraph or essay connects to your aim. Comparing and
contrasting subjects can serve a variety of reasons, including:
 Assisting readers in making decisions regarding the subjects.
 To help out readers in comprehending the topics.

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  Demonstrate your knowledge of the topics.

Main Point Example in Comparison and Contrast Paragraph

Support in Comparison and Contrast
The comparison/contrast support shows your central argument by demonstrating how your subjects are
similar or unlike. We can use a list with two columns, one for each subject, and corresponding points of
comparison or contrast to discover support.
Organization in Comparison and Contrast
There are two methods to structure a comparison/contrast: A point-by-point structure starts with one
comparison or contrast between the subjects and proceeds on to the next. And, whole-to-whole arrangement
shows all of the comparison or contrast elements for one subject before moving on to the next.
Transitions Used in Comparison and Contrast Paragraphs
both while

like unlike

most important similarity now/then

one difference/
one similarity
another difference

another similarity in contrast

Similarly most important difference

Conjunctions used in Comparison and Contrast Paragraphs

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 CHAPTER VIII

CAUSE AND EFFECT PARAGRAPH

This kind of Paragraph Explains the Reasons or Results

Cause and Effect Relationship

A cause is what brought about an event. So, what happens as a result of the event is called an effect.
Four Basics of Good Cause and Effect
 The central point is reflected by the writer’s intent: to explain causes, effects, or both.
 If the purpose is to explain reasons, it offers true causes.
 If the purpose is to explain outcomes, it delivers true effects.
 It gives the readers detailed examples or assessments of the causes and effects.
Cause and Effect situational Examples
 COLLEGE: You need to identify nutritional deficiencies’ repercussions (effects) in a nutrition class.
 WORK: Your company’s sales are dropping, and you need to explain why.
 EVERY DAY: You express to your youngster why a particular action isn’t LIFE suitable by
describing the consequences of that behavior.

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Main Point Example in Cause and Effect
Support in Cause and Effect
NOTE: If you’re describing both causes and effects, start with the reasons and then go on to the effects.
Use transitions to effortlessly take readers from one cause to the next, from one effect to the next, or from
causes to effects. Because cause and effect may be organized in a variety of ways based on your needs, the
following list is only a sampling of possible transitions.
Transitions Used in Cause and Effect Paragraphs
also more important/serious cause/effect

as a result the most important/serious cause/effect

because one cause/effect; another cause/effect

the first, second, a primary cause; a secondary cause

third cause/effect a short-term effect; a long-term effect

the final cause/effect –

Conjunctions used in Cause and Effect Paragraphs
9. Argumentative (Persuasive) Paragraph
A paragraph that is logically Persuasive and Convincing
Argumentation or persuasion is a piece of writing that takes a stand on a topic and backs it up with facts to
persuade someone else to adopt, or at least consider, the viewpoint. The argument, can also use to persuade
someone to do (or not do) something. Argument aids in persuading others to see things your way, or at the
very least to comprehend your point of view.
Four Basics of Good Argument
 It takes a firm and unmistakable stance.
 Then, it defends the position using strong explanations and accompanying facts.
 Also, it takes into account competing viewpoints.
 From beginning to end, it is full of passion and energy.
Main Point in Argumentative Paragraphs
The stance you adopt on the problem (or topic) about which you are writing is your key point in the
argument.

Mai
n Point Example in Argumentative (Persuasive) Paragraph
Support in Argument
A powerful perspective must be backed up by compelling arguments and facts. Remember that you’re
trying to persuade readers that your point of view is correct. Consider competing viewpoints and conclude
on a strong note by using strong explanations and supporting facts that will persuade your
readers. Arguments and Proof the reasons you provide are the major justification for your
stance. Evidence, such as facts, instances, and expert views, must be used to back up your claims.
Organization in Argument

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Usually, arguments are arranged in order of significance, with the least important evidence coming first and
the most persuasive rationale and evidence coming last. Transition your viewers from one supporting
argument to the next via transitions. Here are some examples of transitions you may utilize in your
presentation.
Transitions Used in Argumentative Paragraphs
above all more important

also most important

best of all one fact/

especially another fact

one reason/
for example
another reason

in addition one thing/

another thing
in fact
remember

in particular worst of all

in the first
(second, third) the first (second, third) point
place

Example:

Health was earlier said to be the ability of the body functioning well. However, as time evolved, the definition of
health also evolved. It cannot be stressed enough that health is the primary thing after which everything else
follows. When you maintain good health, everything else falls into place.

Similarly, maintaining good health is dependent on a lot of factors. It ranges from the air you breathe to the type
of people you choose to spend your time with. Health has a lot of components that carry equal importance. If
even one of them is missing, a person cannot be completely healthy.
Constituents of Good Health

First, we have our physical health. This means being fit physically and in the absence of any kind of disease or
illness. When you have good physical health, you will have a longer life span. One may maintain their physical
health by having a balanced diet. Do not miss out on the essential nutrients; take each of them in appropriate
quantities.
Secondly, you must exercise daily. It may be for ten minutes only but never miss it. It will help your body
maintain physical fitness. Moreover, do not consume junk food all the time. Do not smoke or drink as it has
serious harmful consequences. Lastly, try to take adequate sleep regularly instead of using your phone.

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Next, we talk about our mental health. Mental health refers to the psychological and emotional well-being of a
person. The mental health of a person impacts their feelings and way of handling situations. We must maintain
our mental health by being positive and meditating.

Subsequently, social health and cognitive health are equally important for the overall well-being of a person. A
person can maintain their social health when they effectively communicate well with others. Moreover, when a
person us friendly and attends social gatherings, he will definitely have good social health. Similarly, our
cognitive health refers to performing mental processes effectively. To do that well, one must always eat
healthily and play brain games like Chess, puzzles and more to sharpen the brain.

Physical Health Alone is Not Everything

There is this stigma that surrounds mental health. People do not take mental illnesses seriously. To be
completely fit, one must also be mentally fit. When people completely discredit mental illnesses, it creates a
negative impact.

For instance, you never tell a person with cancer to get over it and that it’s all in their head in comparison to
someone dealing with depression. Similarly, we should treat mental health the same as physical health.
Parents always take care of their children’s physical needs. They feed them with nutritious foods and always
dress up their wounds immediately. However, they fail to notice the deteriorating mental health of their child.

Mostly so, because they do not give it that much importance. It is due to a lack of awareness amongst people.
Even amongst adults, you never know what a person is going through mentally. Thus, we need to be able to
recognize the signs of mental illnesses. A laughing person does not equal a happy person. We must not consider
mental illnesses as a taboo and give it the attention it deserves to save people’s lives.

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