UNIVERSITI KUALA LUMPUR

( MALAYSIAN INSTITUTE OF AVIATION TECHNOLOGY )

BASIC NAVIGATION
THE COMPASS NAVIGATION METHODS RADIO NAVIGATION SYSTEMS

Prepared by : Muhammad Syahmi bin Amir Hamzah 53158208267 Thivagar Rajasekaran 53158208089

Prepared for : Zulhilmy Sahwee

THE COMPASS A magnetic compass aboard an aircraft displays the current magnetic heading of
the aircraft. The earths magnetic field was used as reference. The earths magnetic field around the aircraft will be affected by : The aircraft own local magnetic field produced by electrical equipment. Section of aircraft with high permeabality causing the field to be distorted.

The aircraft's direction of travel relative to the geomagnetic field, which has a
roughly north-south orientation. The compass can be used in turns to verify that the aircraft is travelling in the desired direction at the conclusion of a turn.

The standard practice when flying with a gyro-stabilized compass (or heading indicator) is to read the magnetic compass only while in straight and level flight. This reading is then used to set the gyro-stabilized compass. The gyro compass will read correctly in a turn, whereas the magnetic compass can't be read properly while turning. Thus the pilot will always ignore the magnetic compass while turning, but periodically check it in straight and level flight.

There are two types of aircraft compass system : 1. Direct Reading Magnetic Compasses
The primary function of direct-reading compass is to indicate the direction into which an aircraft is heading with respect to the earth's magnetic meridian. It can determine the direction of the longitudinal axis of aircraft with reference to magnetic north. The magnetic compass serves only as a standby device. It is used for navigation under emergency conditions when other navigation systems fail.

The operating principle of magnetic compasses is based on the fundamental of magnetism, i.e. On the reaction between the magnetic field of a suitable suspended magnetic element and the magnetic field surrounding the earth. Permanent magnet is attached to the compass card so that the assembly is always aligned with the earth magnetic field.

2. Remote Indicating Compass

The Flux Valve detects the direction of the Earth magnetic field and transmits electrical signal The Directional Gyro (DG) provides the stabilized gyro reference for the compass system The horizontal axis is slaved to the Earths magnetic field Any drift (Random or Real) of the gyro is automatically corrected by controlled precession

The Directional Gyro (DG) provides short term heading reference for the compass system The Flux Valve provides long term heading reference for the compass system The DG may be used as a free gyro in locations where magnetic compass indication is unreliable (i.e. in general at latitudes exceeding approximately 65)

NAVIGATION METHODS

The navigation method used depends on where the pilot is going, how long the flight will take, when the flight is to take off, the type of aircraft being flown, the on-board navigation equipment, the ratings and currency of the pilot and especially the expected weather. To navigate a pilot needs to know the following:

Starting point (point of departure) Ending point (final destination) Direction of travel Distance to travel Aircraft speed Aircraft fuel capacity Aircraft weight & balance information

With this information flight planning can commence and the proper method of navigation can be put to use. The earths shape is not a perfect sphere, the actual shape of the earth is referred to as an oblate spheroid.

Latitude (shown as a horizontal line)

 is the angular distance, in degrees, minutes, and seconds of a point north or south of the Equator. Lines of latitude are often referred to as parallels. Longitude (shown as a vertical line) is the angular distance, in degrees, minutes, and seconds, of a point east or west of the Prime (Greenwich) Meridian. Lines of longitude are often referred to as meridians. Minutes and Seconds For precision purposes, degrees of longitude and latitude have been divided into minutes (') and seconds ("). There are 60 minutes in each degree. Each minute is divided into 60 seconds. Seconds can be further divided into tenths, hundredths, or even thousandths.

Distance on the earth Nautical miles The nautical mile is directly linked to the geometry of the earth. This quantity is defined by distance represented by one minute of arc of a great circle (assuming the earth to be a perfect sphere) 1 nautical mile (nm) = 1 latitude (6080 ft) 60 nautical mile = 1 latitude Statute mile 1 statute mile = 5280ft Kilometer 1 kilometer (km) = 3280ft

The distance between two points defined by their respected latitudes and longitudes (lat 1, long 1) , ( lat 2, long 2 ) can be calculated using : d = cos-1 (sin (lat 1) sin (lat2) + cos (lat1) cos (lat 2) cos (lon1 lon2))

Basic Navigation Pilotage The pilotage method of navigation developed naturally through time as aircraft evolved with the ability to travel increasingly longer distances. Flying at low altitudes, pilots used rivers, railroad tracks and other visual references to guide them from place to place. This method called pilotage is still in use today. Pilotage is mainly used by pilots of small, low speed aircraft who compare symbols on aeronautical charts with surface features on the ground in order to navigate. This method has some obvious disadvantages. Poor visibility caused by inclement weather can prevent a pilot from seeing the needed landmarks and cause the pilot to become disoriented and navigate off course. A lack of landmarks when flying over the more remote areas can also cause a pilot to get lost Dead Reckoning is the method of determining geographical position of aircraft by applying track and ground speed as estimated or calculated over a certain period of time from point of departure or from last-known position. Estimating a position by extrapolating from a known position and then keeping note of the direction, speed and elasped time. "Dead" Reckoning (or "Ded" for Deductive Reckoning) is another basic navigational method used by low speed, small airplane pilots. It is based on mathematical calculations to plot a course using the elements of a course line, airspeed, course, heading and elapsed time. During this process pilots make use of a flight computer. Manual or electronic flight computers are used to calculate time-speed-distance measurements, fuel consumption, density altitude and many other en route data necessary for navigation. The estimated time en route (ETE) can be calculated using the flight distance, the airspeed and direction to be flown. If the route is flown at the airspeed planned, when the planned flight time is up, the destination should be visible from the cockpit. Navigating using known measured and recorded times, distances, directions and speeds makes it possible for positions or "fixes" to be calculated or solved graphically. A "fix" is a

position in the sky reached by an aircraft following a specific route. Pilots flying the exact same route regularly can compute the flight time needed to fly from one fix to the next. If the pilot reaches that fix at the calculated time, then the pilot knows the aircraft is on course. The positions or "fixes" are based on the latest known or calculated positions. Direction is measured by a compass or gyro-compass. Time is measured on-board by the best means possible. And speed is either calculated or measured using on-board equipment. Navigating now by dead reckoning would be used only as a last resort, or to check whether another means of navigation is functioning properly. There are navigation problems associated with dead reckoning. For example, errors build upon errors. So if wind velocity and direction are unknown or incorrectly known, then the aircraft will slowly be blown off course. This means that the next fix is only as good as the last fix.

Aircraft Navigation Systems Requires Nav-aids 1. Automatic DirectionFinder( ADF ) Detects the direction to the Non-Directional Beacon (NDB) Receives audio identification from the NDB The relative station bearing is displayed by the bearing pointers on RMIs

2. VHF Omnidirectional Range ( VOR ) VOR is a system combining ground base and air borne equipment to provide bearing to or from a ground station. VOR is used for position fixing, maintaining course track, and navigation along established airways. Basically, it provides the ability to follow a roadway in the air. The airborne portion of the VOR system consists of a receiver, a control unit, an antenna and an indicator that provides bearing, course heading, and to from information. The ground facility consists of a transmitter and an antenna array. Operates in the frequency range from 108.00 MHz 117.95 MHz.

3. Global PositioningSystem( GPS ) Provides the following positional information on a worldwide basis. The information can comprise : latitude longitude altitude time speed. GPS was a spin off from two experimental satellite navigation programmes carried out by the US Navy and Air Force and intended to facilitate precision aimed weapons and accurate troop deployment. Although the system is now available to the civilian market, it is still controlled and administered by the US Department of Defence. The system is highly accurate although, should the need arise, the US military can degrade the accuracy of the system to suit (up to 1,000 m). The main advantages of GPS are: accuracy global application signal fidelity. Very precisely positioned orbiting satellites transmit very accurate, coded satellite position and time data. The receiver decodes this data and calculates its position relative to the satellite. If the receiver is moving then these characteristics must be included for accurate results. Using data from more than one satellite improves accuracy. The accuracy is ultimately based on very precise atomic clocks in each satellite. GPS consists of three segments; the Space Segment, the User Segment and the Control Segment.

4. Distance MeasuringEquipment ( DME ) Short- medium range navigation system. Used in conjunction with VOR to produce accurate navigation fixes.

5. Instrument LandingSystem( ILS ) provides a safe landing path to the airport. Uses a combination of VHF and UHF radio waves. It makes landing the aircraft relatively easier and safer especially in bad weather conditions, for example in heavy rain, snow or haze.

The system consists of : Localizer Localizer transmitter produces accurate runway centerline indication It provides lateral (horizontal) guidance localizer deviation is displayed on HSI and ADI Glide slope Glide slope transmitter produces accurate landing glide angle It provides vertical guidance

Independent of Nav-aids 1. Inertial Navigation System( INS ) 2. Inertial Reference System( IRS ) The outputs are either displayed on flight instruments or used by the autopilot

RADIO NAVIGATION SYSTEMS

General Radio means wireless transmission of information from one point to another. Radio wave technology provides: Communication Navigation Radar Enables aircraft to fly under IFR Requirement for two-way communication between air traffic controller and aircraft.

Terminology AVIONICS means Aviation Electronics Radio wireless transmission of information Communication process of exchanging information Navigation process of piloting an aircraft towards intended destination

Radio Waves Technology Communications radios is the first avionics systems to utilize this technology Later, navigational radios were developed and continuously improved Communication Radios, Phones, Intercom, and even Internet Access Recently, Lufthansa airlines provide broadband communications for customers to access during flight.

Navigation ADF Auto Directional Finder ILS Instrument Landing Systems TCAS Collision Avoidance Systems ELT Emergency Locator Transmitter Radar

To understand the radio operating principles, it is essential for you to be familiar with related terms that make up the radio technology possible. Principles of alternating current Electromagnetic waves / radiations Frequency / Frequency Spectrum / Frequency Bands Wave propagation Modulation Radio Components Transmitters Amplifiers Modulators / Demodulators Filters Antennas Receivers Tuner Microphones & Speakers Method of transmitting intelligence from one location to another by means of electromagnetic radiation. Basic radio communication device should have: Transmitter Unit Receiver Unit Amplifiers Modulators / Demodulators Filters Antennas Tuning Circuits Speakers / Microphones Transmission Line For some radio that has both components, known as Transceiver. Able to transmit and receive radio frequency signals. Radio signals that carries the intelligence emanate from the transmitter antenna partly in the form of radiated electromagnetic waves. The receiver will receive the intelligence signals using the receiver antenna which has the same characteristics and polarization. Regardless the use of radio for communication or navigation, all radio must have the two major components.