CHAPTER - HUMAN REPRODUCTION

Humans are sexually reproducing and viviparous. The reproductive events in humans include
formation of gametes (gametogenesis), i.e., sperms in males and ovum in females, transfer of sperms into
the female genital tract (insemination) and fusion of male and female gametes (fertilization) leading to
formation of zygote. This is followed by formation and development of blastocyst and its attachment to
the uterine wall (implantation), embryonic development (gestation) and delivery of the baby (parturition)
The Male Reproductive System: It consists of:
a) Primary sex organs i.e. a pair of testes suspended in a scrotum.
b) Secondary sex organs i.e. a pair of ducts each differentiated into rete testis, vasa efferentia, epididymis
and vas deferens ,ejaculatory duct and the associated glands
c) External genitalia
 The testes are situated outside the abdominal cavity in a pouch called scrotum, which
help in maintaining the low temperature of testes necessary for spermatogenesis.
 Each testes has about 250 testicular lobules and each lobule contain highly coiled seminiferous
tubules in which sperms are produced. Each seminiferous tubules is lined by two types of cells,
spermatogonia ( male germ cell) and Sertoli cells.
 Leydig cells or interstitial cells present around the seminiferous tubules synthesize and secrete
androgen hormone.
 Ejaculatory duct store and transport the sperm from testes to outside through urethra which
originate from urinary bladder and extend through penis to its external opening urethral meatus.
 The penis is male external genitalia. The enlarged end of penis is called the glans penis is covered by a
loose fold of skin called foreskin.
 Male accessary glands include paired seminal vesicles, prostrate and paired bulbourethral glands.
Secretion of these glands forms the seminal plasma which contains fructose, calcium and enzymes. The
secretion of bulbourethral glands also helps in lubrication of the penis.

The Female Reproductive System: It consists of:

a)The primary sex organ that is a pair of ovaries
b)Secondary sex organs- the duct system consisting of a pair of fallopian tube , a uterus , cervix
and vagina
c)External genitalia
d)Mammary glands
 Ovaries are primary female sex organ that produce the female gamete and several
steroid hormones. Each ovary is covered by thin epithelium which encloses the
ovarian stroma, which is divided into a peripheral cortex and an inner medulla.
 Fallopian tube extends from periphery of ovary to the uterus. The part closer to ovary is a funnel
shaped structure called infundibulum having finger like projection called fimbriae.
  Infundibulum leads to ampulla and join with uterus with isthmus. Uterus is pear shaped
structure also called womb.
 Uterus open vagina through a narrow cervix. The cavity of cervix (cervical canal) along
with vagina forms the birth canal.
 The wall of uterus has three layers of tissue:
I. Perimetrium- external membrane.
II. Myometrium — middle thick layer of smooth muscles which exhibit strong contraction during delivery
of baby.
III. Endometrium - line the uterine wall and undergo cyclic changes during menstrual cycle.
IV. Female external genitalia includes
 Mons pubis — cushion of fatty tissues covered by skin and pubic hair.
 Labia majora- fleshy fold that surround the vaginal opening.
 Labia manora — paired fold of tissue under labia majora.
 The opening of vagina is often partially covered by a membrane called hymen. The tiny finger like
projection present at the upper junction of two labia manora above the urethral opening is called
clitoris.
Mammary glands are paired structures that contain glandular tissues and variable fats. Each glandular
tissue contains 15-20 mammary lobes containing alveoli that secrete milk. Mammary ducts join to
form mammary ampulla.
Gametogenesis: The process of formation of male and female gametes in testes and ovary respectively is
called gametogenesis. It is of two types:
1. Spermatogenesis in males
2. Oogenesis in females
Spermatogenesis- in testes immature, male germ cells (spermatogonia) produce sperm by spermatogenesis that
begin at puberty.
 The spermatogonia present at the inner side of seminiferous tubules multiply by mitotic division and
increase in number. Each spematogonium contain 46 chromosomes.
 Spermatogonia forms spermatocyte that undergo meiotic division to reproduce secondary
spermatocytes having 23 chromosomes.
 The spermatids are transformed into spermatozoa by the process called spermiogenesis. The
sperm heads remain embedded in sertoli cells and are released from seminiferous tubules by the
process of spermiation.
Hormonal control of spermatogenesis
 Spermatogenesis initiated due to increase in secretion of gonadotropin releasing hormone by
hypothalamus
 Increase in GnRH act on anterior pituitary and stimulate secretion of two gonadotropins,
LH and FSH
 LH acts on Leydig cells and stimulates them to secrete androgens.
 FSH acts on Sertoli cells, stimulates secretion of some factors which help in spermiogenesis.

Structure of sperm - sperm is a microscopic structure composed of a head, neck, a middle piece and a tail. The
sperm head contain elongated haploid nucleus, anterior portion of which is covered by cap like structure
acrosome.
Human male ejaculates about 200-300 million sperms during a coitus. The seminal plasma along with
the sperms constitutes the semen. The function of male sex secondary ducts and glands are maintained
by androgen hormones.
Oogenesis : The process of formation of mature female gametes is called oogenesis. It started during
embryonic development stage when millions of ogonia (gamete mother cells) are formed in each fetal
ovary.
 The gametes mother cells start division and enter into prophase-I of meiotic division and get
temporally arrested at that stage called primary oocytes.
 Each primary oocyte gets surrounded by a layer of granulosa cell than it is called the primary
follicle.
 At puberty, about 60,000- 80,000 primary follicles are left in each ovary.
 Primary follicle gets surrounded by more layers of granulosa cells called secondary
follicle that transform into tertiary follicle that contain fluid filled cavity antrum.
 The tertiary follicles further changes into the mature follicle called Graafian follicle, which
rapture to release secondary oocytes (ovum) from the ovary by the process of ovulation.

Menstrual cycle: The reproductive cycles in female primates is called menstrual cycle. It start at
puberty and is called menarche.
Phases of Menstrual Cycle
The menstrual cycle consists of following four phases:
(1) Menstrual Phase:
a) In a 28 days menstrual cycle,the menses takes place on cycle days 3 -5.
b) The production of LH from the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland is reduced.
c) The withdrawal of this hormone causes degeneration of the corpus luteum and, therefore
progestrone production is reduced.
d) Production of oestrogen is also reduced in this phase.
e) The endometrium of uterus breaks down & menstruation begins.
f) The cells of endometrium secretions, blood & unfertilised ovum constitutes the menstrual flow.
(2) Follicular Phase:
a) This phase usually includes cycle days 6-13 or 14 in
a 28 days cycle.
b) The follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) secreted by the
anterior lobe of the pituitary gland stimulates the
ovarian follicle to secrete oestrogens.
c) Oestrogen stimulates the proliferation of the
endometrium of the uterine wall.
d) The endometrium becomes thicker by rapid cell
multiplication and this is accompanied by an
increase in uterine glands & blood vessels.
(3) Ovulatory Phase:
a) Both LH & FSH attain a peak level in the middle of
cycle (about 14th day).
b) Oestrogen concentration in blood increases,
c) Rapid secretion of LH induces rupturing of graffian follicle and thereby the release of
OVUM.
d) In fact LH causes ovulation.
(4) Luteal Phase:
a) Includes cycle days 15 to 28.
b) Corpus luteum secretes progestrone.
c) Endometrium thickens.
d) Uterine glands become secretory.
Hormonal Control of MC -
a. FSH stimulates the ovarian follicles to produce oestrogens.
b) LH stimulates corpus luteum to secrete progestrone.
c) Menstrual phase is caused by the increased production of oestrogens.
d) LH causes ovulation
e) Proliferative phase is caused by the increased production of oestrogens.
f) Secretory phase is caused by increased production of progestrone.
Fertilisation and Implantation -
The process of fusion of sperm with ovum is called fertilisation.
 During coitus (copulation) semen is released into vagina. The motile sperms swim rapidly to
reach the junction of isthmus and ampulla of fallopian tube. The ovum also reaches there and
fusion of gametes takes place in at ampullary-isthmic junction.
 In this acrosome of sperm undergoes acrosomal reaction and releases certain sperm lysins
which dissolve the egg envelopes locally and make the path for the penetration of sperm.
 These sperm lysins contain a lysing enzyme hyaluronidase which dissolves the hyaluronic
acid polymers in the intercellular spaces which holds the granulosa cells of corona radiata
together; corona penetrating enzyme (that dissolves the corona radiata) and acrosin (which
dissolves the zona pellucida). Then it dissolves the zona pellucida.
Cortical reaction:
(a) Immediately after the entry of a sperm into the egg, the later shows a cortical reaction to check the
entry of more sperms.
(b) In this reaction, the cortical granules present beneath the egg's plasma membrane release chemical
substance between the ooplasm and the plasma membrane (vitelline membrane).
(c) These substances raise the vitelline membrane above
the egg surface. The elevated vitelline membrane is called
fertilization membrane.
(d) The increased space between the ooplasm and the
fertilization membrane and the chemical present in it
effectively check the entry of other sperm.
(e) If polyspermy occurs, that is more than one sperm
enter the secondary oocyte, the resulting cell has too
much genetic material to develop normally.

 The haploid gametes fuse together to form diploid zygote. As the zygote moves towards the uterus,
the mitotic division starts and form cleavage to change into 2, 4,8,16 celled blastomeres.
 The blastomeres with 8 to 16 cells are called morula. Morula divide to change into blastocysts .The
blastomeres in the blastocyst are arranged into an outer layer called trophohlast and an inner group
of cells attached to trophoblast called the inner cell mass.The outer layer of blastocyst is called
trophoblast that attach with endometrium of uterus, called implantation that leads to pregnancy.

Pregnancy and embryonic development

The finger-like projections on trophoblaste after implantation called is called chronic villi that along with
uterine wall forms functional unit between developing embryo and maternal body called placenta.
Placenta is attached with fetus with an umbilical cord that transport food and oxygen to embryo.
 Hormones hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin), hPL (human placental lactogen) and relaxin are
produced in woman only during pregnancy by placenta.
 After implantation, the inner cell mass (embryo) differentiates into an outer layer called
ectoderm and an inner layer called endoderm. A mesoderm soon appears between the
ectoderm and the endoderm. These three layers give rise to all tissues (organs) in adults. It is
important to note that the inner cell mass contains certain cells called stem cells which have the
potency to give rise to all the tissues and organs
 In human, after one month of pregnancy the embryo's heart is formed. By the end of 2nd month
limbs and digits are formed. By the end of 12 months, major organs and external genital organs are
well developed. The first movement of foetus is observed in 5 months. By the end of 24 weeks body
is covered with fine hair, eye lids and eyeless are formed. At the end of 9 months fetus is fully
developed.
PARTURITION AND LACTATION
Parturition-the process of delivery of fully developed foetus is called parturition.
 Signals for parturition originate from the fully developed fetus and placenta inducing mild uterine
contractions called Foetal ejection reflex
 It triggers the release of oxytocin from maternal pituitary
The mammary glandsof female, start producing milk, to the end of pregnancy by the process of lactation.
The milk produced during the initial few days of lactation is called colostrum, which contain several
antibodies.