Chapter 10 - Homomorphisms

Math Analysis I (Ateneo de Davao University)

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 Group
10 Homomorphisms

When it comes to laws, there is absolutely no doubt that symmetry

and group theory are extremely useful concepts. Without the
introduction of symmetry and the language of groups into particle
physics the description of the elementary particles and their
interactions would have been an intricate nightmare. Groups truly flesh
out order and identify patterns like no other mathematical machinery.
mARIO LIVIO, The Equation That Couldn't be Solved

Definition and Examples

In this chapter, we consider one of the most fundamental ideas of
algebra—homomorphisms. The term homomorphism comes from the
Greek words homo, “like,” and morphe, “form.” We will see that a ho-
momorphism is a natural generalization of an isomorphism and that
there is an intimate connection between factor groups of a group and
homomorphisms of a group. The concept of group homomorphisms
was introduced by Camille Jordan in 1870, in his influential book
Traité des substitutions.

Definition Group Homomorphism

A homomorphism f from a group G to a group G is a mapping
from G into G that preserves the group operation; that is, f(ab) 5
f(a)f(b) for all a, b in G.

Before giving examples and stating numerous properties of

homomorphisms, it is convenient to introduce an important subgroup
that is intimately related to the image of a homomorphism. (See
property 4 of Theorem 10.1.)

Definition Kernel of a Homomorphism

The kernel of a homomorphism f from a group G to a group with
identity e is the set {x [ G | f(x) 5 e}. The kernel of f is denoted by
Ker f.

208

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 10 | Group Homomorphisms 209

EXAMPLE 1 Any isomorphism is a homomorphism that is also

onto and one-to-one. The kernel of an isomorphism is the trivial
subgroup.

EXAMPLE 2 Let R* be the group of nonzero real numbers under

multiplication. Then the determinant mapping A → det A is a
homomorphism from GL(2, R) to R*. The kernel of the determinant
mapping is SL(2, R).

EXAMPLE 3 The mapping f from R* to R*, defined by f(x) 5 |x|,

is a homomorphism with Ker f 5 {1, 21}.

EXAMPLE 4 Let R[x] denote the group of all polynomials with real
coefficients under addition. For any f in R[x], let f 9 denote the deriva-
tive of f. Then the mapping f → f 9 is a homomorphism from R[x] to
it- self. The kernel of the derivative mapping is the set of all
constant
polynomials.

EXAMPLE 5 The mapping f from Z to Zn, defined by f(m) 5

m mod n, is a homomorphism (see Exercise 9 in Chapter 0). The
kernel of this mapping is knl.

EXAMPLE 6 The mapping f(x) 5 x2 from R*, the nonzero real

numbers under multiplication, to itself is a homomorphism, since
f(ab) 5 (ab)2 5 a2b2 5 f(a)f(b) for all a and b in R*. (See Exercise
5.) The kernel is {1, –1}.

EXAMPLE 7 The mapping f(x) 5 x2 from R, the real numbers

under addition, to itself is not a homomorphism, since f(a 1 b) 5
(a 1 b)2 5 a2 1 2ab 1 b2, whereas f(a) 1 f(b) 5 a2 1 b2.

When defining a homomorphism from a group in which there are

several ways to represent the elements, caution must be exercised to
ensure that the correspondence is a function. (The term well-defined is
often used in this context.) For example, since 3(x 1 y) 5 3x 1 3y in
Z6, one might believe that the correspondence x 1 k3l → 3x from Z/k3l
to
Z6 is a homomorphism. But it is not a function, since 0 1 k3l 5 3 1
k3l in Z/k3l but 3 ? 0 2 3 ? 3 in Z6.
For students who have had linear algebra, we remark that every
linear transformation is a group homomorphism and the null-space is
the same as the kernel. An invertible linear transformation is a group
isomorphism.

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210 Groups

Properties of Homomorphisms
Theorem 10.1 Properties of Elements Under Homomorphisms

Let f be a homomorphism from a group G to a group G and let g be

an element of G. Then
1. f carries the identity of G to the identity of G.
2. f(gn) 5 (f(g))n for all n in Z.
3. If |g| is finite, then |f(g)| divides |g|.
4. Ker f is a subgroup of G.
5. f(a) 5 f(b) if and only if aKer f 5 bKer f.
6. If f(g) 5 g9, then f21(g9) 5 {x c G | f(x) 5 g9} 5 gKer f.

PROOF The proofs of properties 1 and 2 are identical to the proofs of

properties 1 and 2 of isomorphisms in Theorem 6.2. To prove property 3,
notice that properties 1 and 2 together with gn 5 e imply that e 5
f(e) 5 f(gn) 5 (f(g))n. So, by Corollary 2 to Theorem 4.1, we have
|f(g)| divides n.
By property 1 we know that Ker f is not empty. So, to prove prop-
erty 4, we assume that a, b c Ker f and show that ab21 c Ker
f. Since f(a) 5 e and f(b) 5 e, we have f(ab21) 5 f(a)f(b21) 5
f(a)(f(b))21 5 ee21 5 e. So, ab21 c Ker f.
To prove property 5, first assume that f(a) 5 f(b).
Then e 5 (f(b))21f(a) 5 f(b21)f(a) 5 f(b21a), so that b21ac
Ker f. It now follows from property 6 of the lemma in Chapter
7 that
bKer f 5 aKer f. Reversing this argument completes the proof.
To prove property 6, we must show that f21(g9) C gKer f and
that gKer f C f (g9). For the first inclusion, let x c f21(g9), so
21

that f(x) 5 g9. Then f(g) 5 f(x) and by property 5 we have gKer f
5 xKer f and therefore x c gKer f. This completes the proof that
f21(g9) C gKer f. To prove that gKer f C f21(g9), suppose that k
c Ker f. Then f(gk) 5 f(g)f(k) 5 g9e 5 g9. Thus, by definition,
gk c f21(g9).

Since homomorphisms preserve the group operation, it should not

be a surprise that they preserve many group properties.

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 10 | Group Homomorphisms 211

Theorem 10.2 Properties of Subgroups Under Homomorphisms

Let f be a homomorphism from a group G to a group G and let H

be a subgroup of G. Then
1. f(H) 5 {f(h) | h c H} is a subgroup of G.
2. If H is cyclic, then f(H) is cyclic.
3. If H is Abelian, then f(H) is Abelian.
4. If H is normal in G, then f(H) is normal in f(G).
5. If |Ker f| 5 n, then f is an n-to-1 mapping from G onto f(G).
6. If |H| 5 n, then |f(H)| divides n.
7. If K is a subgroup of G, then f21(K) 5 {k c G | f(k) c K}
is a subgroup of G.
8. If K is a normal subgroup of G, then f21(K) 5 {k c G |
f(k) c K} is a normal subgroup of G.
9. If f is onto and Ker f 5 {e}, then f is an isomorphism
from G to G.

PROOF First note that the proofs of properties 1, 2, and 3 are identi-
cal to the proofs of properties 4, 3, and 2, respectively, of Theorem
6.3, since those proofs use only the fact that an isomorphism is an
operation-preserving mapping.
To prove property 4, let f(h) c f(H) and f(g) c f(G). Then
f(g)f(h)f(g)21 5 f(ghg21) c f(H), since H is normal in G.
Property 5 follows directly from property 6 of Theorem 10.1 and
the fact that all cosets of Ker f 5 f21(e) have the same number of
elements. To prove property 6, let fH denote the restriction of f
to the elements of H. Then fH is a homomorphism from H
onto f(H). Suppose |Ker fH| 5 t. Then, by property 5, fH is a t-to-1
mapping. So,
|f(H)|t 5 |H|.
To prove property 7, we use the One-Step Subgroup Test. Clearly,
e c f21(K), so that f21(K) is not empty. Let k1, k2 c f21(K). Then,
by the definition of f21(K), we 2know that f(k1), f(k2) c K. Thus,
f(k2 ) c K as well and f(k1 k2 1) 5 f(k1 )f(k2 )21 c K. So, by the
21

definition of f21(K), we have k k 21 c f21(K).

1 2
To prove property 8, we use the normality test given in Theorem 9.1.
Note that every element in xf21(K)x21 has the form xkx21, where f(k) c
K. Thus, since K is normal in G, f(xkx21) 5 f(x)f(k)(f(x))21 c
K, and, therefore, xkx21 c f21(K).
Finally, property 9 follows directly from property 5.

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212 Groups

A few remarks about Theorems 10.1 and 10.2 are in order. Students
should remember the various properties of these theorems in words.
For example, properties 2 and 3 of Theorem 10.2 say that the
homomorphic image of a cyclic group is cyclic and the homomorphic
image of an Abelian group is Abelian. Property 4 of Theorem 10.2
says that the ho- momorphic image of a normal subgroup of G is
normal in the image of
G. Property 5 of Theorem 10.2 says that if f is a homomorphism from
G to G, then every element of G that gets “hit” by f gets hit the
same number of times as does the identity. The set f21(g9) defined
in prop- erty 6 of Theorem 10.1 is called the inverse image of g9 (or
the pullback of g9). Note that the inverse image of an element is a
coset of the kernel and that every element in that coset has the same
image. Similarly, the set f21(K) defined in property 7 of Theorem
10.2 is called the inverse image of K (or the pullback of K).
Property 6 of Theorem 10.1 is reminiscent of something from linear
algebra and differential equations. Recall that if x is a particular solu-
tion to a system of linear equations and S is the entire solution set of
the corresponding homogeneous system of linear equations, then x 1 S
is the entire solution set of the nonhomogeneous system. In reality,
this
statement is just a special case of property 6. Properties 1 and 6 of
Theorem 10.1 and property 5 of Theorem 10.2 are pictorially repre-
sented in Figure 10.1.
The special case of property 8 of Theorem 10.2, where K 5 {e}, is
of such importance that we single it out.

Corollary Kernels Are Normal

Let f be a group homomorphism from G to G. Then Ker f is a nor-

mal subgroup of G.

The next two examples illustrate several properties of Theorems

10.1 and 10.2.

EXAMPLE 8 Consider the mapping f from C* to C* given

by f(x) 5 x4. Since (xy)4 5 x4y4, f is a homomorphism.
Clearly, Ker f 5 {x | x4 5 1} 5 {1, 21, i, 2i}. So, by property 5
of Theorem 10.2, we know that f is a 4-to-1 mapping. Now let’s find
all elements that map to, say, 2. Certainly, f (24 2 ) 5 2. Then,
by property 6 of Theorem 10.1, the set of all elements that map
to 2 is 24 2 Ker f 5
{24 2 , 224 2 , 24 2 i, 224 2 i}.

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 10 | Group Homomorphisms 213

G
Ker   21(e) gKer   21(g9)
e  g1, g2,..., gn g, gg2,..., gg n

 
G

 (G)

e  (g) 
g9

Figure 10.1

Finally, we verify a specific instance of property 3 of Theorem 10.1

and of properties 2 and 6 of Theorem 10.2. Let H 5 kcos 30° 1 i
sin 30°l. It follows from DeMoivre’s Theorem (Example 10 in
Chapter 0) that |H| 5 12, f(H) 5 kcos 120° 1 i sin 120°l, and |
f(H)| 5 3.

EXAMPLE 9 Define f: Z12 → Z12 by f(x) 5 3x. To verify that f is a

homomorphism, we observe that in Z12, 3(a 1 b) 5 3a 1 3b (since the
group operation is addition modulo 12). Direct calculations show that
Ker f 5 {0, 4, 8}. Thus, we know from property 5 of Theorem 10.2
that f is a 3-to-1 mapping. Since f(2) 5 6, we have by property
6 of Theorem 10.1 that f21(6) 5 2 1 Ker f 5 {2, 6, 10}. Notice also
that k2l
is cyclic and f(k2l) 5 {0, 6} is cyclic. Moreover, |2| 5 6 and |f(2)|
5
|6| 5 2, so |f(2)| divides |2| in agreement with property 3 of Theorem
10.1. Letting K5 {0, 6}, we see that the subgroup f21(K) 5 {0, 2, 4,
6,
8, 10}. This verifies property 7 of Theorem 10.2 in this particular case.

The next example illustrates how one can easily determine all
homo- morphisms from a cyclic group to a cyclic group.

EXAMPLE 10 We determine all homomorphisms from Z12 to Z30.

By property 2 of Theorem 10.1, such a homomorphism is completely
specified by the image of 1. That is, if 1 maps to a, then x maps to xa.
Lagrange’s Theorem and property 3 of Theorem 10.1 require that |a|
di-
vide both 12 and 30. So, |a| 5 1, 2, 3, or 6. Thus, a 5 0, 15, 10, 20,
5, or 25. This gives us a list of candidates for the homomorphisms. That
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 each of these six possibilities yields an operation-preserving, well-
defined function can now be verified by direct calculations. [Note that
gcd(12, 30) 5 6. This is not a coincidence!]

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214 Groups

EXAMPLE 11 The mapping from Sn to Z 2 that takes an even

permu- tation to 0 and an odd permutation to 1 is a homomorphism.
Figure 10.2 illustrates the telescoping nature of the mapping.

(13) (23)
(13) (23)

(23) (12)
(12)
(12) (13)
(12)
(132) (123)
(13)
(132) (132)
(123) (132)
(23)
(123) (1)
(1) (1)
(1) (1) (123) (1)
(132) (132) (123)
(1) (123)
(13)
(123) (123)
(1) (23)
(132) (132)(12) (23)
(12)
(12)

(12) (13) (23) (13)

(13)
(23)

1
O
O
O

O 1

Figure 10.2 Homomorphism from S3 to Z2.

The First Isomorphism Theorem

In Chapter 9, we showed that for a group G and a normal subgroup H,
we could arrange the Cayley table of G into boxes that represented the
cosets of H in G, and that these boxes then became a Cayley table for
G/H. The next theorem shows that for any homomorphism f of G and
the normal subgroup Ker f, the same process produces a Cayley
table isomorphic to the homomorphic image of G. Thus,
homomorphisms,
like factor groups, cause a systematic collapse of a group to a simpler
but closely related group. This can be likened to viewing a group
through the reverse end of a telescope—the general features of the
group are present, but the apparent size is diminished. The important

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 10 | Group Homomorphisms 215

relationship between homomorphisms and factor groups given below is

often called the Fundamental Theorem of Group Homomorphisms.

Theorem 10.3 First Isomorphism Theorem (Jordan, 1870)

Let f be a group homomorphism from G to G. Then the mapping

from G/Ker f to f(G), given by gKer f → f(g), is an isomorphism.
In symbols, G/Ker f L f(G).

PROOF Let us use c to denote the correspondence gKer f → f(g).

That c is well-defined (that is, the correspondence is independent of
the particular coset representative chosen) and one-to-one follows
directly from property 5 of Theorem 10.1. To show that c is operation-
preserving, observe that c(xKer f yKer f) 5 c(xyKer f) 5 f(xy)
5 f(x) f(y) 5 c(xKer f)c(yKer f).

The next corollary follows directly from Theorem 10.3, property 1 of

Theorem 10.2, and Lagrange’s Theorem.

Corollary

If f is a homomorphism from a finite group G to G, then |f(G)|

divides |G| and |G|.

EXAMPLE 12 To illustrate Theorem 10.3 and its proof, consider the

homomorphism f from D4 to itself given by the following.

R0 R180 R90 R270 H V D D9

R0 H R180 V
Then Ker f 5 {R0, R180}, and the mapping c in Theorem 10.3 is
R0Ker f → R0, R90Ker f → H, HKer f → R180, DKer f → V.
It is straightforward to verify that the mapping c is an isomorphism.

Mathematicians often give a pictorial representation of Theorem

10.3, as follows:

G  (G)

 

G/Ker 
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216 Groups

where g: G → G/Ker f is defined as g(g) 5 gKer f. The mapping

g is called the natural mapping from G to G/Ker f. Our proof of
Theorem 10.3 shows that cg 5 f. In this case, one says that the
pre- ceding diagram is commutative.
As a consequence of Theorem 10.3, we see that all homomorphic
im- ages of G can be determined using G. We may simply consider the
various factor groups of G. For example, we know that the
homomorphic image of an Abelian group is Abelian because the factor
group of an Abelian group is Abelian. We know that the number of
homomorphic images of a cyclic group G of order n is the number of
divisors of n, since there is exactly one subgroup of G (and therefore
one factor group of G) for each divisor of n. (Be careful: The number
of homomorphisms of a cyclic group of order n need not be the same
as the number of divisors of n, since different homo- morphisms can
have the same image.)
An appreciation for Theorem 10.3 can be gained by looking at a
few examples.

EXAMPLE 13 Z]8n9 ≈ Zn
Consider the mapping from Z to Zn defined in Example 5. Clearly, its
kernel is knl. So, by Theorem 10.3, Z/knl L Zn.

EXAMPLE 14 Wrapping Function

Recall the wrapping function W from trigonometry. The real number
line is wrapped around a unit circle in the plane centered at (0, 0) with
the number 0 on the number line at the point (1, 0), the positive reals
in the counterclockwise direction and the negative reals in the
clockwise direction (see Figure 10.3). The function W assigns to each
real number a the point a radians from (1, 0) on the circle. This map-
ping is a homomorphism from the group R under addition onto the
circle group (the group of complex numbers of magnitude 1 under
multiplication). Indeed, it follows from elementary facts of trigonom-
etry that W(x) 5 cos x 1 i sin x and W(x 1 y) 5 W(x)W(y). Since W is
periodic of period 2p, Ker W 5 k2pl. So, from the First Isomorphism
Theorem, we see that R/k2pl is isomorphic to the circle group.

W(2)
W(1)

W(3) (1, 0) W(0)

(0, 0)

W(21)
Figure 10.3

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 10 | Group Homomorphisms 217

Our next example is a theorem that is used repeatedly in Chapters 24

and 25.

EXAMPLE 15 N]C Theorem

Let H be a subgroup of a group G. Recall that the normalizer of H in
G is N(H) 5 {x c G | xHx21 5 H} and the centralizer of H in G
is C(H) 5 {x c G | xhx21 5 h for all h in H}. Consider the mapping
from N(H) to Aut(H) given by g → fg, where fg is the inner
automorphism of H induced
g
by g [that is, f (h) 5 ghg21 for all h in H].
This mapping is a homomorphism with kernel C(H). So, by Theorem
10.3, N(H)/C(H) is
isomorphic to a subgroup of Aut(H).

As an application of the N/C Theorem, we will show that every

group of order 35 is cyclic.

EXAMPLE 16 Let G be a group of order 35. By Lagrange’s

Theorem, every nonidentity element of G has order 5, 7, or 35. If
some element has order 35, G is cyclic. So we may assume that all
nonidentity elements have order 5 or 7. However, not all such
elements can have order 5, since elements of order 5 come 4 at a time
(if |x| 5 5, then |x2| 5 |x3| 5 |x4| 5 5) and 4 does not divide 34.
Similarly, since 6 does not divide 34, not all nonidentity elements can
have order 7. So, G has elements of order 7 and order 5. Since G has
an element of order 7, it has a subgroup of order 7. Let us call it H. In
fact, H is the only subgroup of G of order 7, for if K is another sub-
group of G of order 7, we have by Theorem 7.2 that |HK| 5 |H||K|/|
H > K| 5 7 ? 7/1 5 49. But, of course, this is impossible in a group of
order 35. Since for every a in G, aHa21 is also a subgroup of G of
order 7 (see Exercise 1 of the Supplementary Exercises for Chapters
1–4), we must have aHa21 5 H. So, N(H) 5 G. Since H has prime
order, it is cyclic and therefore Abelian. In particular, C(H) contains
H. So, 7 divides |C(H)| and |C(H)| divides 35. It follows, then, that
C(H) 5 G or C(H) 5 H. If C(H) 5 G, then we may obtain an element
x of order 35 by letting x 5 hk, where h is a nonidentity element of H
and k has order 5. On the other hand, if C(H) 5 H, then |C(H)| 5 7
and
|N(H)/C(H)| 5 35/7 5 5. However, 5 does not divide |Aut(H)| 5
|Aut(Z7)| 5 6. This contradiction shows that G is cyclic.

The corollary of Theorem 10.2 says that the kernel of every homo-
morphism of a group is a normal subgroup of the group. We conclude
this chapter by verifying that the converse of this statement is also
true.

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218 Groups

Theorem 10.4 Normal Subgroups Are Kernels

Every normal subgroup of a group G is the kernel of a homomor-

phism of G. In particular, a normal subgroup N is the kernel
of the mapping g → gN from G to G/N.

PROOF Define g: G → G/N by g(g) 5 gN. (This mapping is called

the natural homomorphism from G to G/N.) Then, g(xy) 5 (xy)N 5
xNyN 5 g(x)g(y). Moreover, g c Ker g if and only if gN 5 g(g) 5
N, which is true if and only if g c N (see property 2 of the lemma in
Chapter 7).

Examples 13, 14, and 15 illustrate the utility of the First

Isomorphism Theorem. But what about homomorphisms in general?
Why would one care to study a homomorphism of a group? The
answer is that, just as was the case with factor groups of a group,
homomorphic images of a group tell us some of the properties of the
original group. One measure of the likeness of a group and its
homomorphic image is the size of the kernel. If the kernel of the
homomorphism of group G is the identity, then the image of G tells us
everything (group theoretically) about G (the two being isomorphic).
On the other hand, if the kernel of the homomor- phism is G itself,
then the image tells us nothing about G. Between these two extremes,
some information about G is preserved and some is lost. The utility of
a particular homomorphism lies in its ability to preserve the group
properties we want, while losing some inessential ones. In this way,
we have replaced G by a group less complicated (and therefore eas- ier
to study) than G; but, in the process, we have saved enough informa-
tion to answer questions that we have about G itself. For example, if G
is a group of order 60 and G has a homomorphic image of order 12
that is cyclic, then we know from properties 5, 7, and 8 of Theorem
10.2 that G has normal subgroups of orders 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, and 60.
To illustrate further, suppose we are asked to find an infinite group
that is the union of three proper subgroups. Instead of attempting to do
this directly, we
first make the problem easier by finding a finite group that is the union
of three proper subgroups. Observing that Z2 % Z2 is the union of H1 5
k1, 0l, H2 5 k0, 1l, and H3 5 k1, 1l, we have found our finite group.
Now all we need do is think of an infinite group that has Z2 % Z2 as a
homo- morphic image and pull back H1, H2, and H3, and our original
problem is solved. Clearly, the mapping from Z2 % Z2 % Z onto Z2 %
Z2 given by f(a, b, c) 5 (a, b) is such a mapping, and therefore Z2 % Z2
% Z is the union of f21(H1) 5 {(a, 0, c,) | a c Z2, c c Z}, f21(H2) 5
{(0, b, c) | b
c Z2, c c Z}, and f21(H3) 5 {(a, a, c) | a c Z2, c c Z}.
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 10 | Group Homomorphisms 219

Although an isomorphism is a special case of a homomorphism, the

two concepts have entirely different roles. Whereas isomorphisms
allow us to look at a group in an alternative way, homomorphisms act
as investigative tools. The following analogy between
homomorphisms and photography may be instructive.† A photograph
of a person cannot tell us the person’s exact height, weight, or age.
Nevertheless, we may be able to decide from a photograph whether the
person is tall or short, heavy or thin, old or young, male or female. In
the same way, a homo- morphic image of a group gives us some
information about the group.
In certain branches of group theory, and especially in physics and
chemistry, one often wants to know all homomorphic images of a
group that are matrix groups over the complex numbers (these are
called group representations). Here, we may carry our analogy with
photography one step further by saying that this is like wanting
photographs of a person from many different angles (front view,
profile, head-to-toe view, close- up, etc.), as well as x-rays! Just as this
composite information from the photographs reveals much about the
person, several homomorphic im- ages of a group reveal much about
the group.

Exercises

The greater the difficulty, the more glory in surmounting it. Skillful pilots
gain their reputation from storms and tempests.
epICURUS

1. Prove that the mapping given in Example 2 is a homomorphism.

2. Prove that the mapping given in Example 3 is a homomorphism.
3. Prove that the mapping given in Example 4 is a homomorphism.
4. Prove that the mapping given in Example 11 is a homomorphism.
5. Let R* be the group of nonzero real numbers under multiplication,
and let r be a positive integer. Show that the mapping that takes x
to xr is a homomorphism from R* to R* and determine the kernel.
Which values of r yield an isomorphism?
6. Let G be the group of all polynomials with real coefficients under
ad- dition. For each f in G, let ∫f denote the antiderivative of f that
passes through the point (0, 0). Show that the mapping f → ∫f from
G to G is a homomorphism. What is the kernel of this mapping? Is
this map- ping a homomorphism if ∫f denotes the antiderivative of f
that passes through (0, 1)?
†
“All perception of truth is the detection of an analogy.” Henry David Thoreau, Journal.

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220 Groups

7. If f is a homomorphism from G to H and s is a

homomorphism from H to K, show that sf is a homomorphism
from G to K. How are Ker f and Ker sf related? If f and s
are onto and G is finite, describe [Ker sf:Ker f] in terms of |H|
and |K|.
8. Let G be a group of permutations. For each s in G, define
+1 if s is an even permutation,
sgn 1s2 = e
—1 if s is an odd permutation.
Prove that sgn is a homomorphism from G to the multiplicative
group {11, 21}. What is the kernel? Why does this homomor-
phism allow you to conclude that An is a normal subgroup of Sn of
index 2? Why does this prove Exercise 23 of Chapter 5?
9. Prove that the mapping from G % H to G given by (g, h) → g is a
homomorphism. What is the kernel? This mapping is called the
projection of G % H onto G.
10. Let G be a subgroup of some dihedral group. For each x in G, define

f1x2 = +1 if x is a rotation,
—1 if x is a reflection.
Prove that f is a homomorphism from G to the multiplicative
group {+1, —1} . What is the kernel? Why does this prove
Exercise
25 of Chapter 3?
11. Prove that (Z % Z )/(k(a, 0)l 3 k(0, b)l) is isomorphic to Za % Zb.
12. Suppose that k is a divisor of n. Prove that Zn/kkl L Zk.
13. Prove that (A % B)/(A % {e}) L B.
14. Explain why the correspondence x → 3x from Z12 to Z10 is not a
homomorphism.
15. Suppose that f is a homomorphism from Z30 to Z30 and Ker f 5
{0, 10, 20}. If f(23) 5 9, determine all elements that map to 9.
16. Prove that there is no homomorphism from Z8 % Z2 onto Z4 % Z4.
17. Prove that there is no homomorphism from Z16 % Z2 onto Z4 % Z4.
18. Can there be a homomorphism from Z4 % Z4 onto Z8? Can there
be a homomorphism from Z16 onto Z2 % Z2? Explain your
answers.
19. Suppose that there is a homomorphism f from Z17 to some group
and that f is not one-to-one. Determine f.
20. How many homomorphisms are there from Z20 onto Z8? How
many are there to Z8?
21. If f is a homomorphism from Z30 onto a group of order 5,
deter- mine the kernel of f.

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 10 | Group Homomorphisms 221

22. Suppose that f is a homomorphism from a finite group G onto G

and that G has an element of order 8. Prove that G has an element
of order 8. Generalize.
23. Suppose that f is a homomorphism from Z36 to a group of order 24.
a. Determine the possible homomorphic images.
b. For each image in part a, determine the corresponding kernel of f.
24. Suppose that f: Z50 → Z15 is a group homomorphism with f(7) 5 6.
a. Determine f(x).
b. Determine the image of f.
c. Determine the kernel of f.
d. Determine f21(3). That is, determine the set of all elements
that map to 3.
25. How many homomorphisms are there from Z20 onto Z10? How
many are there to Z10?
26. Determine all homomorphisms from Z4 to Z2 % Z2.
27. Determine all homomorphisms from Zn to itself.
28. Suppose that f is a homomorphism from S4 onto Z2.
Determine Ker f. Determine all homomorphisms from S4 to Z2.
29. Suppose that there is a homomorphism from a finite group G onto
Z10. Prove that G has normal subgroups of indexes 2 and 5.
30. Suppose that f is a homomorphism from a group G onto Z6 %
Z2 and that the kernel of f has order 5. Explain why G must have
nor- mal subgroups of orders 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, and 60.
31. Suppose that f is a homomorphism from U(30) to U(30)
and that Ker f 5 {1, 11}. If f(7) 5 7, find all elements of U(30)
that
map to 7.
32. Find a homomorphism f from U(30) to U(30) with kernel {1, 11}
and f(7) 5 7.
33. Suppose that f is a homomorphism from U(40) to U(40) and that
Ker f 5 {1, 9, 17, 33}. If f(11) 5 11, find all elements of U(40)
that map to 11.
34. Find a homomorphism f from U(40) to U(40) with kernel {1, 9,
17, 33} and f(11) 5 11.
35. Prove that the mapping f: Z % Z → Z given by (a, b) → a 2 b
is a homomorphism. What is the kernel of f? Describe the set
f21(3) (that is, all elements that map to 3).
36. Suppose that there is a homomorphism f from Z % Z to a group G
such that f((3, 2)) 5 a and f((2, 1)) 5 b. Determine f((4, 4))
in terms of a and b. Assume that the operation of G is addition.

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222 Groups

37. Let H 5 {z c C* | |z| 5 1}. Prove that C*/H is isomorphic to

R1, the group of positive real numbers under multiplication.
38. Let a be a homomorphism from G1 to H1 and b be a homomor-
phism from G2 to H2. Determine the kernel of the homomorphism
g from G1 % G2 to H1 % H2 defined by g(g1, g2) 5 (a(g1), b(g2)).
39. Prove that the mapping x → x6 from C* to C* is a
homomorphism. What is the kernel?
40. For each pair of positive integers m and n, we can define a homo-
morphism from Z to Zm % Zn by x → (x mod m, x mod n). What is
the kernel when (m, n) 5 (3, 4)? What is the kernel when (m, n) 5
(6, 4)? Generalize.
41. (Second Isomorphism Theorem) If K is a subgroup of G and N is
a normal subgroup of G, prove that K/(K > N) is isomorphic
to KN/N.
42. (Third Isomorphism Theorem) If M and N are normal subgroups of
G and N # M, prove that (G/N)/(M/N) L G/M.
43. Let f(d) denote the Euler phi function of d (see page 85). Show
that the number of homomorphisms from Zn to Zk is Sf(d), where
the sum runs over all common divisors d of n and k. [It follows
from number theory that this sum is actually gcd(n, k).]
44. Let k be a divisor of n. Consider the homomorphism from U(n) to
U(k) given by x → x mod k. What is the relationship between this
homomorphism and the subgroup Uk(n) of U(n)?
45. Determine all homomorphic images of D4 (up to isomorphism).
46. Let N be a normal subgroup of a finite group G. Use the theorems
of this chapter to prove that the order of the group element gN in
G/N divides the order of g.
47. Suppose that G is a finite group and that Z10 is a homomorphic
image of G. What can we say about |G|? Generalize.
48. Suppose that Z10 and Z15 are both homomorphic images of a finite
group G. What can be said about |G|? Generalize.
49. Suppose that for each prime p, Zp is the homomorphic image of a
group G. What can we say about |G|? Give an example of such a
group.
50. (For students who have had linear algebra.) Suppose that x is a
particular solution to a system of linear equations and that S is the
entire solution set of the corresponding homogeneous system of
linear equations. Explain why property 6 of Theorem 10.1 guaran-
tees that x 1 S is the entire solution set of the nonhomogeneous
system. In particular, describe the relevant groups and the homo-
morphism between them.

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 10 | Group Homomorphisms 223

51. Let N be a normal subgroup of a group G. Use property 7 of

Theorem 10.2 to prove that every subgroup of G/N has the form
H/N, where H is a subgroup of G. (This exercise is referred to in
Chapter 24.)
52. Show that a homomorphism defined on a cyclic group is com-
pletely determined by its action on a generator of the group.
53. Use the First Isomorphism Theorem to prove Theorem 9.4.
54. Let a and b be group homomorphisms from G to G and let H 5
{g c G | a(g) 5 b(g)}. Prove or disprove that H is a subgroup of G.
55. Let Z[x] be the group of polynomials in x with integer coefficients
under addition. Prove that the mapping from Z[x] into Z given by
f(x) → f(3) is a homomorphism. Give a geometric description of
the kernel of this homomorphism. Generalize.
56. Prove that the mapping from R under addition to GL(2, R) that
takes x to
cos x sin x
c
—sin x cos x
is a group homomorphism. What is the kernel of the homomorphism?
57. Suppose there is a homomorphism f from G onto Z2 % Z2.
Prove that G is the union of three proper normal subgroups.
58. If H and K are normal subgroups of G and H > K 5 {e}, prove that
G is isomorphic to a subgroup of G/H % G/K.
59. Suppose that H and K are distinct subgroups of G of index 2.
Prove that H > K is a normal subgroup of G of index 4 and that
G/(H > K) is not cyclic.
60. Suppose that the number of homomorphisms from G to H is n.
How many homomorphisms are there from G to H % H % ? ? ?
% H (s terms)? When H is Abelian, how many homomorphisms
are there from G % G % ? ? ? % G (s terms) to H?
61. Prove that every group of order 77 is cyclic.
62. Determine all homomorphisms from Z onto S3. Determine all
homomorphisms from Z to S3.
63. Let G be an Abelian group. Determine all homomorphisms from
S3 to G.
64. If f is an isomorphism from a group G under addition to a group
G under addition, prove that for any integer n, the mapping from
G to G defined by g(x) 5 nf(x) is a homomorphism from G to G.
65. Prove that the mapping from C* to C* given by f(z) 5 z2 is a ho-
momorphism and that C*/ {1, 21} is isomorphic to C*.

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224 Groups

66. Let p be a prime. Determine the number of homomorphisms from

Zp % Zp into Zp.
67. Suppose G is an Abelian group under addition with the property
that for every positive integer n, the set nG 5{ng | g c G} 5 G.
Show that every proper subgroup of G is properly contained in a
proper subgroup of G. Name two familiar groups that satisfy the
hypothesis.

Computer Exercise

A computer exercise for this chapter is available at the website:

http://www.d.umn.edu/~jgallian

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Camille Jordan

Although these contributions [to

analysis and topology] would have
been enough to rank Jordan very high
among his mathematical

The Granger Collection, New York

contemporaries, it is chiefly as an
algebraist that he reached celebrity
when he was barely thirty; and during
the next forty years he was
universally regarded as the
J. dIEUdOnné, Dictionary of
Scientific Biography
His classic book Traité des substitutions,
published in 1870, was the first to be de-
voted solely to group theory and its applica-
tions to other branches of mathematics.
CamILLE Jordan was born into a well-to-do Another book that had great influence
family on January 5, 1838, in Lyons, and set a new standard for rigor was his
France. Like his father, he graduated from Cours d’analyse. This book gave the first
the École Polytechnique and became an clear definitions of the notions of volume
engineer. Nearly all of his 120 research and multiple integral. Nearly 100 years
papers in mathematics were written before after this book appeared, the distinguished
his retire- ment from engineering in 1885. mathematician and mathematical historian
From 1873 until 1912, Jordan taught B. L. van der Waerden wrote, “For me,
simultaneously at the École Polytechnique every single chapter of the Cours d’analyse
and at the College of France. is a pleasure to read.” Jordan died in Paris
In the great French tradition, Jordan was on January 22, 1922.
a universal mathematician who published in To find more information about Jordan,
nearly every branch of mathematics. visit:
Among the concepts named after him are
the Jordan canonical form in matrix theory, http://www-groups.dcs
the Jordan curve theorem from topology, .st-and.ac.uk/~history/
and the Jordan–Hölder Theorem from
group theory.

225
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