COURSE TITLE: DATA COMMUNICATION

PAPER CODE: CIT 4307

LECTURER: MASESE CHUMA
TOPIC: MULTIPLEXING AND MULTIPLE ACCESS
CHAPTER: ONE
CLASS: BSSC Y3S1
CONTACT: 0701260004

MULTIPLEXING AND MULTIPLE ACCESS

Specific objectives
By the end of the lesson the learner should be able to:
i) Define multiplexing as applied in data communication
ii) Describe different types of multiplexing
iii) Describe application of different types of multiplexing
Multiplexing is a technique through which one or many signals are transmitted
concurrently over a single data link. A multiplexed system consists of n number devices
that share the capacity of a link, so a link means multiple paths can have multiple
channels.
Many devices pass their transmission streams to multiplexers which are all merged into
a single stream. And a single stream on the receiver is directed to the de-multiplexer
which is then transmitted to the component transmission and sent to the integrated
receiver.
Multiplexing is sending process of multiple signals or streams of information over a
circuit at the same time in the form of a single, complex signal and then recovering the
separate signals at the receiving end.

Types of Multiplexing
The basic type of Multiplexing involves frequency division. (FDM), time division (TDM),
and wavelength division (WDM), with TDM and WDM Optical circuits are being widely
used by telephone and data service providers. Multiplexing is usually divided into four
parts.
1. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
2. Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
3. Time division Multiplexing (TDM)
4. Code Division Multiplexing (CDM)

1. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

FDM which is an analog technique which is implemented when the link bandwidth of
the path is more than the bandwidth of the merge transmit signal. Each sending device
produces signals that are modulated at different carrier frequencies.
To hold the modulated signal, the carrier frequencies are separated by sufficient
bandwidth known as the guard band.

Fig 6.1 Frequency Division Multiplexing

Advantages and Disadvantages of Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

Advantages of Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

1. It transmits multiple signals simultaneously.

2. In frequency division multiplexing, the demodulation process is easy.
3. It does not need Synchronization between transmitter and receiver.

Disadvantages of Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

It needs a large bandwidth communication channel.

There also bandwidth wastage in the form of guard band as well as during idle times
when the channel allocated devices are not communication.

Applications of Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

1. Frequency division multiplexing is used for FM and AM radio broadcasting.

2. It is used in first generation cellular telephone.
3. It is used in television broadcasting.

2. Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

Introduction:
The WDM is the short form of Wavelength Division Multiplexing. This optical
multiplexing uses different frequencies at different wavelengths to transmit data
separately over multiple channels.

Fig 6.2 a Wavelength Division Multiplexing

The WDM assigns unique frequencies of light having certain bandwidth to different
optical signals. The multiplexed wavelengths are transmitted over single fiber. At the
de-multiplexer end, these signals are selected using tuner of desired bandwidth.

Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) Working and Applications

Wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) is a technique modulating various data

streams, i.e. optical carrier signals of varying wavelengths in terms of colours of laser
light onto a single optical fiber. Wavelength division multiplexing WDM is similar to
frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) but referencing the wavelength of light to the
frequency of light. WDM is done in the Infrared (IR) portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum instead of taking place at radio frequencies (RF). Each IR channel carries several
RF signals combined with frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) or time-division
multiplexing (TDM). Each multiplexed infrared channel is separated or de-multiplexed
into the original signals at final point. Data in different formats and at different speeds
can be transmitted simultaneously on a single fiber by using FDM or TDM in each IR
channel in combination with WDM. It allows network capacity to be gradually and cost
effectively increased.

Fig 6.2 b Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

What is Wavelength Division Multiplexing?

WDM enables bi-directional communication and multiplies signal capacity. Each laser
beam is modulated by separate set of signals. Since wavelength and frequency have an
inverse relationship (shorter wavelength means higher frequency), the WDM and FDM
both contains the same technology in them. At the receiving end, Wavelength-sensitive
filters, IR analog of visible-light color filters are used. The first WDM technique was
conceptualized in the early 1970s. Later, Wave division multiplexing (WDM) systems
were able to handle 160 signals that will expand a 10 Gbit/second system with a single
fiber optic pair of conductors to more than 1.6 Tbit/second (i.e. 1,600 Gbit/s). The first
WDM systems were two-channel systems that used 1310nm wavelengths. Shortly
afterwards came multi-channel systems that used the 1550nm region – where the fiber
attenuation is lowest.
Fig 6.3 WDM through Optical Fibre

Wavelength division multiplexing systems can combine signals with multiplexing and
split them apart with a de-multiplexer. WDM systems are popular with
telecommunications companies because they allow them to expand the capacity of the
network without laying more fiber by using WDM and optical amplifiers. These two
devices work as add-drop multiplexer (ADM), i.e. simultaneously adding light beams
while dropping other light beams and rerouting them to other destinations and devices
and this type of filtering of light beams were made possible with e talons, devices called
Fabry-Perot interferometers using thin-film-coated optical glass.
In general, WDM systems use single-mode optical fiber (SMF) in which only a single ray
of light having a core diameter of 9 millionths of a meter (9 µm). Other systems with
multi-mode fiber cables (MM Fiber) which are also called as premises cables have core
diameters of about 50 µm. Present modern systems can handle up to128 signals and can
expand a basic 9.6 Gbps fibre system to a capacity of over 1000 Gbps. It is mostly used for
optical fiber communications to transmit data in several channels with slight variation in
wavelengths. WDM can increase the total bit rate of point-to-point systems.

Uses of Wavelength Division Multiplexing:

• WDM multiply the effective bandwidth of a fiber optic communications system

• A fiber optic repeater device called the erbium amplifier can make WDM a cost-
effective and it is the long-term solution.
• This reduces the cost and increases the capacity of the cable to carry data.
• Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) uses multiple wavelengths (colors of
light) to transport signals over a single fiber.
• It uses light of different colours to create a number of signal paths.
• It uses Optical prisms to separate the different colours at the receiving end and
optical prisms does not require power source.
• These systems used temperature stabilized lasers to provide the needed channels
count.
WDM systems are divided according to wavelengths – WDM (CWDM) and dense WDM
(DWDM). CWDM operates with 8 channels (i.e., 8 fiber optic cables) which is called as
the “C-Band” or “erbium window” with wavelengths about 1550 nm (nanometers or
billionths of a meter, i.e. 1550 x 10-9 meters). DWDM also operates in the C-Band but with
40 channels at 100 GHz spacing or 80 channels at 50 GHz spacing. Mostly WDM systems
are operated on single-mode fiber optical cables having a core diameter of 9 µm.
Wavelength division multiplexing is a technique where optical signals with different
wavelengths are combined, transmitted and separated.
Fig 6.4 CWDM and DWDM

Each colour obtained from the prism is capable of carrying 10Gbps to 40Gbps. A 16 colour
solution, based on 10Gbps per colour, yields a total network capacity of 160Gbps. Each
colour can come off the network at multiple nodes and all these nodes are terminated in
one or more data centres by allowing for resilient routing between circuits and also for
‘on ramp’ services.

As shown in figure, wavelength division multiplexing in optical fiber, the input signals
are assigned a wave length that are combined on one fiber for transmission and
separated before receiving.

Dense Wavelength-division Multiplexing (DWDM) :

Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM) is a technology that allows multiple

signals simultaneously that are to be transmitted on a single fiber at different
wavelengths and it is also an optical multiplexing technology used to increase bandwidth
over existing fiber networks. Due to the wide amplification bandwidth of erbium-doped
fiber amplifiers, all channels can often be amplified in a single device. DWDM systems
feature high channel count and longer reach.
Fig 6.5 Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing

In this technology, another fiber is not required and because of DWDM, single fibers have
been able to transmit data at up to 400 GB/s of speed. This technology offers excellent
performance characteristics including narrow channel separation and wide channel
bandpass in the range of frequencies which are passed through a filter.

What is the difference between CWDM and DWDM?

1. CWDM means Coarse Wavelength Division Multiplexing

• CWDM is defined by wavelengths
• CWDM is short-range communications.
• It uses wide-range frequencies and spreads wavelengths
DWDM means Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing.
• DWDM is defined in terms of frequencies.
• DWDM is designed for long transmissions where wavelengths are packed tightly.
Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM) is a technique or technology for
transmission of huge information or data over long distances.

Fig 6.6 Difference between CWDM and DWDM

Thus, the technology of sending signals through different wavelengths of light into
fibers is nothing but wave length division multiplexing in fiber optic communication. In
this, multiple optical carrier signals are multiplexed on a single optical fiber using
different wavelengths of laser light to different signals.

DWDM System Advantages

• Less fiber cores to transmit and receive high capacity data
• A single core fiber cable could divided into multiple channels instead of using 12 fiber
core.
• Easy network expansion, especially for limited fiber resource, no need extra fiber but
add wavelength, Low cost for expansion, because no need to replace many
components such as optical amplifiers, Can move to STM-64 when economics improve
• DWDM systems capable of longer span lengths, TDM approach using STM-64 is more
costly and more susceptible to chromatic and polarization mode dispersion
DWDM Disadvantages
• Not cost-effective for low channels, low channel recommend CWDM
• Complicated transmitters and receivers
• Wide-band channel, CAPEX and OPEX high
• The frequency domain involved in the network design and management, increase the
difficulty for implementation
Summary
Even through there is so many disadvantages of DWDM system, however, technology
are improving, the transmission efficiency will improve, and the DWDM system will be
more cost-effective, especially many Chinese venders are able to provide DWDM turnkey
solutions for the service provider, Internet companies, Data center, etc

Benefits or advantages of WDM

• Following are the benefits or advantages of WDM:

➨Full duplex transmission is possible.
➨Easier to reconfigure.
➨Optical components are similar and more reliable.
➨It provides higher bandwidth.
➨This could be the best approach as it is simple to implement.
➨High security
Others are
• low cost
• Long distance communication with low signal loss
Drawbacks or disadvantages of WDM

Following are the disadvantages of WDM:

➨Signals cannot be very close.
➨Light wave carrying WDM are limited to 2-point circuit.
➨Scalability is a concern as OLT (Optical Line Termination) has to have transmitter
array with one transmitter for each ONU (Optical Network Unit). Adding a new ONU
could be problem unless transmitters were provisioned in advance. Each ONU must
have a wavelength specific laser.
➨Cost of system increases with addition of optical components.
➨Inefficiency in BW utilization, difficulty in wavelength tuning, difficulty in cascaded
topology
WDM combines multiple optical WDM data streams over a single fiber through the use
of multiple wavelengths of light. Each individual WDM data stream is sent to a separate
laser that transmits a unique wavelength of light.
Advantages of Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

3. Time division Multiplexing (TDM)

Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a method of combining several independent data
streams into a single data stream by merging the signals according to a defined
sequence. Each independent data stream is retrieved at the receiving end based on
sequence and time.
Fig 6.7 Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing

Fig 6.8 Empty spaces in Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing

Fig 6.10 Asynchronous Time Division Multiplexing ATDM

Synchronous optical network (SONET), asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) and
Internet protocol (IP) use TDM techniques. As per modern telecommunications
networks, by the SONET network element TDM signals are converted from electrical to
optical signals, for transport over optical fiber.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

Advantages of Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

1. Full bandwidth is utilized by a user at a particular time jn ATDM.

2. The time division multiplexing technique is more flexible than frequency division
multiplexing.
3. In time division multiplexing, the problem of crosstalk is minimal.

Disadvantages of Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

In time division multiplexing, synchronization is required.

4. Code division multiplexing (CDM)

CDM is a multiplexing technique that uses spread spectrum communication. In spread
spectrum communications, a narrowband signal is spread over a larger band of
frequency or across multiple channels via division. It does not constrict bandwidth’s
digital signals or frequencies. It is less susceptible to interference, thus providing better
data communication capability and a more secure private line.
Code Division Multiple Access
When CDM is used to allow multiple signals from multiple users to share a common
communication channel, the technology is called Code Division Multiple Access
(CDMA). Each group of users is given a shared code and individual conversations are
encoded in a digital sequence. Data is available on the shared channel, but only those
users associated with a particular code can access the data.
Concept
Each communicating station is assigned a unique code. The codes stations have the
following properties −
• If code of one station is multiplied by code of another station, it yields 0.
• If code of one station is multiplied by itself, it yields a positive number equal to
the number of stations.
The communication technique can be explained by the following example −
Consider that there are four stations w, x, y and z that have been assigned the codes c w ,
cx, cy and cz and need to transmit data dw , dx, dy and dz respectively. Each station
multiplies its code with its data and the sum of all the terms is transmitted in the
communication channel.
Thus, the data in the communication channel is dw . cw+ dx . cx+ dy . cy+ dz . cz
Suppose that at the receiving end, station z wants to receive data sent by station y. In
order to retrieve the data, it will multiply the received data by the code of station y which
is dy.

data = (dw . cw+ dx . cx+ dy . cy+ dz . cz ) . cy

= dw . cw . cy + dx . cx . cy+ dy . cy . cy+ dz . cz .
cy
=0 + 0 + dy . 4 + 0 = 4dy

Thus, it can be seen that station z has received data from only station y while neglecting
the other codes.

Summary

Advantages of multiplexing
1. Multiple signals can be sent simultaneously over a single communication channel.
2. Effective use of channel bandwidth
3. Multiplexing reduces cost
4. Multiplexing reduces circuit complexity

Applications of Multiplexing

1. Communication system
2. Computer memory
3. Telephone systems
4. TV broadcasting
5. Telemetry
6. Satellites

Fig 6.11 (a) FDM, (b) TDM, (c) CDM (d) Statistic

T-carrier and E-carrier systems comparison

• Note 1: The designators for T-carrier in the North American Digital multiplex hierarchy
correspond to the designators for the digital signal (DS) level hierarchy.
• Note 2: T-carrier systems were originally designed to transmit digitized voice signals.
Current applications also include digital data transmission.
• Note 3: Historically, if an "F" precedes the "T", optical fiber cables are utilized at the same
rates.
• Note 4: The North American and Japanese hierarchies are based on multiplexing 24 voice-
frequency channels and multiples thereof, whereas the European hierarchy is based on
multiplexing 32 voice-frequency channels and multiples thereof. See table below.
• Note 5: Will be directed to this table by certain Network+ books. See table below.
 T-carrier and E-carrier
North American Japanese European (CEPT)
systems

Level zero (channel data

64 kbit/s (DS0) 64 kbit/s 64 kbit/s
rate)

1.544 Mbit/s (DS1)

1.544 Mbit/s (24 user 2.048 Mbit/s (32
First level (24 user channels)
channels) user channels) (E1)
(T1)

(Intermediate level, T- 3.152 Mbit/s (DS1C)

– –
carrier hierarchy only) (48 Ch.)

6.312 Mbit/s (96 Ch.),

6.312 Mbit/s (DS2) 8.448 Mbit/s (128
Second level or 7.786 Mbit/s (120
(96 Ch.) (T2) Ch.) (E2)
Ch.)

44.736 Mbit/s (DS3) 34.368 Mbit/s (512

Third level 32.064 Mbit/s (480 Ch.)
(672 Ch.) (T3) Ch.) (E3)

274.176 Mbit/s (DS4) 97.728 Mbit/s (1440 139.264 Mbit/s

Fourth level
(4032 Ch.) Ch.) (2048 Ch.) (E4)

400.352 Mbit/s (DS5) 565.148 Mbit/s (8192 565.148 Mbit/s

Fifth level
(5760 Ch.) Ch.) (8192 Ch.) (E5)

Note 1: The DS designations are used in connection with the North American hierarchy only.
Strictly speaking, a DS1 is the data carried on a T1 circuit, and likewise for a DS3 and a T3.

Multiple Access Techniques

Overview
In wireless systems, just like wired systems, the users of channels need special
mechanisms to avoid interference and collisions. The three mechanisms used most
commonly are frequency division multiple access (FDMA), time division multiple access
(TDMA) and code division multiple access (CDMA).

Analogy
Before going into the details, an example may help. Suppose you are in a party where multiple
people want to talk to each other. In an FDMA scheme, the different groups will break up into
small subgroups and each subgroup will communicate in parallel. In a TDMA scheme, the people
who want to talk to each other will take turns (i.e., use time slices). In CDMA, everyone will start
talking at once, but only some people will understand each other because of a code. For example,
people speaking Spanish will be tuned to Spanish only, French to French, etc.

The three multiple access techniques (FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA) are illustrated in
Figure 1.
• In an FDMA scheme, the different cellular users are assigned different frequencies
and each user communicates in parallel on a different frequency.
• In a TDMA scheme, the users take turns, i.e., they are assigned different time slices.
• In CDMA, everyone talks at once by using a code. For example, a user u1 uses code
c1, u2 uses c2, etc. In this case, the listener has to know the code of the sender,
otherwise she gets a background noise signal.
FDMA is used in older 1G systems but TDMA and CDMA are competing in the 2G and
3G systems, with CDMA being favored for 3G.

Fig 6.12 Multiple Access Techniques

Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

In this case, the frequency spectrum is subdivided so that each user gets a dedicated
channel. This is one of the simplest and oldest schemes. However, it is not very efficient
because a channel could be wasted if no one in that channel is talking. For example, FM
radio divides the spectrum into 30 Khz channels, and FDMA divides each 30 Khz channel
into 3 users (10 Khz each).
Base station cost for FDMA is high with very limited capacity. Due to these limitations,
very few wireless systems use FDMA at present. Most applications of FDMA are in
satellites.

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

In this case, frequency bands available to the network are divided into time slots, with
each user having access to one time slot at regular intervals. TDMA thereby makes more
efficient use of available bandwidth than FDMA. TDMA has been available since 1992,
with numerous modifications and improvements made since then.
The basic idea of TDMA is quite simple. Each subscriber transmits at different times; thus
the data bits or small clumps of bits from different sources are interleaved on the same
communication medium. Framing is used to identify which bits belong to which source
so that the signals can be separated at the receiving side.
In cellular phone systems, the communication is divided into 6 millisecond (ms) frames,
each divided into 1 ms time slots for 6 users. Each time slot has a header and data. Errors
may corrupt headers and cause loss of time slots. In some cases the whole frame is lost.
Call quality of TDMA is similar to FDMA but it can handle more calls. Several extensions
of TDMA have been proposed and implemented (it can support 15 users per voice
channel).

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) Technology

CDMA differs from the other two technologies by its use of coding techniques for
transmitting voice or data over the air. Rather than dividing the RF spectrum into
separate user channels by frequency slices or time slots, CDMA technology separates
users by assigning them digital codes within the same broad spectrum. The receivers only
tune to those codes and ignore the others. The assigning of codes to different users is also
known as spread spectrum, a technique very heavily used in wireless LANs as well as
cellular networks.
Spread spectrum transmits different data bits on different signals, based on a secret
scheme. The receiver must know the code to understand the signal.

Specific characteristics of CDMA are:

- Groups of bits from digitized speech are tagged with a unique code that is
associated with a cellular call.
- Several cellular calls are combined and transmitted over 1.25MHz and then
reassembled on the receiver side.
- Receiver detects a signal by tuning to correct phase position between incoming
and locally generated signals from code.
- Speech coder operates at a variable rate (fully when user is talking).
- It adjusts for near-far power adjustments (nearer stations generate less powerful
signals).
- When powered on, the mobile system knows the CDMA frequency, so it tunes to
that frequency and searches for a pilot signal (pilot signals represent base stations).
- Mobile station will pick the strongest pilot and register.
- When moving from cell to cell, new pilot is picked up.

Note
CDMA and its variants are at present very popular and are targeted as the core
technologies for the 3G wireless systems.

CDMA Versus TDMA

There are conflicting performance claims for CDMA and TDMA. The debate is raging
because hardware vendors have chosen sides and consequently the standardizing bodies
have been lobbied hard. The primary motivation for this level of debate is that vendors
want their selection to become the industry standard.
Since both TDMA and CDMA have become TIA (Telecom Industry Association)
standards – IS-54 and IS-95, respectively – the debate goes on to determine which
standard is better.
Technically speaking, CDMA has the following advantages over TDMA.
− Call clarity: CDMA appears to be better but is questioned.
− Network capacity: In CDMA, the same frequency can be reused in adjacent cells
because the user signals differentiate from each other by a code. Thus frequency
reuse can be very high and many more users (up to 10 times more) can be
supported as compared to TDMA.
− Privacy: Privacy is inherent in CDMA since spread spectrum modulates data to
signals randomly (you cannot understand the signal unless you know the
randomizing code).
− Reliability and graceful degradation: CDMA-based networks only gradually
degrade as more users access the system. This is in contrast to the sudden
 degradation of TDMA based systems. For example, if the channel is divided
between ten users, then the eleventh user can get a busy signal in a TDMA system.

− This is not the case with CDMA because there is no hard division of channel
capacity – CDMA can handle users as long as it can differentiate between them. In
case of CDMA, the noise and interference increases gradually as more users are
added because it becomes harder to differentiate between various codes.
− Frequency diversity: CDMA uses spread spectrum, thus transmissions are spread
over a larger frequency bandwidth. Consequently, frequency-dependent
transmission impairments that occur in certain frequency ranges have less effect
on the signal.
− Environmental: Since existing cells can be upgraded to handle more users, the
need for new cell towers decreases.
− Maturity: TDMA is very mature (in use since 1992) but CDMA is catching up.
− Economy: TDMA allows same equipment for multiple users.

Note
Although the TDMA-versus-CDMA debate continues, CDMA is taking a clear lead in
future cellular networks, as the 3G and 3G+ systems are almost exclusively based on
CDMA.

https://www.elprocus.com/understanding-wavelength-division-multiplexing-wdm/

http://www.fowiki.com/b/dwdm-disadvantages-and-dwdm-advantages/

https://www.rfwireless-world.com/Terminology/Advantages-and-Disadvantages-of-
WDM.html

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/code-division-multiplexing