2 MARKS :

1. Expand UTP, IrDA.

=>UTP - Unsheilded Twisted Pair
IrDA - Infrared Data Association

2. Expand STDM, CDMA.

=>STDM - Statistical Time Division Multiplexing
CDMA - Code Division Multiple Access

3. Expand FDM, OFDM.

=>FDM : Frequency Division Multiplexing
OFDM: Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing

4. Expand TDM, CDM.

=>TDM:Time Division Multiplexing
CDM: Code Divison Multiplexing

5. What is transmission medium?

=>Transmission media is a communication channel that carries the information from sender
to the receiver.

6. What is meant by unguided media?

=>Unguided media is a medium which help in transmitting electromagnetic singals without
using physical medium

7. What is meant by guided media?

=>Guidedmedia is like a physical medium via which the signals are transmitted. The
guided media is used to provide a conduit from one machine to another that can have twisted-
pair, coaxial cable and fibre-optic cable. It is also known as Bounded media.

8. Give examples for guided media.

=>Twisted Pairs, Coaxial Cable, Fiber Optics, Fiber cable, Fiber optic networks

9. Give examples for unguided media.

=>unguided media, such as terrestrial wireless, satellite, and lasers through the air.

10.Draw a cutaway view of a coaxial cable.

11.Draw side view of a single fiber.

12.What are single-mode and multimode fiber.

=>Each ray is said to have a different mode, so a fiber having this property is called a
multimode fiber.However, if the fiber’s diameter is reduced to a few wavelengths of
light the fiber acts like
a wave guide and the light can propagate only in a straight line, without bouncing,
yielding a single-mode fiber. Single-mode fibers are more expensive but are widely used
for longer distances. Currently available single-mode fibers can transmit data at 100
Gbps for 100 km
without amplification. Even higher data rates have been achieved in the laboratory for
shorter
distances

13.What is chromatic dispersion and solitons.

=>Chromatic dispersion is a phenomenon that is an important factor in fiber optic
communications. It is the result of the different colors, or wavelengths, in a light
beam arriving at their destination at slightly different times.

14.Differentiate fiber optics and copper wire.

FIBER OPTICS COPPER WIRE.

 1) It carries data in the form of light. 1) It carries data in the form of
electric signals.

2) It is thin, lighter in weight, and 2) It is heavier and thicker.

smaller in size.

3)As this data travel in the form of light, 3)As in this data travel in the form of
they are not affected by the electrical and electric signals, they are affected by the
magnetic interfaces. electrical and magnetic interfaces.

4) They provide security against the 4) They do not provide security

wiretappers, because there is no leakage against the wiretappers, because
of light and are difficult to tap. there is leakage of signals, and are
easy to tap.

5)It offers higher bandwidth. 5)It offers lower bandwidth.

15.What is path loss?

=>It is also known as Free-space loss It describes the attenuation of a radio signal over
a givendistance. It is directly proportional to the radio frequency. As the frequency of a
radio signalincreases, free space path loss also increases.

16.What is multipath fading?

=>In multipath fading, multiple signal paths are established between the base station and
the user terminal (mobile phone). The fading due to multipath propagation is known as
‘Multipath fading’ or ‘Rayleigh fading’. One signal path arrives at an antenna (either mobile
or base station) as a direct signal, while other signals are multipath or indirect signals.
Indirect signal generated due to reflection; refraction or diffraction of signals from any or all
objects lie in the path of transmitting antenna and receiving antenna. These indirect signals
can add to or subtract from the direct signal arriving at the antenna This depends on whether
or not the indirect signals are in-phase or out-of-phase with the direct signal.

Fig. 3.1 Multipath Propagation.

17.What is digital modulation?

 =>Digital modulation is the process of encoding a digital information signal into the
amplitude, phase, or frequency of the transmitted signal. The encoding process affects the
bandwidth of the transmitted signal and its robustness to channel impairments. In general, a
modulation technique encodes several bits into one symbol, and the rate of symbol transmission
determines the bandwidth of the transmitted signal.

18.What is multiplexing?
=> Multiplexing, is a way of sending multiple signals or streams of information over a
communications link at the same time in the form of a single, complex signal. When the signal
reaches its destination, a process called demultiplexing, recovers the separate signals and
outputs them to individual lines.
Multiplexing is a method used by networks to consolidate multiple signals -- digital or
analog -- into a single composite signal that is transported over a common medium, such as
a fiber optic cable or radio wave.

19.List the types of multiplexing.

● Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM)
● Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM)
● Time-division multiplexing (TDM)
● Code-division multiplexing (CDM)
● Space-division multiplexing (SDM)
● Polarization-division multiplexing (PDM)

20.What is FDM?
=>Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) is anetworking technique in which multiple
datasignal are combined for simultaneoustransmission via a shared communication
medium.FDM uses a carries signal at a discretefrequency for each data stream and then
combines many modulated signals.
21.What is TDM?
=>TDM is applied primarily on digital signals but can be applied on analog signals as
well.In TDM the shade channel id divided among its user by means of time slot. Each
user can transmit data within the provider time slot only. Digital signals are divided in
frames, equivalent to time slot that is frame of an optimal size which can be transmitted
in given time slot.

22.What are the applications of FDM.

=>Applications of frequency-division multiplexing.
•The frequency division multiplexing was widely used in first-generation mobile
phones.
•We can use frequency division multiplexing in the broadcasting of FM and AM radio
frequencies.
•The frequency division multiplexing is also used in television broadcasting.
•Since the frequency division multiplexing uses analog signals rather than digital ones,
it is more prone to disruption of noises.

23.Differentiate FDM and TDM.

TDM FDM

TDM stands for Time Division FDM stands for Frequency Division
Multiplexing. Multiplexing.

TDM works well with both analog as FDM works only with analog signal.
well as digital signals.

Time is shared in TDM. Frequency is shared in FDM.

Synchronization pulse is mandatory in Guard Band is mandatory in FDM.

TDM.

24.List the different switching techniques.

1)Circuit Switching:
o Circuit switching is a switching technique that establishes a dedicated path
between sender and receiver.
2)Message Switching:
 o Message Switching is a switching technique in which a message is transferred as
a complete unit and routed through intermediate nodes at which it is stored and
forwarded.
3)Packet Switching:
o The packet switching is a switching technique in which the message is sent in one
go, but it is divided into smaller pieces, and they are sent individually.

25.Differentiate circuit switching and packet switching.

=>Circuit switching and packet switching are the two different methods of switching
that are used to connect multiple communicating devices with one another.
circuit switching packet switching.

1)packet switching is connectionless 1) circuit switching is connection oriented.

2)A uniform path is followed 2)There is no uniform path that is followed

throughout the session. end to end through the session.

3)Data to be transmitted is processed 3)Data is processed and transmitted at the

at the source itself. source as well as at each switching station.

4)Without a connection, it cannot exist, 4)connection is not necessary, as it can

as the connection needs to be present exist without one too. It needs to be
on a physical layer present on a network layer.

26.Write the different design issues of data link layer.

=>Design issues with data link layer are :
1)Services provided to the network layer-The data link layer act as a service
interface to the network layer. The principle service is transferring data from network
layer on sending machine to the network layer on destination machine.
2)frame synchronization- The source machine sends data in the form of blocks called
frames to the destination machine. The starting and ending of each frame should be
identified so that the frame can be recognized by the destination machine.
3)Flow control – Flow control is done to prevent the flow of data frame at the receiver
end.
4)Error control -- Error control is done to prevent duplication of frames. The errors
introduced during transmission from source to destination machines must be detected
and corrected at the destination machine.

27.Write the various services offered by the data link layer to the network layer.
=>Unacknowledged connectionless service
Acknowledged connectionless service
Acknowledged connection-oriented service

28.List the different framing methods.

=>1. Character Count
2. Flag Byte with Character Stuffing
3. Starting and Ending Flags, with Bit Stuffing
4. Encoding Violations

29.Describe byte count method of framing.

=> This method uses a field in the header to specify the number of characters in the
frame. When the data link layer at the destination sees the character count,it knows
how many characters follow, and hence where the end of the frame is.
The disadvantage is that if the count is garbled by a transmission error, the destination
will lose synchronization and will be unable to locate the start of the next frame. So, this
method is rarely used

30.Describe coding violations method of framing.

=>The final framing method is physical layer coding violations and is applicable to
networks in which the encoding on the physical medium contains some redundancy. In
such cases normally, a 1 bit is a high-low pair and a 0 bit is a low-high pair.
The combinations of low-low and high-high which are not used for data may be used
for marking frame boundaries.

31.Expand PPP, HDLC.

=>PPP: Point-to-Point Protocol
HDLC: High-level Data Link Control

32.Expand NIC, FEC.

=> NIC: Network Interface Card
FEC: Forward error correction

33.What are the two different approaches of Flow control.

=>Two approaches are commonly used.In the first one, feedback-based flow control
,the receiver sends back information to the sender giving it permission to send more
data or at least telling the sender how the receiver is doing In the second one,rate-based
flow control ,the protocol has a built-in mechanism that limits the rate at which sender
may transmit data, without using feedback from the receiver

34.What is erasure channel?

=>The packet erasure channel is a communication channel model where sequential
packets are either received or lost (at a known location). This channel model is
closelyrelated to the binary erasure channel. An erasure code can be used for forward
error correction on such a channel.

35.List the different error-correcting codes.

=>Types of error - correction codes

1.Hamming codes.
2. Binary convolutional codes.
3. Reed-Solomon codes.
4. Low-Density Parity Check codes
36.List the different error-detecting codes.
1.Parity. 2. Checksums. 3. Cyclic Redundancy Checks (CRCs).
37.Expand LDPC, CRC.
=>LDPC : Low-Density Parity Check
CRC : Cyclic Redundancy Check

38.List the different fields from which the frame is composed of.
=>1)Flag field
2) Address field
3)Control field
4)Information field
5) Frame check sequence
39.What is meant by event=cksum_err and event=frame_arrival ?
● Cksum_err” is an event that indicates a checksum error has occurred. This
means that the data that was received did not much the checksum that was
calculated for it, indicating that the data may have been corrupted in transit.
● frame_arrival” is an event that indicates a new frame of data has arrived. This is
typically used in network protocols to signal that a new packet of data has been
received and is ready to be processed.