• Ribosome proteins from the cytoplasm

• Ribosomal subunits from nucleus

• RNA-containing molecules from nucleus
B. The structure of a nucleus encompasses the nuclear membrane, nucleoplasm,
chromosomes, and nucleolus.

1. Nuclear Membrane
- The nuclear membrane is a double-layered structure that encloses the contents of the
nucleus. The outer layer of the membrane is connected to the endoplasmic reticulum.
- Like the cell membrane, the nuclear envelope consists of phospholipids that form a
lipid bilayer.
- The envelope helps to maintain the shape of the nucleus and assists in regulating the
flow of molecules into and out of the nucleus through nuclear pores. The nucleus
communicates with the remaining of the cell or the cytoplasm through several
openings called nuclear pores.
- Such nuclear pores are the sites for the exchange of large molecules (proteins and
RNA) between the nucleus and cytoplasm.
- A fluid-filled space or perinuclear space is present between the two layers of a nuclear
membrane.
2. Nucleoplasm
- Nucleoplasm is the gelatinous substance within the nuclear envelope.
 - Also called karyoplasm, this semi-aqueous material is similar to the cytoplasm and is
composed mainly of water with dissolved salts, enzymes, and organic molecules
suspended within.
- The nucleolus and chromosomes are surrounded by nucleoplasm, which functions to
cushion and protect the contents of the nucleus.
- Nucleoplasm also supports the nucleus by helping to maintain its shape. Additionally,
nucleoplasm provides a medium by which materials, such as enzymes
and nucleotides (DNA and RNA subunits), can be transported throughout the nucleus.
Substances are exchanged between the cytoplasm and nucleoplasm through nuclear
pores.
3. Nucleolus
- Contained within the nucleus is a dense, membrane-less structure composed of RNA
and proteins called the nucleolus.
- Some of the eukaryotic organisms have a nucleus that contains up to four nucleoli.
- The nucleolus contains nucleolar organizers, which are parts of chromosomes with
the genes for ribosome synthesis on them. The nucleolus helps to
synthesize ribosomes by transcribing and assembling ribosomal RNA subunits. These
subunits join together to form a ribosome during protein synthesis.
- The nucleolus disappears when a cell undergoes division and is reformed after the
completion of cell division.
4. Chromosomes

- The nucleus is the organelle that houses chromosomes.

- Chromosomes consist of DNA, which contains heredity information and instructions
for cell growth, development, and reproduction.
- Chromosomes are present in the form of strings of DNA and histones (protein
molecules) called chromatin.
- When a cell is “resting” i.e. not dividing, the chromosomes are organized into long
entangled structures called chromatin.
 - The chromatin is further classified into heterochromatin and euchromatin based on the
functions. The former type is a highly condensed, transcriptionally inactive form,
mostly present adjacent to the nuclear membrane. On the other hand, euchromatin is
a delicate, less condensed organization of chromatin, which is found abundantly in a
transcribing cell.
C. Functions of Nucleus
The nucleus provides a site for genetic transcription that is segregated from the location
of translation in the cytoplasm, allowing levels of gene regulation that are not available
to prokaryotes. The main function of the cell nucleus is to control gene expression and mediate
the replication of DNA during the cell cycle.
- It controls the hereditary characteristics of an organism.
- The organelle is also responsible for protein synthesis, cell division, growth, and
differentiation.
- Storage of hereditary material, the genes in the form of long and thin DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid) strands, referred to as chromatin.
- Storage of proteins and RNA (ribonucleic acid) in the nucleolus.
- The nucleus is a site for transcription in which messenger RNA (mRNA) are produced for
protein synthesis.
- During the cell division, chromatins are arranged into chromosomes in the nucleus.
- Production of ribosomes (protein factories) in the nucleolus.
- Selective transportation of regulatory factors and energy molecules through nuclear
pores.

Ribosomes
A. Function
1. Sites of protein manufacture in the cell
B. Structure
1. 20nm diameter structures composed of equal amounts of ribosomal RNA and protein
2. Assemble from two subunits made in the nucleus when joined to a molecule of mRNA
3. Ribosomes often occur in clusters called polyribosomes
C. Location
1. Attached to membranes
2. Floating free in the cytosol
3. Abundant in dividing cells
The Membrane System

A. The system includes all the membranes in physical contact or which exchange membrane
segments
B. Functions of membrane systems
1. Surfaces for biochemical processes
- Photosynthesis
- ATP synthesis, etc
2. Making other membranes
3. Selectivity
C. Structure
1. Phospholipid bilayer
2. Imbedded proteins
D. Characteristics
1. Differentially permeable barrier
2. Signal receptor and transducer altering cell metabolism
3. Accepts packets of raw material from other internal membranes and directs assembly of
these materials into cell walls
E. The endoplasmic reticulum
1. System of flattened tubes and sacs throughout the cytosol
2. Continuous with the plasma membrane of the nuclear envelope
3. Rough ER
 - Ribosomes attached to outer
surface
- Site of synthesis of proteins
released from the cell through
vesicles
4. Smooth ER
- Site of synthesis of phospholipids,
new membranes, cell wall
components, waxes, lipids and
mucilage
- All these materials are released
from the cell through vesicles
F. Dictyosomes
1. Two-faced stack of membrane cisternae
- One face toward the ER
- One face toward the cell surface
2. Receive materials synthesized in the ER directly and through vesicles
- ER-facing surface receives vesicles containing proteins, lipids, and other substances
from the ER.
- Substances are modified in the dictyosomes and sorted into vesicles with specific
destinations on the plasma membrane or to other cell sites.
• Sugars of glycoproteins are added in the dictyosomes
3. Exocytosis - a process by which secretory vesicles move material outside the cell by
fusion with the plasma membrane
- Can occur from dictyosome vesicle or ER vesicles containing:
• Cell wall materials
• Nectar
• Resin
• Oils and fragrances
4. Role in cell division
- Dictyosomes guided by microtubules move to the cell equator
- Dictyosome vesicles containing wall material fuse and spread out along the equator
toward the parent cell walls forming a new partition between the two daughter cells

5. Role in secondary cell wall formation

 - Vesicles carry wall materials to plasma membrane and fuse releasing wall material
into growing wall
- Excess membrane accumulates because cells are not expanding
- Membrane must be recycled through coated pit system

Vacuoles

A. Small vacuoles in young cells from the fusion of vesicles form ER and dictyosomes
1. Form a central vacuole in the mature cell
B. Central vacuole
1. Up tp 95% of mature cell volume
2. Delineated from cytosol by tonoplast- a single membrane
3. Vacuole water creates turgor pressure for cell growth
- Loss of water from vacuole decreases turgor pressure causing plant tissues to wilt or
become limp
4. Contain water, enzymes, proteins, water-soluble pigments, growth hormones, toxic
alkaloids, secondary plant compounds, and ions
- Proteins digest storage materials and old organelles
- Pigments in vacuoles color flowers, fruits, etc.
- Alkaloids, soluble at acid pH of vacuole, inhibit insects, and other animals from eating
plant parts
- Ions can be retrieved for cell metabolism
- Salt tolerance can be achieved by the concentration of salt ions in the vacuole
- Accumulated acids make plant parts taste tart.
Microbodies
A. Structure and Role
1. Spherical bodies with a single
membrane 0.5 to 1.5µm diameter
2. Associated with ER, chloroplast, and
mitochondria
3. Isolate biochemical processes which
generate hydrogen peroxide
B. Peroxisomes
1. Contain oxidase enzyme reactions
that generate hydrogen peroxide
and catalase which detoxifies
hydrogen peroxide
2. The oxidases may detoxify toxins
such as ethanol and nitrites
C. Glyoxysomes
1. Contains enzymes for the breakdown of fatty acids into acetyl-CoA and the glyoxylic acid
cycle which converts acetyl-CoA into carbohydrates
2. These organelles are rarely found in animal cells; which enable plants to convert lipid to
carbohydrates; but animals cannot.

Organelles for Energy Conversion

A. Chloroplasts and mitochondria are the energy conversion organelles
1. Similar features of each
- Two outer membranes folded into compartments
- Internal membrane-bound ATPase for phosphorylation of ADP to ATP
- Contain DNA which controls synthesis of enzymes for chloroplast and mitochondrial
metabolism
- Can grow and divide on their own
2. Differences between the organelles
- Sources of ATP
• Chloroplasts use light energy while mitochondria use chemical energy to make ATP
- Overall structure
• Mitochondrial inner membranes form cristae, while chloroplast inner membranes
form grana
 • Chloroplasts are usually larger than mitochondria
- Composition
• Chloroplasts have chlorophyll which makes them green; mitochondria lack
chlorophyll and are colorless
• Each have different sets of enzymes which carry out their respective biochemical
process
B. Origin of mitochondria and chloroplasts
1. Endosymbiotic theory
- Mitochondria are small aerobic bacteria
engulfed by larger bacterial cells allowing
larger cells to have aerobic metabolism
- Chloroplasts are photosynthetic bacteria
taken in by host cells allowing the cells to
become photosynthetic
2. Evidence
- Similarity of pigment systems of modern
chloroplasts and photosynthetic bacteria
- Prochlorothrix bacteria contain chlorophyll
b
- Bacteria with the same pigments as red
algal chloroplasts
C. Chloroplast Structure
1. Stroma
- Background fluid inside the outer
membrane
2. Thylakoids
- Membrane system inside the chloroplast which is folded into grana or connects the
grana to one another
- Composition
- Enzymes catalyzing photosynthetic reactions
- Pigments of the chloroplasts
- Chlorophylls
- Carotenoids
3. Chloroplasts may also contain starch or oil
D. Other plastids
1. Types
- Amyloplasts
• Synthesize and store starch
- Elaioplasts
• Synthesize and store oil
- Chromoplasts
• Store red, orange or yellow pigments
2. Origins in plant tissues
- All plastids, including chloroplasts came from proplastids which develop in young,
unspecialized cells
- All have same genetic material
- Fate determined by environmental signals
- Chloroplasts in green tissues become colorless when placed in the dark

Mitochondria
A. Structure
1. Smooth outer membrane
2. Folded inner membrane which forms
cristae
3. Intermembrane space between the
inner and outer membrane
4. Enzymes which catalyze
mitochondrial metabolism
5. Bound to membranes
6. Soluble in space between inner and
outer membrane or inside inner
membrane
B. Numbers vary from cell to cell
1. Dividing cells which are very
metabolically active have the most
2.2 Cell theory
A.Robert Hooke in 1665 used a hand-held
microscope to see the cells of the outer
bark of oak
1.Saw remnants of living cells-the cell
walls
2.150 years before significant advances
were made in cell study
B.Matthias Schleiden and Theodore
Schwann in 1838
1. Tenets of theory
- The cell is the fundamental unit of living organisms
- All organisms are made of cells
- All cells come from pre-existing cells

To see most cells a microscope is needed. Al light microscope can magnify an object up
to1,500 times and an electron microscope can magnify an object up to 100,000 times. The
resolving power of the microscope limited by the wavelength of the illuminating beam,
determines the clarity of the image.

Cytologists study cells using microscopy, cytochemistry and cell fractionation. Cell size is
limited by the amount of plasma membrane available to service cytosol and the number of
nuclei per cell. The plasma membrane is assisted by internal membranes which subdivide the
cell into compartments in which specialized enzymatic reactions occur. The cytoskeleton is
formed from a variety of filaments that provide structural support, control cell growth and internal
movement.

Cell walls are composed primarily of carbohydrates. Secondary cell walls are made rigid
by deposits of lignin. All living cells in plant are connected by plasma membrane lined pores
called plasmodesmata. Although plasmodesmata allow for the passage of substances between
cells, cell content specialization can be maintained.

The nucleus containing the cell’s chromosomes is surrounded by a double membrane

perforated by pores. Ribosomal components enter the nucleus and ribosomal subunits exit
through these pores. Protein synthesis in the cell occurs on ribosomes. Cytostolic ribosomes
synthesize cytostolic proteins. Membrane-bound ribosomes synthesize proteins that remain
attached to or embedded in membranes.

The cellular membrane system consists of a series of membranes that are physically
attached and/or exchange membrane segments. The endoplasmic reticulum forms a tubular
compartment throughout the cytosol in which the synthesis of phospholipids, some proteins,
membrane synthesis, and cell wall precursor synthesis are performed. Dictyosomes chemically
alter materials manufactured in the endoplasmic reticulum, build primary cell walls, secrete
materials from the cell, and may recycle portions of the plasma membrane.
Plant cells have a large central vacuole containing water enzymes, salts, pigments, alkaloids
and other chemicals. The vacuole plays a key role in the regulation of water movement into or
out of the cell. Microbodies isolate hydrogen peroxide producing oxidase reactions from the
cytosol. Peroxisome microbodies break down toxins and glyoxysome microbodies synthesize
sugars from lipids.

Chloroplasts and mitochondria are the sites of energy interconversion in the plant cell. All
ATP for cell functions come from the mitochondria as in animal cells.
According the Endosymbiotic Theory, chloroplasts and mitochondria evolved from bacteria
taken in by the cells of the ancestors of the eukaryotes. Like bacteria, both have circular DNA,
ribosomes, and can divide on their own.

The Cell Theory that states that the basic organizational unit of an organism is the cell holds
true for slime molds and certain algae, but the Organismal Theory better fits plants. The cells of
aplant are interconnected through plasmodesmata, making the whole organism a functional
unit.
 SYNTHESIS

Cells, the basic units of life, are often compared to a pizza parlor, a factory, or even an entire
city. In this section, you will need to make analogies to compare the function of the plant cell to
the part and functions of a factory, restaurant, city, school, etc.

Task: Create analogies between a plant cell’s parts and a (pick what you want to compare the
cell to) ______________________________(or any analogy) parts by completing the cell
analogy worksheet below:

A must: When making the analogies between your cell and your city (or other analogy), the
Functions of the city part and cell part must match, not the appearance!

Cell Analogy

The cell is like a _____________________________________.

Examples: City, school, football team. (You may pick but make sure you can make a link for
each part.
For each cell part:
A. Write the function of the organelle (what does it do in the cell?)
B. What “person/item” is the organelle like in your analogy? (e.g. nucleus is like Mayor in
city)
C. What is the link? Why are they similar? (e.g. nucleus and mayor both control system)

Cell Part Function Analogy Link

nucleus
cell membrane
vacuole
microbodies
plastids
cytoskeleton
ribosome
rough ER
Golgi apparatus
chloroplast
mitochondria
smooth ER
cell wall
Draw a diagram that helps explain your analogy (use color and descriptions).

LEARNING CHECK

Encircle the letter that corresponds to the correct answer.

1. Which type of plastid is capable of 4. It contains 25% cellulose and present in

synthesizing and storing starch? growing or dividing cells.
A. Amyloplasts A. Primary cell wall
B. Elaioplasts B. Secondary cell wall
C. Chromoplasts C. Middle lamellae
D. Chloroplasts D. Cell membrane
2. This structure is the site of respiration and 5. Which of the following equipment/tool is
involved in various metabolic processes. used to observe the structures of a cell?
A. Nucleolus A. Microscope
B. Plasma membrane B. Magnifying glass
C. Mitochondria C. Binoculars
D. Cytoplasm D. Telescope
3. It holds the hereditary information and 6. A dynamic, 3-D network of protein filaments
instructions for cell growth, development, that extends throughout the cytosol and is
and reproduction. intimately involved in many processes.
A. Chromosomes A. Nuclear pore
B. Nucleus B. Vacuole
C. Membrane system C. Cytoskeleton
D. Vacuoles D. Cell membrane
 7. The aggregation of ribosomes is called (?). 14. It is composed of ⍺ and β tubulin subunits?
A. Lysosomes A. Cytoskeleton
B. Peroxisomes B. Actin filaments
C. Thylakoid C. Intermediate filaments
D. Polysomes D. Microtubules
8. It is the most prominent structure within the 15. A flattened sacs with numerous polysomes
protoplats. on the outer surface.
A. Golgi apparatus A. Golgi apparatus
B. Endoplasmic reticulum B. Rough ER
C. Mitochondria C. Smooth ER
D. Nucleus D. Cytoplasm
9. The vacuole is surrounded by a single 16. This refers to the gelatinous substance
membrane known as (?). within the nuclear envelope.
A. Cell sap A. Nucleus
B. Tonoplasts B. Nucleolus
C. Plasma membrane C. Chromosome
D. Dictyosome D. Nucleoplasm
10. Which of the cell wall components is 17. Which of the following is not a component
responsible for regulating cell enlargement? of a cell sap?
A. Pectin A. Calcium
B. Extensin B. Potassium
C. Hemicellulose C. Chloride
D. Cellulose D. Oxygen
11. Which of the following structures defines 18. Below are the fatty acids found in the cell
the shape of the plant cell? wall, except for:
A. Plasma membrane A. Extensins
B. Cell wall B. Cutin
C. Microbodies C. Suberin
D. Cell plate D. Waxes
12. This structure lacks ribosomes and is 19. What structure occupies the 90% of a
largely tubular in form. mature plant cell?
A. Rough ER A. Nucleus
B. Smooth ER B. Cytoplasm
C. Golgi apparatus
C. Vacuole
D. Golgi vesicles
D. Vacuolar membrane
13. The structure iInvolved in the synthesis and 20. These are usually found floating on the
secretion of noncellulosic polysaccharides cytosol.
destined for incorporation into the cell wall. A. Ribosomes
A. Endoplasmic reticulum B. Golgi vesicles
B. Nuclear envelope
C. Tonoplasts
C. Golgi apparatus
D. Actin filaments D. Glyoxysomes
 EVALUATION

Build a three-dimensional model of your cell city. Your model must be neat. You must label both
the part in the cell city and the cell part that is represented in your model. Labels, coloring,
relevance will be graded.

REFERENCES & RESOURCES

Berg, L. 2008. Introductory Botany: Plants, People, and the Environment. 2nd Edition. Thompson Brooks/Cole

Bidlack, james and Jansky, S. 2017. Sterns Introduction to Plant Biology. 14th Edition. McGraw Hill Education

Moore, R. and Vodopich, D. 1998. Botany. McGraw Hill Education

Raven, P., Johnson, G, Mason, K., Losos, J., and Singer S. R. Biology 11th Edition. McGrawHill Education. 2016

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology1/chapter/reading-ribosomes-mitochondria-and-peroxisomes/

https://www.britannica.com/science/smooth-endoplasmic-reticulum