Terrain Chapter - 3 New

Chapter- 3
Morphometric Analysis of
Terrain
GeES, Wollo University 1

Terrain Representation
• Terrain is best represented using topographic maps, but the scale
varies.
• The topographic map shows the variation in elevation using
contours.
• Map projection: Map projection is the principles and techniques
of transforming and representing three-dimensional features on
earth surface on a two-dimensional flat map sheet.
• This process involves mathematical calculation (high level of
mathematics).
• Generalization: with the smallest or enlargement of scale the
details of a map may be either left or clearly visible.
• So in small scale map the details are left out and the final situation
will be generalization. It involves selection, simplification,
smoothing, combination, shifting, exaggeration and others.

Cont…
• Interpretation of Terrain Features
• Terrain features do not normally stand alone. To better understand
these when they are depicted on a map, you need to interpret
them. Terrain features are interpreted by using
 contour lines,
 ridgelining, or
 streamlining.
A. Contour Lines: Emphasizing the main contour lines is a
technique used to interpret the terrain of an area. By studying
these contour lines, you are able to obtain a better understanding
of the layout of the terrain and to decide on the best route.
 Terrain features can be examined, described, and compared with
each other and with corresponding map contour patterns in
terms of their shapes, orientations, sizes, elevations, and slopes.

Cont…
A. Ridge lining: This technique helps you to visualize the
overall lay of the ground within the area of interest on the
map.
B. Stream lining. This procedure is similar to that of ridge
lining.
(1) Identify all the mapped streams in the area of operations.
(2) Trace over them to make them stand out more prominently.
(3) Then identify other low ground, such as smaller valleys or
draws that feed into the major streams, and trace over them.
• This brings out the drainage pattern and low ground in the
area of operation on the map.

The most commonly used methods of Terrain
Representation :
TECHNIQUE COMPONENT • FEATURES
Spot Heights Elevation absolute
Hachures Slope relative
Contours Elevation absolute
Shaded relief Slope relative
Layer tinting Elevation Relative

1. Layer Tinting
• Layer tinting is a method of

showing relief by color.
• A different color is used for
each band of elevation.
• Each shade of color, or band,
represents a definite elevation
range.
• A legend is printed on the map
margin to indicate the elevation
range represented by each color.
• However, this method does not
allow the map user to determine
the exact elevation of a specific
point—only the range.

2. Relief Shading:
 Relief shading indicates relief by
a shadow effect achieved by tone
and color that results in the
darkening of one side of terrain
features, such as hills and ridges.
 The darker the shading, the
steeper the slope.
 Shaded relief is sometimes used
in conjunction with contour lines
to emphasize these features.

3. Hachures
 Hachures are short, broken lines used to show relief.
 Use lines of varying width and length to depict slope steepness, drawn in
direction of steepest slope.
 are sometimes used with contour lines.
 The hachure lines are drawn thicker when the slope is greater and thinner when
the slope is gentler.
 The steeper the slope the darker the shade.
 Where the slope is gentle hachures are tin and the shade showing gentler
ground is less dark.
 Flat areas or areas with slight slope are left completely white weather in top of
mountain or a valley.
 Thus the hachures do effectively depict the relative slope by means of varying
black lines, but they fail to show the exact slopes.
 The main advantage is that features of small like mounds, hillocks, river traces
etc. are clearly marked.

Eg. of Hachures:
Disadvantages of Hachures:
Can not estimate exact slope or exact height of locations on a map
In mountainous areas the map becomes too dark and almost
intangible.
The direction of a slope are difficult to identify when rivers are
absent
Due to this reasons hachuring is rarely used now a days.
4. Spot height:
 The height that has been precisely
measured above mean sea level on the
surface and shown on the map by dots with
heights in figures.
 In any topographical maps, you will find the
spot heights with brown color dot.
 They can give definite and precise
information; but fails to depict a visual
picture of the relief pattern.
 The method is rarely used without
combination with the other methods of
relief representation.
 Used to show elevation of important points
on hachure and contour maps
 The height of the following features will be represented on contour maps using
spot heights:
– Hill tops
– Point of river branching
– A cross of two roads
– The floor of a church or a mosque
– A bridge center
– Bench Marks (A mark made by surveyors to record a point of known
position and height above mean sea level. )
• Symbols of Spot height in topographic maps:

 Small dots( for hills)
 Cross( for mountains)
 Spots with the latters BM (for bench mark spot heights)

5. Contours
• Contour lines are the most common method of showing relief
and elevation on a standard topographic map.
• A contour line represents an imaginary line on the ground,
above or below sea level.
• All points on the contour line are at the same elevation.
• The elevation represented by contour lines is the vertical distance
above or below sea level.
• The three types of contour lines used on a standard topographic
map are as follows:

• (1) Index.
– Starting at zero elevation or mean sea level, every fifth or tenth
contour line is a heavier line.
– These are known as index contour lines.
– Normally, each index contour line is numbered at some point.
– This number is the elevation of that line.
• (2) Intermediate.
– The contour lines falling between the index contour lines.
– These lines are finer and do not have their elevations given.
– There are normally four intermediate contour lines between index
contour lines.
• (3) Supplementary.
– These contour lines resemble dashes.
– They show changes in elevation of at least one-half the contour
interval.
– These lines are normally found where there is very little change in
elevation, such as on fairly level terrain.

3.3.1 Interpretation of Contour Lines
What types of Relief features
• Because contour lines
could be derived from
depicted on topographic
contour maps?
maps are the most
The following are the most
commonly methods of relief
common types of terrain
representation; they are the
parameters which could be
easiest and the most
derived from contour maps.
available sources of terrain
• Elevation
data acquisition
• Slope
• Due to this reason the skill of • Aspect
interpreting contort maps • Hillside
will play a great role in • Stream link
studying terrain analysis. • Stream network
• Watershed e.t.c
Determining the Elevation of contour lines
• Except on index contour lines, the elevation of contours is

not usually labeled on the contour lines.
• The following procedure will show you how to determine
the elevation of contour lines.

Determine the Elevation of contour H from the
following topographic map

a. Determine the contour interval and the
unit of measurement used,
• Contour interval is the vertical distance between adjacent contour
lines.
• It could be obtained from the marginal information of the map.
• Before the elevation of any point on the map can be determined,
the user must know the contour interval for the map he is using.
• The unit of measurement also could be obtained from the
marginal information of the map.

b. Find the numbered index contour line nearest
the point of which you are trying to determine the
elevation.
Nearest Indexed
contour

C. Determine if you are going from lower elevation to higher,
or vice versa: you can do that by looking at the elevation of
numbered contours

• D. Determine the exact elevation of point start
at the index contour line numbered 2180 and
count the number of intermediate contour
lines to point
• Once you have determine all the other
information you can use the following formula
No of Intermediate Contours= 3
Elevation of Nearest Contour= 2180
Elevation of required contour=
(No of intermediate contours *Contour interval)+ Elevation of Nearest
contour
= (3X2)+2180= 2186
Because we are going from lower to higher we added
But if it was from higher to lower elevation it would be
subtraction
Relief and Slope Development
• Relief can be defined as the difference in elevation

between the highest and lowest elevations in the
basin. It is the representation of the shapes of hills,
valleys, streams, or terrain features on the earth's
surface.

Slopes development and forms of Slopes
• Slope "EVOLUTION": As a result of the action of processes,
slope form changes in the course of time. This change, from
past form to present form, is the "evolution" of the slope.
• There are actually no universal pattern of slope evolution,
slopes are related to rock type, vegetation and various
weathering and sediment transport processes.
• The theories of slope decline and replacement are time-
dependent approaches to slope development; slopes were
assumed to become progressively with time.
• Factors affecting the development of slope
1. Climate
2. Gravity
3. Changes in the base level – uplift
4. Degree of saturation of regolith with water
5. Vegetation /Animals / Human activities
Types of Slope
• Based on their morphology( shape), slopes could be classified as follows:
uniform slope; convex Slope; concave Slope and Undulating.
I. Uniform Slope
• The degree of slope is the

same throughout.
• The steepness remains
unchanged.
• Is shown by contour lines
which are equal in space ie.
• The distance between
contour lines remains the
same throughout

Contour maps of Uniform Slope

II. Convex Slope:
• Marked by outward bend (bulge)- (has an
out ward rounded shape.)
• The slope rises more steeply at the foot,
but less steeply or more genteelly at the
top.
• This means that the degree of slope is
greater at the foot and less at the top.
• Contour lines which represent a convex
slope are close together at the foot and
comparatively further apart at the top.

Contour maps of convex slope

III. Concave Slope
• Is marked by an inward bend on a relief

feature.
• Is the opposite of the convex slope.
• The slope is less at the foot but more at
the top.
• Is represented by contour lines which
are far apart at the foot and close
together at the top.

Contour maps of Concave slope

Contour maps of Concave slope

Iv. Undulated Slope
• An undulating slope is irregularly
marked by outward bulges and
inward bends.
• Its contour lines are variably spaced,
i.e., there is no uniform spacing
between the consecutive contour
lines.
• In general it shows the combination
of concave and convex slope

Slope Determination
• Methods of Slope Parameterization:
• Slope parameterization is a method
of measuring slope steepness. Slope • Field surveying: we can measure the
parameterization will help us to steepness of the slope by the aid of
know how the slope is steep or surveying equipment; such as
gentle. clinometers, total stations theodolites
• Measuring the steepness of the • Aerial Photo Interpretation: we can
slope is a fundamental task in any Determine the steepness of the slope by
land use and land evaluation the stereoscopic interpretation of aerial
programs. photographs
• This is because terrain steepness is • Topomap reading: it is possible to
one of the fundamental factor which determine the steepness of two points
determine the feasibility of any land from contours on top maps
use projects. • GIS: Slopes of an area could easily be
derived from a DEM using GIS
software

3.2.3.Quantitative Methods of Expressing Slope

Determine the steepness of line AC given the following diagram by using
the three forms of slope expression.
100m
A B
500m
Given= Run= 500m

Rise= 100m

Conversion of Units of Slope
• Case1, for Finding the slope in degree
from a given gradient
• A. By using trigonometric function
• B. Multiply the gradient by 57.3 ie:
• Case2, Converting slope degree in to

gradient; divide the slope angle by 57.3

Measuring Slope From Contours
• Contour lines are the ultimate sources of slope measurement
in most analogue terrain analysis.
• For finding the slope between two contour lines, it is
necessary to find the horizontal and vertical distance between
them.
• The horizontal distance between the two points will be
obtained by laying a ruler on the topographic map.
• The vertical distance could be find from the contour
reading.

Calculate the slope of the area between Line AB, given the horizontal
distance between the points is 80m
put the answers in terms of degree, gradient and percentage

Solution:

Profiles and Cross- Sectional Development
• The study of contour lines to determine high and low
points of elevation is usually adequate for military
operations.
• A profile can be used for many purposes. The primary
purpose is to determine if line of sight is available.
Line of sight is important:
(1) To determine defilade positions.
(2) To plot hidden areas or dead space.
(3) To determine potential direct fire weapon positions.
(4)To determine potential locations for defensive
positions.
(5) To conduct preliminary planning in locating roads,
pipelines, railroads, or other construction projects.
Cont…
• A profile can be constructed from any contoured map and its
construction requires the following steps:
1. Draw a line on the map from where the profile is to begin to where it
is to end.
2. Find the value of the highest and lowest contour lines that cross or
touch the profile line. Add one contour value above the highest and
one below the lowest to take care of hills and valleys.
3. Select a piece of lined notebook paper with as many lines as was
determined in (2) above. If lined paper is not available, draw equally
spaced horizontal lines on a blank sheet of paper.
4. Number the top line with the highest value and the bottom line with
the lowest value as determined in (2) above.
5. Number the rest of the lines in sequence, starting with the second
line from the top. The lines will be numbered in accordance with the
contour interval .
6. Place the paper on the map with the lines next to and parallel to the
profile line .

Cont…
7. From every point on the profile line where a contour
line, stream, intermittent stream, or other body of water
crosses or touches, drop a perpendicular line to the line
having the same value. Place a tick mark where the
perpendicular line crosses the number line.
8. After all perpendicular lines have been drawn and tick
marks placed where the lines cross, connect all tick
marks with a smooth, natural curve to form a horizontal
view or profile of the terrain along the profile line.
9. Draw a straight line from the start point to the end point
on the profile. If the straight line intersects the curved
profile, line of sight to the end point is not available.

Drainage basin and stream network analysis
• Drainage basin (watershed, catchment) is an area of the
earth’s surface within which there is an ordered
movement of water. In each basin there is a set of stream
channels called the drainage network.
• All precipitation falling on the watershed (that is not
removed by evapotranspiration) is carried away by the
streams or underground drainage.
• In its simplest form, a drainage basin is an area that
funnels all runoff to the mouth of a stream.
• Drainage basins may be delineated on a topographic map
by tracing their perimeters or drainage divides.
• A drainage divide is simply a line on either side of which
water flows to different streams. Each drainage basin is
entirely enclosed by a drainage divide.
Basic Concepts of Watershed
• Water at the Earth’s surface

that neither infiltrates nor
suffers evapotranspiration
flows over the surface, and
then enters into channels or
streams and finally joins large
rivers.
• Such flow of water on the
surface of the earth has brought
the concept of drainage basin,
watershed and catchment.

Critical Thinking
• Where Does the water of Big River Rivers Come From?
• Where Does the water of Tributaries Come From
• Where does the water that rains on your home go?
 Definition : Watershed is defined by all points enclosed within

an area from which rain falling at these points will contribute water
to the outlet.
 watershed is all the land and water area
which contributes run off to a common point.
 Accordingly:
◦ all parts of the earths surface is part of a watershed: because the
water that reaches the earths surface should have to flow and reaches
at a certain channel or stream.
◦ All rivers or streams have their own
GeES, watersheds
Wollo University 43
• Two Basic Components
of a watershed:
1. Land area : Every watershed
has a defined boundary
which contribute water to
streams or rivers.
A watershed is separated from
other watersheds by high
points in the area such as hills
or slopes.

2. Channel is a s a stream or a lake over which
water from the surrounding areas reaches at mouth
of river

Extent and size of Watershed
• A watershed may range in size from a matter of hectares to millions of square
kilometers.
• Water is contributed to the outlet from many smaller areas, which are also
watersheds.
• Small streams have their own small watersheds. Small streams combine with
other small streams to form larger stream networks. Their watersheds also
combine to form larger watersheds.
• According to the variation in the Size of the streams or the outlets of the
watershed, a watershed could be divided in to three; such as:
– River Basin
– Watershed
– Catchment
• Generally the area of a basin is greater than that of a watershed, and catchment
is associated with the smallest area.
• A basin consists of a number of watersheds, and a watershed has a number of
catchments.

Geba River and its Basin
Main Tributaries of
Geba basin

Watersheds of Geba Catchment

Catchments of Geba River Basin

How to identify all areas which contribute water
to a river or in other words delineate the
boundary of a watershed?
• As indicated previously, the watershed boundary is

defined by identifying all points within an area from
which rain will contribute water to the outlet. This is
done based on the assumption that water flows
from up slopes to down slopes. Because of this a
higher elevation( a ridge or a hill area) is the main
demarcating the boundary of a watershed.
• So the boundary of a watershed is always
characterized by elevated land mass.

Methods of Watershed Delineation
• Watershed Delineation is the process of identifying areas

which contributes water to a river or a stream.
• Analogue Watershed Delineation
– Data Source = topographic map
– Aerial photograph
• Digital
– Data Source = DEM
– Materials and instruments = GIS components
 Steps in Analogue Watershed Delineation From
Topographic Maps
1. Identify the a channel around the area where you are
interested to delineate a watershed and Mark the outlet of the
watershed
2. Mark the high points adjacent to the channel
3. Connect the high Points and Create a polygon
1. Identifying the End Points of the River or Channel

• 2. Mark the high points adjacent to the channel: you can
identify high points by looking at the elevation of the
contours

3. Connect the identified high points and
that is the watershed

Importance of analyzing Watershed Morphology?
• The analysis characterization and Parameterization

of watershed morphology is a basic issue in many
hydrological applications.
• Watershed and river geomorphology is a basic piece
of data necessary for river basic planning and
management. Such issues include:
flood hazard mitigation,
erosion and sediment control,
water quality degradation from nonpoint and point source
sources of pollution.
Assessment of Dam construction feasibility

3.4.3 Morphometric Characteristics of a watershed
• Morphometric characterization of a Characteristics

watershed is a quantitative method of
watershed morphology Basin areal
Linear
parameterization . Characteristics properties
The morphometric attribute of a basin
could be divided in to two; such as Linear Watershed area
channel
and Areal Length
1. Linear basin characteristics (Channel)
Watershed Length
refers to the characteristics of water Stream
channels, such as rivers and streams found order
within the basin Watershed Slope
Channel
slope
2. Areal attribute refers to the
characteristics of the land surface which Watershed Shape
Drainage
contributes water to the channel of the Density
basin, such as to the rivers or streams.
Hydrographic
Density

1. Linear Basin Attributes
• The linear basin attributes parameterize the attributes of
the channels ( streams and rivers) found within the basin.
• The major physical characteristics of rivers or watershed
channels are:
• Stream Order
• Stream Length
• Stream Slope
• Drainage Density
• Hydrographic Density

1. Stream Order
• Streams are channels through which
water flows in the basin.
• Water flows from upper to lower
slope areas by streams
• A certain drainage basin or
watershed usually constitute
multiple small streams and one big
river.
• Small streams transport water from
the surrounding areas to the main Stream Oredr
river of the watershed
1
• Or in other words, a big river
2
found in the basin may constitute
multiple streams or have multiple 3
tributaries 4
• These streams vary in the amount 5

of water that they will carry as well 6
as in terms of their length etc..

Cont…
• Thus streams in a channel can be

categorized or ordered based on their
magnitude.
• Stream order is a measure of the degree of
stream branching within a watershed.
• Each length of stream is indicated by its
order. So streams can be ordered as First ,
second and third…. Nth ordered streams

First-order stream
• is an unbranched tributary,
• they don’t have any tributary.
• Overland flow is normally the
only source of water to first-
order streams.(Overland flow
is Water flowing over the
ground surface as a non
channelized, discontinuous
sheet of water)
Stream Oredr
1
2
3
4
Second-order stream
• is a tributary formed by
two or more first-order
streams.
• are formed at the
junction of 1st order
streams
Stream Oredr
1
2
3
GeES, Wollo University
4 61
A third-order stream
• formed by two or more
second-order streams,
• are formed at the
junction of 2nd order
streams
Stream Oredr
1
2
3
GeES, Wollo University
4 62
stream order only increases when two streams
of the same order join.
Eg; where a 2nd order stream joins a 3rd stream there is
no change in stream order; the 3rd order stream remains
3rd order.
as order increases average stream length
increases geometrically.
Stream ordering is scale dependent. The first-

order streams are the smallest initial channels,
that is those with no tributaries. But identifying
first order channels depends upon the scale of
analysis.
Techniques of Ordering Streams;
Stream ordering can be done using the two main
approaches of terrain analysis; such as, manual and digital
terrain analysis
Data Sources: Streams on to graphic maps
Topomap= most Topomaps
contains streams as one layer
of the map and stream
ordering can be done on that
streams and
Aerial photograph
interpretation=
their order could also be
identified by stereoscopic
interpretation of aerial
photographs
Digital Stream Ordering
• Data sources= DEM

• Stream data and stream
order could be derived
from a DEM in a GIS
environment
DEM
Stream network
Data derived
from DEM
Cont…
• Why is this relationship important? Not only are the numbers and lengths of
particular stream orders important, but their ratios are quite instructive as
well. Consider a Dendritic drainage pattern versus trellis.
• In an ideal dendritic drainage pattern, the number of 1st order tributaries
would be exactly twice the number of 2nd order streams.
• Thus, the number of 1st order streams will be exactly twice that of 2nd
order streams. In a trellis network, long main stem streams are fed by many
low order streams. As a result, 1st order streams typically outnumber 2nd
order streams by 3 to 5 times.
• The relationship between the numbers of streams in successive stream
orders is called the bifurcation ratio (Rb). The ratio can be mathematically
defined as follows,
Rb=S0 / S0-1
• Where So is the number of streams in any given order and So-1 is the
number of streams in the next lowest order.

Cont…
• Rb, which indicates how many streams of one
order on the average, are required to produce a
stream of the next higher order.
• Ex. Stream order stream number Rb
1 26 26/10
2 10 10/3
3 3 3/1
4 1 -
Sum =8.9
Cont…
• Average Rb= Sum of Rb/K
Where k is the total number of ratio for the whole basin .
In this case, Average Rb= 8.9/3= 2.97
 The bifurcation ratio of larger basin is the average of the Rb
of the stream orders within it.
 A single Rb taken by itself has little meaning , but computing
the mean for an entire drainage basin and matching the result
with the same figure for the other drainage basin , however,
provide a method of computing a characteristics of the
various basin.

2. Channel length
• The river (channel) length is the length of the

stream
• It determines the time that the runoff will
travel from throughout the channel of the
watershed.
• The higher the length of the channel the
longer is the time that the runoff will travel
from the beginning to the mouth of the
watershed.

Watershed A
Watershed B
Channel length 17.9 Km
Channel length= 30.5Km
Runoff will reach to the outlet more quickly in

watershed A than in watershed B; because the channel
length of watershed B is longer than watershed A.
Techniques of Measuring Channel length
Analogue Digital
• Stream length will be • Channel length could
measured from a easily be measured in any
Topomap using a GIS environment. But it
chartometer requires to first to fulfill
• Alternatively it could also the necessary GIS
be determined from components
stereoscopic
interpretation of aerial
photographs

Cont…
Measuring stream lengths is accomplished
using a map wheel or digitizing table. During
this exercise, we will measure the length of all
streams in each order.
Prior to measuring the stream lengths you
should pause and predict which stream order
will have the greatest length.
L= length of rope x scale of the map

3. Channel Slope
• The velocity of overland
flow of surface water
resulting from precipitation
and snowmelt is determined
by, among other factors, the
slope of the ground surface.
• The velocity of overland
flow will be higher in
steeper slopes than in gentle
slopes
• The river (channel) slope is
the difference in elevation
between the upper and
lower elevation of river (
ΔEc) over the length of
channel (Lc).
3. Channel Slope

Calculate the slope of the following two main cannel and
compare and contrast the result based on the given parameters in
the following table
Watershed A
Watershed B

Given Solution
Wate Upper Lower

rshed elevation Elevation
(M) (M)
A 2295 1645 650 0.0363 3.63%
B 2268 1573 695 0.022 2.27%
Watershed A is steeper than watershed B, because of this, the

momentum and velocity of the runoff of watershed A will be higher
than B

4. Drainage Density
• The drainage density (D) is the ratio of the total length of streams
within a watershed to the total area of the watershed;
• A high value of the drainage density would indicate a relatively high
density of streams and thus a rapid storm response.
• It indicates the nature of the watershed topography. A high value of
drainage density implies as the topography of a watershed is
undulating and fragmented.
• Where
– Dd is the drainage density [km/km2],
– Li is the length of the river [km], and
– A is the area of the watershed [km2]( refer back the topic– how to
determine the area of the watershed)
Cont…
• Drainage density is a measure of the texture of the

landforms in a drainage basin because the higher the
drainage density, the more intricate
(complicated/detailed) the dissection(part) of the
landscape.
• Higher drainage densities occur in areas of
impermeable rocks, high relief, and sparse vegetation
cover, whereas low drainage densities occur in areas
of permeable rocks and low relief.

5. Hydrographic Density
• The hydrographic density is the number of flow channels

per unit of area:
• It is another method index which helps to determine the
ruggedness of watershed topography. i.e ; how the
topography is rugged or flat
• where
– F is the hydrographic density [km2],
– Ni is the number of streams
– A is the area of the watershed [km2],

• Areas with high drainage density and high
hydrographic density (two factors that often go
hand in hand) are areas with parent rock, limited
vegetal cover and mountainous relief.
• Such type of watersheds are characterized by
highly undulating topography
• Areas with low drainage density and hydrographic
density usually have a highly permeable substrate,
significant vegetative cover, and a relatively flat
relief.

Compare and Contrast the Drainage and Hydrographic Density
of the following tow watersheds
Watershed B
Watershed A

Given Solution
Watersh Total Area of Total no of

ed stream watershed Streams
Length
A 102.34 144.48 112 17.9 0.70 0.77
B 129.91 192.36 92 30.52 0.67 0.47
Interpretation : on average there is 0.7 km stream in one km2 area

of land in watershed A and 0.67 km stream in one km2 in watershed
B. On the other hand the hydrographic density indicates that there
are 0.77 streams in 1km2 area of land in watershed A and 0.47
streams in watershed B. These indicates that the terrain of waterside
A is relatively mountainous than the terrain of watershed B.
2. Areal Attributes of a Watershed
• Such attributes of a watershed parameterize the
area of land which contributes water to
streams or rivers.
 The drainage area of a watershed requires the
delineation of the watershed boundary.
 It reflects the volume of water that can be
generated from a rainfall.
 Drainage area is directly related to runoff volume.
 The higher the basin area, the higher will be the
volume of runoff.

Techniques of Determining Watershed Area
• There are two widely available

methods for measuring the area of a
watershed: a) Dot Grid (Analogue) Determine the area of the
following watershed
and b) Planimeter Digital method
Analogue technique: The area of a
watershed could be determined form
Topomaps by overlying a square
transparent paper on the map and
counting the squares.
• Go through the following steps to
determine the area of a watershed
from Topomaps

1. Determine the scale and unit of measurement of
the map from which you are going to determine the
area of a watershed
• Such types of information could

be obtained from the marginal
information of the map
– Scale of the map 1 to
50,000
– Unit of measurement =
metric

2. Prepare a transparent paper having a known size
regular gird of squares
A transparent pepper
having 0.5 cm2 square grids
3.overlay the transparent paper on the
watershed area of the top map

4. Draw the boundary of the watershed on
the transparent paper

5. Count the squares inside the boundary you
have drawn on the transparent paper
No of square grids inside

the boundary 170
6. Determine the area of the drawing of the watershed on
the transparent paper

7. Compute the area of the watershed by comparing the
measured area from the transparent paper with the scale of the
map
But this technique of area determination is not only time consuming and tedious
but also highly erroneous and unreliable
The drainage area of a watershed rather could easily be determined in the GIS
environment GeES, Wollo University 91
Compare and Contrast the drainage area and its
effect on the amount of runoff on the following
watersheds
A B
144.8km2 Area=192.3km2
The area coverage of watershed B is higher than the drainage area of

watershed A; Because of this the volume of water will be very large in
catchment B than watershed A
2. Length of watershed
• It is the distance measured along the main channel of the
watershed from the watershed outlet to the basin divide.
• Measured along the principal flow path( along the highest stream
order)
• This length is usually used in computing a time parameter, which is
a measure of the travel time of water through a watershed.
• While the drainage area and length are both measures of
watershed size, they may reflect different aspects of size.
• The drainage area is used to indicate the potential for rainfall to
provide a volume of water. While the length is usually used in
computing a time parameter, which is a measure of the travel time
of water through the watershed.
• Length of a watershed could be measured in a map using a ruler or
could be determined in the GIS environment.

Length = 15.4Km Length 26.68Km
The length of watershed B is greater than the length of watershed A.

Because of this, the travel time of the runoff in watershed B will be
higher than the travel time of runoff in watershed A
3. Slope of watershed:
Watershed slope reflects the rate of change of elevation with
respect to distance along the principal flow path.
 It affects the momentum and velocity of runoff.
The steeper the watershed the higher will be the momentum and
the velocity of runoff.
 Basin slope is the slope of the principal flow path (the main
stream).
 Land slope in the watershed can also be characterized by
measuring the gradient b/n points using different techniques such
as:
1. Clinometer
2. GIS

Watershed A Watershed B
Determine the watershed slope of the two watersheds

and interpret the result based on the parameters
displayed in the table

Given Solution
Watershe Upper Lower

d elevation Elevatio
n
A 2295 1645 650 15400m 0.042 4.2%
B 2268 1573 695 26680m 0.026 2.6%
Watershed A is steeper than watershed B, because of this, the

momentum and velocity of the runoff of watershed A will be
higher than watershed B

4. Shape of the Watershed
• The shape of the watershed affects the travel time of the water
throughout the watershed and determines the risk of flooding along
the main channel of the watershed.
• Floods are formed and travel more rapidly in a round watersheds
than in an elongated one
• Moreover floods in rounded shape watersheds are stronger and have
a higher velocity, and thus grabber erosion and transport capacities.
• The shape of a basin reflects the geologic history, structure, lithology,
and climate of the region. The elongated basins will usually have
smaller flood peaks than the tear-shaped drainage basins, because
the runoff resulting from a rain will arrive at the main channel at
about the same time whether the tributary is near the mouth or the
headwaters. As elongation increases for a given area, Rf decreases
• There are two basic indexes of watershed shape measurements
– Horton’s drainage density index (Rf)
– Gravelius shape index KG GeES, Wollo University 99
Horton’s drainage density index (Rf):

Gravelius shape index KG:
Where:
• KG is the Gravelius shape index,
• A is the watershed area [km2],
• P is the perimeter of the watershed [km] and is the
length of watershed boundary, which will be measured
from a Topomap using a chartometer or in a GIS
environment
The index is close to 1 for a watershed with a circular shape and
is greater than 1 for a watershed that is elongated in shape
Compare and Contrast the shape of the two watersheds
using Horton’s drainage density index and Gravelius shape
index and interpret its implication on the flow of water
Watershed A Watershed B

Given Solutions
Rf Gravelius shape index
Sn. Perimeter
(km)
A 144.48 15.4 76.83 237.16 0.6 12.01 6.4 1.79
B 26.68 112.7 711.82 0.27 13.86 8.13 2.274
According to the result, the Horton’s drainage density index of watershed

A is greater than that of watershed B. But The Gravelius shape index of
watershed A is higher than that of B. As a result both types of shape
indexes implies as the shape of watershed A is more circular and the shape
of watershed B is elongated.
Thus floods in watershed A will travel more rapidly with high velocity than
floods in watershed B. The risk of flooding and soil erosion will also be
higher in watershed A than watershed B. University
GeES, Wollo 103
Summary of aerial attributes of a watershed
Parameter Implications Method of Computation
Area Volume of Runoff Measured

Length Travel time of runoff Measured
Slope Velocity and momentum

of runoff
Shape Travel Time of runoff

Form Factor
• F =A/ LB2
Where, F = form factor, A = watershed area, and
LB2 = basin length

Compactness coefficient
• It expresses whether the watershed approaches

circle(or compacted).
• Cc=Pr /Pc
Cc stands for compactness ratio (coefficient), Pr =
perimeter of the watershed, A = perimeter of a circle
with equivalent area to the watershed.

Circularity Ratio
• It expresses how much the watershed resembles a
circle. It is given by:
• Rc = 12.57A/Pr 2
RC =circularity ratio, A = watershed area,
and pr = Perimeter of the circle having equal area with
the watershed
• When Rc, and Cc close to 1, the shape of the
watershed is circle.

Cont…
• Ruggedness number (R): A combined

measure of relief and stream density. As
topography becomes more convoluted, the
ruggedness number increases.
• To calculate R, multiply the drainage density
(D) by basin relief (H). Be sure to use the same
unit of length as used in calculating drainage
density (typically kilometers),
R = DH
Cont…
• Relief Ratio (Rh): A unitless measure of the

overall gradient across a basin. Calculated by
dividing the relief (H) of a basin by its length
(L). Be sure to use values with equal units,
Rh= H/L

Geometric stream properties
• An alternative way to classify drainage net is by
geometric patterns they exhibit.
• The particular pattern of a stream net is a reflection
of the structure, lithology, and landforms of an area.
• Dendritic stream patterns: this is the most common
of all stream patterns. It is found in regions where
there is no clear-cut structural or lithologic controls
i.e. areas of geologic uniformity.
• Parallel stream patterns: this pattern will develop as
a response to a pronounced regional slope such as
an exposed dip slope of some formation.

Cont…
• Trellis stream patterns: the streams in this pattern
join one another at approximate right angle. It is
develop in those areas where there are differentially
eroded rock bodies and the stream flow along the
strike of the rock.
• Rectangular stream pattern: this pattern is
developed where joints in the bedrock cross at right
angles.
• Radial stream pattern: where stream diverge from a
central point a radial pattern forms.

Drainage patterns

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Chapter- 3

GeES, Wollo University 1

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TECHNIQUE COMPONENT • FEATURES

Spot Heights Elevation absolute

Hachures Slope relative

Contours Elevation absolute

Shaded relief Slope relative

Layer tinting Elevation Relative

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• Layer tinting is a method of

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• Symbols of Spot height in topographic maps:

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• Except on index contour lines, the elevation of contours is

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• Relief can be defined as the difference in elevation

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• The degree of slope is the

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• Is marked by an inward bend on a relief

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Given= Run= 500m

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• B. Multiply the gradient by 57.3 ie:

• Case2, Converting slope degree in to

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• Water at the Earth’s surface

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 Definition : Watershed is defined by all points enclosed within

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