HIGHER MATH

Matrices and
determinants

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 Matrices and Determinants
Definition: A set of mn numbers arranged in the form of a
rectangular array of m rows and n columns is called an
(m x n) matrix. a11 a12 a13....... a1 j .......a1n 
 
a21 a22 a23.......a2 j ...... a2 n 
: : : : : 
A 
ai1 ai 2 ai 3 ...... aij ....... ain 
 
: : : : : 
am1 am 2 am3 .... amj ..... amn 


A = [aij]m x n where the element aij belongs to ith row and

jth column and is called the (i,j)th element of the matrix A.
Types of Matrices:
1. Square matrix: A matrix in which the number of
rows is equal to the number of columns, say n, is
called a square matrix of order n.
2. Diagonal matrix: A square matrix is called a
diagonal matrix if all the elements that do not lie on
the leading diagonal are zero, i.e. aij = 0 for all i  j.
3. Scalar matrix: A square matrix A is called a scalar
matrix if aij = 0 for all i  j and aii = c for all i.

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4. Identity matrix: A square matrix A is called an
identity matrix or unit matrix if aij = 0 for all i  j and
aii = 1 for all i. The identity matrix of order n is
denoted by In.
5. Null matrix: A matrix whose all elements are zero is
called a null matrix or a zero matrix and is denoted
by O.
6. Row matrix: A matrix having only one row is called
a row matrix or a row vector.
7. Column matrix: A matrix having a single column is
called a column matrix or a column vector.
8. Upper triangular matrix: A square matrix A is called
an upper triangular matrix if aij = 0 for all i > j.
9. Lower triangular matrix: A square matrix A is called
a lower triangular matrix if aij = 0 for all i < j.
Equality of two matrices:
Two matrices A = [aij] and B = [bij] are said to be equal if
(i) they are of the same order and
(ii) aij = bij, for all i, j
A=B
Addition of Matrices:

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Let A = [aij] and B = [bij] be two matrices of the same
order m × n. Then their sum A + B is defined to be the
matrix of the order m × n such that A + B = [cij] where cij
= aij + bij for all i, j.
Example:
 1 3 5  10 3 5  11 6 10 
A   3 0 1  B   3 8 2  A  B   6 8 3 
 4 2 5   6 2 0  2 4 5 

Multiplication of a matrix by a scalar:

Let A = [aij] be an m × n matrix and k be any number
called a scalar. Then the matrix obtained by multiplying
every element of A by k is called the scalar multiple of A
by k and is denoted by kA. Thus, kA = [k aij]m × n
Example:  2 6 10 
 1 3 5
A   3 0 1  2A   6 0 2 
 4 2 5    8 4 10 

Properties of Scalar Multiplication

If A = [aij] m×n, B = [bij]m×n are two matrices and k, l are
scalars, then
i. 1A = A

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 ii. (-1) A = -A
iii. (-k) A = -(kA) = k(-A)
iv. k (A + B) = kA + kB
v. (k + l)A = kA + lA
vi. k(lA) = (kl) A = l(kA)
Multiplication of Two Matrices
Let A, B be two matrices, then they are conformable for
the product AB if the number of columns in A (pre-
multiplier) is same as the number of rows in B (post-
multiplier). Thus, if A = [aij]m×n , B = [bij]n × p are two
matrices, then their product AB is of order m × p and is
defined as
(AB)ij = [ith row of A] [jth column of B]
n
 AB ij   airbrj
r 1

 ai1b1 j  ai 2b2 j  ai 3b3 j  ....  ainbnj

b1 j 
 
b2 j 
b 
 ai1ai 2 ai 3 ...ain   3 j 
. 
 
. 
bnj 
 

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Example:
 1 3 5
 1 5  15 19 11
B   3 2
3 AB  
A 2 
 3 0 1   1
 4 11 15
2 0 
Properties of Matrix Multiplication
(i) Matrix multiplication is associative i.e. if A, B, C are
m × n, n × p and p × q matrices respectively, then
(AB) C = A (BC)
(ii) Matrix multiplication is not always commutative.
(iii) Matrix multiplication is distributive over matrix
addition i.e. A(B + C) = AB + AC where A, B, C are
any three, m × n, n × p, n × p matrices respectively.
(iv) If A is an m × n matrix, then Im A = A = A In.
(v) The product of two matrices can be the null matrix
while neither of them is the null matrix. For
example,
0 2 1 0 0 0
If A    
0 0 0 0 0
and B , then AB ,
0  

while neither A nor B is a null matrix.

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Transpose of a Matrix
Let A = [aij] be an m × n matrix. Then the transpose of A
denoted by AT or A’ is an n×m matrix such that
(AT)ij = aji for all i = 1, 2 ,…, m
j = 1, 2, …, n.
Thus, AT is obtained from A by changing its rows into
columns and columns into rows.
For example, if 1 2 3
1 2 3 4 2 2
A  2 3 4 1 , then AT  
3
3 4 4
3 2 4 1 34  
4 1 1  43
Properties of Transpose
Let A, B be two matrices, then
(i) (AT)T = A
(ii) (A + B)T = AT + BT, A and B being of the same order.
(iii) (kA)T = kAT, k being a scalar
(iv) (AB)T= BTAT, A and B being conformable for
multiplication.
Symmetric and Skew-Symmetric Matrices
Symmetric matrix : A square matrix A =[aij] is called a
symmetric matrix if aij = aji for all i, j

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 (A)ij = (AT)ij for all i, j
 A = AT. a h g 
For example, h b f  is a symmetric matrix.
 
 g f c 

Skew-symmetric matrix:
A square matrix A = [aij] is called a skew-symmetric
matrix if aij = - aji  i, j
 (A)ij = - (AT)ij for all i, j
 AT = - A.
If A = [aij] is a skew-symmetric matrix, then
aij = - aji for all i, j ⇒ aii = - aii for all i⇒
2aii = 0 for all i ⇒ aii = 0 for all i.
Thus the diagonal elements of a skew-symmetric matrix
are all zero. For example, the matrix
 0  3 5
A   3 0 2
is a skew-symmetric matrix.
 5  2 0 

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Determinant of a square matrix:
Let A = [aij]n x n be a square matrix of order n, then the
determinant of A is a number denoted by det(A) or |A|.
For a 2×2 matrix, the determinant is calculated as:

a11 a12
= a11 a22 – a12 a21 a21 a22

For a 3×3 matrix, the determinant is calculated as:

a11 a12 a13
a22 a23 a21 a23 a21 a22
a21 a22 a23  a11  a12  a13
a32 a33 a31 a33 a31 a32
a31 a32 a33
This is known as the expansion of |A| about first row.
Similarly, various other arrangements provide expansion
of |A| about other rows (columns).

6 2
example :  24  6  18
3 4

1 1 6
0 7 1 7 1 0
example: 1 0 7 1 1 6
1 12 3 12 3 1
3 1 12
 1 ( 0  7)  1(12  21 )  6 ( 1  0 )
8

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Properties of determinant:
Let A be a square matrix of order n. Then
(i) |A| = |AT|
(ii) If all elements of any row (column) of A are zero,
then |A| = 0.
(iii) If k is a scalar, then |k A| = kn |A|
(iv) If A = [aij] is a diagonal matrix, then |A| = a11 a22 a33
…..ann. So, |In| = 1.
(v) If B is a matrix obtained by interchanging any two
rows (columns) of A, then |B| = - |A|.
(vi) If two rows(columns) in A are equal, then |A| = 0
(vii) If B is obtained by multiplying all elements of a row
(column) of A by a scalar , then |B| =  |A|.
(viii) If B is obtained by adding to a row (column) of A a
scalar multiple of another row (column) of A, then
|B| = |A|.
(ix) If A, B are n × n matrices, then |AB|=|A||B|
Singular Matrix (Definition)
As square matrix A is called a singular matrix if |A| = 0,
otherwise A is called a non-singular matrix.

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Minors and Cofactors
Minor (Definition). Let A = [ajj] be an n – rowed square
matrix. Then the minor Mjj of ajj is the determinant of the
sub matrix obtained by leaving i th row and jth column of
A.
3 5  1
 
For example, If A  1  1 2 , then
2 3  1 
 
1 2
M 11 min or of A11   5
3 1
35
M 23  min or of A23   1
23
3 1
M 32  min or of A32  7
1 2

Cofactor (Definition) Let A = [aij] be an n - rowed square

matrix. Then the cofactor Cij of aij is equal to (-1)i+j times
the minor Mij of aij, i.e. Cij = (-1)i+j Mij.
Let A = [aij] be a square matrix of order n. Then the sum
of the products of elements of a row (or a column) with
their cofactors is equal to |A| i.e.
n
A  a
r 1
ir C ir

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 n
and A  a
r 1
rj C rj

The sum of the products of elements of a row (or

column) with the cofactors of corresponding elements of
some other row (or column) is always zero i.e.
n n

 air C jr  0, i  j and
r 1
a
r 1
ri C rj  0, i  j

Product of Determinants
a1 b1 c1  1 1  1
Let  1  a 2 b2 c 2 and  2  2  2  2 be two determinants. Then
a3 b3 c3 3 3  3

a 1  1  b 1  2  c1  3 a 11  b1 2  c1 3 a 1  1  b 1  2  c1  3

1  2  a 2 1  b 2  2  c 2  3 a 2 1  b 2  2  c 2  3 a 2 1  b 2  2  c 2  3
a 3 1  b 3  2  c 3  3 a 3 1  b 3  2  c 3  3 a 3 1  b 3  2  c 3  3
This is row by column multiplication rule for finding the
product of two determinants and it is same as the rule of
multiplication of two matrices. Since the value of a
determinant does not change by interchanging the rows
and columns, therefore we can also follow the row-by-
row multiplication rule, or the column-by-row
multiplication rule or column-by-column multiplication
rule.

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Example: Express the determinants
1 cos (    ) cos(   )
  cos(   ) 1 cos(   ) as the product of two
cos(   ) cos(   ) 1
determinants and hence show that ∆ = 0.
Sol: We have
1 cos (    ) cos(   )
  cos(   ) 1 cos(   )
cos(   ) cos(    ) 1
cos 2   sin 2  cos  cos   sin  sin  cos  cos   sin  sin 
 cos  cos   sin  sin  cos 2   sin 2  cos  cos   sin  sin 
cos   cos   sin  sin  cos  cos   sin  sin  cos 2   sin 2 
cos  sin  0 cos  sin  0
 cos  sin  0  cos  sin  0  0.
cos  sin  0 cos  sin  0

Adjoint of a square matrix (Definition)

Let = [aij] be a square matrix of order n × n, and Cij be the
cofactor of aij in A. Then the transpose of the matrix of
cofactors of elements in A is called the adjoint of A and
is denoted y adj A.
Thus, adj A = [Cij]T
∴ (adj A)ij = Cji = Cofactor of aji in A.

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Theorm. If A is an n-rowed square matrix, then
A (adj A) = |A| In = (adj A) A
Hence A (adj A) is a diagonal matrix with each diagonal
element |A|.
∴ A (adj A) = |A| In.
Similarly, (adj A) A = |A| In
Hence A (adj A) = |A| In = (adj A) A.
Example: Let A be an n × n matrix, then prove that |adj A|
= |A|n-1.
Sol: We have A adj A = |A|In
∴ Det (A adj A) = Det (|A|In)
⇒ Det (A) Det (adj A) = |A|n Det (In)
⇒ Det (A) Det (adj A) = (Det (A))n
⇒ Det (adj A) = (Det A)n-1 or |adj A| = |A|n-1.
Inverse of a Matrix (Definition)
Let A be a square matrix of order n. Then a matrix B is
called inverse of A if.AB = In = BA.
Then inverse of A is denoted by A-1.
Let A be an n × n non-singular matrix then A (adj A) =|A| In
= (adj A) A

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  1   1 
 A adj A   I n   adjA A
| A|  | A| 
1
∴ A is invertible such that A  1
adj A.
| A|

A square matrix A is an invertible matrix iff it possesses

its inverse.
The inverse of an invertible matrix is always unique.
Theorem A square matrix A is invertible iff it is non-
singular.
Theorem If A, B are two invertible matrices of the same
order, then AB is invertible and
(AB)-1 = B-1 A-1. Also let A, B, C be invertible matrices of
the same order, then ABC is invertible and (ABC)-1 = C-1 B-
1 -1
A .
Theorem If A is a n-rowed non-singular matrix, then
(AT)-1 = (A-1)T.

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