CA

of
PROTECTED CULTIVATION

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (HONS.) IN AGRICULTURE

Submitted by
Name: Bolle Vanaja
Registration Number: 11918187
Roll No :- A60
Under supervision of
Dr. Vandana Thakur

School of Agriculture, Lovely Professional University,

Phagwara-144401, Punjab, India

2019 to 2023
Q1: Discuss about the major diseases of cucumber and tomato along with their management? And
write down the calculation formulae for B:C ratio?

Cucumber and tomato plants are susceptible to various diseases that can affect their growth and
yield. Here are some major diseases of cucumber and tomato, along with their management
strategies:

Cucumber Diseases:

Powdery Mildew: This fungal disease appears as a white powdery growth on the leaves, stems, and
fruits of cucumber plants. To manage powdery mildew, ensure proper air circulation, avoid overhead
irrigation, and apply fungicides if necessary.

Downy Mildew: Downy mildew causes yellow spots on the upper leaf surface and grayish-purple
growth on the lower surface. Plant resistant varieties, provide good ventilation, and apply
appropriate fungicides to control downy mildew.

Cucumber Mosaic Virus (CMV): CMV leads to stunted growth, mottled leaves, and deformed fruits.
Control aphids, which spread the virus, through insecticides and remove infected plants to prevent
further spread.

Tomato Diseases:

Early Blight: Early blight causes brown spots on lower leaves, which eventually turn into concentric
rings. Remove infected plant parts, provide adequate spacing, and apply fungicides to manage early
blight.
Late Blight: Late blight leads to water-soaked lesions on leaves and fruits, often with white mold
growth. Remove and destroy infected plants, avoid overhead irrigation, and apply fungicides
preventively.

Tomato Yellow Leaf Curl Virus (TYLCV): TYLCV causes leaf curling, yellowing, and stunted growth in
tomato plants. Control whiteflies, which transmit the virus, using insecticides and remove infected
plants to prevent further spread.
B:C Ratio Calculation Formula:

The Benefit-Cost (B:C) ratio is a financial indicator used to assess the profitability of an investment or
project. The formula for calculating the B:C ratio is as follows:

B:C ratio = Net Present Value (NPV) of Benefits / Net Present Value (NPV) of Costs

To calculate the NPV of Benefits and Costs, you need to consider the cash flows associated with the
investment or project over a specific time period. The NPV is calculated by discounting these cash
flows to their present value using an appropriate discount rate.

The discount rate represents the minimum acceptable rate of return or the cost of capital. It takes
into account the time value of money and reflects the risk and opportunity cost associated with the
investment.
Q2: Define IPM and IDM? Write about the major principles of integrated disease management.
Also write the major disease and pest of greenhouse along with their management strategies.

IPM stands for Integrated Pest Management, while IDM stands for Integrated Disease Management.

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is an approach to managing pests that combines multiple
strategies to minimize the use of pesticides and promote sustainable pest control. IPM focuses on
preventing pest problems through a combination of cultural, biological, and chemical control
methods. The goal is to reduce pest populations while minimizing risks to human health and the
environment. Some key principles of IPM include:

1. Pest Identification: Accurate identification of pests is crucial for effective management. This
involves identifying the pest species, understanding its life cycle, and monitoring its population
levels.

2. Monitoring and Scouting: Regular monitoring and scouting are important to detect pests early on
and determine if their population levels exceed economic or aesthetic thresholds.

3. Prevention: IPM emphasizes the use of preventive measures to reduce pest infestations. This
includes practices like crop rotation, proper sanitation, use of disease-resistant varieties, and
implementation of cultural practices that create unfavorable conditions for pests.
4. Biological Control: Encouraging natural enemies of pests, such as predators, parasites, and
beneficial microorganisms, can help control pest populations. This can be achieved by introducing
beneficial organisms or by providing habitat and food sources for existing beneficial populations.

5. Cultural Control: Cultural practices, such as crop rotation, proper irrigation, and appropriate
fertilization, can help create healthier plants that are less susceptible to pests and diseases.

6. Chemical Control: If necessary, targeted and judicious use of pesticides can be employed as part of
IPM. However, pesticide application should be the last resort and should be based on careful
consideration of the pest species, timing, and environmental impact. Use of low-toxicity and
selective pesticides is encouraged.

Integrated Disease Management (IDM) is a similar concept to IPM but focuses specifically on the
management of plant diseases. IDM aims to integrate multiple disease management strategies to
minimize the impact of diseases on crop production. The principles of IDM include:

1. Disease Prevention: Preventive measures like crop rotation, sanitation, use of disease-resistant
varieties, and removal of infected plant material help reduce disease incidence and severity.

2. Cultural Practices: Proper cultural practices, including irrigation management, balanced

fertilization, pruning, and spacing, can create conditions that discourage disease development.

3. Monitoring and Early Detection: Regular monitoring and early detection of disease symptoms
enable timely intervention and effective disease management.

4. Biological Control: Utilizing beneficial microorganisms, such as biocontrol agents and antagonistic
organisms, can help suppress disease-causing pathogens.
5. Chemical Control: When necessary, the use of fungicides or other chemicals can be considered.
However, similar to IPM, the emphasis is on targeted and judicious use to minimize environmental
impact and development of resistance.

Now, regarding major diseases and pests in greenhouses, here are a few examples and their
management strategies:

1. Powdery Mildew: This fungal disease affects a wide range of greenhouse crops. Management
strategies include maintaining proper air circulation, reducing humidity levels, removing infected
plant material, and using fungicides if necessary.

2. Aphids: Aphids are common greenhouse pests that can cause damage by sucking plant sap.
Control measures include introducing predatory insects, such as ladybugs, and using insecticidal
soaps or oils.

3. Whiteflies: These small, flying insects also feed on plant sap and can transmit viruses. Strategies to
manage whiteflies include introducing natural enemies like Encarsia wasps, using yellow sticky traps,
and applying insecticides if necessary.

4. Botrytis (Gray Mold): Botrytis is a fungal disease that affects many greenhouse plants. Proper
ventilation, reducing humidity levels, removing infected plant material, and using fungicides can help
control its spread.

5. Thrips: Thrips are tiny insects that damage plants by feeding on them and transmitting viruses.
Management strategies include introducing predatory mites or other natural enemies, using sticky
traps, and applying insecticides if necessary.
Q3: Explain the production technology of chrysanthemum and carnation with special emphasis on
major intercultural operations, botanical name, family, chromosome number, edible part, five
varieties, yield, harvesting stage, spacing, seed rate, five physiological disorders and their
managements?

Production Technology of Chrysanthemum:

1. Botanical Name: Chrysanthemum morifolium

Family: Asteraceae

Chromosome Number: 2n=18

Edible Part: None (not typically consumed as food)

Major Intercultural Operations:

1. Land Preparation: Clear the land of weeds and debris. Plow and level the field to create a fine tilth
for planting.

2. Planting: Chrysanthemums can be propagated from seeds or cuttings. Plant the rooted cuttings or
sow the seeds in well-prepared soil.

3. Watering: Provide regular watering, ensuring that the soil is moist but not waterlogged. Irrigation
can be done using drip or sprinkler systems.

4. Fertilization: Apply balanced fertilizers rich in nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. Supplement
with organic matter like compost or well-rotted manure.

5. Mulching: Mulch the soil with organic materials like straw or dried leaves to conserve moisture
and suppress weed growth.

6. Pruning: Pinch the plants regularly to encourage bushier growth and more flower buds. Remove
dead flowers and leaves to maintain plant health.

7. Pest and Disease Control: Monitor for pests like aphids, spider mites, and leaf miners. Use
appropriate insecticides and fungicides to control diseases like powdery mildew or rust.

8. Staking and Support: Install stakes or trellises to support the tall chrysanthemum varieties. This
prevents the plants from bending or breaking under the weight of flowers.

Five Varieties of Chrysanthemum:

1. 'Anastasia': A large-flowered variety with white petals and a yellow center.

2. 'Fiji': A decorative variety with pink or purple petals.

3. 'Yoko Ono': A unique variety with bright yellow pom-pom-like flowers.

4. 'White Spider': A spider-type chrysanthemum with long, white, twisted petals.

5. 'Charm': A compact variety with small, pink flowers.

Yield: Chrysanthemum yield varies depending on various factors like variety, cultivation practices,
and climate conditions. On average, one can expect a yield of around 10-15 flowers per plant.

Harvesting Stage: Chrysanthemum flowers are harvested when they are fully mature but not
overblown. The ideal stage is when the petals are fully open and the center disk is visible. Harvesting
is usually done early in the morning or late in the evening.

Spacing: The spacing between chrysanthemum plants depends on the variety and intended use.
Generally, a spacing of 30-45 cm between plants and 45-60 cm between rows is maintained.

Seed Rate: If propagating from seeds, the recommended seed rate is around 100-150 grams per
hectare.

Physiological Disorders and their Management:

1. Yellowing of Leaves (Chlorosis): This can occur due to nutrient deficiencies, particularly iron or
magnesium. Apply appropriate foliar fertilizers containing these nutrients. Adjust soil pH if necessary.

2. Bud Blast: It refers to the premature drying and dropping of flower buds. This can be caused by
high temperatures, low humidity, or fungal infections. Maintain adequate moisture levels and control
fungal diseases through proper fungicide applications.

3. Stem Rot: Caused by soil-borne pathogens, stem rot leads to the wilting and rotting of stems near
the soil surface. Improve drainage, practice crop rotation, and treat with appropriate fungicides.

4. Leaf Spot: Fungal diseases like Alternaria leaf spot can cause dark spots on leaves, leading to their
premature shedding. Use fungicides and maintain good air circulation through proper plant spacing
and pruning.

5. Blind Shoots: Blind shoots refer to the growth of shoots without any flower buds. This can occur
due to improper pruning or nutrient imbalances. Prune the plants correctly to encourage bud
formation and ensure balanced fertilization.
Production Technology of Carnation:

1. Botanical Name: Dianthus caryophyllus

Family: Caryophyllaceae

Chromosome Number: 2n=30

Edible Part: None (not typically consumed as food)

Major Intercultural Operations:

1. Land Preparation: Clear the land of weeds, rocks, and debris. Plow and level the field to create a
fine tilth for planting.
2. Planting: Carnations are usually propagated from cuttings. Plant the rooted cuttings in well-
prepared soil or potting medium.

3. Watering: Provide regular watering, keeping the soil moist but not waterlogged. Irrigation can be
done using drip or sprinkler systems.

4. Fertilization: Apply balanced fertilizers rich in nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. Supplement
with organic matter like compost or well-rotted manure.

5. Mulching: Mulch the soil with organic materials like straw or dried leaves to conserve moisture
and suppress weed growth.

6. Pruning: Regularly pinch or prune the plants to promote branching and multiple flower bud
formation. Remove dead flowers and leaves for plant health.

7. Pest and Disease Control: Monitor for pests like aphids, thrips, and mites. Use appropriate
insecticides and miticides to control pests. Preventive fungicide applications may be necessary to
manage diseases like powdery mildew or botrytis.

8. Support and Staking: Install stakes or trellises to support the tall carnation varieties. This helps
prevent breakage of stems and improves flower quality.

Five Varieties of Carnation:

1. 'Grenadin': A popular variety with double flowers in shades of red, pink, or white.

2. 'Candy Stripe': This variety has distinctive striped petals in shades of pink and white.

3. 'White Sim': A pure white carnation variety known for its strong fragrance.

4. 'Chabaud': A fragrant variety with double flowers in a range of colors, including yellow, orange, and
purple.

5. 'Purple Flare': A unique variety with fringed petals in shades of purple and lavender.

Yield: Carnation yield varies depending on factors such as variety, cultivation practices, and
environmental conditions. On average, one can expect a yield of around 20-30 stems per plant.
Harvesting Stage: Carnation flowers are harvested when the flower buds have developed fully but
are not fully open. The ideal stage is when the buds show color but are still slightly closed. Harvesting
is typically done in the morning when the flowers are turgid.

Spacing: The spacing between carnation plants depends on the variety and cultivation method.
Generally, a spacing of 20-30 cm between plants and 30-40 cm between rows is maintained.

Seed Rate: Carnations are usually propagated from cuttings rather than seeds. However, if using
seeds, the recommended seed rate is approximately 100-150 grams per hectare.

Physiological Disorders and their Management:

1. Stem Splitting: This disorder occurs when the stem of the carnation splits longitudinally due to
rapid growth or inadequate support. Provide proper staking and support to prevent stem splitting.

2. Bud Drop: Bud drop refers to the premature falling of flower buds before they open. It can be
caused by high temperatures, low humidity, or improper watering. Maintain suitable environmental
conditions and adequate moisture levels.

3. Grey Mold (Botrytis): Botrytis infection can lead to grey mold on flowers and stems. It thrives in
humid conditions. Ensure good air circulation, avoid overhead irrigation, and apply appropriate
fungicides to manage botrytis.

4. Leaf Blight: Fungal leaf blight can cause brown or black lesions on the leaves, leading to their
decay. Maintain proper spacing, practice good sanitation, and apply appropriate fungicides to control
leaf blight.

5. Root Rot: Root rot occurs due to overwatering or poorly drained soils, leading to the decay of the
roots. Ensure proper drainage and avoid excessive watering. Use fungicides to manage root rot if
necessary.

Q4: Discuss about the production technology of gerbera with special emphasis on major
intercultural operations, botanical name, family, chromosome number, edible part, five varieties,
yield, propagation methods, five physiological disorders and their managements? Along with
benefits of mulching in it?

Gerbera, scientifically known as Gerbera jamesonii, belongs to the family Asteraceae. It is a popular
ornamental flower cultivated for its vibrant and diverse colors. Gerbera production involves several
intercultural operations to ensure optimal growth and yield. Here's a discussion on the production
technology of gerbera, including its intercultural operations, botanical information, varieties, yield,
propagation methods, physiological disorders, their management, and the benefits of mulching:

1. Intercultural Operations:

- Land Preparation: The land should be well-prepared by removing weeds, stones, and debris. It
should be plowed and leveled to ensure proper drainage.

- Irrigation: Gerberas require regular watering to maintain adequate soil moisture. Drip irrigation or
sprinkler systems are commonly used.

- Fertilization: Proper nutrient management is essential. Organic manures and balanced fertilizers
are applied based on soil analysis. Foliar application of micronutrients may be necessary.

- Weed Control: Regular weeding or mulching helps control weed growth and competition for
nutrients.

- Pest and Disease Management: Regular scouting and appropriate pest and disease management
practices are crucial to minimize damage. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) strategies are
recommended.

- Pruning: Pruning is done to remove spent flowers, yellow leaves, and encourage new growth.
 - Support: Gerbera plants require staking or support to prevent bending or breaking of flower
stems.

2. Botanical Name, Family, and Chromosome Number:

- Botanical Name: Gerbera jamesonii

- Family: Asteraceae

- Chromosome Number: Gerbera species have a diploid chromosome number of 2n = 36.

3. Edible Part:

The edible part of gerbera is the flower. However, it is primarily cultivated for ornamental purposes
and not for consumption.

4. Five Varieties:

There are numerous gerbera varieties available. Here are five popular ones:

- Royal Series: Large flowers with vibrant colors and long stems.

- Festival Series: Compact plants with various colors and long-lasting flowers.

- Majorette Series: Dwarf varieties suitable for pots and smaller spaces.

- Jaguar Series: Large-flowered varieties with excellent heat tolerance.

- Ambition Series: Compact plants with double flowers and good disease resistance.

5. Yield:

Gerbera yield can vary based on several factors such as variety, growing conditions, management
practices, and market demand. Under ideal conditions, gerbera plants can produce around 25-35
flowers per square meter per year.

6. Propagation Methods:

Gerbera can be propagated through various methods:

 - Seed Propagation: It is a common method but results in genetic variation. Seedlings are
transplanted once they reach a suitable size.

- Division: Established plants can be divided into smaller clumps, ensuring each division has roots
and growing points.

- Tissue Culture: In vitro propagation techniques can be employed for mass multiplication of
disease-free plantlets.

7. Physiological Disorders and Management:

Some physiological disorders that can affect gerbera production are:

- Leaf Curling: Caused by high temperatures and low humidity. Providing shade and maintaining
proper humidity levels can help manage this disorder.

- Bud Drop: Occurs due to improper environmental conditions, nutrient deficiencies, or pest
infestations. Correcting the underlying causes and providing optimal conditions can prevent bud
drop.

- Stem Blight: Caused by fungal pathogens. It can be managed by maintaining proper sanitation,
removing infected plant parts, and applying fungicides.

- Leaf Spot: Fungal or bacterial pathogens can cause leaf spots. Regular monitoring, proper
sanitation, and fungicidal treatments can control the disease.

- Botrytis Blight: Caused by the fungus Botrytis cinerea, this disease affects flowers and leaves.
Good ventilation, maintaining proper humidity, and applying fungicides can help manage it.
8. Benefits of Mulching:

Mulching offers several benefits in gerbera cultivation:

- Moisture Conservation: Mulching helps retain soil moisture, reducing the frequency of irrigation.

- Weed Control: Mulch suppresses weed growth, minimizing competition for nutrients and water.

- Temperature Regulation: Mulch acts as an insulating layer, protecting the soil from extreme
temperatures and fluctuations.

- Disease Prevention: Mulching can prevent soil-borne diseases by reducing the spread of
pathogens through splashing water.

- Improved Soil Health: Organic mulch breaks down over time, adding organic matter to the soil and
improving its structure, fertility, and water-holding capacity.