GENERAL CHEMISTRY

Chapter 3 COMPOSITION OF SUBSTANCES AND

SOLUTIONS
 2
CH. 3 OUTLINE
3.1: Formula Mass and the Mole Concept

3.2: Determining Empirical and Molecular Formulas

3.3: Molarity

3.4: Other Units for Solution Concentrations

 3.1 FORMULA MASS AND THE MOLE
CONCEPT

• The formulas mass of a substance is the sum of the average atomic

masses of all the atoms in the substance’s formula.

• Covalent substances exist as discrete molecules.

• The formula mass of a covalent substance may be correctly referred

to as a molecular mass.
Consider chloroform (CHCl3), a covalent compound once used in the
production of the ―anti-stick‖ polymer, , The molecular formula of
chloroform indicates that a single molecule contains one carbon
atom, one hydrogen atom, and three chlorine atoms.

FIGURE 3.2
The average mass of a chloroform molecule, CHCl3, is 119.37 amu,
which is the sum of the average atomic masses of each of its
constituent atoms. The model shows the molecular structure of
chloroform.
  Example ,the chemical formula of an aspirin molecule is C9H8O4,
calculate the molecular mass (amu) for this Compound?

FIGURE 3.3
The average mass of an aspirin molecule is 180.15 amu. The model
shows the molecular structure of aspirin, C9H8O4.
EXERCISE, Ibuprofen, C13H18O2, is A Covalent Compound And The Active Ingredient In
Several Popular Nonprescription Pain Medications, Such As Advil And Motrin. What is The
Molecular Mass (Amu) For This Compound?

Solution
Molecules of this compound are comprised of 13 carbon atoms, 18 hydrogen atoms,
and 2 oxygen atoms. Following the approach described above, the average
molecular mass for this compound is therefore:
FORMULA MASS FOR IONIC COMPOUNDS

• Ionic substances are composed of discrete cations and anions

combined in ratios to yield electrically neutral bulk matter.
• Ionic compounds do NOT exist as molecules.
• The formula mass for an ionic compound may NOT correctly be
referred to as a molecular mass.
• The average atomic masses of the ions can be approximated to be the
same as the average atomic masses of the neutral atoms.
•As an example, consider sodium chloride, NaCl, the chemical name
for common table salt. Sodium chloride is an ionic compound
composed of sodium cations, Na+, and chloride anions, Cl−, combined
in a 1:1 ratio. The formula mass for this compound is computed as
58.44 amu
 FIGURE 3.4

Table salt, NaCl, contains an array of sodium and chloride ions

combined in a 1:1 ratio. Its formula mass is 58.44 amu.
COMPUTING FORMULA MASS FOR AN IONIC COMPOUND
Aluminum sulfate, Al2(SO4)3, is an ionic compound that is used in the
manufacture of paper and in various water purification processes. What
is the formula mass (amu) of this compound?
Solution
The formula for this compound indicates it contains Al3+ and SO42−
ions combined in a 2:3 ratio. For purposes of computing a formula
mass, it is helpful to rewrite the formula in the simpler format,
Al2S3O12. Following the approach outlined above, the formula mass
for this compound is calculated as follows:
 THE MOLE

• The mole is an amount unit similar to familiar units like pair, dozen,
gross, etc.

• The mole is defined as the amount of a substance containing the

same number of discrete entities (such as atoms, molecules, or ions)
as the number of atoms in a sample of pure carbon-12 weighing
exactly 12 g.

• The mole provides a link between the mass of a sample and the
number of atoms, molecules, or ions in that sample.
 AVOGADRO’S NUMBER

• The number of entities composing a mole has been determine to

be 6.02214179 x 1023.

• This constant is named after Italian scientist Amedeo Avogradro

and is known as Avogadro’s Number.

• Avogadro’s Number (NA) = 6.022 x 1023

• The masses of 1 mole of different elements, however, are

different, since the masses of the individual atoms are drastically
different.
FIGURE 3.5

Each sample contains 6.022 × 1023 atoms —1.00 mol of atoms. From left to right (top
row): 65.4 g zinc, 12.0 g carbon, 24.3 g magnesium, and 63.5 g copper. From left to
right (bottom row): 32.1 g sulfur, 28.1 g silicon, 207 g lead, and 118.7 g tin. (credit:
modification of work by Mark Ott)
 MOLAR MASS

• The molar mass of an element (or compound) is the mass in

grams of 1 mole of that substance, a property expressed in units
of grams per mole (g/mol).

• The molar mass of any substance is numerically equivalent to its

atomic or formula mass in amu.

• Example:
• A single 12C atom has a mass of 12 amu.
• A mole of 12C atoms have a mass of 12 g.
 MOLAR MASS OF ELEMENTS

Element Average Atomic Mass (amu) Molar Mass (g/mol)

C 12.01 12.01

H 1.008 1.008

O 16.00 16.00

Na 22.99 22.99

Cl 35.45 33.45
 CALCULATIONS

• The relationships between formula mass, the mole, and Avogadro’s

number can be applied to compute various quantities that describe the
composition of substances and compounds.
 EXAMPLE 3.3
According to nutritional guidelines from the US Department of
Agriculture, the estimated average requirement for dietary potassium is
4.7 g. What is the estimated average requirement of potassium in
moles?

Exercise Methane (CH4) is the principal component of natural gas.

How many mole of CH4 are present in 6.07g of CH4 ?
 EXAMPLE 3.4
A liter of air contains 9.2 × 10−4 mol argon. What is the mass of Ar in
a liter of air?
 EXAMPLE 3.5
Copper is commonly used to fabricate electrical wire. How many
copper atoms are in 5.00 g of copper wire?
 EXAMPLE 3.6
Our bodies synthesize protein from amino acids. One of these amino
acids is glycine, which has the molecular formula C2H5O2N. How
many moles of glycine molecules are contained in 28.35 g of glycine?
EXAMPLE 3.6
 EXAMPLE 3.7
Vitamin C is a covalent compound with the molecular formula C6H8O6. The
recommended daily dietary allowance of vitamin C for children aged 4–8 years is
1.42 × 10−4 mol. What is the mass of this allowance in grams? The molar mass for
this compound is computed to be 176.124 g/mol.
 EXAMPLE 3.8
A packet of an artificial sweetener contains 40.0 mg of saccharin (C7H5NO3S), which
has the structural formula:

Given that saccharin has a molar mass of 183.18 g/mol, how many saccharin
molecules are in a 40.0-mg (0.0400-g) sample of saccharin? How many carbon atoms
are in the same sample?
EXAMPLE 3.8
Exercise;
1. How many C3H8O molecules and H atoms are in 72.5 g
of C3H8O ?
2. How many molecules urea and hydrogen atoms are
present in 25.6 g of urea [(NH2)2CO]
3.2 DETERMINING EMPIRICAL AND MOLECULAR FORMULAS
 In this section, these same principles will be applied to derive the
chemical formulas of unknown substances from experimental
mass measurements
• Percent composition - The percentage by mass of each element in a
compound.

• Example: A 10.0 g sample of a compound is determined to contain

2.5 g hydrogen and 7.5 g carbon.
2.5 g H
%H= ´ 100 = 25%
10.0 g compound

7.5 g C
%C = ´ 100 = 75%
10.0 g compound
 Exercise
1. Analysis of a 12.04-g sample of a liquid compound composed of
carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen showed it to contain 7.34 g C, 1.85
g H, and 2.85 g N. What is the percent composition of this
compound?
2. A 24.81-g sample of a gaseous compound containing only carbon,
oxygen, and chlorine is determined to contain 3.01 g C, 4.00 g O,
and 17.81 g Cl. What is this compound’s percent composition?
DETERMINING PERCENT COMPOSITION FROM
FORMULA MASS
• For compounds of known formula, the percent composition can also be
derived from the formula mass and the atomic masses of the constituent
elements.
• Example: NH3 (formula mass = 17.03 amu)
14.01 amu N
%N = ´ 100 = 82.27%
17.03 amu NH 3

3 ´ (1.008 amu H)
%H= ´ 100 = 17.76%
17.03 amu NH 3
Exercise. To three significant digits, what is the mass percentage of
iron in the compound Fe2O3??
DETERMINATION OF EMPIRICAL FORMULAS

• A compound’s empirical formula can be determined from the

masses of its constituent elements.
1) Convert element masses to moles using molar masses.

2) Divide each number of moles by the smallest number of moles.

3) If necessary, multiply by an integer, to give the smallest whole-

number ratio of subscripts.
DETERMINATION OF EMPIRICAL FORMULAS

• Example 1: A compound is determined to contain 1.71 g C and

0.287 g H. What is the Empirical Formula of a CPD?
1)
1 mol C
1.17 g C ´ = 0.142 mol C
12.01 g C

1 mol C
0.287 g H ´ = 0.284 mol H
1.008 g H

2) C0.142 H0.248 = C 0.142 H 0.248 = CH 2

0.142 0.142
 DETERMINATION OF EMPIRICAL FORMULAS

• Example 2: A compound is determined to contain 5.31 g Cl and 8.40 g

O. What is the Empirical Formula of a CPD?
• After steps 1 and 2 the tentative formula is obtained.
Cl0.150O0.525 = Cl 0.150 O0.525 = ClO3.5
0.150 0.150
3) To convert into whole numbers, multiply each of the subscripts by
two, giving the empirical formula.
Cl2O7
Exercise A sample of compound determined to contain 5.31 g Cl
and 8.40 g O. What is the empirical formula of the compound?
 FIGURE 3.11
Outlines this procedure in flow chart fashion for a substance containing
elements A and X.

The empirical formula of a compound can be derived from the masses of all elements in
the sample.
DETERMINATION OF EMPIRICAL FORMULAS FROM
PERCENT COMPOSITION

• A compound’s empirical formula can be determined from its

percent composition.
1) Convert percent composition to masses of elements by
assuming a 100 g sample of compound.

2) Convert element masses to moles using molar masses.

3) Divide each number of moles by the smallest number of moles.

4) If necessary, multiply by an integer, to give the smallest whole-

number ratio of subscripts.
EXAMPLE 3.12
The bacterial fermentation of grain to produce ethanol forms a gas with
a percent composition of 27.29% C and 72.71% O. What is the
empirical formula for this gas?
1 mol C
27.29 g C ´ = 2.272 mol C
12.01 g C

1 mol O
72.71 g O ´ = 4.544 mol O
16.00 g O
C2.272O4.544 = C 2.272 H 4.544 = CO2
2.272 2.272

Exercise What is the empirical formula of a compound

containing 40.0% C, 6.71% H, and 53.28% O?
DERIVATION OF MOLECULAR FORMULAS

• A compound’s molecular formula can be determined from its

empirical formula and its molecular or molar mass.

molecular or molar mass

= n formula units/molecule
empirical formula mass
• The molecular formula is then obtained by multiplying each
subscript in the empirical formula by n.
DERIVATION OF MOLECULAR FORMULAS

• Example: A compound has an empirical formula of CH2O (empirical

formula mass = 30 amu) and a molecular mass of 180 amu.

180 amu /molecule

= 6 formula units/molecule
30 amu / formula unit
(CH2O) 6 = C6H12O6
• The molecular formula of this compound is C6H12O6

Exercise What is the molecular formula of a compound with a percent

composition of 49.47% C, 5.201% H, 28.84% N, and 16.48% O, and a
molecular mass of 194.2 amu?
 3.3 MOLARITY

• In preceding sections, we focused on the composition of pure

substances.

• However, mixtures—samples of matter containing two or more

substances physically combined—are more commonly encountered
in nature than are pure substances.

• Similar to a pure substance, the relative composition of a mixture

plays an important role in determining its properties.
 SOLUTIONS

• Solutions occur frequently in nature.

• Solutions are another term used for a homogeneous mixture –

uniform composition and properties throughout its entire
volume.

• The relative amount of a given solution component is known as

its concentration.
 SOLUTIONS

• A solution consists of two components:

1) Solvent - component with a concentration that is significantly

greater than that of all other components.

2) Solute – component that is typically present at a much lower

concentration than the solvent.

• A solution in which water is the solvent is called an aqueous

solution.
 SOLUTIONS

• Qualitative terms used to describe a solution:

• Concentrated – Relatively high concentration of solute.

• Dilute – Relatively low concentration of solute.

 MOLARITY
 Molarity (M) is a useful concentration unit for many
applications in chemistry.
 Molarity (M) - the number of moles of solute in exactly 1 liter
(1 L) of the solution:

mol solute
M=
L solution
 EXAMPLE 3.14
A 355 mL soft drink sample contains 0.133 mol of sucrose (table
sugar). What is the molar concentration of sucrose in the
beverage?
mol solute 0.133 mol
M= = = 0.375 M
L solution 355 mL ´ 1 L
1000 mL
Exercise
A teaspoon of table sugar contains about 0.01 mol sucrose. What
is the molarity of sucrose if a teaspoon of sugar has been dissolved
in a cup of tea with a volume of 200 mL?
 DILUTION OF SOLUTIONS

• Dilution is the process whereby the concentration of a

solution is lessened by the addition of solvent.

• Dilution is a common means of preparing solutions of a

desired concentration.

• By adding solvent to a measured portion of a more

concentrated stock solution, we can achieve a particular
concentration.
FIGURE 3.16

Both solutions contain the same mass of copper nitrate. The solution on the right is
more dilute because the copper nitrate is dissolved in more solvent. (credit: Mark Ott)
 DILUTION OF SOLUTIONS

• The molar amount of solute (n) in a solution is equal to the

product of the solution’s molarity and its volume in liters:

n = ML
• Expressions like these may be written for a solution before
(1) and after (2) it is diluted:

n1 = M1L1
n2 = M 2 L2
 DILUTION OF SOLUTIONS

• Since the dilution process does not change the amount of

solute in the solution, n1 = n2.

• Thus, these two equations may be set equal to one another to

derive the dilution equation:

M1L1 = M 2 L2
• Other units of concentration (C) and volume (V) may be used.

C1V1 = C2V2
EXAMPLE 3.19
If 0.850 L of a 5.00-M solution of copper nitrate, Cu(NO3)2, is
diluted to a volume of 1.80 L by the addition of water, what is
the molarity of the diluted solution?
C1V1  C2V2
C1V1
C2 =
V2
5.00M ´ 0.850L
C2 = = 2.36M
1.80L
Exercise
A laboratory experiment calls for 0.125 M HNO3. What volume of 0.125 M HNO3
can be prepared from 0.250 L of 1.88 M HNO3?
3.4 OTHER UNITS FOR SOLUTION CONCENTRATIONS

• Molarity is a very useful unit for evaluating the concentration of

solutions.

• In this section, we will introduce some other units of

concentration that are commonly used in various applications.
 MASS PERCENTAGE

• The mass percentage of a solution component is defined as the

ratio of the component’s mass to the solution’s mass, expressed as
a percentage:

mass of component
mass percentage = ´100
mass of solution

• We are generally most interested in the mass percentages of

solutes, but it is also possible to compute the mass percentage of
solvent.
VOLUME PERCENTAGE

• The concentration of a solution formed by dissolving a liquid

solute in a liquid solvent is often expressed as a volume
percentage.

volume of solute
volume percentage = ´100
volume of solution
MASS-VOLUME PERCENTAGE

• A mass-volume percent is a ratio of a solute’s mass to the

solution’s volume expressed as a percentage.

• The specific units used for solute mass and solution volume may
vary, depending on the solution.

• For example, physiological saline solution, used to prepare

intravenous fluids, has a concentration of 0.9% mass/volume
(m/v), indicating that the composition is 0.9 g of solute per 100
mL of solution.
PARTS PER MILLION AND PARTS PER BILLION

• Very low solute concentrations are often expressed using

appropriately small units such as parts per million (ppm) or
parts per billion (ppb).

• The mass-based definitions of ppm and ppb:

mass solute
ppm = ´10 6

mass of solution
mass solute
ppb = ´10 9

mass of solution