2.

Atoms, Molecules and Ions

Objectives:
At the end of this chapter students will be able to

 Define the atomic mass unit and average atomic mass

 Calculate average atomic mass and isotopic abundance

 Represent the bonding arrangement of atoms within molecules using

structural formulas

 Predict the general properties of elements based on their location within

the periodic table

 Predict the type of compound formed from elements based on their location
within the periodic table

 Derive names for common types of inorganic compounds using a

systematic approach
 2.1. Atomic structure and symbolism
 An atom contains a very small nucleus composed of:-
 positively charged protons
 uncharged neutrons
 surrounded by a much larger volume of space containing negatively
charged electrons.
 The nucleus contains the majority of an atom’s mass because protons and
neutrons are much heavier than electrons,
 Cont….

 The protons and neutrons are packed closely together in a dense core
called the nucleus
 Surrounding the nucleus, the electrons move about rapidly through a
large volume of space
 If an atom could be expanded to the size of a football stadium, the
nucleus would be the size of a single blueberry.

3
 Cont….
Properties of Subatomic Particles
 Cont….

 Atomic Number (Z)= number of protons

 Atomic weight/mass = # of protons + # of neutrons
 Protons = Atomic number on Periodic Table
 Electrons = same as protons
 Neutrons = Atomic mass - Atomic number
(# protons + # neutrons) - # protons
 Cont….
 Atoms are electrically neutral if they contain the same number of positively
charged protons and negatively charged electrons.
 When the numbers of these subatomic particles are not equal, the atom is
electrically charged and is called an ion.

Atomic charge = number of protons − number of electrons

 An atom that gains one or more electrons will exhibit a negative charge -
anion.
 an atom loses one or more electrons- cation
For example, a neutral sodium atom (Z = 11) has 11 electrons. If this atom
loses one electron, it will become a cation with a 1+ charge (11 − 10 = 1+). A
neutral oxygen atom (Z = 8) has eight electrons, and if it gains two electrons it
will become an anion with a 2− charge (8 −10 = 2−)
 2.1.1. Chemical Symbols and Isotopes

 Chemical Symbols- is an abbreviation that we use to indicate an element or

an atom of an element.
 Most symbols have One or two letter
e.g mercury =Hg Fluorine= F
 First letter is CAPATALIZED, the second is not
– Silicon Si Argon Ar
 Not always first two letters of element
– Zinc Zn Chlorine Cl
 Sometimes based on other languages
– gold (aurum) Au Iron (ferrum) Fe
 Cont….
Table2.2: Some Common Elements and their Symbols
 Isotopes

 Isotopes – are atoms that have the same number of protons, but
different numbers of neutrons. Eg.

 Because isotopes of an element have different numbers of neutrons,

they also have different mass numbers.

 Isotopes are chemically identical because they have identical numbers

of protons and electrons, which are the subatomic particles responsible
for chemical behavior.

 Isobars: atoms that have the same mass number but different atomic
number (so they are different elements). e.g.

9
 Cont….

Nuclear Compositions of Atoms of hydrogen

2.1.2. Atomic mass unit and average atomic mass

 In nature, most elements occur as a mixture of two or more isotopes. Each

isotope of an element has a fixed mass and a natural percent abundance.
e.g. Hydrogen Isotope Mass % Abundance
1H 1.007825 amu 99.985
2H 2.0140 amu 0.015
 Atomic mass is the average masses of all stable isotopes of given element
and expressed as Atomic mass = multiply the mass of each isotope by its
natural abundance, expresses as a decimal, and then add the products.
 Cont….
Example 1. The element boron is composed of two isotopes: About
19.9% of all boron atoms are 10B with a mass of 10.0129 amu, and the
remaining 80.1% are 11B with a mass of 11.0093 amu.
o The average atomic mass for boron is calculated to be:
Boron average mass=
(0.199x10.0129amu)+(0.801x11.0093amu)=1.99amu+8.82amu=10.81a
mu
Example 2.
A meteorite found in central Indiana contains traces of the noble gas
neon picked up from the solar wind during the meteorite’s trip through
the solar system. Analysis of a sample of the gas showed that it
consisted of 91.84% 20Ne (mass 19.9924 amu), 0.47% 21Ne (mass
20.9940 amu), and 7.69% 22Ne (mass 21.9914 amu). What is the
average mass of the neon in the solar wind?
 2.2. Chemical Formulas

 Chemical Formula: uses the chemical symbols to represent the atoms of the
elements and their ratios in the chemical compound.
 Subscripts following an element’s symbol indicate how many of that particular
atom are present.
Molecular formulas is a representation of a molecule that uses chemical symbols to
indicate the types of atoms followed by subscripts to show the number of atoms of
each type in the molecule.
 The structural formula for a compound gives the same information as its molecular
formula (the types and numbers of atoms in the molecule) but also shows how the
atoms are connected in the molecule.

Figure 2.4 A methane molecule can be represented as (a) a molecular formula, (b) a
structural formula, (c) a balland-stick model, and (d) a space-filling model. Carbon
and hydrogen atoms are represented by black and white spheres, respectively.
 Cont….
 Although many elements consist of discrete, individual atoms, some exist
as molecules made up of two or more atoms of the element chemically
bonded together.

 For example, most samples of the elements hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen
are composed of molecules that contain two atoms each (called diatomic
molecules) and thus have the molecular formulas H2, O2, and
N2,respectively.

 Other elements commonly found as diatomic molecules are fluorine (F2),

chlorine (Cl2), bromine (Br2), and iodine (I2).
 Cont….
 The most common form of the element sulfur is composed of molecules that
consist of eight atoms of sulfur; its molecular formula is S8 (Figure 2.5).

Figure 2.5: A molecule of sulfur is composed of eight sulfur atoms and is therefore
written as S8. It can be represented as (a) a structural formula, (b) a ball-and-stick
model, and (c) a space-filling model. Sulfur atoms are represented by yellow spheres.
 Cont….
 It is important to note that a subscript following a symbol and a number in
front of a symbol do not represent the same thing;
 H2 and 2H represent distinctly different species.
 H2 is a molecular formula; it represents a diatomic molecule of hydrogen,
consisting of two atoms of the element that are chemically bonded together.
 The expression 2H, on the other hand, indicates two separate hydrogen
atoms that are not combined as a unit. The expression 2H2 represents two
molecules of diatomic hydrogen

Figure 2.6: The symbols H, 2H, H2, and 2H2 represent very different entities.
 Cont….

 Compounds are formed when two or more elements chemically combine,

resulting in the formation of bonds.
 For example, hydrogen and oxygen can react to form water, sodium and
chlorine can react to form table salt.
 Empirical formula:- which indicates the types of atoms present and the
simplest whole number ratio of the number of atoms (or ions) in the
compound.
 For example, titanium dioxide (used as pigment in white paint and in the
thick, white, blocking type of sunscreen) has an empirical formula of TiO2.
 This identifies the elements titanium (Ti) and oxygen (O) as the
constituents of titanium dioxide, and indicates the presence of twice as
many atoms of the element oxygen as atoms of the element titanium
 Cont….

 In many cases, the molecular formula of a substance is derived from

experimental determination of both its empirical formula and its molecular
mass
 For example, it can be determined experimentally that benzene contains
two elements, carbon (C) and hydrogen (H), and that for every carbon atom
in benzene, there is one hydrogen atom.
 Thus, the empirical formula is CH.

 An experimental determination of the molecular mass reveals that a

molecule of benzene contains six carbon atoms and six hydrogen atoms, so
the molecular formula for benzene is C6H6 (Figure 2.8).
 Cont….

Figure 2.8: Benzene, C6H6, is produced during oil refining and has many
industrial uses. Abenzene molecule can be represented as (a) a structural
formula, (b) a ball-and-stick model, and(c) a space-filling model. (d)
Benzene is a clear liquid.
 Cont….

 If we know a compound’s formula, we can easily determine the empirical

formula.

 For example, the molecular formula for acetic acid, the component that
gives vinegar its sharp taste, is C 2H 4O 2. This formula indicates that a
molecule of acetic acid contains two carbon atoms, four hydrogen atoms,
and two oxygen atoms. The ratio of atoms is 2:4:2.

 Dividing by the lowest common denominator (2) gives the simplest, whole-
number ratio of atoms, 1:2:1, so the empirical formula is CH 2O.

 Note that a molecular formula is always a whole number multiple of an

empirical formula.
 Cont….

Exercise A molecule of metaldehyde (a pesticide used for snails and slugs) contains
8 carbon atoms, 16 hydrogen atoms, and 4 oxygen atoms. What are the molecular
and empirical formulas of metaldehyde?
 2.3.The periodic table
• Chemists organize elements according to their patterns and placed in special
arrangement is called periodic table.
• A tabular arrangement of elements in rows and columns, highlighting the
regular repetition of properties of the elements, is called a periodic table.
• The idea of arranging the elements according to their elements was tried by
many scientists.
• Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev (1834–1907) is the first person who arrange the
elements in periodic table according to their mass number and he state that
“the properties of an element is the periodic function of their mass
number” .
 He also predict the properties of some of elements which are unknown in his
period and left space for this unknown elements in periodic table.

22
 Limitations of Dmitri Mendeleev

The Mendeleev's periodic table was not accepted because of the following
limitations, but it is corner stone for the development of modern periodic
table.

1. Mendeleev don't known the presence of isotope and doesn't explain the
position of isotopes in periodic table.

2. One group of elements that Mendeleev did not anticipate was the noble
gases. He left no blanks for them. As the result modern periodic table was
developed.

 Modern periodic table was developed, which states that “the properties
of an element is the periodic function of their atomic number and no
element can have the same atomic number”.
23
 Cont….
 The modern periodic table contains 18 groups (family) and 7 periods
(series).

 In the periodic table, the vertical groups bring together elements with similar
properties. The horizontal periods of the table are arranged in order of
increasing atomic number from left to right.

Group: is the vertical column of the periodic table and the valence electrons are
used as parameter to arrange a group.

Period: is the horizontal row in periodic table and the number of shell (principal
quantum number, n) is used as parameter to arrange the elements in period.

24
prepared by E.A 25
 On the basis of electronic configuration elements can be classified in to
three regions as representative elements, transition metals and inner
transition (rare earth metals).
1. Representative elements (s and p block elements)
 Are elements that have s and p valence orbital's for the accommodation of
their last electrons. The elements that have s-valence orbital's are grouped
under s-block elements and the elements that have p-valence orbital's are
grouped under p-bock elements.
Example : 3Li = [He]2s1 11Na = [Ne]3s1

13Al = [Ne]3s23p1 17Cl = [Ne]3s23p5

2. The transition metals

 These are elements in which their last electronic configuration enters the d-
orbital and are called d-block elements

Example : 26Fe = [Ar] 4s23d6 29Cu = [Ar]4s23d9

 All are metals and found in center of periodic table

 Begin in fourth row and characterized by their multiple oxidation states.

e.g.
 Fe2+ and Fe3+

 Cu+ and Cu2+

 Mn2+, Mn3+, Mn4+, Mn5+, Mn6+, and Mn7+

27
Regions of periodic table based on the electron configuration as s, p, d and
f - block

28
 3. Rare earth metals
• Are the f-block elements since their last electronic configuration go to the f-
orbital and contains two rows i.e. the lanthanides and actinide series.

 Based on the properties, elements are grouped into metals, metalloids and
non-metals.

Metals : are elements that have the following properties

 Solids at room temperature
– Melting points (mp) > 25 °C
– Hg only liquid metal (mp = –39 °C)
– Tungsten (W) (mp = 3400 °C) Highest mp for a metal
– Can conduct electricity (due to movable electrons)

– Metallic luster (refractive nature is due to variable oxidation state )

– Malleable and ductile

29
 Malleable: the property of metals that can change in to sheets up on
hammering. Ductile: the property of metal that can draw in to wire.

Non-metals
• Are substance having the following properties.

– Don’t conduct electricity (insulator)

– They are neither malleable nor ductile

– Solid non-metals are brittle in nature

• Exist mostly as compounds rather than as pure elements
• Many are gases
– Monatomic (Noble gas) He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn
– Diatomic H2, O2, N2, F2, Cl2
• Some are solids: I2, Se8, S8, P4, C
– Three forms of carbon (graphite, coal, diamond)
• One is liquid: Br2
30
Metalloids

• Eight elements are classified as metalloids

• Located on diagonal line between metals and nonmetals such as B, Si,

Ge, As, Sb, Te, Po, At

Properties

– Possess the property of both metals and non-metals

– Metallic shine and brittle like non-metal

– It has semiconductors conduct electricity but not as well as metals

(Silicon (Si) and germanium (Ge)).

31
 2.4. Ionic and Molecular Compounds
 In ordinary chemical reactions, the nucleus of each atom (and thus the
identity of the element) remains unchanged.
 Electrons, however, can be added to atoms by transfer from other atoms,
lost by transfer to other atoms, or shared with other atoms.
 The transfer and sharing of electrons among atoms govern the chemistry of
the elements.
 During the formation of some compounds, atoms gain or lose electrons,
and form electrically charged particles called ions (Figure 2.13).
 Cont….

 Atoms of many main-group metals lose enough electrons to leave them

with the same number of electrons as an atom of the preceding noble gas.
 an atom of an alkali metal (group 1) loses one electron and forms a cation
with a 1+ charge;

 an alkaline earth metal (group 2) loses two electrons and forms a cation
with a 2+ charge, and so on.

 When atoms of nonmetal elements form ions, they generally gain enough
electrons to give them the same number of electrons as an atom of the next
noble gas in the periodic table.
 Atoms of group 17 gain one electron and form anions with a 1− charge
 atoms of group 16 gain two electrons and form ions with a 2− charge, and
so on.
Figure 2.14: Some elements exhibit a regular pattern of
ionic charge when they form ions.
Cont….
 Cont….

Monatomic ions- they are ions formed from only one atom.
polyatomic ions-which act as discrete units, are electrically charged molecules
(a group of bonded atoms with an overall charge).
 Oxyanions are polyatomic ions that contain one or more oxygen atoms.
Table 2.4: Common Polyatomic Ions
Cont….
 Cont….

-ate and -ite are suffixes designating polyatomic ions containing more or
fewer oxygen atoms.
 Per- (short for “hyper”) and hypo- (meaning “under”) are prefixes meaning
more oxygen atoms than -ate and fewer oxygen atoms than -ite,
respectively.
For example, perchlorate is ClO4−, chlorate is ClO3−, chlorite is ClO2− and
hypochlorite is ClO−.
 Unfortunately, the number of oxygen atoms corresponding to a given suffix
or prefix is not consistent;
for example, nitrate is NO3− while sulfate is SO42−.
 2.4.1. Formation of Ionic Compounds

 A compound that contains ions and is held together by ionic bonds is called
an ionic compound.
 When a metal is combined with one or more nonmetals, the compound is
usually ionic.

 In every ionic compound, the total number of positive charges of the

cations equals the total number of negative charges of the anions.
 Thus, ionic compounds are electrically neutral overall, even though they
contain positive and negative ions.
 We can use this observation to help us write the formula of an ionic
compound.
 The formula of an ionic compound must have a ratio of ions such that the
numbers of positive and negative charges are equal.
 2.4.2. Formation of Molecular Compounds

 Molecular compounds (covalent compounds) result when atoms share

rather than transfer (gains or losses), electrons.
 Under normal conditions, molecular compounds often exist as gases, low-
boiling liquids, and low-melting solids, although many important
exceptions exist.

 Whereas ionic compounds are usually formed when a metal and a nonmetal
combine, covalent compounds are usually formed by a combination of
nonmetals.

 Thus, the periodic table can help us recognize many of the compounds that
are covalent.
Cont….
 2.5. Chemical Nomenclature

 Nomenclature - a collection of rules for naming things, is important in

science and in many other situations.

 used to name simple ionic and molecular compounds, such as NaCl, CaCO3,
and N2O4.
 The simplest of these are binary compounds, those containing only two
elements, but we will also consider how to name ionic compounds
containing polyatomic ions, and one specific, very important class of
compounds known as acids

 We will limit our attention here to inorganic compounds, compounds that

are composed principally of elements other than carbon, and will follow the
nomenclature guidelines proposed by IUPAC.
 Cont….
2.5.1. Ionic compounds
 To name an inorganic compound, we need to consider the answers to
several questions.

 First, is the compound ionic or molecular? If the compound is ionic, does

the metal form ions of only one type (fixed charge) or more than one type
(variable charge)?

 Are the ions monatomic or polyatomic? If the compound is molecular, does

it contain hydrogen? If so, does it also contain oxygen? From the answers
we derive, we place the compound in an appropriate category and then
name it accordingly.
 Cont….
2.5.1.2. Compounds Containing Polyatomic Ions
 Named similarly to those containing only monatomic ions, i.e. by naming
first the cation and then the anion.

Table2.5: Names of Some Ionic Compounds

NaCl, Sodium chloride Na2O,sodium oxide

KBr, potassium bromide CdS, cadmium sulfide
CaI2,Calcium Iodide Mg3N2, magnesium nitride
CsF,Cesium Fluoride Ca3P2,Calcium Phosphide
LiCl,lithium chloride Al4C3,aluminum carbide
NaCl,Sodium chloride Na2O,sodium oxide
 Cont….

2.5.1.3. Compounds Containing a Metal Ion with a

Variable Charge
 Most of the transition metals and some main group metals can form two or
more cations with different charges.
 Compounds of these metals with nonmetals are named with the same
method as compounds in the first category, except the charge of the metal
ion is specified by a Roman numeral in parentheses after the name of the
metal.
 The charge of the metal ion is determined from the formula of the
compound and the charge of the anion.
e.g. FeCl2 -iron(II) chloride
FeCl3 - iron(III) chloride
 Cont….
2.5.1.4. Ionic Hydrates

 Ionic compounds that contain water molecules as integral components of

their crystals are called hydrates.
 The name for an ionic hydrate is derived by adding a term to the name for
the anhydrous (meaning “not hydrated”) compound that indicates the
number of water molecules associated with each formula unit of the
compound.
 The added word begins with a Greek prefix denoting the number of water
molecules and ends with “hydrate.”
 e.g. the anhydrous compound copper(II) sulfate also exists as a hydrate
containing five water molecules and named copper(II) sulfate
pentahydrate.
 Washing soda is the common name for a hydrate of sodium carbonate
containing 10 water molecules; the systematic name is sodium carbonate
decahydrate.
Copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate CuSO4∙5H2O
Sodium carbonate decahydrate Na2CO3∙10H2O
 cont……

Table2.9: Nomenclature Prefixes

Number Number Prefix

1(sometimes mono- 6 hexa-

omitted)

2 di- 7 hepta-

3 tri- 8 octa-

4 tetra- 9 nona-

5 penta- 10 deca-
 Cont….
2.5.2. Molecular Compounds

 The bonding characteristics of inorganic molecular compounds are

different from ionic compounds and they are named using a different
system as well.
 The charges of cations and anions dictate their ratios in ionic compounds,
so specifying the names of the ions provides sufficient information to
determine chemical formulas.

 However, because covalent bonding allows for significant variation in the

combination ratios of the atoms in a molecule, the names for molecular
compounds must explicitly identify these ratios.
 Cont….

2.5.2.1. Compounds Composed of Two Elements

 When two nonmetallic elements form a molecular compound,

several combination ratios are often possible.
 For example, carbon and oxygen can form the compounds CO and
CO2.
 Since these are different substances with different properties, they
cannot both have the same name (they cannot both be called carbon
oxide).
 To deal with this situation, we use a naming method that is
somewhat similar to that used for ionic compounds, but with added
prefixes to specify the numbers of atoms of each element.
 Cont….

 The name of the more metallic element (the one farther to the left and/or
bottom of the periodic table) is first, followed by the name of the more
nonmetallic element (the one farther to the right and/or top) with its ending
changed to the suffix –ide.
 When only one atom of the first element is present, the prefix mono- is
usually deleted from that part.
 Thus, CO is named carbon monoxide,
 CO2 is called carbon dioxide.
 Cont….

Table2.10: Names of Some Molecular Compounds Composed of Two

Elements
 Cont….

2.5.2.2. Binary Acids

Binary acids- are certain molecular compounds in which hydrogen is
combined with a second non metallic element.

 If the compound is a binary acid (comprised of hydrogen and one other

nonmetallic element):
1. The word “hydrogen” is changed to the prefix hydro-
2. The other nonmetallic element name is modified by adding the suffix -ic
3. The word “acid” is added as a second word

 For example, when the gas HCl (hydrogen chloride) is dissolved in water,
the solution is called hydrochloric acid.
 Cont….

Table2.11: Names of Some Simple Acids

Name of gas Name of acid

HF(g),Hydrogen fluoride HF(aq), hydrofluoric acid

HCl(g),Hydrogen chloride HCl(aq),hydrochloric acid

HBr(g), Hydrogen bromide HBr(aq), hydrobromic acid

HI(g), Hydrogen iodide HI(aq), hydroiodic acid

H2S(g), Hydrogen sulfide H2S(aq), hydrosulfuric acid

 Cont….

2.5.2.3. Oxy acids

Oxy acids- are acids which contains the elements; hydrogen, oxygen, and a
third element (almost always a non-metal).
 To name oxyacids:
1. Omit “hydrogen”
2. Start with the root name of the anion
3. Replace –ate with –ic, or –ite with –ous
4. Add “acid”
 For example, consider H2CO3 (which you might be tempted to call
“hydrogen carbonate”).
To name this correctly, “hydrogen” is omitted; the –ate of carbonate is replace
with –ic; and acid is added-so its name is carbonic acid.
 Cont….
 There are some exceptions to the general naming method
e.g.H2SO4 is called sulfuric acid, not sulfic acid, and H2SO3 is sulfurous acid,
not sulfous acid).
Table 2.12: Names of Common Oxyacids

Formula Anion Name Acid name

HC2H3O2 Acetate Acetic acid
HNO3 Nitrate Nitric acid
HNO2 Nitrite Nitrous acid
HClO4 Perchlorate Perchloric acid
H2CO3 Carbonate Carbonic acid
H2SO4 Sulfate Sulfuric acid
H2SO3 Sulfite Sulfurous acid
H3PO4 Phosphate Phosphoric acid