Chapter Two
Chapter Two
Predict the type of compound formed from elements based on their location
within the periodic table
The protons and neutrons are packed closely together in a dense core
called the nucleus
Surrounding the nucleus, the electrons move about rapidly through a
large volume of space
If an atom could be expanded to the size of a football stadium, the
nucleus would be the size of a single blueberry.
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Cont….
Properties of Subatomic Particles
Cont….
An atom that gains one or more electrons will exhibit a negative charge -
anion.
an atom loses one or more electrons- cation
For example, a neutral sodium atom (Z = 11) has 11 electrons. If this atom
loses one electron, it will become a cation with a 1+ charge (11 − 10 = 1+). A
neutral oxygen atom (Z = 8) has eight electrons, and if it gains two electrons it
will become an anion with a 2− charge (8 −10 = 2−)
2.1.1. Chemical Symbols and Isotopes
Isotopes – are atoms that have the same number of protons, but
different numbers of neutrons. Eg.
Isobars: atoms that have the same mass number but different atomic
number (so they are different elements). e.g.
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Cont….
Chemical Formula: uses the chemical symbols to represent the atoms of the
elements and their ratios in the chemical compound.
Subscripts following an element’s symbol indicate how many of that particular
atom are present.
Molecular formulas is a representation of a molecule that uses chemical symbols to
indicate the types of atoms followed by subscripts to show the number of atoms of
each type in the molecule.
The structural formula for a compound gives the same information as its molecular
formula (the types and numbers of atoms in the molecule) but also shows how the
atoms are connected in the molecule.
Figure 2.4 A methane molecule can be represented as (a) a molecular formula, (b) a
structural formula, (c) a balland-stick model, and (d) a space-filling model. Carbon
and hydrogen atoms are represented by black and white spheres, respectively.
Cont….
Although many elements consist of discrete, individual atoms, some exist
as molecules made up of two or more atoms of the element chemically
bonded together.
For example, most samples of the elements hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen
are composed of molecules that contain two atoms each (called diatomic
molecules) and thus have the molecular formulas H2, O2, and
N2,respectively.
Figure 2.5: A molecule of sulfur is composed of eight sulfur atoms and is therefore
written as S8. It can be represented as (a) a structural formula, (b) a ball-and-stick
model, and (c) a space-filling model. Sulfur atoms are represented by yellow spheres.
Cont….
It is important to note that a subscript following a symbol and a number in
front of a symbol do not represent the same thing;
H2 and 2H represent distinctly different species.
H2 is a molecular formula; it represents a diatomic molecule of hydrogen,
consisting of two atoms of the element that are chemically bonded together.
The expression 2H, on the other hand, indicates two separate hydrogen
atoms that are not combined as a unit. The expression 2H2 represents two
molecules of diatomic hydrogen
Figure 2.6: The symbols H, 2H, H2, and 2H2 represent very different entities.
Cont….
Figure 2.8: Benzene, C6H6, is produced during oil refining and has many
industrial uses. Abenzene molecule can be represented as (a) a structural
formula, (b) a ball-and-stick model, and(c) a space-filling model. (d)
Benzene is a clear liquid.
Cont….
For example, the molecular formula for acetic acid, the component that
gives vinegar its sharp taste, is C 2H 4O 2. This formula indicates that a
molecule of acetic acid contains two carbon atoms, four hydrogen atoms,
and two oxygen atoms. The ratio of atoms is 2:4:2.
Dividing by the lowest common denominator (2) gives the simplest, whole-
number ratio of atoms, 1:2:1, so the empirical formula is CH 2O.
Exercise A molecule of metaldehyde (a pesticide used for snails and slugs) contains
8 carbon atoms, 16 hydrogen atoms, and 4 oxygen atoms. What are the molecular
and empirical formulas of metaldehyde?
2.3.The periodic table
• Chemists organize elements according to their patterns and placed in special
arrangement is called periodic table.
• A tabular arrangement of elements in rows and columns, highlighting the
regular repetition of properties of the elements, is called a periodic table.
• The idea of arranging the elements according to their elements was tried by
many scientists.
• Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev (1834–1907) is the first person who arrange the
elements in periodic table according to their mass number and he state that
“the properties of an element is the periodic function of their mass
number” .
He also predict the properties of some of elements which are unknown in his
period and left space for this unknown elements in periodic table.
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Limitations of Dmitri Mendeleev
The Mendeleev's periodic table was not accepted because of the following
limitations, but it is corner stone for the development of modern periodic
table.
1. Mendeleev don't known the presence of isotope and doesn't explain the
position of isotopes in periodic table.
2. One group of elements that Mendeleev did not anticipate was the noble
gases. He left no blanks for them. As the result modern periodic table was
developed.
Modern periodic table was developed, which states that “the properties
of an element is the periodic function of their atomic number and no
element can have the same atomic number”.
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Cont….
The modern periodic table contains 18 groups (family) and 7 periods
(series).
In the periodic table, the vertical groups bring together elements with similar
properties. The horizontal periods of the table are arranged in order of
increasing atomic number from left to right.
Group: is the vertical column of the periodic table and the valence electrons are
used as parameter to arrange a group.
Period: is the horizontal row in periodic table and the number of shell (principal
quantum number, n) is used as parameter to arrange the elements in period.
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prepared by E.A 25
On the basis of electronic configuration elements can be classified in to
three regions as representative elements, transition metals and inner
transition (rare earth metals).
1. Representative elements (s and p block elements)
Are elements that have s and p valence orbital's for the accommodation of
their last electrons. The elements that have s-valence orbital's are grouped
under s-block elements and the elements that have p-valence orbital's are
grouped under p-bock elements.
Example : 3Li = [He]2s1 11Na = [Ne]3s1
These are elements in which their last electronic configuration enters the d-
orbital and are called d-block elements
e.g.
Fe2+ and Fe3+
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Regions of periodic table based on the electron configuration as s, p, d and
f - block
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3. Rare earth metals
• Are the f-block elements since their last electronic configuration go to the f-
orbital and contains two rows i.e. the lanthanides and actinide series.
Based on the properties, elements are grouped into metals, metalloids and
non-metals.
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Malleable: the property of metals that can change in to sheets up on
hammering. Ductile: the property of metal that can draw in to wire.
Non-metals
• Are substance having the following properties.
Properties
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2.4. Ionic and Molecular Compounds
In ordinary chemical reactions, the nucleus of each atom (and thus the
identity of the element) remains unchanged.
Electrons, however, can be added to atoms by transfer from other atoms,
lost by transfer to other atoms, or shared with other atoms.
The transfer and sharing of electrons among atoms govern the chemistry of
the elements.
During the formation of some compounds, atoms gain or lose electrons,
and form electrically charged particles called ions (Figure 2.13).
Cont….
an alkaline earth metal (group 2) loses two electrons and forms a cation
with a 2+ charge, and so on.
When atoms of nonmetal elements form ions, they generally gain enough
electrons to give them the same number of electrons as an atom of the next
noble gas in the periodic table.
Atoms of group 17 gain one electron and form anions with a 1− charge
atoms of group 16 gain two electrons and form ions with a 2− charge, and
so on.
Figure 2.14: Some elements exhibit a regular pattern of
ionic charge when they form ions.
Cont….
Cont….
Monatomic ions- they are ions formed from only one atom.
polyatomic ions-which act as discrete units, are electrically charged molecules
(a group of bonded atoms with an overall charge).
Oxyanions are polyatomic ions that contain one or more oxygen atoms.
Table 2.4: Common Polyatomic Ions
Cont….
Cont….
-ate and -ite are suffixes designating polyatomic ions containing more or
fewer oxygen atoms.
Per- (short for “hyper”) and hypo- (meaning “under”) are prefixes meaning
more oxygen atoms than -ate and fewer oxygen atoms than -ite,
respectively.
For example, perchlorate is ClO4−, chlorate is ClO3−, chlorite is ClO2− and
hypochlorite is ClO−.
Unfortunately, the number of oxygen atoms corresponding to a given suffix
or prefix is not consistent;
for example, nitrate is NO3− while sulfate is SO42−.
2.4.1. Formation of Ionic Compounds
A compound that contains ions and is held together by ionic bonds is called
an ionic compound.
When a metal is combined with one or more nonmetals, the compound is
usually ionic.
Whereas ionic compounds are usually formed when a metal and a nonmetal
combine, covalent compounds are usually formed by a combination of
nonmetals.
Thus, the periodic table can help us recognize many of the compounds that
are covalent.
Cont….
2.5. Chemical Nomenclature
used to name simple ionic and molecular compounds, such as NaCl, CaCO3,
and N2O4.
The simplest of these are binary compounds, those containing only two
elements, but we will also consider how to name ionic compounds
containing polyatomic ions, and one specific, very important class of
compounds known as acids
2 di- 7 hepta-
3 tri- 8 octa-
4 tetra- 9 nona-
5 penta- 10 deca-
Cont….
2.5.2. Molecular Compounds
The name of the more metallic element (the one farther to the left and/or
bottom of the periodic table) is first, followed by the name of the more
nonmetallic element (the one farther to the right and/or top) with its ending
changed to the suffix –ide.
When only one atom of the first element is present, the prefix mono- is
usually deleted from that part.
Thus, CO is named carbon monoxide,
CO2 is called carbon dioxide.
Cont….
For example, when the gas HCl (hydrogen chloride) is dissolved in water,
the solution is called hydrochloric acid.
Cont….