‭RISE OF MODERN WEST - II‬

‭ AME - Tisha Ujjainwal‬

N
‭ROLL NO. - 2022/0452‬
‭DEPT. - BA History (Hons.)‬
‭SEMESTER - 4‬

‭ ssignment - 2‬
A
‭QUES‬‭. What were the major inventions and discoveries during the scientific revolution in‬
‭Europe? What were the causes behind these?‬

I‭ntroduction‬
‭The Scientific Revolution, which occurred between 1500 and 1700, brought about dramatic‬
‭changes in European intellectual thought and laid the foundations for modern science as we‬
‭understand it today. This period of change unravelled the mysteries of the natural world and‬
‭brought about great advances. The Scientific Revolution heralded a shift from traditional‬
‭Greek-influenced scientific understanding to an evidence-based, empirical approach aimed at‬
‭challenging long-held beliefs and promoting rational research.‬
‭During the Scientific Revolution, a fundamental reevaluation of natural phenomena occurred,‬
‭leading to the emergence of a new view of nature that replaced the Greek view that had‬
‭dominated science for almost 2,000 years. Science arose as an autonomous discipline, focused‬
‭on utilitarian goals and distinct from philosophy and technology. The importance of this‬
‭paradigm shift, coupled with advances in scientific methodology such as the application of‬
‭empirical research and the establishment of the scientific method, has led to cultural changes‬
‭that challenge religious teachings and traditional beliefs. The discoveries and innovations of this‬
‭period changed fundamental beliefs, challenged established norms, and paved the way for the‬
‭secularization of modern scientific disciplines and knowledge acquisition.‬
‭The legacy of the Scientific Revolution continues into modern times, representing the‬
‭foundations of the history of human progress and the principles that continue to underpin‬
‭scientific endeavours. This era laid the foundations for the Enlightenment, setting the stage for‬
‭intellectual expansion and advanced rational research, thereby shaping the course of human‬
‭civilization.‬

‭ he Scientific Revolution‬
T
‭The Scientific Revolution was the emergence of modern science in the early modern period‬
‭when developments in mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology (including human anatomy),‬
‭and chemistry changed society's view of nature. It is believed that it began with a new‬
‭understanding of the universe. Before the Scientific Revolution, people believed that the Earth‬
‭was the centre of the universe. It was commonly believed that other planets and the sun‬
‭revolved around the Earth. In 1543, Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus published a new‬
‭theory in his book On the Rotation of the Celestial Spheres.‬
‭Copernicus' theory of a heliocentric universe asserted that the sun was the centre of the‬
‭universe and all the planets revolved around it. This claim is based on decades of research as‬
‭an astronomer. In his writings, Copernicus initially focused on refuting previous theories, a‬
‭strategy to separate sound and correct science from examples of pseudoscience. Although his‬
t‭heory was controversial at the time, it has long been proven correct. Copernicus' introduction of‬
‭a new theory of the universe in 1543 is often considered the beginning of the Scientific‬
‭Revolution. A scientific revolution is a point in history when fact-based scientific discoveries‬
‭dramatically change the way people understand the world. Many advances followed from the‬
‭next century onwards.‬
‭The Scientific Revolution is generally thought to have occurred between 1543 and 1687,‬
‭although not all sources agree on the exact start and end dates. Research conducted during‬
‭this period continues to influence modern scientific research and thought. In the 17th century,‬
‭the way educated Europeans understood nature changed and a distinctly modern scientific‬
‭perspective emerged. Although the actual impact of this change was relatively small at the time,‬
‭the long-term impact was profound. The Scientific Revolution was born out of Renaissance‬
‭humanism.‬
‭Therefore, the first major discoveries of the revolution concerned astronomy, when scholars‬
‭began making observations and creating theories to explain what they saw in the sky. This‬
‭process is called inductive reasoning. Start with different facts and work on theories to explain‬
‭them. This is the opposite of deductive reasoning, where you start with a known theory and try‬
‭to prove that your observations fit with it. Typical examples of the latter included accepting the‬
‭idea that the Earth is the centre of the universe as a given and attempting to understand the‬
‭observed movements of celestial bodies through sophisticated explanations.‬
‭However, it would be a mistake to claim that the Scientific Revolution produced a completely‬
‭objective and clearly "modern" form of science. Early modern scientists wanted to understand‬
‭the mysteries of the universe.‬
‭Alexandre Koyre coined and defined the term "scientific revolution" in 1939. This term later‬
‭influenced the work of traditional historian A. Rupert Hall and scientist J.D. Bernal and‬
‭subsequent historiography on this subject. The revolutions of the late Renaissance were crucial‬
‭to the founding of many modern sciences. J.D. Bernal believed that "The Renaissance made‬
‭possible a scientific revolution that allowed scientists to see the world from a different‬
‭perspective. Religion, superstition, and fear were replaced by reason and knowledge.” Despite‬
‭some challenges to Roman Catholic dogma, however, many notable figures of time known‬
‭today as the Scientific Revolution – Copernicus, Kepler, Newton, and even Galileo – remained‬
‭devout in their faith.‬
‭The core of the Scientific Revolution was characterized by a collective effort to unravel the‬
‭mysteries of the universe through rational research and empirical evidence. Galileo Galilei's‬
‭astronomical telescope observations, Johannes Kepler's laws of planetary motion, and Isaac‬
‭Newton's laws of motion and universal gravitation are among the outstanding achievements of‬
‭this era, expanding our understanding of celestial mechanics and the fundamental laws of the‬
‭universe.‬
‭Moreover, the Scientific Revolution was not just a scientific phenomenon. It had deep social,‬
‭cultural and philosophical impacts. The overthrow of Aristotle's dogma, the rise of scepticism of‬
‭traditional authority, and the cultivation of a scientific mind based on reason and evidence laid‬
‭the foundations for the Enlightenment and paved the way for an era of reason, secularism, and‬
‭progress.‬

‭Inventions and Discoveries‬

‭ opernicus, Tycho and Kepler were three learned men who introduced revolutionary changes in‬
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‭the way their contemporary society perceived the world. They provided new insights about the‬
‭earth and the universe through their works in the area of Astronomy.‬
‭Copernicus clung to the Aristotelian idea of crystalline spheres and the idea that the stars hung‬
‭on an outer sphere. However, he was not fully convinced because the observed facts failed to fit‬
‭into the theory. He, therefore, tried to figure out his facts from a different perspective. He,‬
‭therefore, tried to figure out his facts from a different perspective. He thought that the Sun, not‬
‭the Earth, might be at the centre. Still, the observed facts did not quite fit with his new‬
‭hypothesis. But it came a lot closer than any other idea ever put forward earlier.‬
‭Tycho’s scheme again put the Earth back in the centre of things and he collected a massive‬
‭data bank of observations to prove his point. His honest and careful observations did not‬
‭validate his claims but his massive data was later on utilised by Kepler. Kepler believed that the‬
‭orbits of planets must be circular – the perfect harmonious creation of God. However, the‬
‭observed facts indicated that planets orbited the Sun in elliptical paths rather than circular ones.‬
‭The work of these three men marks the beginning of modern astronomy.‬
‭Many of the early scientists pursued it out of pure love. In studying problems, they adopted new‬
‭methods of observation, experimentation, and classification of natural phenomena. Galileo's‬
‭carefully recorded step-by-step experiments and the conclusions he drew from them‬
‭demonstrate another characteristic of modern science. That is, experiments can be replicated to‬
‭verify the results of previous experiments or to look for errors in experimental results.‬
‭Experimentation was called for. Results may be partially or completely changed.‬
‭The educated middle classes of Western Europe like lawyers, doctors and members of nobility‬
‭and clergy expressed their concern for scientific matters. The practitioners of highly specialised‬
‭crafts such as surveying, metallurgy, military engineering, clock-making, industrial chemistry and‬
‭instrument-making also were preoccupied with scientific matters of their times. From the‬
‭mid-17th century, science became more institutionalised. London Royal Society grew out of‬
‭informal gatherings of scientists from 1645 onwards. In 1662 it was formally constituted for the‬
‭promotion of scientific knowledge.‬
‭The early breakthroughs made by Copernicus, Tycho and Kepler opened a window and allowed‬
‭the fresh air of scientific enquiry into a long-closed and musty room. Many giants followed‬
‭them–Galileo and Newton in Physics, Vesalius, the anatomist, Paracelsus, the Physician,‬
‭William Harvey, the Physiologist and many others. Each of them made a significant contribution‬
‭to his field and further advanced the cause of scientific thinking.‬
‭There has been considerable debate on whether Puritanism and the merchant classes‬
‭correlated in any way to scientific development and technological changes. It appears that‬
‭specific technological advances in this period were a result of the skill of craftsmen while the‬
‭scientific revolution was the product of middle-class educated men. Their achievements owed‬
‭little to the actual technical tools and methods of the workshops. Many of the discoveries of‬
‭scientists of this period had no immediate practical utility. On the other hand, technology and its‬
‭tools and instruments served the cause of the scientific revolution.‬

‭ ources of Power‬
S
‭Many of the sources of power used in Western Europe were still the inventions of the Middle‬
‭Ages. For instance, the invention of the horse-shoe, the paddled rigid horse collar and the‬
‭ tirrup transformed the horse into a major source of power. Apart from animal power, Europe‬
s
‭inherited from the Middle Ages the use of the Norse Water Mill, using a horizontally mounted‬
‭waterwheel driving a pair of grindstones directly and a modified version of the water mill known‬
‭as the Greek Mill.‬
‭Windmills were another major source of power especially in low-lying areas where rivers could‬
‭offer little energy such as Spain, the downlands of England and the fenlands and polders of the‬
‭Netherlands. By the 15th century, the post-mill was substituted by the tower-mill type of‬
‭construction. In the latter, the body of the mill remained stationary with only the cap moving to‬
‭turn the sails into the wind. Mineral coal partly replaced wood and charcoal as the source of‬
‭heat in the 16th and 17th centuries. It was used in several industries in Western Europe such as‬
‭the production of metals, bricks, glass, salt, soap and textiles.‬

‭ ransport and Navigation‬

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‭In the field of land transport, some improvements were achieved in road-making. There were‬
‭also experiments in bridge-building and the construction of canals. Canal du Midi (1692)‬
‭between the Mediterranean and the Bay of Biscay stretching over 241 km was a marvel of civil‬
‭engineering feat. The canal had a hundred locks, a tunnel three aqueducts, many culverts and a‬
‭large summit reservoir.‬
‭However, breakthroughs came in the field of navigation which saw the building of ocean-going‬
‭ships dependent entirely on wind power. The European ships combined traditional square sail‬
‭with Arab triangular Lanteen sail, an innovation that allowed ships so equipped to sail close to‬
‭the wind. The adoption of stern-post rudder increased the manoeuvrability of ships. The‬
‭introduction of a magnetic compass provided a means of checking the direction of the open sea‬
‭in any weather.‬
‭In the early stages of the rise of modern science, common sense and authority were opposed to‬
‭the new science. When humans did not have tools for observation and measurement, they had‬
‭to rely on their minds and reason, and tools essential to new science began to appear.‬
‭1. Compound Microscope: Allows scientists to see things that are invisible to the naked eye.‬
‭2. Barometer: Observation and measurement of atmospheric pressure is now possible.‬
‭3. Telescope: For observing distant celestial bodies.‬
‭4. Thermometer: Allows the measurement of thermal fluctuations.‬
‭5. Air pump: For systematically studying the properties of air.‬
‭6. Pendulum clock: For measuring short time intervals.‬

‭ auses‬
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‭The scientific revolution that took place in Europe during the 16th and 17th centuries was driven‬
‭by a variety of factors that led to unprecedented inventions and discoveries of the era. A mix of‬
‭intellectual curiosity and inquisitiveness led to a break with the medieval tradition of clinging to‬
‭Aristotelian views and ancient wisdom that had long dominated European thought. The spirit of‬
‭the age encouraged exploration beyond accepted beliefs and the broader influence of the‬
‭church.‬
‭The main driving force is that it incorporates empirical research and the scientific method, a‬
‭structured process that uses hypotheses, observations, and mathematical principles to produce‬
‭reliable and reproducible results. did. This approach was in clear contrast to the common‬
r‭ eliance on theological explanations of natural phenomena and untested philosophical‬
‭speculations. Francis Bacon's advocacy of empirical data collection and hypothesis testing also‬
‭played an important role, as he proposed a new methodology for scientific investigation.‬
‭Advances in technology such as telescopes and microscopes have provided unprecedented‬
‭insight into the cosmic and microscopic world, challenging long-held beliefs and spurring further‬
‭research. These tools not only facilitated discovery but also symbolized a move toward more‬
‭exploratory, evidence-based approaches to understanding nature.‬
‭Another important factor was the institutionalization of science, with organizations such as the‬
‭Royal Society fostering an environment conducive to the dissemination of scientific knowledge‬
‭and critical peer review. Cooperation and international collaboration flourished, fostering‬
‭collective growth in scientific understanding.‬

‭ onclusion‬
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‭The Scientific Revolution, while it certainly achieved many important breakthroughs and‬
‭discoveries, was as much about a cultural and intellectual shift as the discoveries themselves. It‬
‭was not, for example, accompanied by technological advances of note with a few exceptions‬
‭like telescopes. Instead, its importance lay in the fact that, first, educated people came to‬
‭believe that the workings of the universe could be discovered through inquiry and‬
‭experimentation, and second, that the universe itself was structured along rational lines. Taken‬
‭together, the development of systematic research methods, breakthrough technological‬
‭innovations, the emergence of collaborative scientific societies, and a brave new cultural‬
‭landscape focused on the acquisition of secular knowledge led to the invention of the Scientific‬
‭Revolution. was extremely important to the discovery. By challenging traditional worldviews, the‬
‭scientific advances of this era also subtly challenged the church's control over cosmological and‬
‭natural knowledge. Newly discovered knowledge had a liberating effect, undermining the‬
‭dominance of dogma over research and fostering a climate in which questioning and‬
‭evidence-based conclusions became the norm.‬

‭Bibliography:‬
‭●‬ ‭Netchev, S. (2023, October 12). The Scientific Revolution in Europe. World History‬
‭Encyclopedia. Retrieved from‬
‭https://www.worldhistory.org/image/18023/the-scientificrevolution-in-europe‬
‭●‬ ‭Henry, J. (2008). Ideology, Inevitability, and the Scientific Revolution. Isis, 99(3), 552–‬
‭559. https://doi.org/10.1086/591713‬
‭●‬ ‭Cohen, I. B. (1976). The Eighteenth-Century Origins of the Concept of Scientific‬
‭Revolution. Journal of the History of Ideas, 37(2), 257–288.‬
‭https://doi.org/10.2307/2708824‬
‭●‬ ‭Biagioli, M. (1998). The Scientific Revolution is Undead. Configurations 6(2), 141- 148.‬
‭https://doi.org/10.1353/con.1998.0011.‬