AMP 201 Livestock and Poultry Management 2+1

Theory
Unit I: Introduction to Livestock Management
Prelusion – Significance of Livestock and Poultry in Indian Economy –
Livestock and Poultry census – Different livestock development programs of
Government of India - Various systems of livestock production-extensive – semi
intensive - intensive- mixed- Integrated and specialized farms.
Unit II: Dairy Cattle Management
White and Black cattle breeds-classification-indigenous and exotic – Breed
characteristics – Breeding - Cross breeding- Upgrading - Economic traits of cattle –
culling-Estrus Cycle – Artificial Insemination – Introduction to Embryo transfer –
Housing – Space requirement calf and adult stock – System and types of housing -
Feeding and Management of Calf, Heifer, Pregnant, Milch animal and working
animals – Nutrition – Ration – Balanced Ration - Characteristics of ration and
classification of feed and fodder – composition of concentrate mixture for different
stage – total mixed Ration-Milking methods - Clean milk production - Factors
affecting milk composition – Diseases of cattle – classification – symptoms -
preventing and control measures.
Unit III: Sheep and Goat Management
Breeds - Sheep and goat classification –– Economic traits - system of rearing
- Housing Management – Floor space requirement - Care and Management of
young and adult stock – Nutrition – Feed and fodders of Small ruminants – Flushing
- Common diseases – prevention and control.
Unit IV: Management of Swine
Classification of breeds – Economic traits - Housing - Nutrition – creep
feeding - Care and Management of Adult and Young Stock - Common disease-
prevention and control.
Unit V: Poultry Management
Classification of breeds - Commercial Strains of broilers and layers –
Housing – brooding – deep litter and cage system – care and Management of
broilers and layers -Nutrition of Chick, grower, Layer and broiler – Incubation and
Hatching of Eggs - Common Diseases - Control and prevention.

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Lecture schedule

1. Introduction-significance of livestock and poultry in Indian economy-

livestock and poultry census. Different livestock development programmes of
Government of India
2. Various systems of livestock production-extensive – semi intensive,
intensive- mixed- integrated and specialized farms.
3. Definition of breed-classification of indigenous white and black cattle-breed
characteristics of Sindhi, Kangayam and Umblacherry.
4. Breed-characteristics of exotic cattle -Jersey and Holstein Friesian – Indian
Buffaloes- Murrah, Surti and Toda.
5. Breeding-cross breeding-upgrading-economic traits of cattle
6. Estrous cycle – signs of estrous - artificial insemination-merits and demerits-
Principles and outline of embryo transfer
7. Housing management-farm site selection and floor space requirement for
calves, heifer, milch animal and work bullocks.
8. Systems of housing-single row system-double row system- head to head and
tail to tail-merits and demerits - Type design of house.
9. Care and management of new born calf and heifers
10. Care and management of pregnant animal and lactating animals.
11. Care and management of dry cows and work bullock.
12. Nutrition-definition-ration-balanced ration-desirable characteristics of a
ration. Classification of feed stuffs-concentrate and roughage-comparison
13. Model composition of concentrate mixture of young and adult stock-age wise
feed and fodder requirement-Importance of green fodder.
14. Milking methods-clean milk production-factors affecting milk yield and
composition
15. Diseases-classification-viral, bacterial and metabolic-general control and
preventive measures.
16. Viral diseases-foot and mouth and bacterial diseases, anthrax, hemorrhagic
septicemia- black quarter - metabolic- tympanites, acidosis, ketosis and milk
fever.
17. Mid semester examination.

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18. Sheep and goat farming-classification of breeds of Indian and exotic origin –
nomenclature alone - economic traits.
19. Systems of rearing-housing management - type design- floor diagram-space
requirement for adult and young stock.
20. Care and management of ram, ewe and lamb-nutrition- feeds and fodder for
small ruminants.
21. Care and management of buck, doe and kid- nutrition- flushing.
22. Common ailments of sheep and goat-sheep pox-foot and mouth-blue tongue-
enterotoxaemia –Ecto and endo parasites.
23. Swine husbandry –Common breeds of exotic origin-nomenclature alone-
economic traits- housing of Swine.
24. Care and management of sow, boar and piglets-nutrition- creep feeding.
25. Disease prevention and control of swine diseases –hog cholera, foot and
mouth, ecto and endo parasites.
26. Interrelationship between poultry husbandry and agriculture-classification of
breeds viz. layer, broiler and dual purpose-nomenclature of commercial
strains of layer and broiler.
27. Care and management of new arrivals-brooder management.
28. Systems of housing- deep litter and cage system- floor space requirement-
common litter material-litter management-merits and demerits.
29. Care and management of layers- vaccination schedule. preservation of eggs
30. Care and management of broilers-vaccination schedule.
31. Incubation and hatching of eggs.
32. Nutrition-feed formulation-composition of chick, grower, layer, broiler starter
and Finisher mashes-Feed Conversion Ratio /dozen egg or kg of meat
production.
33. Classification of disease –viral – bacterial - protozoan- causative organisms,
symptoms and prevention – viral diseases- Ranikhet – IBD-avian flu.
34. Bacterial disease- E.coli- Coryza - salmonellosis- protozoan– coccidiosis-
causative organism, symptoms and preventive measures.

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Significance of livestock and poultry in Indian economy and different livestock
development programmes of government of India and Tamil Nadu

Introduction
Animal husbandry sector plays a crucial role in ensuring the welfare of rural
population. A majority of farmers depend up on animal husbandry for their
livelihood. Livestock sector provides supplementary employment and sustainable
source of income to many small and marginal farmers so it leads to leveraging the
rural economy and avocation with high export potential. In addition, this sector
provides a continuous flow of essential food products like milk, meat, eggs besides
draught power, raw materials like wool and hides for industries, and manure.
Livestock sector in India
India’s livestock sector is one of the largest in the world. It has 56.7% of
world’s buffaloes, 12.5% cattle, 20.4% small ruminants, 2.4% camel, 1.4%equine,
1.5% pigs and 3.1% poultry. The total output worth was higher than the value of
food grains.
 Livestock sector plays an important role in socio-economic development of
rural households.
 1%of the GDP contribute from fisheries and 4.5% of agricultural GDP
 Livestock is likely to emerge as an engine of agricultural growth in the coming
decades and also considered as one of the potential sector for export earnings.
 Livestock sector provide significant contributions towards conservation of
environment. Livestock sector supplements income from crop production and
other sources and absorbs income shocks due to crop failure. It generates a
continuous stream of income and employment and reduces seasonality in
livelihood patterns particularly of the rural poor.
 Rural poverty is largely concentrated among the landless and the marginal
households comprising about 70 percent of rural population.
 In India, over 70 percent of the rural households own livestock and a majority of
livestock owning households are small, marginal and landless households.
 Small animals like sheep, goats, pigs and poultry are largely kept by the land
scarce poor households for commercial purposes because of their low initial
investment and operational costs.

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 The major milk-shed areas of the country are concentrated in the western and
central parts of the Indo-Gangetic plains and the central and east coast parts of
peninsular India.
Role of Dairy in India
 Dung is used as farm yard manure and its value is estimated in terms of fertilizer
the value comes to about Rs.3, 300crores, (World Bank report on energy sector
in India).
 Biogas can be produced from livestock dung and poultry droppings.32 kg of cow
dung/20 kgs of pig faeces/12 kgs of poultry droppings can produce 1 m 3 to 34
m3 of bio-gas.
 The calorific value of bio-gas is 500 to 700 BTU per cft in comparison to natural
gas, which is about 850 BTU/cft.1 m3 of slurry fed to biogas plant produces on
an average 0.15 to 0.20 m3 of biogas daily.
 Based on equivalent effective heat produced 2 m3 biogas plant replaces in a
month fuel equivalent of 26 kgs. of LPG contained in standard gas cylinder or 37
litres of kerosene or 88 kgs of charcoal or 210 kgs of fuel wood or 740 kgs of
animal dung.
Contribution of livestock & poultry to Indian economy
According to basic animal husbandry statistical data in the year of 2015-16,
gross value added of livestock is around 4.5% and the share of gross value added of
livestock to agricultural sector has increased as 26.9% in 2015-16. Despite
deceleration, growth in livestock sector remained about 1.5 times higher than in the
crop sector which implies its critical role in cushioning agricultural growth.
Value of Output from livestock rearing

Percentage of total output

Sector
(%)

Milk and Milk Products 65.05

Meat and Meat Products 19.83

Eggs 3.77

Dung 6.93

Increment in Livestock 3.35

Wool and Hair 0.2

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Milk:-
India stands 1st in milk production in the world level. Milk and milk products
are the essential food items for young children. Earlier 1950-51 milk production
status of our country was 17.0 million tonnes, later government can put policy to
help in improving the productivity of milk over the period. The annual growth rate
of milk production has increased steadily from 155.5 million tonnes (2015-16) to
165.4MT (2016-17). Estimates by the planning commission of India indicate still
higher demand increases (254.5 million tons by the year 2021–22).
The per capita availability of milk was at 130g / day in 1950.51 which would
be increased slowly with a marginal fluctuation in the intermittent period. According
to analyzed data of 12th five year plan (2016-17) per capita availability of milk
355g/day consumed in India which is above the ICMR recommendation of
280/g/day/person. Nine states are having per capita availability more than the
national average in that highest milk consumed state Punjab, per person consumed
1032 g/day and lowest milk consumed state Daman & Diu 10 g/day. Annual growth
rate of milk production was increased to 5.3%.
1. Species wise milk contribution:-
35% of the milk production was contributed from indigenous buffalo, 26%
by crossbred cattle, 11% by indigenous cattle, 9% by non-descript cattle, 14% by
non-descript buffalo, 1% by exotic cattle and 3% by goat.
2. State wise milk production:-
Uttar Pradesh is the largest milk producing state in India it contribute 17% of
total milk production followed by Rajasthan contribute 12.6%, Madhya Pradesh
8.1%,Gujarat 7.7%,Andhrapradesh 7.4%, Punjab 6.8%, Maharashtra 6.3%, Haryana
5.4%, Bihar 5.3%, Tamil Nadu 4.6%, Karnataka 4.0%, West Bengal 3.1%,
Telangana 2.8%, Kerala 1.5%, Jammu & Kashmir 1.4%, Odisha 1.2% and
Jharkhand 1.1%, Uttrakhand 1.0%.
Egg:-
Now a days poultry industry in India one of the booming industry its steadily
increasing its growth. Egg production level improved substantially from 1950-51
1832 million numbers to 88.1 billion number in 2016-17.National average per capita
availability was 5 egg/ annum in 1950-56 from their steadily increases and reached
at 69 eggs/annum in the year 2016-17 which is still far below the ICMR
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recommendation of 182 eggs/ annum 8 states are having highest per capita
availability than the national average in that Andhra Pradesh stands 1 st 289
eggs/annum, -2nd Tamil Nadu consume 231 egg/annum and Daman & Diu consume
lowest amount 8 nos ./annum. Annual growth rate of egg production was increased
to 6.28%.
1. Species wise contribution

86.8% of the egg contributed by improved fowl, 11.96% by desi fowl, 0.96%
by desi duck, 0.28% by improved duck.
2. State wise contribution
7 states and 2 union territories have crossed the national average. The largest
egg producer in India was Tamil Nadu which produced 18.9% of total egg
production in the country followed by Andhra Pradesh 18.0%, Telangana 13.4%.
Meat:-
The total meat production in India reached 7.4 million tonnes from the year
2016-17. Annual growth rate of meat production was increased to 5.21%.
1. Species wise contribution:
47.32% of meat production was contributed by poultry, 19.83% by buffalo,
14.22% by goat, 7.6% by sheep, 6.41% by pig and 4.62% by cattle.
2. State wise contribution:
The largest meat producing state Uttar Pradesh which produced 18.23% of
total meat production in the country followed by Maharashtra produced 11.4%,
West Bengal contribute 9.56%. Maximum meat from buffalo and pig are produced
by Uttar Pradesh. Andhra Pradesh produces maximum meat from sheep and poultry
while West Bengal ranks first in goat meat production. The availability of meat in
India is only about 2.96kg/person/annum against the ICMR recommendation of
11kg/person/annum.
Wool:-
In India total wool production was 43.5 million kg on 2016-17.Annual
growth rate of wool decline when compared to previous year -0.08%.
1. Species& state wise contribution
68.35%of wool contributed by ewe followed by 16.71% contributed by ram
and 14.94% contributed by lamb. The largest wool producing state Rajasthan it

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contribute 32.9% followed by Jammu & Kashmir contributes 16.7% and Karnataka
contributes 15.1%.
Source: (Annual report 2016-17, department of animal husbandry, dairying and
fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture and farmer’s welfare, govt. of India.)
Tamil Nadu
Animal husbandry sector as a component of agricultural sector, contributes
3.92% to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) (National Dairy Development Board) and
employs 5.5% of the labour force (source: 61st round survey, national sample survey
organization). In recent years, livestock output has grown at a rate of around 4-5% a
year. The contribution of livestock sector to the Gross State Domestic Product
(GSDP) is 3.93% and that to the agriculture and allied activities is 40.99%
(advanced estimate at current prices).
Tamil Nadu contributes 5.29% of milk production, Per capita availability of
milk (2016-17) 294g/day.17.10% of egg production, Per capita availability of egg
(2016-17) 237eggs/annum and 8.80% of total meat production (including poultry
meat) and ranked 10th in milk production, 1st in egg production and 6th in meat
production in the country.
Livestock production in Tamil Nadu
Products 2016-17
Milk 7556.4Mt
Egg 167Million nos
Meat include Poultry 572.8Mt
Wool 2.08MKg
Mt = metric tons, kgs= kilogram
Animal husbandry
Definition
It is defined as the management and care of farm animals by humans, in
which genetic qualities and behavior, considered to be advantageous to humans are
further developed.
 Animals provide nutrient-rich food products,
 Draught power
 Dung as organic manure and domestic fuel,
 Hides & skin
 Regular source of cash income for rural households.

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  Natural capital, which can be easily reproduced to act as a living bank with
offspring as interest, and an insurance against income shocks of crop failure
and natural calamities.

Aim:-
1. Up gradation of local stock of cattle and buffaloes by artificial insemination
using exotic and cross bred semen for cattle and Murrah semen for buffaloes.
2. Conservation and propagation of indigenous breeds of livestock in their
native tracts.
3. Augmenting the production potentialities of livestock and poultry leads to
increasing the production of milk, egg and meat.
4. Providing necessary and timely modern veterinary assistance and health
cover to the livestock and poultry.
5. Ensuring livestock health by preventing major livestock diseases through
vaccination.
6. Implementing various central and state government schemes for the
upliftment of economic status of rural poor.
7. Protecting human health by preventing major zoonotic diseases of animals.
8. Creating awareness among public about modern animal husbandry practices.
9. Conducting training courses on basic and latest animal husbandry practices
for farmers and officials.
Constraints of livestock sector in India:-
 Lack of access to markets act as a disincentive to farmers to adopt improved
technologies and quality inputs.
 Except for poultry products and to some extent for milk, markets for
livestock and livestock products are underdeveloped, irregular and lack
transparency. Further these are often dominated by informal market
intermediaries who exploit the producers.
 Slaughtering facilities are too inadequate. About half of the total meat
production comes from un-registered, make-shift slaughter houses.
Marketing and transaction costs of livestock products are high taking 15-
20% of the sale price.

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  The number-driven growth in livestock production may not sustain in the
long run due to its increasing stress on the limited natural resources. The
future growth has to come from improvements in technology and service
delivery systems leading to accelerated productivity, processing and
marketing.
Livestock census:
 The main purpose of the census was to ascertain the production of livestock
and introduced taxation policies on livestock.
 The livestock census was carried out by the directorate of economics and
statistics of respective state governments under overall supervision of
directorate of economics & statistics, ministry of agriculture.
19th livestock census

Species 2007(Million) 2012(Million) % changes

Cattle 190297 184 -3.45

Buffalo 99916 104 4.18

Goat 133314 129 -3.18

Sheep 69601 638 -8.37

Pig 9960 923 -7.37

Poultry 606738 698 15.02

Different Livestock Development Programmes of Government of India
Centrally-Sponsored Dairy Development Schemes
 Dairy entrepreneurship development scheme
 Intensive Dairy Development Programme
Centrally-Sponsored Animal Husbandry Schemes
 Fodder and Feed Development Scheme
 Pig Development Scheme
 Poultry Venture Capital Fund
 Establishment and Modernization of Rural Slaughter Houses
 Salvaging and Rearing of Male Buffalo Calves
 Utilization of Fallen Animals
 Integrated Development of Small Ruminants (Sheep, Goat) and Rabbits

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  Conservation of Threatened Breeds of Small Ruminants, Rabbits, Pigs, Pack
Animals and Equines
 Livestock Insurance Scheme
Other schemes
 NABARD Venture Capital Fund Scheme for Dairy/Poultry
 Govt. of India Scheme - Dairy Entrepreneurship Development Scheme
 Govt. of India Scheme - Small Ruminants and Rabbits
 Uttarakhand Regional Economic Development Programme
 SBI to offer concessional rates to dairy, poultry farmers till 31 Mar 2011
Scheme activities of Tamil Nadu
State Sponsored Schemes
 Kalnadai Padhukappu Thittam
 Capacity Building for Poverty Reduction Scheme
 Scheme for free distribution of milch cows
 Scheme for free distribution of goats / sheep
 State fodder development scheme
 Centrally sponsored fodder development schemes
World Bank Assisted Projects
 Tamil Nadu Irrigated Agricultural Modernization and Water Bodies
Restoration and Management (TNIAMWARM project)
Centrally Sponsored Schemes
 Rural Backyard Poultry Development
 Hill Area Development programme (HADP)
 National Agricultural Development Programme (NADP)
 National Mission for Protein Supplementation (NMPS).
 Accelerated Fodder Development Programme
 National Project on Rinderpest Eradication(NPRE)
 Foot and Mouth Disease Control Programme
 National Animal Disease Reporting System (NADRS)
 National Control Programme of Peste Des Petits Ruminants (NCP PPR)
 National Control Programme for Brucellosis (NCPB)
 Assistance to States for Control of Animal Diseases (ASCAD)

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  Poultry Development
Assistance to State Poultry/Duck Farms,
Rural Backyard Poultry Development,
Establishment of Poultry Estates
 Livestock Insurance
 Conservation of Threatened Livestock Breeds

SYSTEMS OF LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION

Livestock production systems:
In general, husbandry systems are usually classified as intensive, semi-
intensive and extensive.
Meat and dual production systems which is common in the tropical countries
can be classified as,
1. Extensive (migratory, free range, pasture or range grazing).
2. Semi-intensive (pasture or range grazing, use of supplementary feeding
mainly on crop residues and conserved roughage)
3. Intensive (grazing on improved pastures, zero grazing, conserved forage,
crop residues and increased use of concentrates).
4. Tethering (small size flocks of 2-10 animals). This is a subsistence
family system and the animals live on kitchen remnants crop residues,
grazing near inhabited areas and other supplementary feed.
I. Extensive system:
In this system, the livestock are kept on grassland; all the operations are in
open place. Small shelters are made for young animals during extreme weather
conditions.
1) Nomadic and transhumant system are the most difficult to improve, because
they involve continuous movement, not only of the whole flock, but also of all its
owners. There is, therefore, no possibility of dividing the flock by age, sex or stage
of reproductive cycle and it is very difficult to provide supplementary feeding.
Nomadic flock men know where to find the best pasture and browse, as well as
drinking water, at different seasons. The women, children and old people usually
stay in the village throughout the year, and may cultivate some crops.
2) Sedentary systems:

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 Extensive systems are most appropriate where large areas of pasture land can
provide grazing and browse for goats with a minimum of labour or capital
investment. Extensive farming is usually large in comparison with the numbers
working and money spent on it.
i. Oldest method
ii. Requires extensive land
iii. Availability of fodder varies with season so variation in intake.
iv. Cost of feeding is nil or negligible.
v. Currently not followed except in place where there is grazing land.
Reason
a) Reduction in grazing land
b) Tremendous pressure on cultivable land High yielding animal: This
system is not suitable due to
 Temperature
 Loss of energy
 Average fodder availability
Advantages:
i. Less labour per unit areas is required to farm large areas.
ii. Mechanization can be used more effectively over large, flat areas.
iii. Animal welfare is generally improved because animals are not kept in
stifling conditions.
iv. Lower requirements of inputs.
v. Local environment and soil are not damaged by overuse of chemicals.
Disadvantages
i. Yields tend to be much lower than with intensive farming in the short
term.
ii. Large land requirements limit.
II. Semi intensive system:
In this system the animals are confined during part of a day under roof and
allowed to graze during day time. During confinement, concentrate feeding is done.
This system of rearing is more suitable for dairy, goat and some extent sheep.
Tethering of goats. Goats are usually tethered singly. Where tethering is used, care
must be taken that there is no possibility of strangulation by entanglement with

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vegetation, etc., or with other goats. It is essential to change the place of tethering
every day for obtaining fresh herbage and a variety of different feed plants by the
animal.
III. Intensive System:
In intensive system all the operations are confined in one place and animal
movement is restricted. Poultry, pig, rabbit are more suitable for this system. In
developed countries dairy also maintained by intensive system. An intensive
production system does not involve either grazing on crops or cultivated pastures at
a very high stocking density or zero-grazing. The control of goats by fencing is both
difficult and expensive. Fences need to be at least 1.5m high and made of strong
wire netting, closely placed taut wires or wooden rails.
IV. Mixed Farming:
Along with crop husbandry one or more component of livestock or poultry
maintained. Mixed farming is the economical rearing of different types of livestock
& poultry in the farm along with
 Better utilization of farm by products.
 Utilization of unconventional feed and fodder
 Recycling : Farm Yard Manure – Dung – Gas – Slurry – Soil fertility
 Bring constant income to the family throughout the year
 Indirectly enhances standard of living.
Integrated farming system – (IFS)
In the integrated farming system the defects of mixed farming is overcome
by proper planning, monitoring and execution of work according to size of the
farm, farm resources, Agro climatic etc. In this type, the type of livestock
species or poultry enterprises are selected based on the availability of feed, fodder,
water resources of the farm.
V. Specialized farm
1. Sole income is derived from one species – Cattle, Buffalo, goat, pig or poultry
 White cattle
 Black cattle
 Sheep
 Goat
 Poultry

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2. Pure Breed
 Breeding policy
 Income from sale of breeding bulls (e g.) Work Bullock (Kangayam)

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 COMMEN TERMS USED IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
Abomasum: Abomasum is the fourth compartment, or true stomach, of the
ruminant animal

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Artificial insemination : Artificial insemination is the placing of sperm in the
female reproductive tract by other than natural means

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Bitch : An adult female dog

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Boar : An adult uncastrated male pig used for breeding

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Bobby calf : A male calf about 1 week old

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Bos indicus : Bos indicus is humped cattle found in tropical countries

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Bos Taurus : Bos taurus is the domestic cattle originating from either the
Aurochs or the celtic shorthorn

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Bovine : Bovine is a generic name for cattle

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Breed : Breed is a group of animals with distinct shapes and colors which
produce offspring with similar shapes and colors

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Breeding Bull or Stud Bull : An adult male used for breeding

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Broken-mouth: Broken-mouth is a mouth having teeth missing. Usually
applied to sheep or goats and occurs with old age

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Browse : Browse is the shoots, twigs, and leaves of brush plants found growing
on rangeland. Browse is a fodder obtained from eating leaves and twigs of
bushes

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Buck : Buck is a male of such species as goats, deer, rabbits, etc, Buck is an
intact mature, male goat

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Buckling : Buckling is an intact, immature male goat

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Buffalo bull calf : A male young one

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Buffalo calf : A young one of either sex

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Buffalo heifer calf : A female young one

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Bull : Bull is a male of bovine of any age that has not been castrated

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Bull calf : A male young one under 1 year of age

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Buller : A female which is always in heat or estrus. It is also known as a
nymphomaniac animal.

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Bullock or Steer : An adult castrated male used for carting and tillage

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Burdizzo : Burdizzo is an instrument used for bloodless castration which
clamps off the tissue connecting the testis to the rest of the body

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Calf : Calf is a beef animal under one year of age, Calf is a young bovine of
either sex

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Calving: The act of giving birth to a young one

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Calving interval: Calving interval is the length of time from one calving to the
next

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Cannibalism: Cannibalism is the act of eating another member of the same
species. Seen in poultry and swine

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Capon: Capon is a male chicken whose reproductive organs have been
removed or rendered inactive while the individual is still young

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Caponization: A process in which the testes are removed from the adult male.
This is done to make a good table bird (for eating purpose).

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Carcass : Carcass is the dressed body of an animal or deal animal

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Carpet : Carpet wool is a coarse wool used for making carets

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Carrying capacity : Carrying capacity is the number of animals that can be
grazed on a pasture during the grazing season

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Cast :Cast is to make the animal fall on the ground

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Castrate :Castrate is to remove the testes of the male or to render them
inactive; alternatively, an animal whose testes have been removed or rendered
inactive

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Cattle :Cattle is the animals of the family bovine, genus bos

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Chevon :Chevon is the meat from goats

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Colostrum : Colostrum is the milk produced the first few days after parturition

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Concentrate :Concentrate is the feed containing less than 18 percent crude
fiber when dry; grains and protein supplements are concentrates

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Conception rate :Conception rate is the percentage of a group o animals that
become pregnant when bred

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Cow :Cow is a female bovine that has had one or more calves; or an older
female that has not had a calf but has matured

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Creep :
Creep is an enclosure to which only the young of the species have access so
they may be fed separately from the adult stock

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Creep feed :Creep feed is used to provide special feed for the young; also, the
feed provided for the young within a special enclosure

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Crisscrossing :Crisscrossing is the mating crossbred females to a sire
belonging to one of the parent breeds of the female; also called backcrossing

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Crone: An old broken mouthed ewe which has been retained in a breeding
flock because of her excellent breeding performance.

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Cud : Cud in ruminants, a ball-like mess of feed that is brought up from the
stomach to be masticated.

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Cull :Cull is used to dispose of the poorer animals in a herd or flock

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Dam :Dam is the mother of an animal

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Deadweight :Deadweight is the weight of an animal after it has been
slaughtered and the offal, head and hide removed

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Dehorn :Dehorn is used to remove chemically or mechanically the horns of
livestock

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Dewlap :Dewlap is a hanging fold of skin under the neck of animals, especially
some breeds of cattle and goats

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Disbud :Disbud is used to remove or prevent growth of the horn buds in young
livestock

66
Dock :Dock is used to remove all or part of the tail

67
Doe : Doe is a female of those species in which the male is called a buck; for
example; goats, deer, rabbits, etc. Doe is a female goat, rabbit or antelope

68
Double rig : Both the testicles are retained in the abdomen. It is also known as
or double ridgling “Cryptorchid”

69
Draft animal :Draft animal is an animal used for pulling loads

70
Drench :Drench is the medicine in a liquid form administered to the animal
through the mouth

71
Elastrator :Elastrator is an instrument used to place strong rubber bands over,
the scrotum or tail for castration or docking, respectively

72
Estrus :Estrus is the time during which the female will accept the male for
copulation; also referred to as being “in heat”

73
Ewe :Ewe is a female sheep or lamb ;Ewe is a mature female sheep

74
Ewe lamb :A female young one

75
Feed efficiency :Feed efficiency is the ratio of units of feed needed per one unit
of production

76
Feeder calf :Feeder calf is a weaned calf that is under one year of age and is
sold to be fed for more growth

77
Fertilization :Fertilization is the union of a sperm cell with an egg cell

78
Fleece :Fleece is the total wool coat of a sheep

79
Flock :Flock is a group of animals (sheep, goats, birds).

80
Flushing :Flushing increasing the amount of feed to an animal for a short
period of time, usually just prior to breeding

81
Free martin :When twin calves of different sexes are born the bull calf is
usually sexually normal but the heifer calf is always sterile, and the external
genitalia are abnormal in structure.

82
Gimmer :A female sheep which is between 1 and 2 shearing

83
Goatling : A female goat over 1 year but not exceeding 2 years of age

84
Haylage : Haylage is the low-moisture grass silage

85
He-buffalo :An adult male buffalo

86
Heifer :Heifer is a female bovine that has not had a calf or has not matured as a
cow

87
Heterosis : Heterosis improvement in the offspring resulting from favorable
combinations of gene pairs; sometimes called hybrid vigor

88
Inbreeding :Inbreeding is the mating of related animals

89
Kid :Kid is a goat under one year of age

90
Kidding :The act of giving birth to a young one

91
Lamb :Lamb is a young sheep

92
Lambing :The act of giving birth to a young one

93
Livestock : Livestock means stocks that are live and are used for production of
items for commercial and for domestic consumption. The term livestock
includes all animals, birds and all living creatures used for producing items for
the use of man. The term livestock production or animal production is used to
indicate farm animal production.

94
Mohair :Mohair is the fleece of the Angora goat

95
Ovulation :Ovulation is the release of the egg cell from the ovary

96
Ovum :Ovum see egg

97
Parturition :Parturition is the act of giving birth

98
Pedigree :Pedigree the record of the ancestors of an animal

99
Pelleting :Pelleting is the grinding a feed into small particles and then forming
it into a small, hard form called a pellet

100
Phenotype :Phenotype is the physical appearance of an animal

101
Placenta :Placenta in mammals, the structure by which the fetus is nourished in
the uterus

102
Polled :Polled is not having horns

103
Puberty :Puberty is the age at which sexual maturity is reached
Ram lamb :A male young one
Ram or Tup : An adult male sheep used for breeding
Rectum :Rectum is the last part of the large intestine
Rumen :Rumen is the first and largest compartment of the ruminant stomach
Repeatability :Repeatability in dairy cattle, a measure of the confidence that
can be placed on the predicted difference being a true measure of a bull’s ability
to transmit genetic characteristics
Reproduction :Reproduction is the production of offspring
Roughage :Roughage is a feed containing more than 18 percent crude fiber
when dry; examples, hay, silage, and pasture
Ruminant :Ruminant is an animal that has a stomach divided into several
compartments; for example, cattle, sheep, goats
Rumination :Rumination in ruminants, the process of chewing the cud
Scrotum :Scrotum is the saclike part of the male reproductive system outside
the body cavity that contains the testicles and the epididymis
Semen :Semen is the mixture of the seminal and prostate fluid and the sperm
Shearing :Removal of wool
She-buffalo :An adult female buffalo
Slink calf :An aborted calf
Steer :Steer is a male bovine animal that was castrated before reaching sexual
maturity
Teat :Teat is the outlet for milk produced in the udder
Testicles :Testicles is the male organs that produce the sperm cells
Testosterone :Testosterone is the male hormone that controls the traits of the
male animal
Udder :Udder is the milk producing gland of mammals such as cows
Urine :Urine is the liquid waste collected in the bladder
Uterus :Uterus is the part of the female reproductive system where the fetus
grows; also called the womb
Veal :Veal is the calves younger than three months of age sold for slaughter
Wattle :Wattle is a projection of skin hanging from the chin or throat,
especially in poultry and some breeds of goats
Wedder or Wether : An adult castrated male sheep.
Yearling :A horse over 1 year and under 2 years of age
Yearling bull :An uncastrated male between one and two years
Yeld or Eild : A barren or non lactating animal

104
105
 ZOOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF LIVESTOCK
CLASSIFIC

BUFFALO
CATTLE
CATTLE

EXOTIC
ATION

SHEEP
GOAT
ZEBU

PIG
Kingdom Animalia Animalia Animalia Animalia Animalia Animalia

Phylum Chordata Chordata Chordata Chordata Chordata Chordata

Class Mammalia Mammalia Mammali Mammali Mammali Mammalia

a a a

Sub-Class Eutheria Eutheria Eutheria Eutheria Eutheria Eutheria

Order Ungulata Ungulata Ungulata Ungulata Ungulata Ungulata

Sub - Artiodactyl Artiodactyl Artiodacty Artiodacty Artiodacty Artiodactyl

Order a a la la la a

Family Bovidae Bovidae Bovidae Capridae Ovidae Suidae

Genus Bos Bos Bubalus Capra Ovis Sus

Species indicus taurus bubalis Hircus aries domesticus

106
 Common Animal Husbandry Terms
Details Cattle Buffalo Sheep Goat Pig
Species Bovine Bovine or Ovine Caprine Swine
Bubaline

Groups of Herd Herd Flock Flock or Drove or

animals band herd or
stock

Adult male Bull Buffalo bull Ram or Tup Buck Boar

Adult female Cow She buffalo or Ewe Doe Sow

buffalo cow
Young male Bull calf Buffalo bull Ram lamb or Buckling or Boarling
calf Tup lamb male kid
Young female Heifer Buffalo heifer Ewe lamb or Goatling Gilt
calf calf gimmer lamb
New born Calf Buffalo calf Lamb Kid Piglet or
pigling
Castrated Bullock Buffalo bullock Wether or Castrated Hog or stag
male or steer wedder or barrow
Sterilized Spayed Spayed Spayed Spayed Spayed
female
Female with Calf at Calf at foot Suckling Suckling Suckling
its offspring foot
Act of Calving Calving Lambing Kidding Farrowing
parturition
Act of mating Serving Serving Tupping Serving Coupling
Cry Bellowing Bellowing Bleating Bleating Grunting
Chromosome 60 50 58 60 38
number

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 Unit II: Dairy Cattle Management
BREED DEFINITION:-
Denotes and established group of animals / birds having the similar general
body shape, colour, structure and characters which produced offspring with same
characters.
BREED CHARACTERISTICS:-
• Denotes and established group of animals / birds having the similar
• A. General body shape,
• B. Colour,
• C. Structure and
• D. Characters which produced offspring with same characters
CATTLE AND BUFFALO BREEDS
The Indian breeds of cattle are classified as milch breeds, draught breeds and
general utility breeds. They are as follows:
Classification of indigenous white and black cattle
They are classified under three groups based on utility / purpose.
 Milch – cows are high yielders varies from 1,500 to 2,500 litres per lactation
Example- Sindhi, Sahiwal, Gir and Deoni
 Dual – cows are intermediate between milch and draught breeds, milk yield
varies from 1,200 to 1,500 litres per lactation
Example- Hariyana, Ongole, Tharparkar, Kankrej
 Draught – bullocks are excellent draft animals, cows are poor yielder less
than 500lit/lactation
Example- Kangayam, Umblacherry, Amritmahal, Hallikar
S.No Type of Breed Breeds Salient characters
I Milch breeds 1.Gir Ponderous in build, pendulous
2.Red Sindhi dewlap and sheath have lateral or
3.Sahiwal curved horns, predominantly red
4.Deoni with varying colour pattern
II Draught breeds 5.Nagori Short horned white or light grey
6.Bachur colour, with long coffin shaped
skull and slightly convex profile
7.Kenketha Lyre horned grey with wide

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 8.Malvi forehead, prominent orbital arches,
9.Kerigarth flat dished profile
10.Hallikar Mysore type – prominent fore head
11.Amirthamahal with long pointed horn raises closer
12.Khillari at poll, coffin shaped skull. Grey
13.Kangeyam colour
14.Bargur
15.Ponwar Short horned or slightly lyre horned
16.Siri small black, red, dun colour
III General utility 17.Gaolao Short horned white or light grey
breeds 18.Krishna valley colour, with long coffin shaped
skull, convex profile
19.Tharparkar Lyre horned grey with wide
20.Kankrej forehead prominent orbital arches,
flat or dished profile
IV Exotic breeds 21.Shorthorn
22.Ayrshires
23.Jersey
24.Brown Swiss
25.Red Dane
26.Guernsey
27.Holstein– Friesian
V Buffalo Breeds 28.Murrah
29.Bhadawari
30.Jaffarabadi
31. Surti
32.Mehsana
33. Nagpuri or
Ellichpuri 34. Nili –
Ravi
35. Toda

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CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF DIFFERENT BREEDS
MILCH BREEDS
GIR
Origin:GirForests of south Kathiawar in
Gujarat.
This breed is otherwise known as
Desan,Gujarati, Kathiawari, Sorthi, and Surati.
Basic colours of skin are white with dark red or
chocolate-brown patches or sometimes black.
Most of the Gir animals seen today are purely
red.

The typical characteristics of Gir breed are:

i. A broad convex forehead like a bony shield.
ii. Long and pendulous ears are folded like a leaf with a notch at the tip. Their
inside faces forward and always remains hanging from the base.
iii. Horns are peculiarly curved, it take a downward and backward curve and
again incline a little upward ad forward taking a spiral inward sweep giving a
‘half moon’ appearance.
iv. Tail is long and whip like.
Performance parameters
i. Milk yield ranges from 1200-1800 kg
ii. Age at first calving 45-54 months and inter calving period from 515 to 600
days
RED SINDHI:
Origin
Mostly found in Karachi and Hyderabad
district of Pakistan. This breed is
otherwise called as Red Karachi and
Sindhi
Colour is red with shades varying from
dark red to light, strips of white colour
also sometime seen on dewlap and on
forehead.

110
 The typical characteristics of the breed is
i. Head is well proportioned with an occasional bulge on the forehead
ii. Horns are thick at the base and emerge laterally and curve upward.
iii. Hump is well developed in males.
iv. Dewlap and sheath are pendulous
v. Udder is capacious and pendulous.
vi. Compact frame and dropping quarters.
Performance parameters
i. Milk yield ranges from 1100-2600 kg
ii. Age at first calving 39-50 months and inter calving period from 425-540
days.
iii. Highest record=3400kg
iv. Males- Sturdy-Grading indigenous breeds
TAMILNADU CATTLE BREEDS-DRAUGHT TYPE
KANGAYAM

Origin : Kangayam, Dharapuram, Perundurai, Erode, Bhavani and part of

Gobichettipalayam taluk of Erode and Coimbatore district. The kangayam breed
was developed by the efforts of the late Pattagar of Palayakottai, Sri N. Nallathambi
Sarkarai Manradiar.
The typical characteristics of the breed is
i. Colour : Coat is red at birth, but changes to great at about 6 months of age. Bulls
are grey with dark colour in hump, fore and hind quarters. Bullocks are grey.
Cows are grey or white or grey. However, animals with red, black, fawn and
broken colours are also observed. Horns, muzzle, eyelids, tail switch and
hooves are black.
ii. They are short with stout legs and strong hooves.

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iii. The horns are spread apart, nearly straight with a slight curve backward.
iv. The eyes are dark and prominent with black rings around them.
v. The dewlap is thin. The sheath is well tucked up to the body.
vi. The average milk yield 600 to 700 kg in a lactation.
UMBLACHERRY

Origin : Thanjavur, Thiruvarur and Nagappattinam districts of Tamil Nadu.

Synonyms : Jathi madu, Mottai madu, Molai madu, therkathi madu.
The typical characteristics of the breed is
i. Umblacherry calves are generally red or brown at birth with all the characteristic
white marking on the face, on limbs and tail.
ii. The colour changes to grey at about 6 months of age. In adult females, the
predominant coat colour is grey with white marking on the face and legs.
iii. All the legs below hocks have white marks either socks or stockings.
iv. Horns are very small, curving outward and inward an sometimes spreading
laterally.
v. The practice of dehorning bullocks is peculiar in Umblacherry cattle. Horn buds
are removed at 6 months of age by singing with red hot iron.
vi. Ears are pruned and hot iron branding is done.
Exotic breeds of Cattle:
CHARACTERISTICS OF EXOTIC CATTLE
•Improve the milk yielding capacity of the indigenous cows, exotic cattle breeds
have been extensively used in India.
•Military farms were the first to introduce some of the well-known European breeds
Important exotic breeds of cattle used in India are
•Jersey
•Brown Swiss
•Guernsey
•Red Dane

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 •Holstein Friesian
•The maximum milk yield of crossbred cattle during one lactation at the military
farms is 6000 kg the average yield being 2600 kg the maximum daily yield of one of
the cow has been recorded to be up to 46 kg.
Important foreign breeds are described below:
Jersey
origin:- It is the smallest of the dairy types of cattle developed on island of Jersey,
U.K.
In India this breed has acclimatized well and is widely used in cross breeding with
indigenous cows.
Physical traits:-
i. Because of their small and compact size they are
more suitable for cross-breeding with zebu cattle.
ii. The typical colour of Jersey cattle is reddish fawn.
iii. Dish shaped forehead and compact and angular
body.
Economic traits:-
i. These are economical producers of milk with 5.3% fat and 7 % SNF.
ii. The highest record of milk yield was 11381 kg and fat 544 kg in a lactation
period of 365 days.
iii. In India this breed has acclimatized well and has brought about increased
production of milk (2.5 times or 50 in the first generation progeny).
iv. The age of maturity and inter calving period in the progeny have been
considerably reduced.
Holstein Friesian:
Origin:-This breed was developed in the
northern parts of Netherlands, especially in the
province of Friesland.
i. They are ruggedly built and they possess
large udder.
ii. Head:- Narrow, Long, and flat fore head
iii. Withers:- Rounded
iv. Thigh:- Straight
v. They are the largest dairy breed and mature cows weigh as much as 700kg.
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 vi. They have typical marking of black and white that make them easily
distinguishable.
vii. This is by far the best dairy breed.
viii. The average production of cow is 6000 to 7000 kg per lactation. However, the
fat content in their milk is rather low (3.45 per cent).

114
E. Breeds of Buffaloes
The buffalo species originated in India. The buffaloes are normally classified
into river ad swamp types though both are called Bubalus bublis. Most of the
animals in India River type though swamp type is also found in eastern parts of
India.
India is considered as the home tract of some of the best buffalo breeds.
Because of preference of buffaloes for milk. Indian buffaloes are in important
source of milk supply today and yield nearly three times as much milk as cows.
More than half of the total milk produced (55%) in the country was contributed by
the 47.22 million milch buffaloes, whereas the 57.0 million cows contribute only
45% of the total milk yield. There are about 10 indigenous standard breeds of
buffaloes.
MURRAH

i. It is the most important breed of buffaloes whose home is Rohtak, Hisar

and Jind of Haryana and Nabha and Patiala districts of Punjab.
Synonyms: Delhi,
ii. The colour is usually jet black with white markings on tail and face and
extremities sometimes found.
iii. The tightly curved horn is an important character of this breed.
iv. The body size is massive, neck and head are comparatively long. Head of
females is short, fine and clear cut.
v. Hips are broad and fore and hind quarters are drooping.
vi. The buffalo cows of this breed are one of the most efficient milk and butter
fat producers in India. Butter fat content is 7% Average lactation yield is
vary from 1500-2500 kg.
vii. Age at first calving is 45-50 months and inter calving period is 450-500
days.

115
SURTI

i. The breeding tract of this breed is Kaira and Baroda district of Gujarat.
ii. Coat colour varies from rusty brown to silver-grey. Skin is black or
brown.
iii. The body is well shaped and medium sized; the barrel is wedge shaped.
iv. The head is long with prominent eyes.
v. The horns are sickle shaped, moderately long and flat.
vi. The colour is black or brown
vii. The peculiarity of the breed is two white collars, one round the jaw and
the other at the brisket.
viii. The age at first calving is 40-50 months with an inter calving period of
400-500 days.
ix. The peculiarity of this breed is very high fat percentage in milk (8-
12per cent).
x. The milk yield ranges from 900 to 1300 kg.
TODA

i. Toda breed of buffaloes is named after an ancient tribe, Toda of Nilgiris

of south India.
ii. Coat colour of the calf is generally fawn at birth. In adult the
predominate coat colour are fawn and ash-grey.
iii. These buffaloes are quite distinct from other breeds and are indigenous to
Nilgiri hills.

116
iv. The animals have long body, deep and broad chest, and short and strong
legs.
v. The head is heavy with horns set well apart, curving inward outward and
forward.
vi. Thick hair coat is found all over the body. They are gregarious in nature.

117
 BREEDING - CROSS BREEDING- UPGRADING
Selection and system of breeding constitute the only tools available to the
breeder for improvement of animals since new cannot be created though they can
recombine into more desirable groupings.
Systems of breeding have been broadly divided as
1. Inbreeding – Breeding of related animals
2. Out breeding – Breeding of unrelated animals
Inbreeding:
a. Close breeding:
This means the mating of full sister to full brother
or sire to his daughter or dam to her son. This
type of breeding is followed only when the both
parents are outstanding. This leads to more
homozygosity.
b. Line breeding:
This means the mating of animals of wider
degrees of relationship than those selected
for close breeding. It promotes uniformity in
the character.
Advantages

 Keeping pure blood lines.

 Good power and reproduce faster
Negative results of inbreeding, which
include
 Reduced fertility,
 Low immunity
 Development of genetic abnormalities
Genetic Abnormalities
Dwarfism in cattle and sheep
Congenital Cardiac Defect in Pygmy Goats
Umbilical Hernia

118
In horses- Higher mortality rates. Lower growth rates
Out breeding:
It consists of out crossing, cross breeding and Upgrading.

a. Out Crossing:
Mating of unrelated pure bred animals within the same breed.
b. Cross breeding:
It is the mating of animals of different breeds. It is generally used where the
crossed progeny is directly marketed and are needed for breeding and further
multiplications. It has become quite common in pigs and in the production of hybrid
chickens.
Methods of cross breeding:
1. Criss-crossing: When the two breeds are crossed alternatively, the method is
known as crisscrossing. This method is proposed for utilizing Heterosis in both
dams and progeny.
2. Triple crossing: In this system three breeds are crossed in a rotational manner. It
is also known as rotational crossing.
3. Back crossing: Back crossing is mating of a crossbred animal back to one of the
pure parent races which were used to produce it. It is commonly used genetic
studies, but not widely used breeders.
Advantages of cross breeding:
1. It is valuable as a mean of introducing desirable characters into a breed in which
they have not existed formerly.
2. It serves a good purpose in evolving a new breed owing to the fact that it disturbs
the balance and brings about recombination in the germ to cause variations.
3. It is an extremely handy tool to study the behavior of characteristics in hereditary
transmission.
4. The cross bred animals usually exhibit an accelerated growth and vigour or
heterosis.
Disadvantages:
1. It has tendency to break up the established characters and destroy combinations of
that characters.

119
 2. Cross breeding requires maintenance of two or more pure breeds in order to
produce the cross breeds.
C. Grading: Grading is a farm of out crossing, where in bulls of a distinct breed are
bred on non-descript cows from generation to generation, so that in course of time a
populations essentially resembling the breed from which the Bulls are used.
Non-descript cow x Jersey Bull
F1 50% ND + 50% Jersey x Jersey Bull
F2 25% ND + 750% Jersey x Jersey Bull
F3 12.5% ND + 87.5% Jersey x Jersey Bull
After 5-6 generations the off springs will have 96.9 & 98.3% of the
hereditary characters of ‘Pure Breed’. So grading is a process by which a few ‘Pure
Breed’ sires can rather quickly transform local variety of animals into a ‘Group’
resembling the pure breed.
Advantages:-
•Local descript animal can be transformed into certain inheriting character of pure
breeds.
Disadvantages:-
•Disappearance of indigenous species
ECONOMIC TRAITS OF CATTLE AND BUFFALOES
Criteria Economic traits
1. Age at 1st calving Age in days of the cow or buffalo on the date of 1st calving.
2. Lactation Length : Days in milk from the date of calving to the final drying off or cessation
of milk (305 days)
3. Lactation Yield : Milk yield in Kgs from the date of calving to the date of drying
(corrected to 305 days)
4. Dry period Days from the date of drying to the date of calving
5. Inter calving period : Days from the date or one calving to the date of next calving (1st, 2nd )
6. Peak yield : The highest daily yield in Kgs during lactation period
7. Average Fat% : Average Fat %
8. Service period : The interval between calving and subsequent service resulting in
conception
9. Breeding efficiency : Measured as the No. Services/Conception

120
 Comparison of Economic Traits between Local, Exotic and Crossbred cattle

Particulars Local Exotic Cross breed

Birth weight 20Kg Jersey – 25-30kg. 25-30 kg
Friesian – 30-35kg.
Age at maturity 33 Months 15 months 18-24 months
Age at 1st calving 42 months 24 months 30 months
Lactation yield 12000 Kg. 3000-6000Kg. 2100-2400
Lactation period 180-210 Days 305 days 240 – 270 days
Dry period 90-120 days 60 days 75 days
Inter calving period 18 months 12-13 months 13-14 months
CULLING:-
Culling is the removal of uneconomical and unproductive animals from the
herd. The process of culling provides opportunity for an entrepreneur to make
progress in its genetic potential for productivity and profitability. However culled
animals can also represent a substantial loss to producer.
Eg. The cost associated with raising replacement heifers’ average approximately 2%
of the overall operating expenses
Culling of animals is based on
a. Physical Characteristics
b. Individual performance of records
c. Depends upon the breed
d. Availability of replacement stock.
The motto of culling is “Select the Best” and “Sell the Rest”.
If the culls are maintained at the expenses of the good animals, the entire herd is
kept at a loss. Culling reduces the feed cost. It is always difficult to cull accurately
an underfed and mismanagement flock.
Rates at which the cows are culled expressed as:
1. Percentage of herd culled per year.

121
2. % of herd culled per lactation.
3. Over all 20% of the cows may be culled / year in a well-organized farm to make
improvement in the genetically potential. In other words about 80% of the females
are retained to maintain the herd size constant.
Culling rate decides the intensity of selection improvement. Culling can be
described under two categories
a. Voluntary b. Involuntary
 Voluntary includes dairy sales and low productive animals
 Involuntary culling is based on reproduction, incidence of mastitis, diseases
or injury, feet and leg being weak, temperament etc.,
 In any farm on an average 50-60% of all culled animals may come under
involuntary culling
 Involuntary culling is great financial detriment and should be reduced to the
minimum by better management practices.
Factors affecting reasons for culling:
1. Age : Risk of being culled after 5-6 lactations is always high.
Low production: Culling for production is highest after second lactation.
Policy culling
The following categories of animals are to be culled
 Not true to type or breed
 Parentage not known (if pedigree is required)
 Genetic defects
 Poor production/reproduction
 Surplus stock: males and females not selected for breeding and those that are
cast off after breeding use
Age
 Cattle: 12 years or calved more than 5 times
 Sheep and goat: six years and gummer and broken mouths
 Swine and rabbit : above 2 years
 Work cattle: too old and unfit for work
 Animals with vices
 Poor body weight and growth rate

122
Veterinary culling
The following categories of animals are to be culled under veterinary culling. All
veterinary culling propose should be supported by detailed case sheet
 Animals with disorders refractory to treatment
 Animals incapacitated or become unsuitable for normal production life
 Weak and debilitated (animal losing weight and having static weight during
growing phase or losing 25 per cent or more weight during adulthood will be
recommend for culling under this category)
 Suspected/confirmed cases of animals ailing from contagious/infectious/
zoonotic diseases. In such cases, the disposal of the animals will be as per the
rules and regulations prescribed by the animal disease acts.
Emergency culling
 The farm/station heads are empowered for emergency culling in anticipation
of approval by the competent authorities in following cases.
 Animal involved in accidents, predatory attacks etc., and whose prognosis is
grave
 Animal suffering from nonspecific diseases whose prognosis is grave
 Confirmed cases of tuberculosis, Johne's disease and brucellosis may be
destroyed by the farm manager.

123
ESTRUS CYCLE
Generally a heifer attains puberty (this is the stage at which animal becomes
sexually mature and the secondary sexual characteristics become conspicuous) by 8-
12 months period. Smaller cows attain puberty at an early date than larger one. The
estrous cycle starts from puberty, it is regular cycle occurs once in 21±3 days
throughout the reproductive phase. During the cycle a mature ovum is liberated
from the ovary, the cervix become receptive to the spermatozoa, the female exhibits
behavioral adjustment and attraction to receive the male.
Oestrus cycle is divided into
Pro-estrum (2 days): Period of building up growth of Graffian Follicle (GF) which
helps for the nourishment of ovum fluid contains hormone called ‘oestrogen’. It
causes changes in uterus, blood supply. This marks the animal is coming in heat.
Graffian follicle in the ovary is growing resulting in increased secretion of follicular
fluid which has estradiol. This increase number of cilia and increased vascularity of
uterus resulting in increase in thickness of epithelial wall of vagina .The vaginal wall
adjustment is well filled to prevent possible damage to the wall when coitus occurs.
Estrum (1day): This is the period of
desire. During which the female is ready
to receive male. ‘Graffian Follicle’ will
ripe or very turgid. This period is
brought to an end by the rupture of the
follicle (or) ovulation. Vulva becomes
swollen. Vulva and Vagina are congested
Mid-estrum (4 days): Implantation of
the embryo takes place and Corpus
Luteum (CL) will be formed and prevents the growth of Graffian follicle thereby
arrests Oestrus cycle. This is the period when the organ returns to normal non
congested condition. During this period the cavity of the GF from which ovum has
been expelled becomes recognized and forms a new structure known as Corpus
Luteum.
Diestrum (14 days): Further development of uterus takes place. If the animal has
not conceived involution of uterus take place. Longest part of estrus cycle.
Implantation of embryo and secretion of uterine milk takes place, which is used for

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the nourishment of the embryo prior to implantation. In case of absence of
pregnancy, the animal returns to normal and thus the cycle continues.
Estrus is the period in which the animal exhibits sex desire. This period lost for 12
to 18 hours. The estrus or heat is followed by ovulation which normally occurs 12-
16 hours after the end of estrus.
Signs of estrus / heat in cattle
1. Off feed
2. Sudden drop in milk production
3. The cow may search for male, make deep
bellow
4. Restless and excited
5. Bellowing
6. Frequent urination
7. Homosexuality character like mounting
over other cow and accepting other cow to
mount over
8. During estrus the cow will accept the
mounting by a bull or other cow. The behavior of standing quietly while
being mounted by other cow/bull is called standing heat and this is the
surest sign of heat.
9. Edema / swelling of genitalia. Mucous discharge from the vulva and it
may stick on the tail head.
10. Hair on the tail head may pushed forward
11. There may be dirt on the side of the abdomen due to mounting by other
animal
The signs of heat that may be shown will be described for each stage.
a. Early heat period
A sexually mature, non-pregnant cow comes in heat every 18 to 24 days. It
starts with the development of an ovum in the ovary. At this stage the cow shows
early signs of heat. The length of this period varies from 6 to 24 hours.
b. Standing heat period
Early heat changes into standing heat. The length of this phase of heat ranges
from 6 to 18 hours. It is shorter under tropical conditions than under more temperate
conditions.
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c. Late heat period
After the period of standing heat some cows continue to show behavioral
signs of heat. This period is called the late heat period and can last for 12 to 24
hours. About two days after the end of heat, cows may show a bloody mucous
discharge from the vulva. This is called midestral bleeding.
Right time for breeding a cow
Egg/ova from ovary are released about 12-18 hours after the end of
symptoms of heat. Ovum will survive up to 16 hours after the release. Sperm live
for 12-14 hours. As a routine practice, if a cow is seen showing signs of early heat in
the morning, it may be inseminated in the evening. If such signs are seen in the
evening, the cow should be bred next day morning.
In buffaloes the expression of estrus sign is very poor. Particularly during
summer period the buffalo show only silent heat. Silent heat means the animal
could not show any visible sign of estrus. It occurs more frequently in Heifer than
in older cows, in early lactation than in later lactation. More pronounced in
buffaloes during summer.
ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION
Artificial insemination is the deposition of male reproductive cells (sperm) in the
female tract by mechanical means rather than “Natural Service”
ADVANTAGES :
 Increases usefulness of superior sires to extra
ordinary degree.
 Services of Superior Sires are greatly
extended.
 No need to maintain Breeding Bull.
 The frozen semen can be stored in the Liquid
Nitrogen-1960C.
 Semen can be quickly and easily transported by air to different continents.
 Spreading of diseases is absolutely- NIL.
 Overcomes the difficulty of size and weight between Dam and Sire.
 Increase the rate of Conception because in the artificial insemination the
semen is being deposited in the mid cervix .
 Outstanding animals located apart can be mated.

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  Helps in better record keeping.
 Old and heavy sizes bulls , injured / disabled sires can be used.
 If the sires are used for Natural Service the animal can serve only 50-60
animals/year but under Artificial Insemination the amount of semen secreted
by the animal can be used to satisfy the requirements of 10000 animals per
year
 Semen can be stored in the frozen state , so progeny can be obtained even
after the transfer, WHY even after death of bull-15-20 years.( atomic,
radioactive, X-ray unit)
 Semen is expanded and no. of animal can be crossed.
 Frozen semen can be transported to destination once in a month from the
semen bank.
DISADVANTAGES.
1. Some bulls semen may not freeze well.
2. If inferior bull semen is frozen and used –Extensive damage is caused.
3. Maintenance of frozen semen bank is not economical for a small area of
operation.
4. Requires well trained technical personnel’s and special equipments and
hygienic measures are to adapted in preparation.
5. Improper cleaning of instruments and unsanitary condition may lead to lower
fertility and may be nucleus for the spreading of diseases.
DILUTION OF SEMEN

Average of Sperm/mL : 1000 million

Total volume of semen/2 ejaculate : 6 mL (i.e.) 6000 million

sperms.

No. of motile Sperms : 90 %

Total number of motile sperms : 5400 million

Expected wastage during processing (i.e.) : 10 %

filling and sealing

Net no.of sperms available : 5400-540= 4860

Minimum No. of sperms required / dose @ this : 30 Million

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rate no. of doses that could be prepared So,
total no. of doses that can be prepared / week 4860 /30 = 160 doses.

160 x 52 weeks = 8320

doses

Frozen semen required / dose : 1 mL.

Some Important points to be remember

1. Heat sign should be observed correctly by the owner
2. Time of heat sign should be noted correctly.
3. Animal should be inseminated in the mid heat i.e, 10-12 hr after the heat sign.
4. Deposit the semen in the mid cervix
Precautions to be taken during A.I
1. Properly observe that whether animal is in heat or not
2. Back racking should be done properly i.e., removing of dung from rectum
3. Properly examine the internal genitalia.
4. While putting hand in the rectum, apply the soap on the hand.
5. Wash /clean the vulva properly to prevent from infection.
6. Manipulate internal genitalia gently.

EMBRYO TRANSFER
Most of the applicable embryo transfer technology was developed in the
1970s and 1980s. Embryo transfer (ET) was first performed and recorded by Walter
Heape in 1890. He transferred two Angora rabbit embryos into a gestating Belgian
doe but it was not until the 1950s that successful embryo transfers were reported in
cattle and pigs by Jim Rowson at Cambridge, England. The first commercial embryo
transfer is in the early 1970s. Initially, embryos were recovered from valuable
donors and transferred to recipient animals using surgical procedures. It was not
until non-surgical methods were developed in the late 1970s, which embryo transfer
grew in popularity.
Advantages
1. Increase the number of offspring sired from superior females.
2. Results in faster genetic progress.

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 3. Increase the frequency of desired mating’s, capitalizing on excellence of a
mating.
4. Obtain offspring from old or injured animals incapable of breeding or
calving naturally.
5. Increased farm income through embryo sales.
6. Exportation and/or importation of embryos is easier than with live animals.
Disadvantages
1. Can be cost prohibitive and success rates are less than AI.
2. Cost and maintenance of recipient females.
3. Requires a technician with the skills to flush embryos from the reproductive
tract.
4. Possible spread of disease through recipients.
ANIMAL COMPONENTS OF ET PROGRAM
Donor: animal that donates embryos
Donor must be good reproductive performance and progeny performance.
Animals must be exhibiting regular estrous cycles. At least 60 to 90 days post
calving. Eliminate cows with a history of reproductive problems.
Recipient: animal that receives embryo from donor
Recipients are the greatest single cost of an ET program because they need to
be at the same stage of the oestrous cycle as the donor when she donated the
embryos. Females should be healthy, good body condition, and vaccinated for all
the common reproductive diseases. Females should have been through at least two
normal oestrous cycles before use. Pregnancy rates are greatest when day of the
oestrous cycles of the donor and recipient are within 24 hours of each other. The
recipient should exhibit estrus from 24 hours before to 12 hours after the donor was
in estrus. Embryos are typically transferred on day 7 of the estrous cycle.
MANAGEMENT COMPONENTS
OF ET PROGRAM
Superovulation
This is the process of super
stimulating the ovaries with FSH to
produce multiple oocytes. There is
tremendous variation in the number of
embryos recovered after
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superovulation, which is due to variables like animal age, breed, lactation status,
nutritional status, season, and stage of the estrous cycle when FSH treatment is
initiated. Do the AI twice in 12 -24 hours apart. Expected response is 5 to 12
embryos that are transferable.
Flushing
Most embryos are collected by a non-surgical process between days 6 - 8 of
the oestrous cycle with day 7 being the most common. A specially designed
instrument called a Foley catheter is used for the flushing procedure. The Foley is a
2-way catheter that has one channel for inflation of a balloon at the end of the
catheter plus an additional channel for the inflow and outflow of flushing medium.
Evaluation
As the individual embryos are located using the microscope, they are
evaluated for their quality and classified numerically as to the potential likelihood of
success if transferred to a recipient female. The major Criteria for evaluation
include:
 Regularity of shape of the embryo
 Compactness of the blast meres (the dividing cells within the boundaries of
the embryo)
 Colour and texture of the cytoplasm (the fluid within the cell wall)
 Overall diameter of the embryo
 Regularity of the zona pellucida (the protective layer of protein and
polysaccharides around the single celled embryo)
 Presence of vesicles (small bubble-like structures in the cytoplasm)
Embryos can be maintained at room temperature for 12 - 24 hours at a pH of
7.1 to 7.5when holding media is changed every few hours. Excessive temperature
harms embryos (39°C). It is recommended that embryos be frozen within two hours
after flushing.
Embryos are classified by stage of development and graded based on gross
morphological appearance. It takes a great deal of experience to do this well.
Stage of Development Classification
Quality Grades or Scores
Excellent (1) - Embryos with few or no recognizable imperfections.
Fair (2) - Embryos that show disarrangement. Usually 1 to 2days

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 retarded development.
Poor (3) -Embryos with signs of cellular degeneration.
Development has been retarded by more than 2 days.
Dead or Degenerating (4) - Embryos contain mostly dead cells and very few live.
Tiny cell mass that is disorganized in appearance. Not worth transferring.
After classification, embryos are prepared for the next processing procedure,
which may include sexing of embryonic cells and (or) splitting the embryo in half to
make twins. Embryos are either transferred immediately into a recipient or frozen
for storage.
Freezing
Cryoprotectants like glycerol and ethylene glycol are used to dehydrate cells
and protect the cells of the embryo during the freezing and thawing process.
Ethylene glycol is the Cryoprotectants of choice in cattle since embryos can be
frozen in a single step and eventually thawed in a single step and immediately
transferred into a recipient straws are plunged into liquid nitrogen (-196°C).
Transferring
Embryos can be transferred in two different manners
1) Same day transfer: Embryos are transferred into recipients on the same day they
are collected from the donor. Transferring fresh embryos results in greater
pregnancy rates, but requires a great deal of coordination to get recipients and
donors on the same day of the estrous cycle when flushing occurs.
2) Transfer of Frozen Embryos: Embryos are frozen the day they are flushed and
then transferred at a later date. Although pregnancy rates for frozen embryos are
slightly less
than fresh, the process has numerous advantages including:
a) Frozen embryos offer important logistical and economic advantages. More
cow’s can be flushed in a day, which facilitates freezing of embryos.
b) Frozen embryos can be marketed and imported and/or exported more easily.
Pregnancy Rates Resulting from Embryo Transfer
When done by experienced technician, the transfer of fresh embryos yields
pregnancy rates of 70 to 80%, while transferring frozen embryos yields pregnancy
rates of 50 to 60%.

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HOUSING OF DAIRY CATTLE AND BUFFALOES
SELECTION OF SITE FOR FARM BUILDINGS
Proper housing which is conducive to good health, comfort and protection
from inclement weather and which would enable the animals to utilize their genetic
ability and feed for optimal production. For construction of farm buildings selection
of site is most important.
Before selecting a site the following points are to be considered,
1. Type of soil
2. Availability of land
3. Electricity
4. Availability of water
5. Protection from wind and solar radiation
6. Away from noise and other pollution sources
7. Availability of market facility
8. Transport facilities
9. Drainage system
10. Miscellaneous like, telephone, school, post office and
shopping Centre etc.
HOUSE LAYOUT
1. Orientation
In general animal sheds are located with long axis east to west the paddock side
facing the north to get direct sunlight during winter and to prevent entry of direct
sunlight into the shed during other seasons
2. Length of building
The standard length of building may be of any. It may vary depending upon
the number of animals housed.
3. Height of the building
The standard height of the building may differ according to the roofing
material and agro-climatic condition.
4. Width of buildings
1. Single row cow shed - 3. 80 to 4.25 metre
2. Double row cow shed - 7. 90 to 8.70 metre

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5. Roof
It is designed to suit the local climatic conditions. Gable with roof ventilators
is necessary for hot condition. Monitor roof is suitable for building with smaller
width. Locally available materials like thatches, tiles, wood; agricultural byproducts
are commonly used as roof materials. Improved materials like asbestos sheet or
concrete are also used.
6. Floor
For any type of animal house flooring, the primary thing required is
provision of good 'bottom'. It is as important as that of foundation wall. The bottom
is called some times are hard core for the floor. Different materials are used for
animal house flooring. The choice depends on availability, cost and other quality
required for the animal houses. The floor may be cement concrete floor, vitrified
paving bricks, stones, wood, building bricks, gravel and synthetic flooring like
composition brick, rubber floor.
HOUSING
In India, a great diversity exists in the design of dairy animal shelters.
Efficiently designed sheds can help lessen the thermal stress thereby increasing feed
intake, milk production and reproductive efficiency. Under varied climatic,
geographical and economic conditions prevailing in India, designing an ideal set of
building for dairy animals throughout the country is impossible. Hence, practically
there are two systems of housing for dairy animals viz,
i) Loose housing and
ii) Conventional barns
The former being widely followed in our country.
i. LOOSE HOUSING
It is a system of housing in which animals are kept loose in an open paddock
throughout the day and night except at the time of milking and treatment. In this
system, shelter is provided along one side of open paddock under which animals can
rest when it is very hot or cold or during rains. Common feed manger and water
tank is provided and concentrates are fed at the milking time which is done in a
separate milking barn or parlour in which cows are secured at milking time and are
milked. The open paddock is enclosed by means of half walls or plain wire fences
of convenient height.
Advantages
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 1. Cost of construction is cheaper.
2. Future expansion is possible.
3. The animals will move freely so that it will get sufficient exercise.
4. The animal can be kept clean.
5. Common feeding and watering arrangement is possible.
6. Clean milk production is possible because the animals are milked in a
separate milking barn.
7. Oestrus detection is easy.
8. At least 10-15 per cent more stock than standard can be accommodated for
shorter period.
Disadvantages
1. It is not suitable for temperate Himalayan region and heavy rainfall areas.
2. It requires more floor space.
3. There is competition for feed.
4. Attention of individual animal is not possible.
5. A separate milking barn is needed for milking of animals.
ii. CONVENTIONAL BARNS OR STANCHION BARNS
In this system of housing, the animals are confined together on a platform
and secured at neck by rope or neck chain. The animals are fed as wells as milked in
the same barn. These barns are completely covered with roofs and the sidewalls are
closed with windows or ventilator located at suitable places to get more ventilation
and lighting. It is applicable for temperate and heavy rainfall region. The same type
of housing can be utilized for tropical region with slight modification.
Advantages
1. The animals and men caring for animals are less exposed to harsh
environment.
2. The animals can be kept clean.
3. Diseases are better controlled.
4. Individual care can be given.
5. Separate milking barn is not required.
Disadvantages
1. Cost of construction is more.
2. Future expansion is difficult.
3. Not suitable for hot and humid climatic conditions.
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Milking barn
This is a barn where milch animals are milked and is fully covered. It should
be located at the Centre of the farm with all other farm buildings arranged around it.
Depending upon the number of milch animals, there are two types of milking barns,
viz,
i) Single row system.
ii) Double row system: head to head or face–in; tail to tail or face–out.
As per ICAR norms, in single row system, 12-16 numbers of animals can be
kept. If it is greater than 16, then double row system is preferable. In double row
system up to 50 animals can be maintained in a single shed. The distance between
two sheds should be greater than 30 feet or it should be twice the height of the
building.
There shall be an individual standing in the milking barns and the number of
standings required should be 25% of total number of milch animals in the herd and
the milking operation should be carried out in batches.
Advantages
Tail to tail system
1. Cleaning and milking of animals are easy.
2. Supervision of milking is also easy.
3. Less chance for transmission of diseases
from animal to animal.
4. Animals can get more fresh air from outside.
Disadvantages: -
•1. Spreading of diseases through digestive and
reproductive system is high
• 2. Drainage channel is not exposed to sunlight.
• 3. Feeding of animals is laborious
Head to head system

1. Getting animals into the shed is easy.

2. Feeding of animals is also easy.
3. Disinfection of gutter will be more due to
the direct fall of sunrays over the gutter.
4. Animals are better exhibited to visitors.
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 Disadvantages
1.Milking supervision is difficult.
2.Possibilities of transmission of disease are more.
Floor space requirements

Floor space requirement (m2) Maximum

Type of animal number of
Covered area Open area animals/pen

Bulls 12.0 24.0 1

Cows 3.5 7.0 50

Buffaloes 4.0 8.0 50

Pregnant cow/buff 12.0 12.0 1

Young calves 1.0 2.0 30

Heifers 2.0 4.0 30

Feeding and watering space requirements

Total manger Total water tank length

Space per
Type of animal length in a pen for in a pen for 100 animals
animal (cm)
100 animals(cm) (cm)

Adult cattle 60 – 75 6000 – 7500 600 – 750

& buffaloes

Calves 40 – 50 4000 – 5000 400 – 500

FEEDING MANAGEMENT OF CALVES, HEIFER, PREGNANT,

LACTATING AND DRY ANIMALS, AND BULLS AND WORK ANIMALS
Care and management of new born calf

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 Remove the mucus from the nose and mouth and clean it. If the calf does
not start breathing, artificial respiration should be used by pressing and relaxing
alternatively, the chest walls with hands. Another method is to hold the calf by the
rear legs and lift from the floor with the head down. This may be repeated several
times and helps in restoring respiration.
As soon as the calf starts breathing, observe as to whether the navel cord is
still attached. The navel cord should be disinfected. The navel cord of the calf is
tied about 2.5 cm away from the body and cut about one centimeter below the
ligature. Apply tincture of iodine to the cut end and repeat it 2-3 days. This will
prevent infection. Then, if the cow does not lick the calf dry, or if the weather is
cold, the herdsman should wipe the calf to clean and dry.
The next important step to follow is to feed the Colostrum within 15
minutes of calving, the calf should be fed with colostrum at the rate- 1/10th of body
weight and buffalo calves at the rate -1/15th of body weight. Colostrum containing
low fat, high protein, vitamins and minerals forms a balanced feed for new-born
calves. This helps to protect the calf against various diseases as it contains
antibodies. Colostrum also helps to eliminate the material accumulated in the
digestive tract before it was born.
If meconium (first faecal matter) is not voided out, mild enema by
dissolving soap in a liter of warm water should be given.
Weaning: If weaning at birth is followed care should be taken to see that adequate
colostrum is fed for the first 3-4 days. If weaning is practiced 4 days after calving,
then further ration has to be fed as per the schedule described.
Calf rearing system varies with the facilities available to farmers. They may
be reared indoors or outdoors or partly indoors and partly outdoors. The important
factors to be considered are:

1. Availability of quality fodder.

2. The humid tropical environment is ideal for the proliferation of internal parasites
and it is very difficult to keep the calves free from massive infection if they are
grazing.
3. Outside grazing may not provide sufficient nutrients from optimum growth.
4. Climatic stress affects growth and utilization of feed nutrients.
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 In humid tropics, it may be desirable to keep the calves indoor in day time and
outdoor at night. This will reduce parasitic infection also. Thus, it is advantageous
to keep new born calf in individual pen for the first 3-4 weeks of age. Calves that are
running in batches often suckle or lick each other after feeding and it is a good
practice to keep them in their ties for some time after milk feeding. Hair swallowed
by the calves after suckling each other often forms a hard ball in the abomasum and
this is a constant cause of digestive disturbances. Cleaning the mouth of the calves
after each milk feeding is a sanitary practice. The calf pens should provide comfort
and easy cleaning.
Identification: This is essential for good management, especially in breeding farms.
The best method of permanent identification is by tattooing the inside of the ear with
indelible ink. Metal ear tags or button with letters and numbers may be inserted in
the ear as a means of identification. Neck strap or neck-chain with a number plate
attached, make an easy method of identification.
Body weight: of the calf is recorded on a balance along with length, breadth and
height for the computation of milk allowance. Well-fed cross bred calves on an
average should gain 400 grams a day or 2.5 to 3 kilograms per week.
Removal of supernumerary teats is also important and this has to be carried out
before development begins. This is usually done in the first month of age with the
help of a short pair of sterile scissors. If the extra teat is at the base of the normal
teat, veterinary help may be resorted to remove it.
Dehorning or disbudding: Disbudding is carried out either by the use of hot iron,
caustic sticks and electrical dehorning cone. Both the buds are destroyed at the early
age (within 3 to 10 days).
Feeding Management: Utensils, in which whole milk or milk replacer is fed to
calves, must be clean and should be cleaned after each feeding. Severe digestive
upsets can results from such contamination of the feeding parts. Either the nipple
pail or the open type buckets are satisfactory for feeding milk or milk replacer. It
may take less effort to teach a calf to nurse from a nipple pail than to drink from an
open pail. Also, a rapid consumption of milk from an open pail may at times
because digestive upsets.
To teach a calf to drink from an open pail, place your fingers in its mouth
and after it starts to nurse lower its head into a pail of warm milk or milk replacer. It
may be necessary to repeat the process several times. A stubborn calf may need to
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be backed into a corner and restricted by standing aside its neck. Maintaining the
temperature of the milk as removed from the cow is not necessary. However, it
should be aimed to feed the milk at this temperature itself. However, cold milk at
350 to 400 F may cause calves to shiver and chill. At any rate, calves should not be
overfed.
CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF HEIFERS.
1. Heifers are either reared indoors or outdoors for 9-12 months.
2.In case of outdoors rearing protection must be given from the adverse climatic
condition, rain, hot sun, snow, heavy winds biting flies, parasitic infestation etc.
3. Heifers of exotic breed’s performance are slow in tropical areas in the outdoors.
4. Small breeds attain age at first breeding in 15 months and large breeds in 18
months.
5. Adequate live weight would be 200-225 kg for smaller breeds and 275 kgs for the
larger breeds for breeding.
6.Cross bred heifers show signs of heat as early as 10 months of age but none of
them are mated until attain the body weight of 225/275 body weight or a
minimum of 14 months age.
7. Age at first calving 25-28 months.

8. Feeding of Heifers.
A. Concentrate feed:
a. 3 months- 1 year : 1 kg.
b. Above one year : 2 kg.
c. Pregnant Heifers : 3-3.5 kg.
B. Green Fodder
a. Leguminous fodder : 10 kg.
b. Non Leguminous fodder : 25 kg.
c. Dry fodder : 3 kg.
9. Vaccination Schedule.
Brucella Strain 19 –to prevent abortion due to Brucellosis-Vaccinated at the
age of 4-6 months of Calf.
Other Contagious Disease Vaccination are done accordingly prior to the
prevalence of disease and prior to rainy season
Foot and Mouth disease : Once in 4 months.
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 Rinderpest : 1-3 years.
Hemorrhagic Septicaemia : 1 year.
Anthrax : 1 year.
Black Quarters : 1 year.
10. Housing:
a. Outdoor system / grazing method
 Reared chiefly of grazing
 Care to be taken not to overstock on limited grazing land.
 Rotational grazing.
 Arrangement of shade and drinking water – pasture land
 Concentrate feed is to be provided – Centrally located feed
trough.
 Protect from rain.
b. Indoors
 Management in covered area.
 Sufficient concentrate feed and fodder provided.
 Steaming up of heifers.
Feeding grains to pregnant heifers prior calving at 1.5 Kg. per day. It helps in their
growth, bear the stress of foetus. It produces more milk after calving and increases
lactation length.
Training of heifers
Heifers in early stage should be lead with halter to make them docile.
Pregnant Heifers are to be housed along with milking cows at least a month prior to
calving. The udder should be washed warm water and mopped with cloth to
accustom her to feel the hands in this place. Just few days prior to calving pulling
teats slightly may be practiced so that heifer would not excited.
Control of Parasites – Dewormed periodically at 3 –4 months intervals
Grooming is to be practiced to avoid ecto- parasites.
CARE, MANAGEMENT OF PREGNANT ANIMALS
1. Identify pregnant animal after 90 days of artificial insemination if animal
does comes to heat again.
2. Provide gentle treatment
3. First quarter of gestation period are critical

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 4. In early stages of pregnancy disturbances can cause abortion.
5. Provide concentrate feed 3.5 kg per day.
6. Provide 25 – 35 Kg. Greed fodder per day and 5 Kg. Paddy straw.
7. Minimum 45 – 60 days of dry period is essential.
8. Avoid long distance travel.
9. Avoid slippery condition in the shed.
10. Avoid chasing by dogs, bulls or children.
11. Avoid infighting between pregnant animals.
12. Separate pregnant animals from recently aborted animals or carriers of
diseases like Brucellosis.
13. Provide adequate clean drinking water
14. Protect against extremes of climate.
15. A few days before the probable date of calving, cow should be
transferred to individual calving pens. Pregnant cow may be transferred
to calving pen 1 to 2 weeks before the expected calving date. The
number of calving pens required on a farm depends on the number of
breedable cows and heifer, generally 5 per cent of this number.
16. Ample amount of drinking water, laxative feed and generous supply of
bedding may be provided.
17. The calving pen should be scrupulously cleaned and sterilized before
bringing in the cow
Signs of approaching parturition
i. Cow will leave the herd and seek isolation
ii. Loss of appetite and distress
iii. Distention of teat and udder, considerable milk appears in the udder
and there may be dripping of milk
iv. Relaxation of pelvic ligament one day before calving, the ligament on
the sides of the tail head is loosened so that hollows appear on either
side of the backbone and the tail head is raised and the quarters are
dropped.
v. The vulva become enlarged and flabby
vi. Animal will be restless and will pace about often trying to kick or
scratch the flank region.
vii. The parturition process has three stages,
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 a. preparatory stage (uterine contraction and dilatation of
cervix)
b. active expulsive stage
c. expulsion of foetal membrane.
viii. Cow will deliver the calf within 12 hours after commencement of
first stage.
ix. Care must be taken to observe expulsion of placenta (after birth). It
should be removed immediately so as to avoid cow eating it

Normal calving

Management immediately after calving

1. Udder and hind quarter should be washed with lukewarm water containing
an antiseptic solution of potassium permanganate lotion and dried with clean
cloth.
2. Cows may be milked to relieve the pressure of the udder. If day old weaning
is not practiced the calf can be allowed to remain with the mother in the
calving pen for 7 to 10 days. Otherwise the calves can be removed
immediately to calf pen. If the maternal instinct is more, cow’s eyes can be
blindfolded before the calf is removed.
3. The placenta should be expelled within 12 hours after parturition, if not it
should be removed manually. Before manual removal the body temperature
should be noted. In case of pyrexia, attempt should be made systemically to
reduce fever. Otherwise systemic infection may establish.
4. The cow should be monitored carefully for signs of any metabolic disorders
like milk fever, grass tetany, ketosis, and acidosis and should be treated
immediately.

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CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF LACTATING ANIMALS.
The animals must be protected against inclement weather. Hygiene and
sanitation of cattle shed and animals grooming, washing, disinfection etc, must be
carefully followed. Feeding must have: a) concentrate b) Roughages – Green fodder
which include leguminous (1/3) and non-leguminous fodder (2/3) and dry fodder.
Thumb rule for concentrate feeding is 450 –500 g Concentrate / Kg. milk
production. The concentrate must contain DCP 15%: TDN 75%. The model feed
formula may contain maize 33%,groundnut oil cake - 25%, Wheat Bran - 40%,
Mineral Mixture- 1% and Salt 1%.
Feed alone constitute 60 per cent of the production cost of milk. Hence,
feeding management plays a vital role in farm economy. The nutrient requirement
should be determined for maintenance as
well as for milk production and to meet
the fat percentage in milk and gestation.
In general the dry matter from roughage
should not exceed 2 per cent of cow’s
live weight nor should it be less than 1
per cent.

Feeding of dairy cow at different stages of lactation

Quantity of green grass to
be give (kg) for animal
Concentrate (kg)
weighing
250 kg 300 kg 350 kg
25 30 35 1.0 kg for every 2.5 kg of milk of average 4% fat
percentage, in case of buffalo 1.0 kg for every 2.0
kg of milk produced-challenge feeding
Early lactation

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 The recently calved high producing cow is unable to eat enough feed to
support her milk production. This means that the cow should have enough reserve to
store nutrient to be drawn to tide over the period of heavy demand in early lactation,
during which period the cow loses weight. This is the period of peak yield.
Sometime during this period (usually 6 week),calcium deficiency may occur and in
this case the animal must be supplemented with calcium in feed or injected through
intravenous route.
Feeding during mid and late lactation
The cow can consume enough feed to meet the various demands for nutrients
and the body weight of the cow remains
more or less stable. During this period
the cow may be fed a well-balanced
ration of good quality fodder and
concentrate according to the milk yield
and fat percentage of milk.
During the late lactation, intake ability
of the cow exceeds nutrient needs. This is the time when the cow starts needing
extra allowance for the growing foetus. This is also the period when the cow can
readily replenish the already depleted body reserve and gain weight very fast. From
7 ½ month to 10 months of lactation, cow may be fed 1-2 kg concentrate feed in
addition to their nutrient requirement for maintenance and milk production to
replenish the condition lost in early lactation.
Frequency of feeding: Dividing the daily ration into 3 or 4 parts and feeding them
in so many installments has been found to be useful in overcoming this problem.
This also results in greater digestibility and better utilization of protein apart from
preventing explosive release of acids.
Animals must be vaccinated periodically. For Rinderpest, Black quarter,
Hemorrhagic septicemia, Anthrax-once in a year and for foot and mouth disease
once in four months.
CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF DRY COWS
The day from the cow stops giving milk to the day it calves next, can be
considered as dry period. Mostly dry cow does not give milk but it is pregnant. In
some cases like infertility, the dry cow may be non-pregnant.
Purpose of dry period
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  The mammary gland functions incessantly during the entire lactation period,
which results in considerable wear and tear in the secretary tissues of the
udder. Dry period give rest to the cow’s udder and helps the repair and
regeneration of the secretary cells.
 During lactation the high yielders lose condition (body weight), to maintain
high milk flow especially greater quantity of nutrient, calcium and
phosphorous during lactation. Dry period gives an opportunity for the cow
itself to recuperate condition lost during the lactation.
 On the other hand, uninterrupted lactation between calving is known to
impair succeeding lactation production. Thus dairy cows need to be dried
off before the ensuring calving and should be “steamed up” for the next
lactation.
Ideal dry period
The optimum length seems to be approximately six weeks for second
lactation and older cows, and 60 days for first lactation cows.
Dry period and udder health
The dry period is an extremely important time for udder health for three reasons.
 First, the dry period is a good time for the long-term treatment of cows with
a high cell count.
 Second, many of the cases of mastitis in the first month after calving are the
result of infections during the last weeks of the dry period.
 Third, the first few weeks after calving are a time of greatly reduced disease
resistance for the cow: during this period most clinical diseases (including
clinical mastitis) occur. The degree to which her resistance is lowered
depends heavily on the cow's nutrition, hygiene and care during the dry
period, transition period and fresh cow period.
Drying off
Principally, there are three methods of drying cows, viz., abrupt cessation of
milking, intermittent milking and incomplete milking.
Abrupt/sudden cessation of milking: Sudden cessation of milking cause builds up
of pressure in the udder which has no immediate permanent effect on the rate of
secretion and so on drying off for a few days. After 4 or 5 days, involution or
regression of the secretory cells commences suddenly which is completed in another

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few days. The fluid trapped within the udder is ultimately resorbed. This method is
successful for the low milk yielding cows (less than 9 liters).
Intermittent milking: Milking once every second or third day or even less
frequently, is not so effective a method and may even result in mastitis. But the
method is preferred for cows already having mastitis; the udder is emptied and
infused with antibiotic cream at each milking.
Incomplete milking: Emptying the udder gradually smaller and smaller quantities of
milk from the udder spread over a week or so, can at best be preferred for very high
yielding cow, in which sudden cessation of milk may cause swelling and pain in the
udder.
More rational approach to drying high yielding cow is to reduce ration,
especially protein, a couple of weeks prior to the proposed date of drying. In all
cases, it is a beneficial precautionary step to wipe the teats with alcohol immediately
after the last milking and then apply an antiseptic colloidal seal. This will go a long
way in preventing mastitis, especially in cows with weak sphincters. This method is
known as “dry cow therapy”
Feeding of dry cow
More than half of the calf’s foetal growth takes place during the last quarter
of pregnancy-the dry period. Feeding of cow during this period is often neglected
because the cow is not giving any income. Due to this reason, good fodder and
concentrates are generally withheld from the dry cow. This will have adverse
consequences on her future production.
A dry cow should be fed adequate quantity of well-balanced ration for
i. Maintenance of the cow
ii. Forming sufficient reserve for ensuing lactation
iii. Growth of foetus
iv. Production of colostrum with high nutritive value.
Quantity of green
grass to be give (kg)
for animal weighing Concentrate (kg)
250 300
350 kg
kg kg
Dry 25 30 35  For non-pregnant cows no concentrate is required.

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cow  Pregnant cows should be fed additional quantity of 1.5 kg
of concentrate from 7th month of gestation
 In case of dry cow, allowance up to 1 kg concentrate can
be given if the condition of cow is poor or the fodder
quality is inferior.

CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF WORK BULLOCKS

 60% - 70% of time – allotted to care and
management of limbs and neck.

 Avoid over working the bullocks. The

work should be evenly distributed.
 Protect the bullocks from rain and
inclement weather exposure
 Lean type roof on the side of farmer’s
house.
 Shoe the bullock properly before using them for work on hard ground.
 The hoof should be prepared first and shoe should make to fit the natural
shape of hoof.
 Shoeing – road work – once in a month, field work – once in two months.
 Hooves should be hard, black and waxy the two halves should be even. The
cleft of hoof should be narrow.
 Grooming is essential as it increases cutaneous respiration, spreads
subcutaneous uniformly and parasitic infection is avoided.
 Feeding depends of type work
1. Normal – 2-4 hours
2. Heavy - 8 hours (Ploughing, pulling loaded cart
Maintenance – 1.5Kg. Concentrate

Body weight Normal work Heavy work

300 Kg. 2 Kg. 2.5Kg.

400 Kg. 2.5 Kg. 3 Kg.

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500 3 3.5

In addition 25 Kg of green and 3 to 5 Kg of dry fodder should be given.

148
NUTRITION
Nutrition involves various chemical reaction and physiological process
which transforms food into body tissue (milk, meat, egg, wool) and activities (Work
power).Nutrition involves ingestion, digestion, and absorption of the various
nutrients and their transport to all the body cell and the removal of unusable
elements and waste products of metabolism.
Nutrients are defined as the substances which can sustain or aids in the
support of the life. Lavoiser-French, scientist is referred as father of Nutrition. There
are two aspects in Animal Nutrition
1. Science of Nutrition – It is the work of Animal Nutritionist
2. Art of feeding of animals.- Good stockman ship.
Feed or feed ingredients that supplies higher-level of major nutrients but
contains less than 18 % crude fibre are called as concentrates and those having
more than 18% crude fibre are classified as roughage.
Concentrates containing higher than 18% protein are called protein rich
concentrates while those containing less than 18% protein are called “Energy rich
concentrates”.
RATION:
Is the feed allowed for a given animal during a day of 24 Hours.
Balanced Ration

Balanced ration which provides essential nutrients to the animals in such

proportion and amount that are required for the proper nourishment of the particular
animal.
Desirable Characters of a ration.
1. Liberal feeding; Satisfy all the physiological status +waste in preparation +
Feeding. NOT over feeding-Doubly Wasteful.
2. Individual Feeding: Avoid Competition; adequate –individual feeding is
always better.
3. Properly Balance: Concentrate; Roughage. A. green fodder i. Leguminous
and Non Leguminous fodder. B. Dry fodder.
4. Palatable &Variety: Better and balanced mixture of protein, vitamins and
other nutrients.

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5. Good and Sound: Low quality-unwholesome ingredients, may contain toxic
components-poor quality –reduce feed value.
6. Mineral Mixture: Every Kg milk- 0.7%.-Deficit –depletion cause metabolic
disease. Milk contains eg. Ca 3 g and 2.7 g in milk and 3 grams in egg shell.
7. Laxative: otherwise food will be incompletely digested constipation-
digestive disorder-utilization –nutrients affected-reduction in production.
8. Bulky: Capacious and satiety.
9. Green Fodder: Source of vitamin-‘A’-reproduction-Bulky- laxative-cost wise
cheap-unidentified factors-easily digestible.
10. Avoid change in the diet: Bacterial digestion-Prevalence of specified
species-sudden change – digestive disorder.
11. Maintain regularity: Glandular Secretion-essential for digestion.
12. Properly Prepared: Hard grain-Coarsely ground-Cottonseed soaked-coarse
fodder – chaffed- sprinkled salt-molasses-increases consumption.
13. Labour and cost; ultimate –aim-profit; 70 % cost of production is attributed
to feeding of animals.

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Classification feed and fodder
General classification of feeding stuff

Roughages
Concentrates
Additives

Dry
Total Dry matter Vegetable
Animal
Green
roughages,
sources
roughagesmeat
straws, hay
(succulent)
meal etc.
etc.

Carbonaceo
Proteinous
Non-
Leguminous,
us, maize,
groundnut
leguminous
berseem
jowar
cake tilcake,
maize,
lucerne,
tapioca,
etc.
sorghum
cowpea, etc.
barley, etc.
bajra, etc.

Vitamin
Mineral
Antibiotic
Hormonal
1/3 concentrates 2/3roughages
supplements
supplement
s

1/3 Green roughage 2/3 dry

¼ Legumes ¾ grass

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Sl.No Concentrate Roughage
1. 10 % Moisture and 90% Dry Dry fodder--10 % Moisture and 90%
matter Dry matter
Green Fodder---80-90 % Moisture and
10% Dry Matter
2. Highly Digestible Comparatively less digestible
3. Crude fibre less than 18% More than 18%
4. Nutritive Value/unit mass is Low
high
5. Compact in Nature Bulky
6. Keeping quality -High Variable : Dry Fodder – High, Green
fodder- Less/low

Common feed ingredients

Carbohydrate rich Protein rich concentrates Fibre rich
concentrates concentrates

Maize or Corn Groundnut cake Wheat bran

Barley Soya bean meal Raw rice bran

Oats Linseed meal De-oiled rice bran

Sorghum Mustard cake

Bajra Coconut cake

Mill by-products like Cottonseed cake

flour, polishing

Molasses Sesame meal

Roots and tubers Pulse protein

Sunflower meal

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 Unconventional plant
proteins

Meat meal

Meat and Bone meal

Fish meal

Blood meal

Feather meal

Hatchery by-product meal

Total mixed ration: -

Total Mixed Ration is a method of feeding cows that combines all forages, grains,
protein feeds, minerals, vitamins and feed additives formulated to a specified
nutrient concentration into a single feed mix.
Each bite consumed contains the required level of nutrients (energy, protein,
minerals and vitamins) needed by the cow.
Advantages: -
• The dairy farmer has more control over the feeding program.
• All forages, grains, protein supplements, minerals and vitamins are
thoroughly mixed-very little sorting for individual ration ingredients.
• Completely blended feeds, coupled with grouping the cows, permits greater
flexibility in feeding exact amounts of nutrients (energy, protein, etc.) to more
accurately feed cows for their particular stage of lactation and level of milk yield.
• Grain mixtures can be liberally fed to grouped high producers without over
feeding the late-lactation or lower-producing cows, resulting in more efficient use of
feeds.
Disadvantages: -
• Cows should be grouped by production levels.
• Grouping cows is not feasible in small herds (less than 50 cows).
• Grouping cows is not easy if the cowshed cannot handle various numbers of
cows in each group

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• If not grouped according to production, cows in late lactation are likely to get too
fat.
• Special equipment is needed.
• The equipment must have the capability to thoroughly blend the feed
ingredients.
• The mixer-wagon, preferably mobile, must be capable of accurately
weighing each ingredient.
Model composition of concentrate mixture of young and adult stock
Model Composition of Calf Starter (%)

Type of Ingredients 1 2 3 4

Maize/ Cholam 45 - - 10

Ground nut oil 34 32 34 32

cake

Tapioca 15 14 15

Wheat Bran 10 15 - 23

Ragi flour 10 30 -

Lucerne Meal 09 03 -

Molasses 06 06 07

Fish Meal 08 10 10 10

Mineral Mixture 02 02 02 02

Vitamin Premix@20-25g/100kg (AB2D2) DCP 20-22; TDN70-72

Model Composition of Dairy Cattle ration (%)
Type of Ingredients 1 2 3 4

Maize/ Cholam 35 - 15 -

Ground nut oil cake 25 25 32 33

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 Tapioca - 40 20 24

Wheat Bran 35 25 27 27

Ragi flour - - - -

Lucerne Meal - 04 - 05

Molasses - - - 05

Calcite 03 03 03 03

Mineral Mixture 01 02 02 02

Salt 01 01 01 01

Enzyme Premix @30g/100kg

Calves from 3 months to maturity

Category Concentrate(kg) Roughage (kg)

Indigenous 1–2 Green grass/maize fodder-10 kg or

cattle/buffaloes Legumes 1-2.5 kg + Dry fodder -2 kg or
Green fodder – 3 kg + Straw – 2 kg

Crossbred 1.6 – 2.0 Green grass/maize fodder or a like fodders 5 -10 kg

upto 4 months and 10- 15 kg from 4-6 months.

Feeding schedule for calves up to 6 months

Age of calf Approx. body Quantity of Quantity of calf Green grass
weight (kg) milk (kg) starter (g) (kg)

4 days to 4 25 2.5 Small qty. Small qty.

weeks

4-6 weeks 30 3.0 50-100 Small qty.

6-8 weeks 35 2.5 100-250 Small qty.

8-10 weeks 40 2.0 250-350 Small qty.

155
10-12 weeks 45 1.5 350-500 1-0

12-16 weeks 55 - 500-750 1-2

16-20 weeks 65 - 750-1000 2-3

20-24 weeks 75 - 1000-1500 3-5

Feeding schedule from 6-12 months of age

From 6 - 12 months of age

Category Concentrate (kg) Roughage (kg)

Indigenous cattle/buffaloes 1-2 Green grass/maize fodder-15 to 20 Kg or 15 t

20 Kg of Legumes+ 5 Kg dry fodder or Gree
fodder 5 kg + Straw 2 to 3 kg

Crossbred 2.0 – 2.5 Green grass/maize fodder or alike fodders -1

to20 kg

Feeding from 1 yr. to conception age

From 1 year to age at conception

Category Concentrate Roughage (kg)

(kg)

Indigenous 1 to 2 25 to 30 kg of green maize fodder / or other grasses

cattle/buffaloes

Crossbred 1.5 to 2 30 to 35 kg of green maize fodder / or other grasses

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Feeding schedule for different classes of adult cows (approximate body weight-
250 kg)
When green grass is plenty When paddy straw is the major roughage

Category Concentrate Green Concentrate Green Paddy

mixture (Kg) Grass (kg) Mixture (kg) Grass (kg) Straw (kg)

Dry cows - 25 – 30 1.25 5.0 5–6

Milking 1 kg for every 2.5 - 30 1.25 + 1 kg for every 5.0 5–6

3.0 kg of milk 2.5 - 3.0 kg of milk

Pregnant Production 25 – 30 Maintenance + 5.0 5-6

Allowance + 1 to 1.5 production + 1 to 1.5
kg from 6th month of kg from 6th month of
pregnancy pregnancy

Feeding schedules for dairy animals (quantity in kg.)

S. Type of animal Feeding during Green Fodder Dry Fodder Concentrate
No.

(A) cross breed cow

1. 6 to 7 liters milk Lactation days 20 to 25 5 to 6 3.0 to 3.5

per day
Dry days 15 to 20 6 to 7 0.5 to 1.0

2. 8 to 10 liters milk Lactation days 25 to 30 4 to 5 4.0 to 4.5

per day
Dry days 20 to 25 6 to 7 0.5 to 1.0

Feeding schedule for bullock: -

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 • When wheat/paddy straw form the basal ration, then a concentrate mixture
containing 12% DCP and 75% TDN should be fed at the rate of 1, 1.5, 2 and
2.5 kg respectively to 200, 300, 400 and 500 kg animal.
• For heavy work 2, 3, 4 and 5 kg of concentrate mixture should be fed
along with wheat straw. 2.5 kg green fodder may be fed to satisfy the
vitamin A requirement.
• 30 g of mineral mixture and 30 g of salt should be fed daily.
Feeding of bull calf: -
S.No. Age of bull Quantity to be given ( kg)
calves
Concentrate Green Dry fodder
fodder

1. 6 to 12 months 2.5 5–7 Adlibitum

2. 1 to 2 years 3.0 7 -10 Adlibitum

Feeding schedule for bull: -

• Body weight (kg) 400-500 ,Concentrate mixture (kg) 2.5-3 and Green grass
(kg) 20-25
• A bull in service should be given good quality roughage with sufficient
concentrates.
• A large concentrate allowance may make the bull too much fatty and less
virile.
IMPORTANCE OFGREEN FODDER PRODUCTION
India has about 15% of world livestock population with only 2% of world’s
geographical area. The current feed and fodder resources in India can meet only less
than 50% of the requirement of its livestock population. The grazing intensity is
very high viz., 2.6 cattle unit per ha as against 0.8 cattle unit per ha in developed
countries. We are highly deficient in various livestock products, though we have
about one-fourth of the total cattle population of the world. The analysis of this
situation reveals that one of the main reasons for the low productivity of our
livestock is malnutrition, under-nutrition or both, besides the low genetic potential
of the animals.

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IMPORTANCE OF GREEN FODDER

 Green fodder is the primary only source of vitamin A for lactation and
vitamin A is present in the form of precursor.
 Maintenance& function of the mucous membrane
 is directly related to vision.
 is essential reproduction
 a. conception, b. early embryonic mortality, c. maintenance of pregnancy, d.
shedding of placenta.
 is essential for the respiratory tract
 is essential in the Gastro intestinal tract/ digestive tract-deficiency causes
diarrhoea, mal absorption of nutrients etc.,
 is essential for the urinary tract –deficiency causes stones in the kidney ,
ureter , bladder.
 During lactation 2000 I.U. of Vitamin ‘A’ is eliminated in every litre of
milk-It is to replenished
 laxative in action
 cheap source of Vitamin’A’
 source of minerals ,Crude protein, Total digestible nutrients and dry matter
 unidentified factors.
 Carotene Content of some fodder
a. Agathi 18.3 mg / 100 dry matter
b. Lucerne 15.6 mg / 100 dry matter
c. Guinea grass-14.2 mg / 100 dry matter
d. Desmodium 7.09 mg / 100 dry matter
 Feed should be available to cows at least 20 hours / day.
 Feed at least 60 % of ration during night in the hot weather (Summer)
 Cows will reduce feed intake by about 3.3% for every 2.2 rise in temperature
over 240 C
 High producing cows will eat up to 12 meals / day each averaging 23
minutes.
 Water should be available Ad libitum.
VALUE OF TREE FODDER

159
 Trees, which can be grown either in combination with agricultural crops or
on separate land usually not fit for agriculture, offer opportunity of producing green
nutritious fodder for the livestock. It is seldom realised that in some parts of our
country, probably more animals feed on shrubs and trees than on grass or grass
legume pasture.
 Trees can produce as much, if not more, green fodder per unit area as
agricultural fodder crops. The more important desirable agronomic features
of a tree species are
 Be reasonably easily and reliably established
 Exhibit a good competitive ability against weeds
 Remain regally productive under repeated ability or grazing and browsing.
 Be well adopted to the particular climatic and edaphic features of the
environment
 Require, no or little fertilizer
 Be resistant to local pests and diseases
 Have adequate forage production or be reliably vegetative propagated and
 Have good nutritive value and reasonable palatability and acceptability to
animals.
MILKING METHODS
Definition : Milk is defined as whole, fresh, clean lacteal secretion – complete
milking of healthy milch animals excluding that obtained 15 days before or 5 days
after calving and containing prescribed % of fat and SNF
PRINCIPLES OF REMOVING MILK:
3 PRINCIPLES
1. Natural Technique (calf suckling)
2. Manual Technique (hand milking)
3. Mechanical Technique (machine milking)
Natural Technique:
This method calf is able to draw the milk from the udder. To extract the milk
the calf presses the teat with the tongue and pallet on the other side. The tongue
encircles the teat and vacuum is created in the mouth by separating the jaws and
retracting the tongue nearly 100-200 alternating cycles may be observed per minute.

160
A calf’s suckling is the best method of evacuating the milk with least damage to the
delicate tissue of mammary gland .The art of milking is a cycle.

1. Active Phase
2. Restive Phase
ACTIVE PHASE:
a) Creation of vacuum in the teat canal
b) Pressure is applied over the teat canal
c) The base of the teat is apparently occluded with the help of the tip of the
tongue with the idea to prevent the back flow of the milk into the gland
cistern when the pressure is applied which is followed by restive phase
RESTIVE PHASE:
At this stage 20mm Hg pressure is created at the teat end .in the phase
both active and restive phase are alternated and it has been scientifically proved that
the amount of pressure applied over the teat canal by calf is 535mm Hg pressure
whereas in the case of hand milking the pressure is 310mm of Hg.
In the mechanical milking pressure on the teat is with the range of 350 mm-
400mm Hg. In the case of buffalo’s 400mm of Hg of pressure is applied but in the
case of cattle it can be restricted to 360-380mm of Hg .It has been proved that
cycling rate during nursing is twice as fast as hand or machine milking .Thus the
difference along with increased cycling rate facilitates and explains the removal of
milk from the udder at a faster rate by a calf when compared to hand or machine
milking
Hand milking: It is commonly practiced in the harvesting of milk .The order of
milking of various with teats.
1. Teats crosswise left fore and right hind or right fore and left hind.
2. Fore quarters teat together
3. Hind quarters teat together
4. Teats appearing more distended should be milked first. The milk should only
be squeezed and not drawn
STRIP CUP:
It is a device with four circular plates for each quarter which has the quantity
of milk normally first few strip of milk are drawn in the respective circles to asses
the physiological status of the udder. If there is any change in color, consistency
161
 appearance, etc., the milk should be drawn at the end so as to prevent spreading the
disease from one quarter to other.
Prevention of Kicking of the cow:
1. Application of milk man’s rope.
2. Anti cow kicker.
Methods of milking
1. Hand milking 2. Machine milking
1. Hand milking
Hand milking is the most common practice in India. Cows are milked from
left side. Stripping and Full hand milking are two commonly used methods of
milking.
a. Wet hand milking
It is done by lubricating the milker’s hand and teat either with water or oil.
These make the teats dry and chaffed. Crack and sores may appear which will cause
pain to the animal. Instead, apply some antiseptic cream after the end of milking in
such animal.
b. Dry hand milking
In this method, the milking operation is practised without lubrication of the
milker’s hand and teats. It is considered to be the best method as it doesn’t cause any
chaffing /sore on the teats.
Different Methods of Hand Milking:
i. Full hand milking
It comprises holding the whole teat in the
ring formed by the palm and the forefingers.
Simultaneously, the teat is squeezed using middle,
ring and the little fingers and hollow of the palm
thus forcing the milk out. This process should be
repeated in quick succession. Full hand milking
removes the milk quicker than stripping. Cows with
large teats and buffaloes are milked by full hand method. Full hand method is
superior to stripping.

162
ii. Stripping
It consists of firmly holding the teat at its base between the thumb and the
forefingers and drawing down the entire
length of the teat pressing it simultaneously
to force the milk to flow down in a string.
The process is repeated in quick
succession. Both the hands may be used,
each holding a different teat stripping
alternatively. Stripping is practiced in cows
with very small teats. It causes more
irritation and teat injuries due to repeated sliding of the fingers. In spite of this few
stripping are done to milk the cow completely especially at
the end of the milking process. The last drawn milk is
called stripping which is richer in fat.
iii. Knuckling: This method is painful to the animal and
hence not recommended
iv. Fisting: This method is not normally practiced.
Knuckling
v. Pinching: This method is painful to the animal and
hence not recommended
MACHINE MILKING:

A calf and the machine do the

harvesting of milk in a similar fashion. The function of the tongue, dental pallet and
jaw movement of the calf is done by the inflation tube, pulsator and vacuum pump.
Milk removal is largely dependent upon the differential pressure across the teat
canal. The total differential pressure created by the milking machine is
approximately 352 mmHg, in the case of cattle and 400 mm Hg.in the case of
buffaloes. The pressure facilitates the expulsion of milk from the canal.

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 MERITS:
1. Easy method of extracting milk.
2. Does not require any skill.
3. Keeping quality of milk is high.
4. Chances of spreading of disease
of the milk man to udder
through milk are negligible.
5. Time consumed is less. One or
two animals can be milked simultaneously and the maximum of eight
animals can be milked at a time.
DEMERITS:
1. Cost is high
2. Electricity is essential.
One milking machine for – 10 animals yielding 10 litres / day will be
economical to maintain.

164
Ideal practices used in machine milking
1. Get the cow ready by wiping and massaging the udder and teats for half to
one minute. Use the cloth dipped and squeezed out of warm mild antiseptic
solution.
2. Strip cup test: use the strip cup, draw the first milk into the cup from each
quarter and check it for any abnormality.
3. Put on the teat cups promptly.
4. It is a good practice using a timer to avoid over use of machine.
5. Break the vacuum first. Pull down the teat cups and massage the udder with
hand.
6. Apply teat dips.
7. Record the milk weight.
8. After every milking, thoroughly and properly clean the machine.
9. The manufacturer’s direction may be followed and service the milking
machine.
HYGIENIC MILK PRODUCTION/CLEAN MILK PRODUCTION

Milk is the lacteal secretion of the mammary glands of animals. It is

obtained generally from the cow or the buffalo during the period following at least
72 hours after calving or until the milk is colostrum free. Milk is a white opaque
fluid in which fat is present as an emulsion, protein and some mineral matters in

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 colloidal suspension, and lactose together with some minerals and soluble proteins
in true solution.
Average composition of milk of different mammals (in per cent)
Species Water Fat Protein Total SNF Lactose Ash
solids
Human 87.43 3.75 1.63 12.57 8.82 6.98 0.21
Cow 86.61 4.14 3.58 13.19 9.25 4.96 0.71
Buffalo 82.76 7.38 3.60 17.24 9.86 5.48 0.78
Goat 87.00 4.25 3.52 13.00 7.75 4.27 0.86
Sheep 80.71 7.90 5.23 19.29 11.39 4.81 0.90
Camel 87.61 5.38 2.98 12.39 7.01 3.26 0.70
Mare 89.04 1.59 2.69 10.96 9.37 6.14 0.51
Ass 89.03 2.53 2.01 10.97 8.44 6.07 0.41

Breed Total solids Fat Protein SNF Lactose Ash

Red Sindhi 13.66 4.90 3.42 8.76 4.81 0.70

Jersey 14.91 5.37 3.73 9.54 4.93 0.70

Friesian 12.26 3.40 3.13 8.86 4.86 0.67

Crossbred 13.13 4.50 3.37 8.63 4.92 0.67

Clean milk production

Definition : Milk is defined as whole, fresh, clean lacteal secretion – complete
milking of healthy milch animals excluding that obtained 15 days before or 5 days
after calving and containing prescribed % of fat and SNF.
Advantages:
1. Protects the health of calves
2. Protects the health of consumers especially infants, growing children and aged
people.
3. The cleaner the milk longer in its keeping quality and flavor.
4. Consumer will demand milk when confidence is developed on its wholesomeness.

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5. Sour and off flavored milk – not readily marketable
Disadvantages.
1. Keeping quality of milk is poor.
2. Nucleus for spreading of diseases-sore throat, brucellosis.
3. Health of the calves are affected – chances for increased calf mortality.
4. Disposal of poor milk is difficult.
Factor affecting clean milk production
Milk containing dirt, dust, foreign materials
high bacterial count and with off, flavor is
called a contaminated milk.
Milk is contaminated by various sources like
Udder
• The fore milk may be discarded as it
contains high bacterial count.
• Complete milking should be done.
• Incomplete milking may lead to infection of the udder.
Exterior of cow’s body
Maintenance of, clean skin, washing flank and udder with clean damp cloth before
milk reduces the contamination from this source.
Milking barns
• Milking barns with good ventilation
• Neat flooring avoids contamination from this sources
• Dry feeds or forage should be fed after milking.
Flies and other vermin
• External parasites like flies, lice; mosquitoes etc may have their entry in to
milk.
• Breeding places for these parasites like stagnant water, moist atmosphere etc
may be avoided.
Milker
• Milker is directly responsible in
producing good quality milk.
• Dirty hands and clothing of the
milker may be the source of
contamination.
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 • Several bacterial diseases may transmit from the milker, or handler to the
consumer through milk. Persons suffering from diseases like T.B, Typhoid
fever, diphthiria may not be employed for milking.
• Dirty habits like smoking, drinking should be avoided.
Utensils
• Utensils are the containers or equipments in which the milk is handled,
processed, stored or transported.
• Clean sanitized, smooth copper free and dry utensils may be used for
handling milk.
Steps in clean milk production
• The animal should be washed before milking.
• If calf is allowed for sucking, udder may be moist, cleaned with weak
disinfectant solution later with fresh, clean water and wiped dry with a
smooth and clean cloth.
• Hands of the milkman should be clean and dry. Wet hand milking may result
in high bacterial count in the milk.
• Nails of hands of the milkman should be well trimmed.
• Milkman should be free from all diseases.
• Dusty feed like Rice polish should not be fed to the animal at the time of
milking.
• Milking barns should be well ventilated free from flies.
• Utensils used for milking should be clean, sanitized, and smooth copper free.
• Flavour producing feeds should be fed only after milking So that flavours
will not appear in milk.
• The hind legs and the switch of the animal be tightened with the help of a
milk man’s rope at the time of milking.
• Milk is kept in cool place to maintain the flavour and keeping quality.
• Milk should be covered with lids to avoid dust, dirt, entry hot, or cold, day
light or strong artificial light, all at which tend to decrease milk quality.
• Raw milk with not exceeding 2,00,000 total plate count in one ml of milk
can be graded as very good raw milk
After milking: -
• After milking the teats should be disinfected. This reduces, if not completely
inhibits, bacterial growth on the teats.
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 • The dip solution will both act as a physical hindrance for bacteria and as a
disinfectant.
• Animal should be prevented from lying down-done by giving enough feed to
last for a long time after milking.
• All buckets, containers and machines used for milking must be cleaned both
outwards and inwards immediately after usage.
• The towels used for cleaning and drying of the udder should be cleaned
properly after each milking.
• Milk should be stored in a bucket with a lid and clean water containing
chloride until the next milking.
Quality milk production should be the aim for better and sustainable market
i) Milking schedule should be fixed and definite and there should not be any
frequent change in the process. If at all any change it should be gradual.
ii) Milking parlour should be cleaned at least half an hour before milking.
Milking vessels or cans should be thoroughly clean and dry. Ensure that such
vessels are round in shape and without any joints. Heating of milking vessel
before milking (dry heat application) will improve the keeping quality of
milk.
iii) Udder should be washed with lukewarm water, in which few crystals of
potassium permanganate can be added. (Amount sufficient to change the
colour)
iv) Massage (light) the udder while washing.
v) Ensure that person entrusted with the job of milking is aware of importance
of personal hygiene: clean hand and trimmed nails are must.
vi) Dry the udder with clean cloth from the tip of the teat upward.
vii) Always ensure that milking is performed with full hand method (Not with
folded thumb), quickly, completely and comfortably (Animal should feel
comfortable). Milking should be by gentle squeezing of teats NOT by
dragging or giving jerks to teats.
viii) Complete the process from washing to milking within 8 minutes.
ix) After milking dip the teats in disinfectant solutions e.g. weak iodine solution.
x) Always milk animals in calm and quite atmosphere preferably play light
music (if possible)

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 xi) Animals that have recently calved and animals giving more milk should be
milked first then the animals giving less milk or in the last phase of lactation.
Animals with diseases or with mastitis should be milked separately at the
end.
xii) Animals giving up to 10 liters of milk should be milked twice a day. The
Frequency needs to be increased to thrice in case of production ranging from
12-15liters. Employ two persons for simultaneous milking in case the
production is more than 16 liter per day.
xiii) Milk from animals with medication in teat (s) should not be mixed with other
milk.
xiv) Milk should be strained through muslin cloth (Four layers) or through thin
nylon mesh. Cool the milk (by putting ice around the milk can) and transport
it to the retail center or collection center of the cooperative society as early as
possible.
xv) Ensure that, water used in cleaning of utensils is clean and free from
contamination. Milk is a good media for growth of microorganism. A single
contamination may render it unfit for human consumption. Low quality
affects shelf life of the milk besides there maybe change in flavor, taste, or
nutrient composition.
Sources of contamination and their control

Sources of contamination Control measures

Interior of the udder Check for mastitis

Discard foremilk

Exterior of the cow, particularly udder Wash and wipe the udder
and flanks Dry milking Use small top milk pail

Barn air and dust Keep the milk covered

Flies and other vermin Eliminate the breeding places

Fly control with fly sprays, fly traps

The milkman Clean habits Dry milking

Utensils Clean, sanitize and dry before milking

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FACTORS AFFECTING QUALITY OF MILK PRODUCTION

The milk from a individual cow is subject to variation in chemical

composition and amount produced is not recognized. Some of the variations from
day to day are called “Normal variations” and no causative factor has been
associated to them.
Other variations in the quantity have been associated to them due to a large
number of factors
Normal Variations
It is not uncommon for fat % to vary as much as % and for milk production
to vary as much as %. Usually a low fat % accompanied a low milk production is
accounted for failure of “ Complete letting down” of milk, the later part of milk is
rich in fat. The other constituents of milk also vary from day to day although the
magnitude of variation is not so great as that of the milk fat and the amount of
milk.In the order of the degree of variation, fat, protein are first , lactose next and
salts are the least. The degree of variation for the various constituents is as follows.
S.No Constituents Minimum Maximum
1 Fat 2.60 8.37
2 Protein 2.44 6.48
3 Lactose 2.41 6.11
4 Ash 0.56 0.93
5 Total Solids 10.56 17.9
6 Solid not Fat 7.20 11.90
Factors affecting milk composition
I. Genetic factors
a. Breed and individual cow
Milk composition varies considerably among breeds of dairy cattle: Jersey
and Guernsey breeds give milk of higher fat and protein content than Shorthorns and
Friesians. Zebu cows can give milk containing up to 7% fat.
b. Variability among cows within a breed
The potential fat content of milk from an individual cow is determined
genetically, as are protein and lactose levels. Thus, selective breeding can be used to
upgrade milk quality. Heredity also determines the potential milk production of the

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animal. However, environment and various physiological factors greatly influence
the amount and composition of milk that is actually produced. Herd recording of
total milk yields and fat and SNF percentages will indicate the most productive
cows, and replacement stock should be bred from these.
II. Environmental factors
a. Interval between milking
The fat content of milk varies considerably between the morning and
evening milking because there is usually a much shorter interval between the
morning and evening milking than between the evening and morning milking. If
cows were milked at 12-hour intervals the variation in fat content between milking
would be negligible, but this is not practicable on most farms. Normally, SNF
content varies little even if the intervals between milking vary.
b. Stage of lactation
The fat, lactose and protein contents of milk vary according to stage of
lactation. Solids-not-fat content is usually highest during the first 2 to 3 weeks, after
which it decreases slightly. Fat content is high immediately after calving but soon
begins to fall, and continues to do so for 10 to 12 weeks, after which it tends to rise
again until the end of the lactation.
c. Age
As cows grows older the fat content of their milk decreases by about 0.02
percentage units per lactation. The fall in SNF content is much greater.
d. Feeding regime
Underfeeding reduces both the fat and the SNF content of milk produced,
although SNF content is more sensitive to feeding level than fat content. Fat content
and fat composition are influenced more by roughage (fiber) intake. The SNF
content can fall if the cow is fed a low-energy diet, but is not greatly influenced by
protein deficiency, unless the deficiency is acute.
e. Disease
Both fat and SNF contents can be reduced by disease, particularly mastitis.
f. Completeness of milking
The first milk drawn from the udder is low in fat while the last milk (or
strippings) is always quite high in fat. Thus it is essential to mix thoroughly all the
milk removed, before taking a sample for analysis. The fat left in the udder at the

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end of a milking is usually picked up during subsequent milking, so there is no net
loss of fat.

Pre requisites for good milking

Milking is an art requiring experience and skill. Milking should be done
gently, quietly, quickly, cleanly and completely. Cows remaining comfortably yield
more milk than a roughly handled and excited cow. Maintenance of clean conditions
in the milking barn results in better udder health and producing milk that remains
wholesome for longer period. The milking process should be completed within 5 to
7 minutes. Complete milking has to be done. If any residual milk is left it may act as
nidus for mastitis causing organism and the overall yield also getting affected.
Preparation for milking
1) Dairy cows and sheds
1. Milking barn should be thoroughly washed and scrubbed after each milking
and kept clean and dry before the next milking starts.
2. Dusty feed and silage should be avoided in the milking barn.
3. The hindquarters, thighs and udder should be washed thoroughly before
milking.
4. If more hair growth is seen in the udder region, it should be clipped
periodically.
5. Buffaloes should be invariably washed before milking.
6. Just before milking udder should be wiped in dry cloth.
7. The teats should be dipped in weak antiseptic solution. In cold weather,
warm antiseptic solution can be used.
2) Milkman and pails
1. Milkman’s hands and milking pails / cans should be thoroughly washed or
scrubbed and kept clean.
2. Milkman should wear clean clothes and cover their heads with suitable cap
so as to prevent loose hair falling in the milk.
3. The nails should be periodically trimmed and made smooth. Hands should be
thoroughly washed and cleaned with antiseptic solutions.

DISEASES OF CATTLE – CLASSIFICATION – SYMPTOMS -

PREVENTING AND CONTROL MEASURES.
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 Health
The condition in which all the organs and tissues in the system functions
normally and harmoniously. Health is fundamental for a sound enterprise.
Disease
Any change from normal state either to single or great extent is called
disease stage. Most of the disease can be avoided by proper attention, sanitation,
hygiene, nutrition and management practices.
Control of Disease
 Provide well ventilated and proper housing
 Provide balanced nutritious diet
 Strict hygiene and sanitation of animal houses.
 Adhere regular and routine ‘vaccination’ schedule
 Avoid entry of outsiders within the farm-premises.
 Follow up of latest scientific know how and management practices.
 Prevention is better than cure and so periodical vaccination
 Quarantine the newly purchased animal to avoid spread of disease

Classification of disease

Infectious or contagious Non infectious or non contagious

Bacterial Metabolic

a) Anthrax b) Black quarters c) Hemorrhagic septicemia d) Milk fever or Hypocalcaemia

T.B e) Brucellosis f) Mastitis Acetonemia or Hypo glycaemia,
Ketosis

Viral Dietary

a) Rinderpest b) Foot and Mouth c) Ephimeral fever Tympanites or Bloat impaction

Non specific enteritis

Parasitic

Ecto parasite : Tick, lice and mite

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Endo parasite : Tape, Round

Fungal

Aflatoxicosis

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BACTERIAL DISEASES
ANTHRAX
B.anthracis causes Anthrax in animals. Bacillus anthracis spores remain
viable for many years in soil, water and animal hides and products. Cattle,
sheep and goats are most susceptible to infection.
Symptoms
 In per acute septicemia death occurs within 2 hours after animal collapsing
with convulsions, sudden death in animals that appeared normal is common.
 In acute septicemia death occurs within 48 to 96 hours clinical signs include
fever, anorexia, ruminal stasis, hematuria and blood tinged diarrhea.
 Pregnant animals may abort and milk production often abruptly decreases.
 Terminal signs include severe depression, respiratory distress and
convulsions.
Diagnosis
 Examination of blood films from dead animals made by puncturing the
superficial vein of the ear or in the region of the foot.
Prevention and Control
 Prevention of anthrax in animals is aided by active immunization. The
organism is susceptible to penicillin-G, tetracycline’s, erythromycin and
chloramphenicol.

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BLACK QUARTER
C.chauvoei causes black quarter or black leg in Cattle. Gram positive, rod
shaped with rounded ends. Worldwide distribution in soil and pastures.
Symptoms
The disease usually occurs in young cattle of 6 months to about 2-3 years of
age. Crepitating swellingin the hind or fore quarter, lameness, muscles shows
trembling with violent twitching. Death usually occurs within 24 hours.
Diagnosis
 Based on Symptoms
Control and prevention
 Hyper immune serum (HIS) is used to control explosive outbreaks. Penicillin
along with HIS is used to treat the disease.
 Oxytetracycline and Chlortetracycline can also be employed effectively in
early stages.
HAEMORRHAGIC SEPTECEMIA
Pasteurella multocda is small Gram Negative rods or coccobacilli that show
bipolar staining
Symptoms
 Fever, a sudden drop in milk yield, signs of abdominal pain, severe diarrhoea
and dysentery, respiration becomes rapid and shortly before death the
mucous membranes appear cyanotic.
 In less acute cases there will be edema development in the region of the
head, neck and brisket. The nasal discharge may be blood stained or
purulent. Death occurs within 2-4 days.
Diagnosis
 By symptoms and lesions
Control and prevention
 Pasteurella is amenable to Penicillin-G, streptomycin, chloramphenicol,
chlortetracycline, Sulpha and Tripmethoprim, Enrofloxacin and
Oxytetracycline.
 Vaccination

VIRAL DISEASES
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FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE
Causative agent - Members of the family Picornaviridae, genus Apthovius and
species Foot and mouth disease virus. Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is the most
contagious disease of mammals and cause severe economic loss in susceptible
cloven-hoofed animals (cattle, pigs, sheep, goats, and water buffalo).
 Smallest of the Animal virus : 7 types virus : O,A,C Asia I, SAT 1,2,3
 Transmission : Direct contact : Thro water : manure : Pasture and cattle
attendant
Symptoms
The disease is characterized by the formation of vesicles (fluid-filled blisters)
and erosions in the mouth, nose, teats and feet. Initial signs are pyrexia (39.4-
40.6ºC), dullness, anorexia, and fall in milk production. These signs are followed by
excessive salivation; drooling, serous nasal discharge; shaking, kicking of the feet or
lameness; and vesicle (blister) formation in the tongue, dental pad, gums, soft
palate, nostrils, muzzle, interdigital space, coronary band, and teats. Pregnant cows
may abort, and young calves may die without developing any vesicle. The course of
an FMD infection is 2 to 3 weeks. Secondary infection may delay recovery.
Diagnosis
 Symptom and lesion
Treatment:
 Antibiotics may be administered to counter bacterial infections.
Prevention & Control :
 Thorough disinfection of shed, utensils, clothes of attendants.
 Vaccination – polyvalent – once – 4months or varies with type of vaccine
BOVINE EPIMERAL FEVER
It is caused by the virus bovine ephimeral fever, genus ephimero virus and
family Rhabdo viridae.
 Biphasic, sometimes triphasic, with peaks of 40-41.5°C (104-107°F) spaced
12-18 hours apart, accelerated heart and respiratory rates, anorexia, ruminal
atony, depression, serous or mucoid nasal and ocular discharges, salivation,
muscle twitching or waves of shivering, a generalized stiffness or a shifting
lameness.

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  There may be submandibular edema or patchy edema on the head. Nasal and
ocular discharges, drooling of saliva and periorbital swelling and increased
excitability and agitation are other signs.
 Many animals become recumbent for 12-24 hours. By day three the affected
animal is usually standing again and will begin to eat.
METBOLIC DISEASES
MILK FEVER: (Parturient paresis)
Milk fever is a metabolic disease in cows soon after calving. Due to fall in
serum calcium level in cows after calving as a result of failure to mobilize calcium
reserves and of the development of negative calcium balance in late pregnancy.
Symptoms:
Disease flares up within 72 hours of calving initially the cows show
excitement, incoordination of movement muscular tremors in limbs and head, lying
in recumbent position with her head directed towards flank. In final
stages subnormal temperature, dilatation of the pupil, impalpable pulse, coma and
death.
Diagnosis of the disease is based on the occurrence of milk fever in recently
calved animals.
Treatment & Control :
Dramatic recovery by intravenous administration of 300-400 ml calcium
borogluconate with Vitamin D3 injected intramuscularly. Continued mixing of ½
liter of supernatant lime water for cow may reduce the incidence.
KETOSIS: Acetonaemia
Disturbance of carbohydrate metabolism in high producing dairy cattle that
leads to hypoglycemia and appearance of ketone bodies.
Causes:
Disease is caused by deranged metabolism of carbohydrate and volatile fatty
acids resulting in reduced level of sugar in blood (hypoglycemia), increased level of
ketones in blood (ketonemia) and in urine (ketonemia)
Symptoms:
Cardinal signs in digestive and nervous type of ketosis usually appear in
good milkers from 7 days to six weeks after calving. Loss of appetite, rapid loss of
weight and marked reduction in the milk yield observed in digestive type of ketosis.
In nervous type symptoms include depression, a starring expression, walking, in
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circles, treading with the feet, incoordination of movements, convulsions, sudden
falling on the ground with wide expression of bulged eyes. Respiration becomes
shallow emanating fruity odour on the breath.
Diagnosis:
Examination of ketone bodies in the urine helps in diagnosing the disease
besides the symptoms noticed.
Control and Treatment:
Intravenous administration of 500-1000 ml of 40 per cent glucose, Repeat for
5 days. Cases not responding to glucose therapy, intramuscular injection of 100-200
mg of hydrocortisone or 50 to 200 mg of prednisolone acetate. Concentrate feeding
with good fodder during dry period in high yielding cows, ½ to one kg maize or
cholam made as gruel mixed with ¼ kg of jaggery or molasses daily to be given to
cows nearing parturition.
BLOAT: (TYMPANY)
Bloat is a disease of ruminants in which rumen and reticulum is over
distended with the gases of fermentation.
Cause:
Excess intake of fresh legumes and feeding of high grain ration lead to frothy
bloat. Obstruction to normal expulsion of gases from rumen by choking the
esophageal passage by corncob, turnip and sugar beet cause free gas bloat.
Symptoms:
Acute form of tympany results in sudden death before rendering any aid to
the affected animal. In acute cases, the distension of the rumen occurs quickly, the
flank and the whole abdomen is enlarged. On percussion the left flank produces a
drum like sound, initially the animal frequently gets up and lies down, kicks at belly
and even rolls. Breath becomes difficult and is evidenced by oral breathing,
protrusion of tongue and salivation. When the distension of abdomen becomes
extreme, the animal exhibits uncoordinated movement, inability to stand, falls all of
a sudden. Collapse and death occur quickly. In chronic tympany, the distension of
abdomen and intra-abdominal pressure are not serious. The gas is ‘free’ but retained
because of obstruction of the pasage thereby preventing normal eructation of gases.
Diagnosis:
Based on characteristic symptoms of distension of abdomen and distress by
the affected animal.
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Control and Treatment :
In per acute cases puncture the rumen with a sharp knife or with a trocar and
cannula to expel the gases. Administer orally oil of turpentine 60 ml well mixed
with one litre of groundnut oil or gingelly oil or coconut oil. After six to eight hours
administer powdered ginger 30 grams, Asafoetida 30 gram, well mixed to jaggery.
Fresh legumes should be wilted and then fed to stallfed animals. Feed dry
roughages before turning the cattle to luxuriant pasture to avoid bloating.
MASTITIS
Introduction
 Mastitis is an inflammation of the mammary gland. In which the milk
undergo physical, chemical and microbiological changes where as mammary
glandular tissue under go physical and pathological changes. In which
infected milk colour, consistency change and contains more amount of
leucocytes.
Etiology
 Mastitis is caused majorly by Staphylococcus, Streptococcus and coliform
bacteria and less importantly by other organism such as other bacteria,
viruses, and fungus.
Source of infection
 S.agalactiae and S.aureus resides primarily in the udder of infected cows.
 Exposure to uninfected quarters is limited to milking process.
 Streptococcus uberis, S. dysgalactiae and coliforms are normal inhabitants of
the cows environment.
Transmission
Infection occurs via the teat canal – contaminated environment – skin of
udder, milking equipment, milker etc.
Clinical signs
 Per acute form: Pyrexia, anorexia, respiratory distress, swollen , hot and
painful udder. Cessation od milk production. Exudate are often blood
stained. Mostly, Staph.aureus, Str.dysgalactiae, Corynebacterium .pyogenes,
E.coli, and P. aeruginosa.
 Acute form: Swollen udder, changes in quality of milk. Milk become curd
like, yellow, brown fluid with flakes and clots.
 Subacute form: No changes in the udder tissue.
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  Chronic form: Udder is hemorrhagic, and fibrotic. Swollen and palpable
supra mammary lymph node,Udder is thick, firm, nodular and atrophic,
yellowish or white fluid with clots and flakes.
Diagnosis
 Physical examination of the udder.
Treatment
 Stripping out the milk from the infected quarters. Cleaning of infected
quarters with normal saline and distilled water. Infusion of antibiotic
therapies immediately after the infection. Continuous use antibiotics as per
the antibiogram.
 Use of inactivated vaccine containing Str.agalactiae, Str.uberis,
Staph.pyogenes, Staph.aureus and E.coli in some countries.
Control:
 Hygienic measures are important.
 Animal’s diagnosed positive should be milked at last.
 Milkers should wash their hands before milking and should use well washed
white overalls.
 A separate clean cloth for each cow is used for washing the udder with a
disinfectant.
 The first stream of milk from each quarter should not be allowed to drop on
floor but collected in a separate container. Milkers should not wet their
hands with first stream of milk.

Unit III: Sheep and Goat Management

INTRODUCTION TO SHEEP AND GOAT PRODUCTION AND
MANAGEMENT
Sheep in India are mostly owned by nomads or semi-nomadic people who
constantly move their flocks in search of good pastures and water. Sheep farming is
a hereditary occupation with these people. The size of their flock varies from a few
to hundreds. The husbandry practices are most primitive. There are certain
advantages connected with sheep farming and these are:

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 1. Sheep requires little concentrate food as compared to cattle. On an average
sheep get 80-90 per cent of their protein from forages as against cattle which
get about 60-65 per cent.
2. Sheep are an economical converter of grass into meat and wool.
3. Sheep are the best animal that can be raised on stubbles as well as on grasses
and other plants growing between stubbles. In fact there is no substitute for
sheep as a class of livestock for utilizing waste land or weed from the field.
4. Unlike goat, sheep do not damage the trees.
5. Sheep require less labour than other kinds of livestock and get along well
with low-cost housing and equipment.
Domestication:
Sheep and goats were perhaps the first ruminants to be domesticated around
10,000 B.C.
BREEDS OF SHEEP
Classification of Indigenous breeds based on utility
Apparel wool Superior carpet Coarse carpet Hairy Meat
breeds Wool breeds Wool breeds breeds
Hissardale Chokla Malpura Nellore
Niligiri Nali Sonadi Hassan
Kashmir merino Marwari Muzzafarnagri Mecheri
Avivastra Magra Jalauni Kilakarsal
Bharat Merino Jaisalmeri Deccani Madras Red
Pugal Bellary Trichy Black
Pattanwadi Coimbatore Kenguri
Tibetan Chottanagpuri Mandya
Bonpala Balangir Vembur
Gaddi Ganjam
Rampur Bushari Bhakarwal
Poonchi Shahabadi
Karnah
Gurez
Changthangi

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Classification of sheep breeds based on agro-ecological regions in India
Southern region
North-western, semi-arid central
Northern
central arid and peninsular area and Eastern region
temperate region
semi-arid region hot and humid along
the coast
Gaddi Chokla Deccani (Bellary) Chottanagpuri
Rampur Bushair Nali Nellore Balangir
Bhakarwal Marwari Hassan Ganjam
Poonchi Magra Mandya Tibetan sheep
Karnah Jaisalmeri Mecheri Bonpala
Gurez Pugal Kilakarsal Garole
Kashmir Merino Malpura Vembur Shahbadi
Changthangi Sonadi Coimbatore
Pattanwadi Nilgiri
Muzaffarnagri Ramnad White
Jalauni Madras Red
Hissardale Tiruchi Black
Munjal Kenguri
Avivastra
Bharat Merino

Exotic breeds

Fine wool breeds Mutton breeds Dual purpose Pelt breeds

Merino Suffolk Corriedale Karakul

Rambouillet Southdown

Polworth Dorset

India can be divided on the basis of the agro-ecological conditions and type
of sheep into 4 regions viz. I. North-Western, Central arid and semi-arid region II.

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Southern region, III. Eastern region and IV.Northern temperate region. There are
about 44 descript breeds of sheep available in India.
I. North-western, central arid and semi-arid region
Hissardale:
II. Southern region
Nellore: Mandya
Best mutton type in Tamil Nadu.
1. Mecheri
2. Kilakarsal or Kilakarisal
3. Vembur
4. Coimbatore
5. Ramnad White
6. Madras Red
Trichy black

Kilakarsal

Madras red

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 Mecheri

Ramnad White

Trichy Black

Vembur

Coimbatore

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 Nellore

Mandya

III. Eastern region

Shahabadi, Chhottanagpuri, Ganjam, Balangir, Bonpala and Tibetan.
IV. Northern temperate region
Rampur Bushair, Gaddi, Gurez, Karnah, Poonchi and Changthangi.
Exotic breeds of sheep
Fine wool breeds:

A. Merino. Rambouillet:

B. Mutton breed : Dorset

C. Dual purpose breeds : Corriedale

A.
BREEDS OF GOATS
There are as many as 23 well defined breeds of goats in India, though a few
other are being identified in different agro-climatic regions. These breeds are

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adapted to harsh climate, long migration, tropical diseases, poor nutrition and
shortage of water. Majority of the goats are mixed and non-descript in different
states.

Indigenous Goat Breeds:

1. Classification Indian goat breeds based on utility:
Meat & Skin Meat, Milk & Meat, Hair & Meat, Milk, Meat &
Skin Skin Pashmina & Skin
Skin
Black Bengal Barbari Bakharwal Chegu Beetal
Ganjam Tellicherry Gaddi Changthangi Jamnapari
(or) Malabari (Chamba) (Etawah)
Kannai Adu Osmanabadi Gohilwadi
Sirohi Kangan
Surti Kutchi
Mehsana Marwari
Zalawadi Sangamneri
Jhakhrana Khasi (Assam
hill goat)

2. Classification of goat breeds based on agro-ecological regions in

India
Southern region semi-arid
North-western,
Northern central peninsular area Eastern
central arid and
temperate region and hot and humid along region
semi-arid region
the coast
Gaddi Sirohi Sangamneri Ganjam
Changthangi Marwari Malabari Bengal
Chegu Beetal Osmanabadi
Jhakrana Kannaiadu
Barbari
Jamnapari
Mehsana

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 Gohilwadi
Zalawadi
Kutchi
Surti
Exotic goat breeds
1. Toggenberg , 2. Saanen, 3. Alpine,4. Nubian 5. Angora 6. Boer

ECONOMIC TRAITS OF SHEEP

1. Tupping percentage: Number of ewes covered to the number of ewes put to a
ram
2. Lambing percentage: No of ewes lambed to the number of ewes put to a ram
(or) Number of ewes lambed to the number of ewes covered.
3. Weaning percentage: Number of lambs weaned to no of lambs born alive (or)
Number of lambs weaned to the number of ewes put to a ram
4. Twinning percentage: Number of twin births to the total number of births
5. Lambing rate: Number of lambs born to number of ewes lambing
6. Lambing interval: Interval in days between two successive lambing.
7. Birth weight: Weight of a lamb in kg measured within 24 hours after birth.
8. Weaning weight: Weight of a lamb in kg at the time of weaning (90 days).
9. Weight at market age: Weight of the lambs in kg at the age (6, 9 and 12
months).
10. Pre weaning weight gain: Rate of daily gain in weight (gm/day) from the date
of birth to weaning period
11. Post weaning weight gain: Rate of daily gain in weight (gm/day) from the date
of weaning to one year
12. Pre weaning mortality: Number of lambs died during the period 0-90 days to
the Number of lambs born alive.
13. Post weaning mortality: Number of lambs died during the period 90-365 days
to the Number of lambs at 90 days
14. Adult: Number of adult sheep died to the number started at one year

ECONOMIC TRAITS OF GOAT

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1. Tupping percentage: Number of does covered to the number of does put to a
buck
2. Kidding percentage: Number of does kidded to the number of does put to a buck
(or) Number of does kidded to the number of does covered
3. Weaning percentage: Number of kids weaned to the number of does put to a
buck (or) Number of kids weaned to no of kids born alive
4. Twinning percentage: Number of twin births to the total number of births
5. Kidding rate: Number of kids born to number of does kidding
6. Kidding interval: Interval in days between two successive kidding
7. Birth weight: Weight of a kid in kg measured within 24 hours after birth
8. Weaning weight: Weight of a kid in kg at the time of weaning (90 days)
9. Weight at market age: Weight of the kid in kg at the age of 6, 9 and 12 months
of age
10. Pre weaning weight gain: Rate of daily gain in weight (gm/day) from the date
of birth to weaning period
11. Post weaning weight gain: Rate of daily gain in weight (gm/day) from the date
of weaning to one year
12. Pre weaning mortality: Number of kids died during the period 0-90 days to the
number of kids born alive
13. Post weaning mortality: Number of kids died during the period 90-365 days to
the number of kids at 90 days
14. Adult mortality: Number of adult sheep died to the number started at one year
SYSTEM OF PRODUCTION
I. Extensive: Mentioned in the system of production
II. Semi- intensive: Mentioned in the system of production
III .Intensive production systems:
Intensive production systems involve either grazing on crops or cultivated
pastures at a very high stocking density or zero-grazing.
1. Concrete / Solid floor
It is a common floor with solid surface made out of different materials such
as cement concrete, vitrified paving brick, building brick, stones and gravel. Such
solid floors should be laid properly for good drainage. A slope of 1/40 to 1/60 is
desirable towards the dung channel. Proper cleaning and disinfection are essential to
control diseases.
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2. Slatted floor
Floor set with wood and reinforced concrete bars provide a required gap
between them and are used in house for intensive animal production. It has the great
advantage of controlling disease by breaking the contact between animals and
excreta. The excreta, both liquid and solid passes downward from the wooden floor
immediately after it is voided through the gap provided. The excreta collected
underneath the floor are suitably disposed by mechanical means. The slatted, floor is
ideal for raising animals in germ free condition. The distance between two planks
(slat) is known as slot and it should be 1 to 1.5 cm. The plank width 7.5 to 10cm and
thickness 2.5 to 4cm. Slatted floor should be raised 1meter above the floor level.

HOUSING
Space allowance
Adult goat : 1.2.5 – 1.5 m2
Pregnant doe and bucks : 2 m2.
Kids – 3 – 6 months : 0.7 to 0.9 m2
6month -1 year : 1m2

HOUSING OF SHEEP AND GOATS

 Not expensive
 Adequate space
 Proper ventilation
 Good drainage
 Plenty of light
 Protection from predators and adverse climate
 Dry floor.
 Shed should be in east west direction

SHEEP
Normally sheep do not require elaborate housing facility, but minimum
provisions require to increase productivity especially protection against inclement
weather conditions (sun, rain, winds). Shed could be built along the wall of the
house. Further protection could be provided with thatched material and bamboos.

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 Minimum floor space requirement per animal
(BIS standard)

Minimum floor space per

S. No Type of animals
animal (m2)

1 Ram or buck in groups 1.8

2 Ram or buck individual 3.2

3 Lamb or kids in group 0.4

4 Weaner in groups 0.8

5 Yearling or goatlings 0.9

6 Ewe or doe in groups 1.0

7 Ewe with lamb 1.5

Essential appliances required:

 Feeders .
 Water troughs
Height of inner
Space per Width of Depth of
wall of
Type of animal animal manger/water manger/water
manger/water
(cm) trough(cm) trough (cm)
trough (cm)
Sheep and goat 40-50 50 30 35
Kid/lamb 30-35 50 20 25

CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF YOUNG AND ADULT STOCK:

Pregnant, parturient and lactating ewes/does

1. The ewes/does in advanced stage of pregnancy should be separated from the

flock and effective care should be taken in their feeding.

2. Extra feed during the latter part of pregnancy (3-4 weeks before parturition)
will be beneficial for the condition of the pre-parturient ewes which will help
in improving milk production of ewes and birth weight and growth of lambs.

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 3. Ewe/doe in advanced stage of pregnancy should be kept in a separate
lambing corals or shed 4-6 days before partition and maximum comfort like
soft clean bedding and individual lambing pen should be provided.

4. The ewe/doe should be protected from chilly weather condition.

Care at lambing/kidding
A ewe/doe about to lamb prefers to leave the flock if she is restless. The
udder is often distended and external genitals are in flushed and flaccid condition.
Generally in a healthy ewe partition is normal.

1. New born lambs after being licked by the mother generally stand on
their leg and start seeking for teats and suckle milk. If they are not able
to do so after sufficient time, provide help to them in suckling
colostrum, the first milk, which is very essential for health and
survivability of lambs.

2. The new born should be protected from cold, wind and rain.

3. Artificial milk feeding or arrangement of foster mother should be done

for disowned or orphan lambs. Goats can serve as excellent foster
mother, but ewes which have lost their lambs early after birth may also
be utilized.

4. Ligate, cut and antiseptically dress the naval cord or the lamb.

5. The lambs/kids should not be handled too frequently immediately after

birth and let the dams lick and recognize them properly. The first 1 to 2
hours after birth is the vital period for establishment of bond between the
newborn and the mother. Hence the dam should be kept in a calm place
without disturbance from stray dogs and other animals.

6. Allow newborn lambs to be with their mother all the 24 hours for first
week or so.

7. Feed sufficient quantity of good quality hay and concentrate to the

lactating ewes for meeting nutritional requirements for early lactation.
Care of lambs/kids

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 The lambs should be taken care to the maximum extent during early period
of life.

1. Kid/lambs should be ensured of taking sufficient colostrum with in 1 hour

after birth to more resistance against diseases.

2. Take care of indifferent mothers and arrange suckling of lambs/kids by

restraining such type of ewes.

3. If possible, make available green leguminous fodders or fresh tree leaves to

lambs to nibble during sucking period.

4. Lambs/kids may be ear-tagged or tattooed on the ear for identification.

5. During castration keep the lambs on perfectly dry, clean and hygienic site so
as to minimize the risk of losses from tetanus and other infection.

6. Salt lick or mineral block should be kept in the lamb pen to avoid licking of
soil/floor.
Weaning and care of weaners
The management of weaners plays an important part in good sheep/goat
husbandry.

1. Weaning should preferably be done at 90 days, although in breeds with low

milk production or where re-breeding is desired it can be done around 60
days.

2. Supplementary feeding and good clean pasture for growing weaners should
be provided.

3. Weaned lambs should be drenched against gastro-intestinal parasites by first

month and vaccinated against enterotoxaemia and sheep pox.

4. They should be protected against vagaries of climate and predation.

BREEDING MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP AND GOAT
Selection of ewe and ram for breeding
Breeding ewe of indigenous breeds should be 18 to 24 months depending
upon their body condition. Females should be mated only when they reach 70 per
cent of the average adult body weight. The libido of the ram is very important to
achieve desirable breeding.
Sex ratio

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 In India the rams are usually turned out in the flock during mating season
at the rate of 2 to 3 per cent of the ewes all through day and night under optimum
breeding conditions. The males should be replaced or exchanged once in two years
to avoid inbreeding.

Preparation of ewe or ram for breeding

Flushing
Flushing is feeding of extra concentrate to ewes/goats prior to onset of
breeding season, normally 3 or 4 weeks before breeding. This increases the
ovulation rate of ewes, so that the number of twins and triplets increase. Flushing
can be done by supplementing 250 g of concentrate daily or 500 g of good quality
legume hay per head per day. Flushing increases the lambing/kidding rate by 10 to
20 per cent.
Estrous cycle
Ewes and does will exhibit estrus or heat at regular intervals during the
breeding season. Estrus is the fertile period and if the female does not conceive, it is
repeated every 16-17 days on average in ewes (range 14-19 days) and 19-21 days in
does (range 17-24 days). These intervals may be 1-2 days shorter in young animals.
The estrus period lasts for about 24-36 hours in ewes and 34-38 hours in does.
Estrus /signs of estrous
The signs of estrous are much more marked in the doe than in the ewe. The
outward signs are:
 Reddening of the vulva and discharge from vulva
 Tail wagging
 Mounting over other animal
 Seeking male
 Frequent bleating
 Standing for mating
 Generally the young females don’t show aggressive estrous behavior
The males are attracted by smell, sight and sound and exhibit following
behavior
 Sniffing the vulva

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  Extending neck with curling of upper lip
 Biting the side of the ewe/doe and wool pulling
 Paw the ewe – raising and lowering of one front leg in a stiff legged striking
motion
 Mount and mate
SYSTEM OF MATING
1. Natural mating
Hand mating
In this system the ewes or does in heat are mated with desired ram or buck.
The females are allowed to mate one by one. In this system a ram or buck may not
be allowed to mate more than three ewes/does a day. This method of hand mating
ensured the expected time of lambing.
Pen mating
In this mating system the ewes / does are divided into batches varying from
20-25 ewes/does. Males are turned into the flock only during the night time and
separated during day time, which gives enough rest for the male. This system of
mating also prevents the disturbance ewes by the male during grazing hours.
Flock mating
This system of mating is practiced normally by the farmers. In this system
males are allowed to run along with the females throughout the day and night. The
male may lose its most of its body reserve in chasing the ewes and they may lose
their body condition
II. ARTIFICIAL BREEDING
Artificial insemination
Artificial insemination offer the best means of distributing germplasm from
nucleus breeding flock to many small flocks within each eco system. Fresh as well
as frozen semen is used. The speculum method of insemination is used for ewes and
does.
FEEDING MANAGEMENT
FEEDING MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP
Sheep have small muzzle and split upper lip helping them to nibble small
blades of grass on pasture. At present, extensive grazing on marginal grasslands is
widely practiced. The animals will graze on crop stubbles, weeds and grasses on

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fallow as well as rangelands. This will meet the requirements of the animals only
partially. Their diet may be supplemented with cultivated fodders, grains and oil
cakes, especially during the critical period of production cycle when the nutrient
supply is inadequate.
Feeding the Breeding Ewe
The feeding of the ewe will be discussed under the following headings,
1. Flushing: Already discussed in breeding management
2. Feeding during breeding season: The ration provided during flushing will
continue during breeding season also.
3. Feeding during early and mid-pregnancy: Good feeding during gestation is the
keystone for a healthy strong lamb crop. If feeding is inadequate or defective, weak
or dead lambs will result
4. Feeding during late pregnancy: Their ration must be supplemented with
available green fodder fed at the rate of 5 kg per head per day. During the last one
month of pregnancy concentrate may be fed at the rate of 225 g per head per day.
5. Feeding at lambing time: As lambing time approaches or immediately after
lambing, the grain allowance should be materially reduced but good quality dry
roughage be fed free choice. In general, bulky and laxative feedstuffs may be
included in the ration during the first few days. A mixture of wheat bran and barely
or oats or maize at 1: 1 proportion is excellent.
6. Feeding lactating ewes: Ration for ewes must be supplemented to maintain
adequate milk production, which is necessary for rapid growth of lambs. If they are
provided good pasture, the requirements are more or less met.
7. Feeding of ewes from the time lambs are weaned until flushing time: Ewes
may be maintained entirely on pasture. Poor quality pastures and other roughages of
low quality can be advantageously utilized during this period.
8. Feeding rams for breeding: The common practice is to allow the rams to graze
with the ewes, which will allow the rams to get the same ration as the ewes. If
separate feeding is practiced for the ram, it may be given 300-500 g of concentrate
mixture consisting of three parts oats or barely, one part maize and one part wheat
per day.
Lamb Feeding

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1. Feeding suckling lambs: This is the early part of a lamb's life in which it is
dependent on its mother's milk to a considerable degree for its nutrition. This period
ends when the lambs are weaned.
2. Feeding early-weaned and orphan lambs: Lambs are usually weaned at three
months of age. Similarly, some lambs may be orphaned due to the death of ewe or
due to disowning by the mother. If legume hay or good quality pasture is not
available and if only poor roughage is fed their grain ration should be supplemented
with a protein cum vitamin supplement with approximately 12 per cent digestible
crude protein.
Complete pelleted ration consisting of roughage and concentrate, both
mixed and made into pellets has been found to be advantageous. Recommended
rations for the creep feeders and early weaners are (i) Maize 40 per cent, oats 30 per
cent, barley 30 per cent plus lucerne hay fed ad libitum
Concentrare Mixtures for Supplementing Lamb Grazing
During summer:
Groundnut cake 20 per cent
Wheat bran 35 per cent
Crushed gram 10 per cent
Oats/Barley 35 per cent
During winter:
Wheat bran 25 per cent
Oats/Barley/Jowar 50 per cent
Groundnut cake 25 per cent
Rate of feeding concentrate per day:
When legume When non legume
S. No. Body weight
fodder is available fodder is available
1. Up to 12 kg 25-50 g 200-300 g
2. 12-15 kg 50 g 300 g
3. 15-25 kg 100 g 400 g
4. 25-35 kg 150 g 600 g

Sheep grazing

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 Grazing lands in India are over-grazed and generally in very poor
condition. There is very little attention paid at present to develop the pastures.
Pasture should be divided into compartments for rotational grazing. It should be
managed to support 10 to 12 ewes and their lambs, per acre. It will be desirable to
change the pasture for grazing periodically as sheep consume less due to the
monotony of grazing if they have to graze on the pasture continuously.
FEEDING MANAGEMENT OF GOATS
Feeding Habits
1. Goats are sensitive animals with peculiar feeding habits (browsing). They are
fastidious about cleanliness and like frequent change in the feed. Feeds given
must be clean and fresh, since goats eat nothing that is dirty or foul smelling.
2. They dislike wet, stale or trampled fodder. For this reason it is advisable to
feed them in hay-racks or hang the feed in bundles from a peg in a wall or
from a branch of a tree.
3. Double-sided portable hay-racks are the most suitable
4. Convenient for stall feeding. It is preferable to serve them small quantities at
a time; when served in large quantities at a time, they waste a lot of it by
trampling.
5. Goats are ruminants. They are very fond of leguminous fodders. They do not
relish fodders like sorghum (sorghum vulgare pers) and maize (zea mays L.),
silage or straw. Goats do not relish hay prepared from forest grasses, even if
cut in early stages, but very much relish hay prepared from leguminous crop.
6. Some of the common green roughages liked by the goats are: Lucerne,
berseem, Napier grass, cowpea, cabbage, cauliflower leaves, shrubs and
weeds of different kinds;
7. Leaves of trees such as babul, neem, subabul, glyricidia, agathi, malbari and
dry leaves of trees are most liked by the goat.
1. Nutrients required
The nutrients needed may be divided into maintenance, production (for milk,
meat and hair production) and pregnancy requirements.
2. Maintenance ration:
Goats have higher basal metabolic rate than cattle; therefore, their maintenance
requirements are higher than those of cattle. The requirement by weight is calculated
and an additional feed of about 25 to 30 per cent for maintenance is allowed. For its
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size the goat can consume substantially more feed than cattle or sheep, viz. 6.5 to 11
per cent of its body weight in dry matter when compared with 2.5 to 3 per cent for
cattle or sheep. This means that the goat can satisfy its maintenance requirement and
produce milk from forage alone.
3. Production ration:
The nutritional requirements of a goat weighing 50 kg and yielding 2 litres of
milk with 4 per cent fat may be met by feeding 400 g of concentrate mixture and 5
kg of leguminous fodder. The ration should have 12 to 15 per cent protein content.
4. Pregnancy ration:
A week before she kids, the Doe should be provided with more succulent type
of food. For three or four days after kidding, the level of diet should be lowered and
made more fibrous. After this period the feeding should be done at a normal rate.
5. Feeding of young stock:
Feeding schedule for kids should be such that a weekly growth rate of 0.6 kg is
obtained. The kid should be fed 50 to 100ml of colostrum, four to five times a day,
depending on its birth weight for three days. The composition of concentrate
mixture (in parts) should be: gram, 20: maize, 22; groundnut-cake, 35; wheat bran,
20; mineral mixture, 2.5; and common salt, 0.5.
Mineral mixture:
Goats require slightly larger quantities of calcium than sheep. The mineral
mixture may be included in the concentrate ration at the rate of 0.2 per cent.
Common salt:
The provision of salt licks is very important for goats as they secrete a good
amount of sodium and chloride ions in milk. Salt to the extent of 2 per cent may also
be mixed with the daily grain ration of goats.

200
Vitamins:
Goats need particularly vitamins A, D and E. The microbes in the rumen
synthesize most of the other needed vitamins. Synthetic vitamins A and D may be
included in the ration of growing kids.
DISEASES OF SHEEP AND GOAT
ENEROTOXAEMIA (Bacterial diseases)
Causative Agent :Clostridium perfringens type D
Symptoms
 Sudden death mostly lambs with good body condition followed by monsoon.
 It damages vascular endothelium (including blood vessels in the brain)
leading to fluid loss, edema, off feed, grinding of teeth, bloody diarrhea.
Diagnosis
 Based on symptom and lesions.
 Large numbers of Gram-positive rods are suggestive of C.welchii.
Control and Prevention
 Before the lambing season the ewes are vaccinated.
 Lambs can also be vaccinated at 4 weeks of age.
PESTE DES PETITS RUMINANTS
Peste des petits ruminants (PPR), also known as goat plague, is caused by a
paramyxovirus of the Morbillivirus genus. PPR is an acute or subacute viral disease
of goats and sheep characterized by fever, erosive stomatitis, conjunctivitis,
gastroenteritis, and pneumonia. Goats are usually more severely affected than sheep
(hence called goat plague).
SYMPTOMS
Fever (40° to 41ºC), watery discharge is from the eyes, nose and mouth, the
mucous membranes of the mouth and eyes become very reddened. Pin-point greyish
areas on the gums, dental pad, palate, lips, inner aspects of the cheeks and upper
surface of the tongue, diarrhoea and difficult to breath
DIAGNOSIS
 Based on clinical, pathological, and epizootiological findings.

CONTROL

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  Control of PPR outbreaks relies on movement control (quarantine) combined
with the use of focused ("ring") vaccination and prophylactic immunization
in high-risk populations.
 There is no treatment for PPR. However, mortality rates may be decreased
by the use of drugs that control the bacterial and parasitic complications.
SHEEP AND GOAT POX
Sheep pox and goat pox are viral diseases of sheep and goats characterised
by fever, generalized papules or nodules, vesicles (rarely), internal lesions
(particularly in the lungs), and death. Both diseases are caused by strains of the
genus Capri poxvirus.

SYMPTOMS
Fever, depression, polypnoea, conjunctivitis, lacrimation, rhinitis, edema of
eyelids and photophobia. The cutaneous eruption begin with erythematous areas
especially noticeable in hair or wool-free parts of the body, papules and nodules
formation. Animals may recover within 20-30 days. Death is frequent when
complications like abortion and secondary infections.
DIGNOSIS
 Based on the characteristic symptoms and pox lesions in the hairless parts of
the animal.
BLUE TONGUE
 Bluetongue (BT) is a non-contagious, arthropod-borne viral disease of sheep
and other domestic and wild ruminants, such as goats, cattle and deer.
 The infection in animals is transmitted through the bite of Culicoides insects.
 The incubation period of BT in sheep is usually 7-10 days.
Sheep
 Rise in temperature to 40-42°C., excessive salivation and frothing at the
mouth, hyperemia and swelling of the buccal and nasal mucosa followed by
erosions and ulcerations. Extensive ulcerations on the dental pad and dorsal
surface of the tongue. Hyperemia is also observed around the coronary bands
of the hooves and lameness. Swelling and bluish discoloration of tongue.
Signs include abortions, stillbirths, and weak “dummy lamb” live births.
Goats

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 o Bluetongue infection of goats is an in apparent infection similar to
that described for cattle.
DIAGNOSIS
 Based on the characteristic symptoms and lesions.
PREVENTION ANDCONTROL
 Control is mainly aimed at vector control-water management (reduction of
Culicoides breeding sites), use of insecticides and larvacides (spraying
breeding areas), and insect repellents in which animals are dipped.
 Vaccination should be practiced only in endemic areas.
Ecto parasite
1. Blue bottle fly: Black Blow fly
2. Lice and ticks – wool damaged
3. Mites – sheep scab –restlessness .
Wool loss -treated by using Malathion 0.5%, Sumithion 0.1%
Sevin 0.8% , Dip – lime sulpher 0.4% W/V
Endo parasites
a) Fascioliasis – loss of condition
Eggs – dirty area of open wound
b) Round worms – Anemia
c) Tape worms–bottled jaw–distended Abdomen
Weak, anemia, stunted growth , profuse yellow dark watery faeces –
diarrhoea – deworming with narrow spectrum or broad spectrum
anthelminthic eg. Copper Sulphate 1 % solution, Albendazole,
Fenbendazole,
Ivermectin is the drugs of of choice to eradicate both ecto and endo parasites

Unit IV: Management of Swine

SWINE PRODUCTION

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Introduction
Swine rearing in India is carried out under variety of adverse social, climatic,
and environmental conditions. Swine industry has remained underdeveloped mainly
due to religious taboos and prejudices. Swine rearing in our country is mainly in the
hands of socially and economically weaker illiterate people. Great emphasis has
been laid on the improvement of the productivity of pigs by implementing
crossbreeding programme with exotic breeds of swine to develop animals of larger
sized litter, efficient feed conversion, higher dressing percentage and better quality
pork
ADVANTAGE OF PIG FARMING
1. Swine are prolific producer. The litter size, on an average is 8 and a sow can
be managed to raise 2 or more litter per year. Gilts can be bred at the age of
8 months, farrow at 1 year of age and ifwell fed and kept healthy may weigh
more than 80kg by the time of 5 ½ -6 months of age.
2. Gestation period is less (114 days or 3months,3weeks, 3days)
3. The piglets are ready to market by 6thmonth of age
4. They have better feed efficiency and produce 1kg of pork with 3 to 3.5 kg of
feed.
5. The dressing percentage of swine is 65-80% because skin is also used for
eating. The percentage of edible meat in pig is higher because of smaller
bones.
6. Pigs convert inedible feed, forage, and certain grain by-products obtained
from oil milling, meat by-products, garbage, garden waste, vegetable market
waste and dairy by products like skim milk into valuable nutritious meat
7. Compared to other species pork contain less quantity of cholesterol and more
energy value
8. The initial investment is small in a swine enterprise and the return is quick
due to its short life span.
9. Pork fat is more valuable than fats produced by other animals. It is a good
source of polyunsaturated fatty acids.
DISADVANTAGE
1. Religious taboo [Muslims will not eat pork]
2. The pig is in direct competition with man for food.

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 3. Pigs are sensitive to unfavourable rations. This mixed with careless
management creates problems.
4. Swine are highly susceptible to diseases and parasites, the most common
parasite being the roundworm Ascaris lumbricoides. Management practices
to maintain a disease free herd is important for a successful swine enterprise.
5. Skilled attention is required at the time of farrowing to avoid loss of piglets
6. Eating pork is considered as of ‘low to the dignity’
7. Well established farms to supply the stocks are less in number
Indigenous domesticated pigs
They have no distinct breed features. They characteristics vary with
topography and climatic conditions from region to region. They are black, brown,
grey, rusty grey or blending/admixture of two or more colours. They are
traditionally raised by weaker section of the community.
Exotic/improved breeds of pigs

Classification of swine breeds based on utility

Lard type Bacon type

1. Duroc 1. Tamworth
2. Poland china 2. Yorkshire
3. Chester white
4. Berkshire
5. Hampshire
6. Spotted Poland china

Exotic breeds experienced in India

1. Large White Yorkshire

2. Middle white Yorkshire
3. Saddle back
4. Tamworth
5. Berkshire

Classification based on colour

White breed Yorkshire, Landrace, Chester White

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 Black with some white Hampshire, Berkshire, Poland china

Black and white Spot

Red breed Duroc and Tamworth

Red with some white Hereford

ECONOMIC TRAITS
 Litter Size
 Weight at Birth.
 Weaning Weight.
 Litter size at Weaning.
 Growth rate:
1. Birth to Weaning : Weaning wt.- –birth wt./ 56
2. Weaning to 154 days: Weight at 154 days-Weaning weigh/ 98 days
3. Weight at 154 days to 210 days : Wt.at 210 days- Wt. at 154 days /
154 days.
 Feed efficiency: Feed consumed per of kg of Live weight.
 Mortality percentage.
Comparison between desi Vs. Exotic (India)
Desi Exotic
Litter size at birth 7.5 10
Birth weight (Kg.) 0.91 1.4
Weaning weight (kg.) 4.1 13.5
Weaning percentage 54 78.5
Dressing percentage 66 68
Maturity (Months) 14 8 - 10
Growth rate (gm) 70-100 over 300 gm.
Back fat thickness – (cm) 3-7 4-5

HOUSING OF PIG
The dwelling place of pig is called "sty". A sort of semi-indoor system of
swine farming in loose houses is generally suitable for India.

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Location
The piggery unit should be located well away from the human dwelling
places.
Types
 Indoor system
 Semi-indoor system
 Extensive system
Functional units of sty
Boar sty
Each pen shall accommodate not more than one animal.
Dry sow and gilt sty
It is meant for growing gilt or dry sow. 5-10 pigs can be accommodated in
each pen depending upon the stage of pregnancy and age.
Farrowing sty
Pregnant sows are transferred to these sties 7-10 days before the expected
date of farrowing and left here up to weaning of their litters (56 days). Each pen
shall accommodate not more than one animal with the litter. Number of farrowing
pen required is 10 % of the breedable female. Each pen should have the facilities of
guard rail and creep area.
Guard rail
The guard rails are made up of tubular iron rod of 2 to 2.5 inches thickness
and fixed 25 to 30cm away from the wall and above the floor. So that the piglets can
run under the rail when the sow lies down so that the crushing of piglets can be
avoided in between the sow and walls and also to avoid eating of creep ration by
sows.
Creep area
In corner of the pen, creep area should be provided with the help of stone
slab should be fitted in the corner of the pen, 25-30cm above the floor level. In that
area piglet only can enter and get the creep feed. Lighting can also provide in creep
area to give warmth to young ones.

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Weaner sty
Piglets that are weaned are housed in these pens up to six months of age.
Each pen may accommodate 30 piglets of age group between two to six months.
Fattening sty
These are for housing pigs that are being transferred for the market. Each pen
may have 16 to 32 animals kept for fattening purpose.
Sty for sick animal
Normally a minimum accommodation for 5 percent of the stock shall be
provided for housing the sick animals.
Floor space requirements

S. Type pf animals or Covered area Open No. of animals

No. category (m2) area(m2) housed
6-7
i. Boar 8.8-12 1
(2.5x2.5to2.5x3)
7-9
ii. Farrowing sow 8.8-12 1
(2.5x3to3x3)
Weaner/ fattening 0.9-1.8
iii. 0.9-1.8 30
pigs (0.8x1.2to1.2x1.5)
1.8-2.7
iv. Dry sow/gilt 1.8-2.7 5-10
(1.2x1.5to1.8x1.5)
Feeding and water space requirement
Feeding Watering
Adult Pig 60-75 cm 6-7.5 cm
Young pig 25-35 cm 2.5-3.5 cm
SWINE NUTRITION
The nutritional requirements of swine vary with sex, age and physiological
status of the animal. According to the nutritional requirements, swine can be
classified into eight groups as follows;
a) Young pigs: Pre-starter pigs (2-5 kg) and Starter pigs (5-15 kg)
b) Weaners: Grower pigs (15-35 kg) and Growing and finishing hogs (35-90 kg)
c) Adult males: Boars
d) Adult females: Gilts, Pregnant sows and gilts, and Lactating sows

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Feeding pre-starter pigs:
Feeding pre-starter rations to piglet’s increases growth rate of pigs and
reduced mortality among them. The pre-starter ration should be rich in protein
(24%) and vitamins and low in fibre content. This feeding starts usually when the
pigs are one week old, weighing 2-2.1 kg. This extends usually to a period of two
weeks during which each pig consumes one and half to two kilograms of pre starter
ration and gains about three kilograms, to weigh 5.0 kg at the end of the period.
Feeding starter pigs:
The starter ration should contain 20-22 percent protein. It is fed to pigs
between 5.0-15.0 kg live weight. This period generally ends when the pigs are 8
weeks old. They consume nine to eleven kilogram of starter ration to gain about ten
kilograms.
Feeding grower pigs:
When the average weight of pigs is 15 kg, the starter ration is replaced by
grower ration which has only 18 percent protein. Pigs consume 50-60 kg of grower
ration to weigh about 35 kg at the end of this period.
Nutritional anemia in piglets: Pigs, which are reared on concrete floors with little
opportunity to eat some soil, which will supply iron and copper, may develop
anemia. Anemia can be controlled by the following methods.
(1) Providing clean sand or clean soil in the shed itself.
(2) By allowing them access to clean area of soil.
(3) By giving iron and copper pills.
(4) The udder of the sow may be brushed with a solution of ferrous sulfate and
copper sulfate. By injecting 2 ml of iron dextrons or iron dextrins at three days' and
three weeks' age.
Growing and finishing pigs:
This is the stage during which the weaned pigs grow from 35 kg to 60 kg
body weight. Pigs above 60 kg live weight and until marketing are known as
finishing pigs. The protein requirement is only 13 per cent. Under hot climatic
conditions it will be advantageous to market/slaughter pigs between 70-75 kg.

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Feeding adult male pigs:
The boar may be given almost the same kind of ration fed to the gilts during
the breeding period.
Feeding gilts:
Gilts, like boars, should be fed limited amount of nutrients to keep them
thrifty but not fat. If they are already fat, there will be no scope for flushing during
the breeding season. Gilts meant for breeding should be removed from the growing-
fattening group when they are between 45-57 kg body weights.
Flushing:
Litter size is affected by the condition of the gilts or sows at the breeding
time. In order to ensure maximum results, sows and gilts are fed a more liberal
ration from about two weeks before breeding until after they are bred. This should
produce a gain, from 0.7 kg to 0.9 kg per day, and ensure good health. Such a
procedure is known as flushing. The ration for flushing should be well balanced and
fed in required quantities. Gilts require flushing ration of 25 to 30 gm for every kg
body weight.
Feeding pregnant sows:
Pregnant sows should get a ration which contains, protein 14 per cent , calcium 0.7
per cent and common salt 0.5 per cent. Sows should gain 27 to 36 kg during
gestation period, compared to 32 to 41kg by gilts.
Feeding sows at the time of parturition and immediately after parturition:
About four to five days before the farrowing, the sow's ration should be reduced
to nearly half. They should be prevented from becoming constipated by including
laxative feeds like wheat bran, linseed meal, etc. in the ration. On the day of
farrowing, it is better not to give any feed at all. But enough of clean fresh water
should be available throughout the period. It is best to feed 50 per cent of the ration
on the first day and to increase the ration by 200 to 300 grams daily until she is full
fed.
Feeding lactating sow:
Sows receiving adequate ration produce 2.5 to 3.6 kg milk per day. A bulky
ration may be continued up to the second week of lactation. The dry-lot lactation
ration should contain 15 percent crude protein for both first litter gilts and sows. If
one the other hand they are put on a legume pasture, 13 percent crude protein will be
sufficient in the ration. Lactation rations should contain 0.7 percent calcium, 0.6
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percent phosphorous and 0.5 percent common salt. Lactating sows required 14 to 23
litres of water per head per day.
CREEP RATION
Creep feed: Creep feed is used to provide special feed for the young; also the feed
should be provided for the young within a special enclosure

CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF ADULT AND YOUNG STOCK

SELECTION OF GILTS / BOAR
 The gilt should be selected at market weight viz. when animal weigh about
90 kg
 The mother of the pig to be selected should have larger litter of 8 piglets or
more
 The gilt or boar should have reached a body weight of about 90 kg in about
six month
 The pig should have adequate length and depth of body, thick well-muscled
hams and should be firm and trim; it should have a prominent neck
 The pig should be free from leg defects
 The gilt should have minimum of 12 evenly spaced functional teats. An
animal with blind teat should be avoided
 The pig should be free from diseases and physical defects

BREEDING MANAGEMENT
Guide line for normal reproduction of pigs

AGE AT PUBERTY 6-7 MONTHS

Breeding age of gilts 8 -9 months

Breeding weight of gilts 80-90 kg

Breeding age of boar 1 - 1 ½ years

Sex ratio 1:10

Estrus cycle 19-23 days average 21 days

Estrus period 2-3 days

Mating time Gilt first day and sow second day of onset

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 of heat

Number of service per conception Two at an interval of 12-24 hours

Gestation period 114 days (3 months, 3 weeks, 3 days)

Suckling period 56 days

Average litter size at birth 10-12

Average litter weight at birth 12-14 kg

Birth weight 1.2-1.3 kg

Average litter size at weaning 8-10

Average litter weight at weaning 120 kg in gilts and 150 kg in sows

Weaning weight 12-13 kg

Occurrence of heat after weaning 4-7 days

Volume of ejaculate 200 ml

Average number of sperms per ml 100,000

Average age to castrate pigs 2-3 weeks

Market age of fattening pigs 5 and 7th months

Market weight at 6 months 70-75 kg in Indian condition

Farrowing interval 7-7 ½ months

Farrowing rate 1.8-1.9

Average life of sow 6 litters

Detection of heat
 Vulval swelling, reddening of vulva is noticed 2-6 days prior to oestrus.
 The animal will be restless and the increased activity level and a typical
grunt, frequently mount on other sows and allow them to be mounted,
reduced appetite and frequent urination,
 ‘Standing heat reflex’ will be exhibited during oestrus, which consist of
immobilization, arching back are noticed.

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  Another important symptom which known as standing heat test or riding
test or back pressure test in is the sow remains immobile with erected ear
when normal pressure is applied to lumbo sacral region. This test can be
performed in front of boar or adjacent to a boar pen. This method is the ideal
method for heat detection in pigs.
MATING MANAGEMENT
Hand mating:
In this method bring the sows to the boar for individual service when they
are in standing heat. It most common method of mating in pure bred herds.
Pen mating:
In this method one boar is allowed in the sow pen (8-10) for detecting heat
and mating. There is a chance for over usage of boar.
Flock or herd mating:
In this method the boar is permitted for run with the sows. Mature boar can
usually satisfactorily serve 15-20 sows in pasture mating system.

 After detecting heat, the sow and boar should be introduced in a familiar area
so as to facilitate better mating.
 If new boar is introduced in to the herd, he should not be used until after a
minimum period of 30 days of isolation.
 Mating should be done early in the morning or late in the evening
 Sow ovulate 16-48 hours after the onset of estrous and it will loss its fertility
rate rapidly, hence it is better to bred at least twice preferably during the
latter half of the first day or early on the second day of estrous which will
increase the conception rate and increase the litter size
 Sow normally come to heat one to four days after farrowing but it is better to
mate during the first heat after weaning the litter
 Ovulation rate increases during successive estrous [up to fifth] thus it is
advantageous to delay breeding of gilts until the second or third estrous
SIGNS OF PREGNANCY AND FARROWING
 Female become more docile during pregnancy and the physical activity will
be reduced; the development of mammary system is another indication of
pregnancy. Normally gilts will show some signs of udder development after

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 2 months of pregnancy. A sow normally shows signs of new udder
development some 2 to 3 weeks before farrowing.
 1 to 3 days before farrowing the pitch of voice may be lowered and the sow
may begin to prepare nest for her litter
 Normally farrowing appears to follow a diurnal pattern, more frequently in
late afternoon and most frequently at night
 Duration of farrowing varies from 2 to 24 hours in normal parturition. The
sow often takes rest in between expulsion of piglets.
MANAGEMENT OF SOW AT FARROWING
 The sow should be transferred to farrowing pen 1 week prior to expected
date of farrowing. Before moving to farrowing pen, the sow should be
cleaned and spraying against ecto parasite also is important.
 The farrowing pen should be fitted with ‘guard rails’ or ‘farrowing crate’ to
protect the young piglets from crushing by the mother. The rails should be 9
inches from the floor and 12 inches from the wall
 The temperature regulatory mechanism is ill-developed in newborn piglets.
The baby piglet’s body temperature falls very rapidly when environmental
temperature falls. Normally they have subnormal body temperature during
first 30 minutes and it returns to normal during next 48 hours. Hence the pen
should be maintained at 24 to 28°C until the piglets are three to four days
old. This can be achieved by providing artificial lighting using electric bulbs
or infrared bulbs.
 The placenta drops one after another and within two hours this will complete
 The piglets should be allowed to suckle after birth. Normally they suckle 8 to
10 times in 24 hours in the initial period.
Management of lactating sows
 During the lactation period heavy nutrient loss may occur through the milk.
Hence up to 1 month of lactation high nutrient diet is essential.
 Ad libitum clean drinking water should be provided at all times.
 Keeping the farrowing sty clean, cool and dry.
 If the litter size is large, the litter may be split into two or three groups,
based on their size, allow the smaller group first followed by the larger. This
type of milk feeding is called “split up suckling” or split milk feeding

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Care and management of piglets from birth to weaning
Management of suckling piglets
 To prevent ‘naval ill’ the naval card should be tied off and it should be cut 3-
5 cm distal to the legation and this portion should be dipped in a solution of
2% iodine or 70% ethyl alcohol.
 The ‘needle teeth’ should be clipped. The baby piglets have four pair of
sharp teeth tow on each jaw called needle teeth or wolf teeth. It is advisable
to clip these needle teeth shortly after birth [within 10 days].
 The piglets should be ear-tattooed/ear tagged immediately after birth
 Castration of male piglets should be done a week or 10 days before weaning.
 Cutting of tails is advisable whenever pigs are to be raised in total
confinement. This can be done at the time of needle teeth clipping.
Orphan Pigs:
The ‘orphan pig’ results when the sow dies after farrowing, mastitis,
lactation failure or litter larger than the sow is able to raise. Two possibilities are
there to raise ‘orphan pigs’ [1] Adaptation by a foster sow [2] Raising by cow milk
or sow milk replacer
First the piglets should receive colostrum. Cow colostrum apparently
provides some immunity.
Adaptation by a foster sow:

 If another sow has farrowed within a short period before or after birth of the
orphaned litter, the piglets may be transferred to her. This transfer must be
done with in few days after farrowing because those mammary glands that
are not used soon stops their milk production.
 To insure acceptance of new pigs, the sow should be separated from her own
litter while the new pigs are combined, and a disinfectant or other odorous
materials should be sprinkled on all the pigs to disguise odour

COMMON DISEASES AND THEIR PREVENTION AND CONTROL

MEASURE
CLASSICAL SWINE FEVER

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  Classical swine fever (CSF) is a contagious viral disease of pigs. CSF is
caused by a virus belonging to the family Flaviviridae and the genus
pestivirus.
SYMPTOMS
 Acute infection
o In acute form the pigs appear sick, inactive and drowsy with arched
back. Some pigs stand with droopy head and straight tail. Huddling,
vomiting, high fever anorexia and constipation. Conjunctivitis,
staggering gait, posterior weakness and purple discoloration of
abdominal skin
o In last stage of the infection, pigs will become recumbent, and
convulsions may occur shortly before death. Severe diarrhoea will
also occur during last stages.
 Chronic form
o Dullness, capricious appetite, pyrexia and diarrhoea for up to 1
month. Weight loss, hair loss, dermatitis and discoloration of
abdomen or ears are the other symptoms. A chronically infected pig
may have a disproportionately large head relative to the small trunk.
DIAGNOSIS
 Based on high morbidity and mortality, high fever, diarrhoea. Kidney and
lymph node lesions will help in field diagnosis.
VACCINATION
 Modified live vaccines (MLV) are used to control CSF.
FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE
 Viral disease of pigs caused by FMD virus of the genus Aphthovirus.
Characterized by fever (40-40.6ºC), anorexia, reluctance to move, and
scream when forced to move. These signs are followed by vesicles on the
coronary band, heals, interdigital space and on the snout. Mouth lesions are
not too common and when they occur are smaller and of shorter duration
than in cattle and tend to be a "dry"-type lesion. There is no drooling. Sows
may abort. Piglets may die without showing any clinical sign.
DIAGNOSIS
 Based on symptom and lesions

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Control and eradication program
 Prevention of movement of animals and animal products in the area affected.
 Destroy carcasses
 Disinfect vehicles leaving the infected area.
 Perform vaccination.
PIGLET MORTALITY
The major task in pig husbandry is avoiding piglet mortality and raising
piglets successfully up to weaning. After weaning the mortality is comparatively less
Pre-partum death may be due to deficiency of iron, which can be prevented
by injection of sow with iron. Intra-partum death is due to anoxia induced by lack of
placental blood flow associated with uterine contraction or premature rupture of
umbilical card. This intra-partum death occurs mostly in aged sows.
Pre-weaning mortality
The pre-weaning mortality ranges between 12-30%.

Causes of mortality
1. Still birth 2.Eaten by the sow 3.Genetic defect 4. Enteritis
5.Over laid (crushing by mother)6. Pneumonia
Starvation and overlying by the pig
70% of death is due to starvation and overlying by the sow, which can be
avoided by
1. Improving birth weight and vigor of newborn piglets
2. Minimizing risk of chilling or hypothermia
3. Minimizing agalactia
It is a part of complex condition of MMA (M= mastitis, M= metritis & A=
Agalactia). The MMA syndrome can involve metabolic, bacterial and hormonal
factor with stress plays a part. Since its main effect is loss of milk in the first three
days after farrowing, the condition contributes to piglet loss from starvation.
Reason and control of MMA
1. Elevated temperature of sow is associated with this condition, hence
regular monitoring of sows rectal temperature and treatment with antibiotic and
oxytocin is essential to avoid this condition. Such conditions which are not detected
earlier, it can be noticed by loss of body condition of piglets and it is very difficult to

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recover the condition quickly. In refractory case prompt provision of an alternative
source of food for piglet by foster sow or artificial feeding will minimize the loss
2. The udder and teat of sow should be dry and kept hygiene to avoid such
problem
Piglet anemia
The newborn piglet has only limited reserve of iron in the liver for
hemoglobin synthesis. This is due to poor placental transfer of iron to foetus. The
sow milk is very low in iron and the suckling pig should be supplemented with iron
during first few days to prevent piglet anaemia.
Symptom
a. Pale in the region of ears and belly
b. Listlessness
c. Rapid breathing
d. Often exhibit diarrhea
Control
1. Placing fresh, clean earth in the piglets pen each day
2. Using soil drenched with a solution made from
500 gm ferrous Sulphate, 75 gm copper Sulphate and 3 litter of water
3. Daily administration of 4 ml of 1.8 percent Ferrous Sulphate solution
4. The daily painting of the mother’s udder with ferrous Sulphate solution
and sugar [0.5 kg of ferrous Sulphate in 10 liter of water]
5. All these methods are labour intensive and the safest and easiest method of
combating piglet anemia is to inject the piglet with 100-150 mg of iron in the
form of iron dextron 3 days after birth. If necessary a second and slightly smaller
injection can be made some 3 weeks later
Unit V: Poultry Management

POULTRY PRODUCTION

The term “Poultry” indicates all domesticated avian species such as chicken,
ducks, turkeys, Japanese quail, guinea fowls, geese, pigeons, ostrich, emu etc.
Although very often used as synonymous to chicken.

Economic importance of Poultry

1.Chicken:

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 Egg production Meat production
(Commercial Layers) (Broilers)
320 eggs (17 to 72) weeks of age 1.8 to 2.0 kg at 5 weeks of age
(In India – I Tamil Nadu; II Andhra India : Ranks fifth in poultry meat
Pradesh; III Maharashtra) production
Per capita consumption: Per capita consumption:
69eggs/individual/Year 2.95 kg/individual/Year

Definitions

Bill: The beak of duck.

Broiler / Fryer: It is a bird of about 5 weeks of age of either sex (straight-run

chicks) with an average body weight of 1.8 to 2.0 kg with a flexible breast bone
cartilage, pliable and tender meat.

Brooder: Metallic or wooden equipment used for artificial brooding of baby

chicks.

Candling: The process of visual examination of an intact egg, by holding between

the eye and a lighted candle or other source of light to determine the interior
quality, shell soundness or stage of embryonic development.

Capon: Surgically castrated male less than 10 months of age.

Clutch: Eggs laid by a hen on consecutive days without break are referred as
‘Clutch’.

Cull: Unproductive hen.

Culling: Elimination of unproductive or undesirable bird.

Debeaking / Beak trimming: Removal of a portion of beak

Snood:A small muscular structure hanging from the base of beak in turkeys is
called “Snood”

Desnooding: Removal of snood in turkeys

Down time: Period between culling of one batch and introduction of new batch of
birds in the shed.

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Dubbing: The process of removal of comb and wattles at day-old age with the
help of scissors.

Egg tooth: Small horny protrusion on the tip of chick’s beak used to pip the egg
shell when hatching. It drops off soon after chicks’ escapes from the egg.

Green Duck: Ducks used for meat production which are marketed from 9 to 16
weeks of age.

Hatchery: A building where incubators are kept for hatching purpose.

Layer: A mature female fowl kept for egg laying purpose.

Livability: Ability of individual bird to live and remain vigorous and productive.

Moulting: Molting is the act or process of shedding and renewing feathers.

Pause: Interval between clutches.

Photoperiod: Period of illumination by both natural and artificial means.

Pipping: The act of pecking the shell and shell membrane by the chick in order to
break the shell and hatch out of the shell.

Roaster: A broiler grown up to the age of 9 – 11 weeks to a body weight of 2.5 to

3.0 kg

CLASS, BREEDS, VARIETIES AND STRAINS OF POULTRY

The binomial nomenclature for domestic fowl (chicken) is Gallus gallus
domesticus.
Class: In poultry it is used to designate group of birds that have been developed in
certain geographical areas or regions
For example: American, English, Mediterranean and Asiatic
Breed: It refers to group of birds with common ancestors and having similarity in
shape, confirmation, growth, temperament, shell colour of eggs etc.
For example: Leghorn, Rhode Island Red, Australorp, Aseel etc.
Variety: A variety is a subdivision of a breed, distinguished either by colour, comb
type feather pattern etc from other group of the same breed.
For example: White Leghorn, Brown Leghorn, White Plymouth Rock,
Barred Plymouth Rock, Black Minorca etc.

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Strains: Strains are closely related inbred flocks with definite economic characters.
A strain is the name given by a breeder who has done breeding on the birds and
introduced certain economic characters in the birds. A breed or a variety may have
several strains and may be phenotypically alike but often differ on their production
performance depending upon breeding history.
For example: Babcock, Bovans, Hyline, Hisex, Lohmann (Layer strain), Cobb,
Hubbard, Ross, Hybro (Broiler strain)
Lines - Sub classes of a strain developed such that the gene(s) responsible for a
particular trait is fixed so as to be utilized for production of commercial hybrids.
BREEDS OF POULTRY
Breeds of chicken:

Class Breed Variety

American class Barred

1. Clean shank White
2. Yellow skin Plymouth Rock Buff
3. Red ear lobe Patridge
4. Dual purpose bird Silver penciled
5. Medium size Single comb
Rhode Island Red
6. Brown shelled eggs Rose Comb

New Hamp Shire Single comb

Asiatic class Brahma Light brahma

1. Feathered shank Dark brahma
2. Yellow skin Long shan Black
3. Red ear lobe White
4. Meat purpose
Cochin Black
5. Massive size
White
6. Brown shelled eggs
Buff
Patridged

Mediterranean class Leghorn Single & Rose comb (white)

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 1. Clean shank Single & Rose comb(Light
2. Yellow/white skin brown)

3. White ear lobe Single & Rose comb (Dark

brown)
4. Egg purpose bird
Single comb (Buff)
5. Small size
6. White shelled eggs Minorca Single & Rose comb (white)
Single & Rose comb
(Black)Single comb (Buff)

English class Australorp(Black Black

1. Clean shank Shank)

2. White skin Cornish(Yellow White

3. Red ear lobe skin and Pea Dark
4. Dual purpose comb)

bird
5. Medium size
6. Brown shelled
eggs

Indian chicken breeds:

1. Kadaknath (Block coloured meat)
2. Aseel (Used for fighting purpose)
3. Chittagong and Busra
Commercial strains of layer and broiler
• In crossbreds of poultry, produced by 2-way, 3-way or 4-way crossing of
inbred pure lines.
• Actual commercial-type of poultry used for egg or meat production; since
they are high laying/fast growing-they will not breed-true and are unfit for further
breeding.
• It possess high degree of Heterosis and hybrid vigor.

Commercial layer strains developed by private sectors in India:

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S.No Breeder
Commercial strains Remarks
. Name
1 Babcock B300 / ISA white 70% of Indian share
2 Hendrix Bovans white 10% of Indian share
Hy-Line Brown
Popular strain in world;
3 Hy-Line Hy-Line White
The egg size is smaller

USA bird;Largest selling white

4 Dekalb Dekalb XL (white)
egg bird in the world.
1) Lohmann White
5 Lohmann 10% of Indian share
2) Lohmann Brown

Commercial broiler strains developed by private sectors in India:

Breeder
S.No. Commercial strains Remarks
Name
1) Cobb 100
1 Cobb 40-50% of Indian market
2) Cobb 400
2 Hubbard Hubbard Hi-Y
Next to cobb in India; 35-40%
3 Ross Ross 308
of Indian market.

POULTRY HOUSE CONSTRUCTION

Need for poultry house

1) To protect birds from adverse climatic conditions
2) To ensure easy and economic operation
3) To ensure scientific feeding in a controlled manner
4) To facilitate proper micro-climatic conditions in a near vicinity of
bird
5) For effective disease control measures
6) To ensure proper supervision

Different types of poultry houses

1) Brooder / chick house
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 It is used to brood and rear egg-type chicks from 0 to 8 weeks of age.
2) Grower house
It is used to grow egg-type birds from 9 to 18 weeks of age.
3) Brooder cum grower house
Here, the birds are reared from 0 to 18 weeks of age (entire brooding and
growing period of egg-type chicken).
4) Layer house
In which birds over 18 weeks of age are reared, usually up to 72 weeks of
age.
5) Broiler house
In which broilers are reared up to 6 weeks of age.
6) Breeder house
In which both male and female breeders are maintained at appropriate sex
ratio.
7) Environmentally controlled (EC) house
In which, entire environment is manipulated in such a way that is optimum
for the birds growth.
Optimal environmental conditions for rearing broilers
Temperature - 22-300C (70-850F)
Relative Humidity - 30-60 %
Ammonia level - Less than 25 ppm
Litter moisture - 15-25%
Air flow - 10-30 metres /minute
Location
1) Poultry house should be located away from residential and industrial area.
2) It should have proper road facilities
3) It should have the basic amenities like water and electricity.
4) Availability of farm labourers at relatively cheaper wages.
5) Poultry house should be located in an elevated area and there should not be
any water-logging.
6) It should have proper ventilation.
Layout of poultry farm
The basic principles to be observed for layout are,

224
 1) The sheds should be so located that the fresh air first passes through the
brooder shed, followed by grower and layer sheds. This prevents the spread of
diseases from layer houses to brooder house.
2) There should be a minimum distance of 50-100 feet between chick and
grower shed and the distance between grower and layer sheds should be of
minimum 100 metre.
3) The egg store room, office room and the feed store room should be
located near entrance to minimize the movement of people around the poultry sheds.
4) The disposal pit and sick room should be constructed only at the extreme
end of the site.

DETAILS OF OPEN-SIDED POULTRY HOUSE CONSTRUCTION

1) House Orientation (Direction)
The poultry house should be located in such a way that long axis is in east-
west direction. This will prevent the direct sunshine over the birds.

2) Size
Each broiler require one square foot of floor space while a layer requires two
square feet of floor space under deep-litter system of rearing. So the size of the
house depends on the number of birds to be reared.
3) Length
The length of the house can be of any extent. The number of birds reared
and availability of the land determines the length of poultry house.
4) Width

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 The open sided poultry houses in tropical countries should have a width not
more than 22 to 25 feet in order to allow ample ventilation and aeration at the mid-
portion. In environmentally controlled poultry houses, the width of the house may be
even 40 feet or more since the ventilation is controlled with the help of exhaust fans.
5) Height
The height of the sides from foundation to the roof line should be 6 to 7 feet
(eaves height) and at the centre 10 to 12 feet. In case of cage houses, the height is
decided by the type of cage arrangements (3 tier or 4 tier).
6) Floor
The floor should be made of concrete with rat proof device and free from
dampness. The floor of the house should be extended 1.5 feet outside the wall on all
sides to prevent rat and snake problems.
7) Doors
The door must be open outside in case of deep-litter poultry houses. The size
of door is preferably 6 x 2.5 feet. At the entry, a foot bath should be constructed to
fill with a disinfectant.
8) Side walls

The side wall should be of 1-1.5 feet height, and generally at the level of
bird’s back height. This side wall protects the bird during rainy days or chill climate
and also provides sufficient ventilation. In case of cage houses, no side wall is
needed.
9) Roof
The roof of the poultry house may be thatched, tiled, asbestos or concrete
one depending upon the cost involvement. Different types of roofs are Shed, Gable,
half-monitor, full-monitor (Monitor), Flat concrete, Gambrel, Gothic etc. Gable
type is mostly preferred in tropical countries like India.

10) Overhang

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 The overhang of the roof should not be less than 3.5 feet in order to prevent
the entry of rain water into the shed.
SYSTEMS OF POULTRY HOUSING
Poultry can be housed under different systems based on following factors,
1) Availability of land
2) Cost of land
3) Type of farming activity
4) Climatic condition
5) Labour availability
Broadly, poultry housing systems are classified into three systems:
1) Free range or extensive system
2) Semi-intensive system
3) Intensive system
a) Deep-litter system
b) Cage system
1) Free range system
This system is adopted only when adequate land is available to ensure
desired stocking density by avoiding overcrowding. We can rear about 250 adult
birds per hectare. Foraging is the major source of feeding for birds. Shelter is
usually provided by temporary roofing supported by ordinary poles. This system is
most preferred for organic egg production.
Advantages
1) Less capital investment
2) Cost of housing is least.
3) Feed requirements are less since birds can consume fairly good amount of
feed from grass land.
4) Fertility of soil can be maintained.
Disadvantages
1) The scientific management practices cannot be adopted.
2) Eggs are lost when laid inside the dense grasses unless special nests are
provided.
3) Losses due to predatory animals are more.
4) Wild birds may bring diseases unless proper care is taken.
2) Semi-intensive system
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 As the name indicates birds are half-way reared in houses and half-way on
ground or range, i.e. birds are confined to houses in night or as per need and they are
also given access to runs. The houses are with solid floors while runs are fields
only. The stocking density rate on an average for adult birds is 750 per hectare. The
feeding and watering facilities are provided in the pen.
Advantages
1) More economical use of land compared to free range system
2) Protection of birds from extreme climatic conditions
3) Control over scientific operation is some extent possible
Disadvantages
1) High cost for fencing.
2) Need for routine cleaning and removal of litter material from the pen.
3) Intensive system
Birds are totally confined to houses either on ground / floor or on wire-
netting floor in cages or on slats. It is the most efficient, convenient and economical
system for modern poultry production with huge numbers.
Advantages
1) Minimum land is required for farming.
2) Farms can be located near market area.
3) Day-to-day management is easier.
4) The production performance is higher as more energy is saved due to
restricted movements.
5) Scientific management practices like breeding, feeding, medication, culling
etc. can be applied easily and accurately.
6) The sick birds can be detected, isolated and treated easily.
Disadvantages
1) Birds’ welfare is affected. They can not perform the natural behaviour like
roosting, spreading wings, scratching the floor with legs etc.
2) Since they are not exposed to outside sunlight and feed sources, all the
nutrients should be provided in balanced manner to avoid nutritionally
deficient diseases.
3) Chances for spreading of diseases are more.

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 DEEP LITTER SYSTEM
In this system the birds are kept inside the house all the time. Arrangement
for feed, water and nest are made inside the house. The birds are kept on suitable
litter material of about 3” to 5” depth. Usually paddy husk, saw dust, ground nut
hulls, chopped paddy straw or wood shavings are used as litter materials. The litter
is spread on the floor in layers of 2” height every fortnightly till the required is
achieved.
Advantages

1) Vit B2 and Vit B12 are made available to birds from the litter material by
the bacterial action.
2) The welfare of birds is maintained to some extend
3) The deep litter manure is a useful fertilizer.
4) Lesser nuisance from flies when compared to cage system.

Disadvantages
1) Because of the direct contact between bird and litter, bacterial and
parasitic disease may be a problem.
2) Respiratory problems may emerge due to dust from the litter.
3) The cost of litter is an additional expenditure on production cost.
4) Faults in ventilation can have more serious consequences than in the cage
system
Litter management
Qualities of good litter material
1) It must absorb moisture from droppings quickly
2) It must release moisture and dries up rapidly
3) It must have least tendency to form cakes
4) It must be free from mould growth
5) It must be free from sharp objects and other objectionable materials.
6) It must be non-toxic, inert and compressible.
7) It should possess good insulating properties and protect chicks from
extremes of climate.
8) It must be cheap and locally available

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 9) It must be biodegradable, supply some nutrients to the birds and form a
good quality manure later.
10) It must have medium particle size, soft and light in weight.
Quality of a litter material is tested by picking a hand full of litter material
and presses it tightly. A good litter material is the one which breaks up when hand
is open and the litter material with more moisture will form a ball in the hand. Too
much dried litter material causes dustiness in the farm.
A concrete floor is advised for a perfect disinfection at the end of each batch.
About 3-5” of litter should be put into the house initially andmore should be added
till a depth of about 8-12” is reached. Before adding fresh litter material, remove the
caked up and wet litter material. At the beginning the litter contains only 12%
moisture. If the moisture level exceeds 30% due to poor ventilation, too many birds,
irregular stirring or damp floor, the litter will cease to function efficiently. Some
time many birds will bear “balls” made of litter materials at their claw tips. Ball
formation is a sign of bad litter management. Built-up litter has a very important
role in providing warmth to the birds in winter. In winter the litter depth can be
increased to 10-12” while in summer it may be reduced to 2.5-4”.
CAGE SYSTEM
This system involves rearing of poultry on raised wire netting floor in
smaller compartments, called cages, either fitted with stands on floor. It has been
proved very efficient for laying operations, right from day-old to till disposal. At
present, 75% of commercial layers in the world are kept in cages. Feeders and
waterers are attached to cages from outside except nipple waterers, for which
pipeline is installed through or above cages. Auto-operated feeding trolleys and egg
collection belts can also be used in this rearing system. The droppings are either
collected in trays underneath cages or on belts or on the floor or deep pit under
cages, depending on type of cages.
Advantages
1) Minimum floor space is needed
2) More number of eggs per hen can be received
3) Less feed wastage
4) Better feed efficiency
5) Protection from internal parasites and soil borne illnesses
6) Sick and unproductive birds can be easily identified and eliminated.
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 7) Clean eggs production
8) Vices like egg eating, pecking is minimal.
9) Broodiness is minimal
10) No need of litter material
11) Artificial Insemination (AI) can be adopted.
Disadvantages
1) High initial investment cost.
2) Handling of manure may be problem. Generally, flies become a greater
nuisance.
3) The incidence of blood spots in egg is more
4) Problem of cage layer fatigue. (It is a condition, in which laying birds in
cages develop lameness. It may be due to Ca and P deficiency but the
exact reason is not known)
5) In case of broilers, incidence of breast blisters is more, especially when
the broilers weight is more than 1.5 kg.
Types of cages
Based on the number of birds in a cage, it is classified as
1) Single or individual bird cage (Only one bird in a cage)
2) Multiple bird cage (From 2 to 10 birds, usually 3 or 4 birds per cage)
3) Colony cages (Holding birds more than 11 per cage)
Based on the number of rows
1) Single-deck
2) Double-deck
3) Triple-deck
4) Four-deck
5) Flat-deck

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Based on arrangement of cages
1) Stair-step cages
a) M-type cages
b) L-type cages
2) Battery cages (Vertical cages)

Based on the type of bird reared

1) Brooder / chick cages
2) Grower cages
3) Layer cages
4) Breeder cages
5) Broiler cages
1) Brooder cage / chick cage
Specifications: Front feeding length : 60 inch

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 Front & Back height : 12 inch
Depth : 36 inch
No. of chicks (0-8 weeks) accommodated per box : 60
Chick cages are arranged either as single deck or double deck system. The
feeders and waterers are arranged on outside. Now-a-days nipple drinker system is
followed from day-old itself. Newspaper may be spread over the cage floor for first
7 or 10 days. Feed is usually provided inside the cage during the first week of age.
2) Grower cage
Specifications: Front feeding length : 30 inch
Front & Back height : 15 inch
Depth : 18 inch
No. of growers (9 to 18 weeks) accommodated per box:10
3) Layer cage
Two types of stair-step layer cages are commonly used in open-sided poultry
houses
a) Conventional cages
b) Reverse cages (Californian cages)
a) Conventional cages

Specifications for each box: Front feeding length : 15 inch

Front height : 18 inch
Back height : 15 inch
Depth : 18 inch
b) Reverse cages
Specifications for each box: Front feeding length : 18 inch
Front height : 18 inch

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 Back height : 15 inch
Depth : 15 inch
These cages can hold 3 to 4 birds. They are arranged either in 2-tier or 3-
tier. A slope of 1/6 is provided in conventional cages, where as in reverse cages the
slope is 1/5.
Elevated cage layer house
The height of the shed is raised by 6-7 feet using concrete pillars. The
distance between two pillars is 10 feet. Two feet wide concrete platforms are made
over the pillars. When 3 ‘M’ type cages are arranged 4 platforms are needed. In
case of 2 ‘M’ and 2 ‘L’ type cages are arranged 3 platforms are needed. When
constructing platforms projecting angles or iron rods to be provided to fix the cages.
The inter-platform distance is 6-7 feet depending upon the type of the cages used.
The total height of the house is 20-25 feet and the width is 30-33 feet. This type of
houses provides sufficient ventilation in tropical countries.
Floor space requirements
Age Deep-litter Cages
Type
(in weeks) (ft2) (ft2)
0-8 0.60 0.20
Egg-type chicken 9-18 1.25 0.30
>18 1.50 0.50
Meat-type 0-4 0.30 -
chicken 4-8 0.75 -

BROODING OF CHICKS
Brooding is the art and science of rearing baby chicks. A newly hatched
chick does not develop the thermoregulatory mechanism fully and takes about two
weeks to develop this mechanism and homeostasis. Therefore, they cannot maintain
the body temperature properly for the first few weeks of life. Brooding can be
classified into natural and artificial brooding.
Natural brooding
It is done with the help of broody hens after hatching, up to 3 to 4 weeks of
age.
Artificial brooding

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 In artificial brooding large number of baby chicks are reared in the absence
of broody hen. Equipments used for brooding are called brooders. Brooder
comprises of three elements:
1) Heating source
2) Reflectors
3) Brooder guard
Heating source may be electrical; gases like natural gas, LPG and methane,
liquid fuel like kerosene, solid fuel like coal, wood can be used as a heating material.
1) Charcoal pot:
Where electricity is not available, ordinary charcoal pot are used to provide
supplementary heat to chicks. These pot are covered with plate / pans to dissipate
the heat.
2) Gas brooder:
Natural gas, LPG or methane is connected to heating element which is
hanged 3 to 5 feet above the chick to provide heat.
3) Electrical bulb:
One electrical brooder can be used for 300 to 400 chicks at the rate of 1
watt/bird.
4) Infra-red bulbs:
One 250 watts IR bulb can provide brooding for about 150 to 250 chicks.
5) Reflectors:
These reflectors are called Hovers. Flat type hover – These hovers are
provided with heating element, heating mechanism and pilot lamp. Canopy type
hover – These reflectors are in concave shape consisting of ordinary electrical bulb
and thermostat mechanism.
6) Brooder guard / chick guard
They are used to prevent chicks from straying too far away from heat supply
until they learn the source of heat. We have to provide brooder guard with a
diameter of 5 feet, height of the brooder should not exceed 1.5 feet. For this
purpose, we can use materials like cardboard sheet, GI sheet, wire mesh, and mat
etc. depending upon the season of brooding. During winter season, brooding is done
for 5-6 days. In summer season it is 2-3 weeks.
Receiving of chicks

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 1) After culling the previous adult birds, clean and disinfect the poultry
house.
2) 3 to 4 weeks interval may be provided between 2 batches as down tome.
3) Form a circle of about 5 feet diameter with brooder guard. The 5 feet
diameter brooder can hold about 200 to 250 chicks.
4) At the Centre of brooder guard, provide any one of heat source like IR
bulb, ordinary incandescent bulb or gas brooders.
5) Spread litter material about 2” height in a circle and then spread old
newspaper over the litter material.
6) Arrange feeders and waterers alternatively like cart-wheel fashion.
7) Check the brooder for proper temperature 24 hours prior to arrival of
chicks.
8) Switch on the brooder heating source several hours before the arrival of
the chicks in order to maintain required brooding temperature.
9) Spread ground maize or rava or fine mash / crumble feed on the old
newspaper for 1 or 2 days. Afterwards, they will learn to consume feed from the
feeder.
10) Provide electrolyte, glucose and vitamins in the drinking water for first 2
to 3 days to overcome stress. After arrival of chicks, moist the beak and leave the
chicks under heating source.
11) Maintain a brooder temperature of 90 to 95 0F for the first week and then
reduce 50F every week until it reaches the room temperature.
12) Watch the behavior of chicks in order to find out whether temperature
provided is correct or less or more. In case of too much temperature, we can reduce
the heat by reducing the power of the bulb or we can raise the heating element. In
case of too low temperature, we have to supplement more heating source or we can
further down the heating element. In case of chill weather or chill breeze, we can
provide curtains towards the wind direction.
13) Remove the old newspaper after 3 days and destroy it by burning. If
necessary, spread another set of newspaper.
14) Remove brooder guard after 7 to 10 days depending upon the season.
While removing the brooder guard, see that the corners of the sheds are rounded in
order to avoid mortality due to huddling.
15) Change the feeders and waterers according to age and requirement.
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 16) 24 hours lighting programme may be adopted during 0-8 weeks of age.
One hour darkness may be provided to train the chicks in case of any power failure.
17) Medication programme: First and Second day – Electrolytes and
vitamins. 3rd to 7th day – Antibiotics. (Other medications as and when required)
GROWER MANAGEMENT
1) Proper cleaning and disinfection of grower house is needed before
introduction of grower birds.
2) Provide sufficient floor space, feeding space and water space.
3) Spread litter material to a height of 4” in case of deep-litter system.
4) Arrange feeder and waterers in the grower house.
5) Change the feeder and waterer according to the need.
6) Adopt restricted feeding programme during growing period to prevent
fattening of pullers and early sexual maturity and thus to improved egg production.
7) Follow good litter management to avoid diseases like coccidiosis.
8) Only 12 hours lighting programme is sufficient in case of open-sided
houses. No artificial light is needed.
9) Aim for the uniformity of the flock. Sample weights are taken once in a
week to find out the average body weight as per the breeder suggestions.
10) Follow strictly the recommended vaccination, medication and other
management programs like deworming, debeaking etc for the growers.
Restricted feeding
It is adopted during growing period of layers or breeders. There are two
types of restricted feeding.
1) Quantitative feed restriction
In which the amount of feed is reduced below the normal requirement of
birds. This can be done on day-to-day basis or skip-a-day programme or skip-two
days in a week programme. But this restriction depends on the matching of the
flock average body weight with standard body weight provided by the breeder.
2) Qualitative feed restriction
In which the quality of the feed is reduced below the standard requirement of
the bird. This can be done by including unconventional feeds or lesser nutrient feed
ingredients in place of high protein or high energy diet. Here the quantity of
allotment to the bird is not restricted.

237
 During restricted feeding programme, provide more number of feeders and
see that all the birds are taking feed simultaneously or otherwise dominant birds will
take more amount of feed and the weaker will be subjected feed deprivation and
hence the uniformity will be affected.
Advantages of feed restriction during growing period
1) A considerable saving on feed cost because, only 80% of the calculated
feed requirement will be offered.
2) They are likely to consume less feed per dozen eggs even during laying
period when they are offered ad libitum feed.
3) The pullets accumulate less fat and therefore produce more eggs.
4) It is easier to identify weaker birds at an early age during feed restriction.
Culling of such birds helps not only saving feed but also promoting layer house
survivability because, healthier birds will be moving to laying house.
5) Layers feed-restricted during growing period have been found to produce
heavier eggs in longer clutches than those fed ad libitum.
Uniformity
At a given age, growing pullets should have average body weight very closer
breeder recommendations and at least 70% of the birds’ weight within 10% of flock
average. Points to be considered for getting uniformity among growing pullets are,
1) Receive chicks of uniform weight.
2) Provide proper feeding, watering and floor space.
3) Change the feeder and waterer according to the age.
4) The height of the feeder and waterer should be at the back height of the
bird.
5) Provide proper energy in the diet.
6) Sample weights of the pullets are taken at regular intervals and change
the feed accordingly.
7) Provide proper feeding space, so as to all birds consume feed
simultaneously.
LAYER MANAGEMENT
Points to be considered during layer management are,
1) Proper cleaning and disinfection of layer house.
2) Provide proper floor space, feeding space and watering space both in
deep-litter and cage system
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3) In deep-litter system, floor space of 2 sq.ft. per bird and feeding space of
5” per bird are provided
4) In cage system 4 birds/box of 18” x 15” cage floor space is provided
(0.46 sq. ft per bird)
5) 6 feet linear feeder can be used for every 30 layers or 18” diameter
circular feeder of 4-5 no for every 100 birds.
6) Provide 18” diameter plastic waterer of 2 numbers for every 100 birds.
7) Spread litter material, in case of deep-litter system up to 6” thickness.
8) Arrange feeder and waterer in the poultry house to the height of birds’
back.
9) Grill size may be changed according to the size of the birds head.
10) Provide nest box for every 5 layers about a week before the first egg is
laid.
11) There are three types of nest: 1) Individual nest – One nest box is
sufficient for 4-5 birds. 2) Community nest – This will accommodate
50-60 birds. 3) Trap nest – This will accommodate 1 bird at a time ad
is used for academic and breeding studies.
12) The nest should be provided with litter material. The litter material has
to be replaced at least once in a week to prevent contamination of the
eggs. During night hours the nest should be closed to prevent sitting of
birds in the nest.
13) In deep-litter system, the litter material should be racked in the evening
daily after egg collection is over. The litter should be treated
chemically at least once in a month or whenever necessary in case of
wet litter problem to prevent ammonia emission in the house.
14) Provide 16 hours light during laying period.
15) Provide well-balanced layer mash. Phase feeding may be followed for
layers according to age, level of production and climatic factors. The
average feed consumption during laying period ranges from 100-110
gram.
16) Feed consumption during winter increases and during summer, feed
consumption decreases. Summer and winter management should be
followed for better flock percentages.

239
 17) Deworming should be done regularly at an interval of 6-8 weeks
depending on the worm load, especially when reared under deep-litter
system.
18) Collect the eggs at least 5 times a day in deep-litter system and twice a
day in cage system.
19) Cull the unproductive layers regularly.
20) Broody hen may be separated and this broodiness may be eliminated by,
a) Providing diet containing more protein, vitamin and minerals.
b) Light may be provided through out night.
c) Birds may be placed in cages
d) Birds may be subjected to stress
e) Liver stimulant may be provided.
Vaccination schedule for layers
S.No. Age Name of the vaccine Route of administration
Subcutaneous injection
1. 1st day Marek's Disease vaccine
at Hatchery
Ranikhet Disease F Strain/ Eye drop or Nasal
2. 7th day Lasota. drop.0.2 ml S/C. on the
RD killed. same day
14 to 16 days Infectious Bursal Eye drop 0.2 ml. S / C
3.
(II week) disease(live) IBD(killed) on the same day
21 to 24 th day
4. Infectious Bronchitis Eye drop
(III week)
Ranikhet disease-Lasota
5. 30 to 35 days Eye drop
strain
Infectious Bursal disease
6. 42 to 45 days Eye drop
(live)
56 to 70 days Ranikhet disease "K"
7. Subcutaneous
(8-10 th week) (Mesogenic)
84 to 91 days
Wing web puncture or
8. (12 - 13th Fowl Pox vaccine
Intramuscular
week)
9. 91 to 98 days Infectious Bronchitis Through Drinking

240
 (13 to 14th
Vaccine Water
week)
Ranikhet disease K"
10. 126 to 133 days Subcutaneous Injection
(Mesogenic)
After peak
Ranikhet Disease Vaccine Through Drinking
11. production ,
"Lasota" Water
every 8 Weeks

Takes:
After week of fowl pox vaccination, an inflamed area is seen at the site of
vaccination. It is called as takes.
BROILER MANAGEMENT
Definition
It is a bird of about 8 weeks of age of either sex (straight-run chicks) with an
average body weight of 1.5 to 2.0 kg with a flexible breast bone cartilage, pliable
and tender meat.
Housing systems
Broilers can be housed on deep-litter, slatted or wire floor or cages.
However, cage, slat and wire floor rearing of broilers are not as popular as litter
floor rearing, due to problems like breast blisters, leg weakness and higher initial
investment.
Rearing systems
The systems of rearing refer to either single batch at a time (all-in all-out
system) or multiple batches of brooding and rearing of broilers.
All-in all-out system
Under all-in all-out system, the farm will have only one batch of broilers,
belonging to the same hatch at any time. Sufficient chicks will be purchased to
accommodate the entire farm capacity, reared and marketed in a single lot.
This system is more hygienic, lesser sub-clinical infections and horizontal
spreading of diseases and thereby lesser mortality rate, better growth rate and
improved feed efficiency. However, this system is not suitable for large scale
farming and needs higher fixed and working capital per bird.
Multiple batch system

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 The multiple batch system consists of rearing of more than one batch of
chicks at any time, with a batch interval of 1 to 4 weeks. Here, the farmer is buying
day-old chicks and selling grown up broilers at weekly, fortnightly, once in three
weeks or at monthly intervals. The chicks are reared for five to six weeks of age, or
until they attain the desired body weight and sold for table.
The ideal system for India at present is having 5 to 6 batches of broilers at
any time, with weekly interval between batches and “direct retail marketing”. Here,
the birds will be marketed daily, from 40 to 54 days of age, based on their body
weight, i.e. heavier birds will be sold earlier; giving a chance for weaker birds to
have a compensatory growth.
Floor space, feeder space and waterer space
The floor space requirement of broilers varies depending on their body
weight at the time of marketing, housing systems, marketing age and ambient
temperature. The feeder and waterer space also varies depending on the
environmental temperature and health condition of the birds. The following is the
approximate floor, feeder and waterer space requirement for broilers.

Floor space/ Feeder space/ Waterer space /

Age
bird bird bird

450 cm2
Up to 18 days 3 cm 1.5 cm
(0.5 sq.ft.)

From 19 days to 42 1000 cm2 (1.1

6-7 cm 3 cm
days sq.ft.)

Brooding and rearing of broilers

It is similar to that for egg-type chicks.
Cage rearing of broilers
Broilers can also be reared on cages. Broiler cages are similar to that of
grower cages. To prevent the breast blisters, the bottom of the cage may be coated
with some plastic materials. The floor space requirement in cages is 50% of the
floor space needed in deep-litter. The relative advantages and disadvantages of cage
rearing of broilers are,

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Advantages
4) Higher density of rearing possible
5) Easy to catch the birds at market time and hence reduces bruising
6) No expenditure on litter
7) No incidences of coccidiosis
8) Reduced cannibalism
9) Cleaning and disinfection easier
10) Better growth and feed efficiency
Disadvantages
1) Higher incidences of breast-blisters which increases carcass
condemnations
2) Higher incidences of crooked keel
3) Wing bones will be more brittle which will be a disadvantage for the
processor also.
4) Birds are not having access to the unidentified growth factors in deep-
litter system.
5) Cleaning faecal-trays is not labour friendly.
6) High initial investment on cages.
7) Birds will be uncomfortable especially during summer
Feeding
Generally, three types of feed are offered to broilers from day-old to
marketing.
0-2 Weeks – Broiler Pre-starter mash / crumble
3-4 Weeks – Broiler Starter mash
5-6 Weeks – Broiler Finisher mash

Lighting
In open sided broiler houses, the most commonly recommended lighting
programme is 24 hours light during brooding period, followed by 23 hours light and
one hour darkness per day, until marketing. This one hour darkness is to train the
birds to acclimatize for darkness, in case of power failure, which may cause panic
and trampling.
Vaccination schedule
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 S. Route of
Age Vaccine
No. administration

1 First day Marek’s (athatchery) S/C at neck

2 5-7th day RDV F1 I/O or I/N

3 14th day IBD Vaccine I/O or I/N

4 21st day RDV Lasota Drinking water

5 28th day IBD Vaccine (Booster) Drinking water

NUTRIENT REQUIREMENT OF POULTRY

Poultry being simple stomached species, cannot synthesize most of the

nutrients required for them and so the nutrients become dietary essentials chicken
has to be fed adequate quantities of balanced diet for its growth, livability and to
exhibit its genetic potential to the full extent. Poultry differ from other species of
livestock in body temperature and digestion
Poultry feed is composed of
60-65% Energy giving materials
30-35% of Protein source
2-8% Minerals source.
And above all water. Which is considered as the Principal nutrient should be
pure, whole some, free from physical impurities, toxic substances and Bacterial
contamination.Water : feed ratio 2.2 : 1. It is variable with age, climate, feed and
physiological activity. Excess energy is stored as body fat.
Energy source
Yellow maize, cumbu, cholam ,Rice polish.
This energy materials constitute 50% of the ration.
Protein : Protein is required by the bird for 1. Growth 2. Maintenance of body
tissues 3. Production.
Both vegetable and animal proteins are used in the feed.
Vegetable Protein:
Ground nut oil cake ,Soyabean oil cake ,Gingelly oil cake ,Sunflower oil cake
Mustard oil cake

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 This is added at 15-25% in the ration. It is always advisable to add two or
more for better balancing.
Animal Protein:
Fish meal, meat meal, Blood meal ,silk worm pupa meal out of this fish meal is ideal
This forms -5-10% of the ration.
Fibre
Grain bye products like bran in included from 10-30% for fibre, bowl
movement and minerals. if molasses available it can also be added for energy at 5-
7% levels, which is a cheap source of energy, reduces dustiness, improves
palatability.
Mineral mixture for poultry
Included at 2.3% It is advisable to use salt free mineral mixture because fish
meal available in our country is salted. Calcium supplements such as shell grit,
calcite, limestone, etc. are used at 4-5% levels.
Standard requirement of nutrients:
Chick Grower Layer Broiler Broiler
mash starter Finishe
r
Crude Protein % min. 22 16 18 23 20
Crude fibre % max. 7 8 10 6 6
Calcium % min. 1 0.8 2.75 1 1
Total phosphorus % min 0.7 0.6 0.75 0.7 0.7
Metabolizable 2800 2600 2700- 3000 3100
Energy K/ca/kg. 2750
Lysine (%min.) 1.0 0.7 0.5 1.0 1.0
Methionine (% min) 0.35 0.25 0.25 0.35 0.35

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Approximate feed intake by commercial chicken in tropics
Age in weeks Egg type (grams) Broiler (G.)
1 10 15
2 15 25
3 20 35
4 25 50
5 30 65
6 35 85
7 45 105
8 50 120
9-12 weeks – 40,13-16 weeks – 50 , Restricted feeding 17-20 weeks – 60
During laying
0% Egg Production 80 gm. 70 % 115 gm
25% Egg Production 95 gm. 80 % 120 gm
50% Egg Production 105gm. Over 80% 120 gm
60% Egg Production 110 gm.
FCR- Broilers:-

• Quantity of feed consumes = 3.60kg

• Average body weight of broiler = 2.00 kg

• (in a period of 42 days)

• FCR = 3.6 /2.00 = 1.8

• (i.e) 1.8 : 1, For every 1.8 kg feed intake produced one kg body weight

FCR- Layers:-
• Quantity of feed consumes = 40.00kg
• Average no. of eggs laid/ bird = 300 kg
• (21-72 weeks period)
• FCR/dozen of eggs = 40.00 /300 X 12 = 1.6
• (i.e) 1.6 : 1, For every 1.6 kg feed intake produced one dozen of eggs
Similarly , FCR is calculated for every kg of egg produced

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Assuming that average weight of an egg is 50 grams , and the number of eggs laid is
300 numbers , then it is 300 x50 = 15000 grams or 15 kgs.
40 kg of feed is required to produce 15 kg of egg .
So to produce one kg of egg, the feed consumed = 40/15 =2.67 kg of feed
(i.e) 2.67 : 1, For every 2.67 kg feed intake produced one kg of eggs.
Lighting time for broiler and layer:-
• Young chickens (1–5 days) 24 hours constant light at 40 lux* minimum with
5–60 minutes
• Young chickens (6–10 days old) 23 hours constant light at 30 lux .
• Pullets 15 hours constant light at 5 lux
• Layers 16 hours constant light at 10 lux
• Broilers 23 hours constant light at 40 lux 1–5 days, then 23 hours constant
light at 3–5 lux, and remaining 1 hour for dark or alternate 2 hours light at 5 lux, 2
hours dark
• *Lux is the unit of illumination and measures the amount of light per square
metre. 50 lux is about the brightness of an average Lounge room.

Guide lines for feed management

 Purchase quality ingredients / feed. with least moisture and devoid of
adulteration.
 If own feed is mixed formula may be modified depending upon the cost
andavailability of ingredients
 If agricultural farm is attached farm grown grain can be used
 Purchase one month or two months requirements.
 Screen the feed store room against rodents, sparrows other vermins.
 Observe the feed intake by the birds during summer, winter.
 If moisture level exceeds 15% (except molasses) during hot season it may
cause growth of fungus and precipitate problems like aflatoxicosis.
 The feeder should not to filled to full to minimize the feed wastage.
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS
There are many factors which influence the nutrient requirement of poultry,
they are
i. Species variation

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ii. Breed and strain (genetic factor)
iii. Age of the bird
iv. Purpose of the bird
v. Environmental temperature (season)
vi. Water consumption
vii. Quality of nutrients
viii. Disease conditions
ix. Freshness of feed
x. Intensity of production
xi. Value added products
xii. Nutrient inter relationships
i. Species variation
The vit-B complex requirement is high for Japanese quails and turkey
when compared to chicken. If its requirement is high, the protein
requirement is also high.
Geese and emu can utilize high fibre and low energy diets as they can
synthesize many B complex vitamins.
Ducks can utilize fish scales.
ii. Breed and strain (Genetic factor)
Heavy breeds require less percentage of protein than light breeds.
White leghorn requires more methionine than Australorp.
Lysine and arginine requirement also differ from breed to breed and
strain to strain.
In general, there is a specific difference among different breeds and
strains for most of the nutrients.
iii. Age of the bird
Poultry during first 21 days of life have higher requirements for some
nutrients than during the growing period. The requirement of vitamin-A
increases with age. The requirement of riboflavin is similar during
growing and breeding period and less during growth and production of
table egg. Calcium requirement during egg production is 3-4 times more
than during the starting and growing period. However, trace mineral
requirement is similar throughout the life.
iv. Purpose of the bird
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Breeders must receive a high dietary level of vitamins than table egg producers. The
egg must be fortified with vitamins to ensure better hatchability and livability of
newly hatched chicks. The three most critical vitamins needed in large amounts in
breeder ration are riboflavin (B2), vit-A and vit-B12. Breeders 2-3 times more of
riboflavin, 20% more of vit-A and2 times that of vit-B12 than for commercial layers.
v. Environmental temperature (season)
When the environmental temperature increases, the requirement for protein
increases and for energy decreases. Since there is reduction in feed intake in warm
weather, all nutrients should be increased in proportion to the expected reduced feed
intake.
vi. Water consumption
The water consumption of broilers and layers has been found to be a function of
feed consumption. Broilers consume 1.5 times more water than feed where as layers
consume 2 times more water than feed consumption.
vii. Quality of nutrients
Nutrient requirements depend on qualities like biological value of ingredients and
presence of toxins.
viii. Disease condition
Disease condition like FLHS influences the nutrient requirement. To control this,
energy content of the diet has to be reduced and protein content has to be increased.
Lipotropic factors like choline chloride have to be included in the diet. In
coccidiosis, high protein adversely affects the birds, so the protein level can be
reduced. In general, most of the diseases cause lower feed consumption and hence
care has to be taken to include the required nutrients depending upon the feed
consumption.
ix. Freshness of the feed
Fresh feed is consumed better than stale/old feed. In fresh feed nutrient loss is less.
x. Intensity of production
Birds producing more than 90% require 20% protein
Birds producing 80% requires 18% protein
Birds producing 70% requires 16% protein
xi. Value added products
For production of designer eggs birds need vit-E, selenium, carotenoid pigments
and omega 3 fatty acids.
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 xii. Nutrient inter relationship
Energy – protein inter relationship
Vit-D3 – Ca – P inter relationship
Choline – methionine – vit-B12 interrelationship.
INCUBATION AND HATCHING
Incubation is the act of bringing an egg to hatching. It may be either natural
or artificial.
Natural incubation
In this method, broody hens are made to sit over hatching eggs to hatch out
chicks. A hen can sit over hatching eggs to a longer period without feed and water
due to some hormonal changes in its body. Prolactin is responsible for broodiness in
chicken.
Artificial incubation
In this method, mechanical equipments (incubators) are used for hatching
purpose. Incubators are placed in a building called hatchery.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF INCUBATORS
I. Based on air circulation:
1) Sill air incubators
2) Forced draft incubators
II. Based on heating source:
1) Hot air incubator
2) Hot water incubator
III. Based on fuel used
1) Gas operated incubator
2) Oil operated incubator
3) Electrically operated incubators.

HATCHERY DESIGN
Location
The chick hatcheries are modern buildings that provide separate rooms for each
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hatchery operations, but each room has its individual requirements. The hatchery
area should be a separate unit with its own entrance and exit, unassociated with
those of the poultry farm. The hatchery should be situated at least 1000 ft from
poultry houses.
Size of the hatchery
The size of the hatchery is based on the egg capacity of the setters and hatchers,
number of eggs that can be set each week and number of chicks hatched each
week. Also, necessary space to be allotted for future expansion.
Hatchery design
Hatchery should be constructed in such a manner that the hatching eggs may be
taken in one end and the chicks removed at the other. There should not be no
backtracking
Hatchery rooms / Structures
Hatchery rooms must be adequate in size. Usually, hatcheries of medium
size will hatch chicks twice a week, but large hatcheries will hatch more than two
hatches per week. Consequently, hatching schedules will affect the size of some
rooms in the hatchery. The Floor space of the various hatchery rooms when there
are two hatches per week are,
1) Shower room
To maintain bio-security it is essential that all persons entering the
premises shower and change into clean clothing in an adjoining room. It is the
only entrance and exit, and the hatchery becomes an isolated unit as far as human
beings are concerned.
2) Hatching eggs receiving counter
Employees delivering hatching eggs to the hatchery must not enter the
hatchery in the course of their duties. Eggs should be delivered to the hatchery
through a specialized door.

3) Fumigation room
The fumigation room should be as small as possible in order to reduce the
amount of fumigant used. A fan should be used to circulate the air and exhaust
the fumigant.
4) Egg holding (Egg-cooler) room
Egg holding room should be about 8 ft high, insulated, slowly ventilated,

251
with complete air movement, cooled, and humidified. The room must be
refrigerated to maintain a temperature of 65o F. A forced-air type of refrigeration
unit is required in order to keep a uniform temperature throughout the room.
5) Pre-incubation warming room
Here eggs are kept for the purpose of drying the ‘sweat’ over eggs. It can
be achieved by providing sufficient number of ceiling fans in this room.
5) Setter room
Setters (incubators) are kept in this room. The size of the setter room will
depend on the make of the equipment used. The exact room size involves the
aisle and working area necessary to move the eggs and chicks in and out of the
machines. A minimum space of 3 ft should be allotted between the sides of
adjacent setters and from wall to sides or back of the setters. Similarly, minimum
of 10 ft should be allotted in front of two setters when kept face-to-face
arrangements.
6) Egg candling (Dark) room
This room is usually constructed in between setter and hatcher room for
candling eggs. Candling is usually practiced when eggs are transferred from
setter to hatcher. Provisions should be made to dark the room to facilitate easy
candling.
7) Hatcher room
Hatchers are kept in this room. Here sufficient spaces are to be allowed
around hatcher similar to that of setter room. Since it is prone for contamination
with fluffs and debris at the time of hatching, the door towards setter room is to be
tightly closed unless the necessity arises.

8) Chick-holding room
Next to hatcher room, chick-holding room is present. A relative humidity
of 65% is maintained to prevent excessive chick dehydration. Here, the chicks are
sex-separated, graded, vaccinated and placed in chick boxes.
9) Wash room
After chicks are boxed, the trays are washed in a tray washer in the
washroom. Necessary pipelines with high-pressure pumps are kept in this room.
10) Clean room
After the trays are washed, they are placed in their trolleys and moved to

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the adjacent clean room.
PRINCIPLES OF INCUBATION
Five major functions are involved in the incubation and hatching of poultry
eggs. They are:
 Temperature
 Humidity
 Ventilation (Oxygen and Carbon dioxide level and air velocity)
 Position of eggs
 Turning of eggs
1. Temperature
Temperature is the most critical environmental concern during incubation.
Embryo starts developing when the temperature exceeds the Physiological Zero.
Physiological zero is the temperature below which embryonic growth is arrested and
above which it is reinitiated. The physiological zero for chicken eggs is about 75oF
(24oC). The optimum temperature for chicken egg in the setter (for first 18 days)
ranges from 99.50 to 99.75 o F and in the hatcher (last 3 days) is 98.5 o F.
2. Humidity
Incubation humidity determines the rate of moisture loss from eggs during
incubation. In general, the humidity is recorded as relative humidity by comparing
the temperatures recorded by wet-bulb and dry-bulb thermometers. Recommended
incubation relative humidity for the first 18 days ranging between 55 and 60% (in
setter) and for the last 3 days ranging between 65 and 75%.
3. Ventilation
Ventilation is important in incubators and hatchers because fresh oxygenated
air is needed for the respiration (oxygen intake and carbon dioxide given off) of
developing embryos from egg setting until chick removal from the incubator.
Generally the oxygen content of the air in the setter remains at about 21%. For
every 1% drop in oxygen there is 5% reduction in hatchability.
Carbon dioxide is a natural by-product of metabolic processes during
embryonic development and is released through the shell. The tolerance level of
CO2 for the first 4 days in the setter is 0.3%. CO 2 levels above 0.5% in the setter
reduce hatchability and completely lethal at 5.0%.
4. Position of eggs

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 Artificially incubating eggs should be held with their large ends up. It is
natural for the head of the chick to develop in the large end of the egg near the air
cell, and for the developing embryo to orient itself so that the head is uppermost.
Eggs positioned horizontally will incubate and hatch normally as long as they are
turned frequently. Under normal circumstances eggs are set with large end up for the
first 18 days (in setter) and in horizontal position for the last 3 days (in hatcher).
5. Turning of eggs
Birds, including chickens and quail, turn their eggs during nest incubation.
Nature provides nesting birds with the instinct of turning eggs during incubation.
Similarly eggs to be turned at least 8 times a day. Turning of eggs during incubation
prevents the developing embryo adhering to the extra-embryonic membranes and
reduces the possibility of embryo mortality. In large commercial incubators the eggs
are turned automatically each hour i.e. 24 times a day. Most eggs are turned to a
position of 45o from vertical, and then reversed in the opposite direction to 45o from
vertical.
HANDLING OF HATCHING EGGS AND STORAGE
The quality of hatching egg cannot be improved after lay but one can reduce
the loss in hatching egg quality by adopting some standard procedures.
Maintaining egg quality in the breeder house
Use of enough clean, dry and mold-free nesting material can avoid cracked
and dirty eggs. Similarly hens to be trained to use nests to lay eggs instead of laying
on floors by providing sufficient number of nest boxes well in advance before the
laying starts. The frequency of hatching egg collection is very important to maintain
quality. Hatching eggs should be collected at least 4 times a day. Hatching eggs are
susceptible to contamination and every effort must be made to reduce the microbial
load.
Selection of hatching eggs
Eggs that are cracked, dirty or misshapen are usually not used for hatching.
Very small or very large eggs do not hatch as well as eggs in the middle size range.
Eggs with thin or very porous shells are not likely to hatch well because of excessive
losses of water during incubation.
Reducing contamination of hatching eggs
Fumigation with formaldehyde gas is an effective method of sanitizing
hatching eggs. Solutions containing quaternary ammonium compounds, formalin,
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hydrogen peroxide or phenols may be moderately effective in reducing the microbial
load over hatching eggs. DO NOT wash eggs unless necessary. If it is necessary to
wash eggs always use a damp cloth with water warmer than the egg.
Storage of hatching eggs
In normal hatchery operations, eggs cannot be set immediately after they are
laid. Many hatcheries set eggs once or twice in a week. If hatching eggs are stored
up to 1 week, hatching eggs should be kept in an egg holding room with the
temperature of 65oF and the relative humidity of 75%.
HATCHERY OPERATIONS
The operation of a chick hatchery involves the production of the largest
number of quality chicks possible from the hatching eggs received at the hatchery.
The sequences of hatchery operations followed in commercial hatcheries are,

1) Securing hatching eggs 9) Pulling the hatch

2) Traying hatching eggs 10) Hardening
3) Fumigation 11) Grading
4) Cold Storage 12) Sexing
5) Warm eggs prior to setting 13) Vaccination
6) Loading of eggs 14) Chick delivery
7) Candling 15) Washing and
8) Transfer of eggs cleaning
16) Disposal of waste

1) Securing hatching eggs

Hatcheries can get the hatching eggs from any one of the following ways:
1) From own breeder flock
2) From other breeder flocks
3) From other hatcheries
2) Traying hatch eggs
The eggs from the breeder flocks should be transferred to the egg setter trays
in the hatchery immediately after receiving.
3) Fumigation of hatching eggs
After traying, eggs are to be kept in the fumigation chamber for fumigation.
Fumigating with 3x concentration of formaldehyde for 20 minutes will kill about

255
97.5 to 99.5% of the organisms on the shells. One ‘x’ concentration means 20 g of
KMnO4 with 40 ml of formalin for 100 cubic feet (3x means 60 g of KmnO4 + 120
ml of formalin for 100 cubic feet).
4) Cold Storage
When the eggs are not set immediately after receiving, they should be kept in
cold rook at the temperature of 65 oF and 75% relative humidity.
5) Warm eggs prior to setting
Approximately 6 hours prior to placing eggs in the setter they should be
moved from the egg-cooler room to normal room temperature. Here, atmospheric
air condenses over eggshell and form water droplets over eggshell, which is called
as ‘Sweating’.
6) Loading of eggs
Placing of eggs in the setter is called ‘Loading of eggs’. Eggs can be set in
the setter either all-in all-out basis or batch basis. Most of the commercial
hatcheries are practicing batch system of loading eggs in the setter that will
minimize the initial time taken to reach normal incubation temperature in the setter.
7) Candling
Candling is a process in which eggs are kept in front of a light source to find
out the defects in eggshell, embryonic development etc. Under commercial
operations, candling is done when the eggs are transferred from setter to hatcher (at
19th day for chicken eggs).
There are two methods of candling that
can be used. The fastest method involves the
use of a table or mass candler. An entire tray of
hatching eggs may be placed on the mass
candler and examined with one observation.
Candling with a spot candler or individual
candler is a little slower, but it is more accurate.

8) Transfer of eggs
In modern incubators, eggs are transferred from setter to hatcher at 19th day
of incubation (for chicken egg) or when approximately 1% of the eggs are slightly
pipped. In general, one-seventh of total incubation period is needed to keep eggs in
the hatcher.

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9) Pulling the hatch
The process of removing the chicks from the hatcher is often called pulling
the hatch. Chicks should be removed from the hatcher as soon as all are hatched
and about 95% are dry. Excessive drying in the hatcher should be avoided.
10) Hardening the chicks
When the chicks are first placed in the chick boxes they are soft in the
abdomen, are not completely fluffed out, and do not stand well. They must be
“hardened” by leaving them in the boxes for 4 or 5 hours. Such hardening makes it
easier to grade the chicks for quality, and the chicks are more easily vent-sexed.
11) Grading the chicks
No chick below the minimum standard must be allowed to go to a customer.
Some standards for quality are, 1) No chick deformities 2) No unhealed navels 3)
Above a minimum weight 4) Not dehydrated and 5) Stand up well.
12) Sexing the chicks
Layer type day-old chicks are needed to be sex separated either by vent
sexing or auto-sexing (feather sexing). In case of meat-type day-old chicks sexing is
not practiced.
13) Vaccination
Most chicks are vaccinated against Marek’s disease in hatchery before
delivery. Most common method of vaccination of day-old chicks is by subcutaneous
method in the nape of the neck.
14) Chick delivery
Baby chicks should reach the customer’s farm early in the morning. Not
only the weather is cooler during this part of the day but the early arrival allows a
full day for close observation of the chicks by the caretaker.
15) Washing and cleaning
Cleaning the hatchery between hatches is of primary importance. The
process must be complete. Except for the setters and setter room, every piece of
equipment must be thoroughly vacuumed, scrubbed, disinfected and fumigated.
16) Disposal of waste
Hatchery wastes include infertile and non-hatched eggs and dead and cull
chicks that should be disposed in such a manner not to create problem to the
neighbors and also not to contaminate the hatchery premises.
IMPORTANT INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF POULTRY
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 Disease is a condition caused by living factors like viruses, bacteria or
parasites or non-living factors such as deficiencies, toxins and other physical or
chemical agents. Diseases can be classified depending on the causative factors.
Diseases cause severe loss in poultry production, not only from death of birds but
also due to loss in production. Some of the common poultry diseases and the
symptoms of each are described below
I. BACTERIAL DISEASES
Coli bacillosis
This is a common bacterial disease caused by E.coli organism. It can
manifest in different forms such as infection of the yolk sac, colisepticaemia, etc.
lethargy and diarrhea will be noticed. Control of infection of the yolk sac depends
on sanitary conditions at the hatchery and provision of appropriate warmth during
brooding. The practice of efficient water sanitation methods and the use of clean
drinkers are advised. Provide adequate ventilation and manage the litter properly.
Salmonellosis
This disease is transmitted vertically from parent flocks and affects baby
chicks with a high mortality. Huddling, pasting of vent feathers and whitish diarrhea
are noticed. Ensure salmonella free chicks from the hatchery by using sterilized fish
meal and meat meal. Pelleting of feed will also be helpful. Add antibiotics like
furazolidone to the feed to control salmonellosis.
Coryza
Symptoms if this disease is swollen face and eyes filled with cheesy
substance. Respiratory distress and poor feed intake are noticeable. Avoid
overcrowding and wet litter and reduce the ammonia level by proper ventilation.
II. VIRAL DISEASES
These are prevented by carrying out protective vaccinations at recommended
age; treatment will not be effective.
Newcastle Disease
It is the most dreadful disease in poultry with a high mortality rate in all
age groups. Respiratory distress, paralysis of legs and wings, greenish diarrhea and
twisting of neck are noticed. Control IBD and give toxin free feed. Multiple
vaccinations should be given as suggested and routine screening of sera samples in
large farms are advisable.
Infectious Bursal Disease (IBD or Gumboro disease)
258
 Young birds are affected which show symptoms of listlessness, huddling,
whitish pasty diarrhea and pecking at vents. The consequences of this disease are
10-60 percent mortality and breakdown of immunity leading to outbreak of other
diseases. Vaccinate young birds at the recommended age and include immune
stimulants like Vit-E in the feed and the feed should be free from toxin.
PROTOZOAN DISEASES
Coccidiosis: Eimeria tenella, E.necatrix
• Three common types of coccidiosis can occur. Caecal and duodenal types
affect younger birds.
• Birds over 10 weeks of age are affected by intestinal coccidiosis. Mortality is
higher in younger birds.
• Reddish diarrhoea, stunted growth and crouching are noticeable symptoms.
• There is a loss of raw or digested blood through droppings.
• Performance is very severely affected because of poor absorption of nutrients
through the intestine.
• Avoid wet litter. Ensure proper management. Avoid spillage of water.
• Coccidiostats like Superdot, Clopidol, Cycostat, etc., should be used in
broiler mashes and brooder and grower mashes.
• Coccicidal drugs like Salinomycin and Maduramycin should be used in
broiler mashes only.
• Preventive water medication with coccidiostats like Amprolium, Codrinal,
etc., may also be adopted.
• The coccidiostats used in feed may be rotated every three to six months to
prevent the parasite developing resistance against the drug in use.
GENERAL DISEASE CONTROL MEASURES:
1. Buy chicks from reputed disease from companies.
2. Adhere strictly to vaccination programme.
3. Keep the houses dry cool and well ventilated.
4. Rodent and fly proof.
5. Sanitation of litter, feeder and waterer.
6. Follow medication schedules.
7. P.M. disposal through burial or incineration of the waste and dead.
8. Earmark areas for specific age group.
9. Screening visitors.
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10. Foot baths with sanitizers.
11. All in all out system.
12. Personnel sanitation.
VACCINATION
It is correctly pointed out that "Prevention is better than Cure ".Many viral
diseases cannot be treated but can be controlled only by preventive vaccination.
1) Routes of administration
Administration through 1) Drinking Water : It is time and labour saving
method. Vaccine is reconstituted in cold drinking water along with skim milk
powder at the rate of 4 gram per litre of water and used immediately. For example
RDV Lasota Vaccine.
2) Intra ocular -Intra nasal instillation.
The vaccine is reconstituted in normal Saline solution. One drop of diluted
vaccine is applied to the nostrils or eye. Ex : RDVF . The virus particle gets
absorbed in the mucous membrane and immunization is obtained.
3) Spray Vaccine
Spray or mist spraying is done in chick boxes in the hatcheries. Small drops of
equal size is sprayed and the boxes are allowed for 10 to 15 minutes for drying.
Drying should not be done near light or by hot air.
4) Wing Web puncture method
Fowl pox vaccine is reconstituted in 50% glycerol saline and taken in forked
needle and vaccination is done by puncturing through wing web. Care should be
taken that muscle, nerve and blood vessels are damaged by the vaccination.
5) Feather Follicle Method
Pigeon pox vaccine is reconstituted with 50% glycerol saline. After plucking
of the feather follicles in the internal thigh region, with the help of a glass rod, the
vaccine is smeared and rubbed . After 5 days the birds have to be examined for
"Takes”. Takes are cellular reaction taking place in the nervous system.
6) Subcutaneous injection
Ranikhet K vaccine is reconstituted with normal saline and 0.5ml is given
between two layers of skin in the wing web region without damaging nerves, blood
vessels and muscle The vaccine should be protected in ice box during vaccination
and should be used within one hour
Debeaking
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 It is recommended to debeak the layer birds to control feather pecking and
cannibalism, bullying. It is carried out by means of electrocautery. It is important
to remove only one third of the upper beak taking care to avoiding tongue. It is
usually practiced at the age of 10-14 days and repeated at the age of 14-16 weeks.
Debeaking should never be done with penknife.
Overcrowding, inadequate space for standing/ feeding/ watering and resting,
starvation, external wounds, less fiber diet and deficiency of vitamins and minerals
may pre dispose the birds to cannibalism.
Procedure
The bird has to be restrained by holding wings and legs by left hand and the
tongue is pushed backwards by opening mouth and introducing index finger so that
the tongue is not cut The upper beak is cut to 1/3 rd of it’s length and the lower beak
is slightly trimmed.. After debeaking vitamins and antibiotics are to be
administered for 3-5days to avoid stress and secondary infections.
Deworming
Is the process of removing worms from digestive tract of the birds. The
tapeworm passes segments and is consumed by intermediate host (earthworm,
cockroach) where intermediate stage get developed and passed out, which inturn is
consumed by host. The eggs or ova of round worms are passed in the droppings
which is picked by other birds directly or indirectly with the help of chance carriers
(personnel, insects, flies, ants, etc). Sometimes wild birds such as crows may serve
as source of infestation.
Birds show the following symptoms when they are infested with worms
 Dullness- weakness, emaciation
 Paralysis-due to toxins produced from worms
 Enteritis-diarrhea with blood
 Anemia-due to sucking of blood by worms.
 Drop in egg production.
If infestation is on a larger scale there may be mechanical block of intestinal
lumen and some times rupture occurs. This may also result due to intestinal stasis of
food particles.

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 Deworming is practiced at intervals of 45days in layer birds and also before
RDVK vaccination. Deworming is done against tape worms only on absolute
necessity.
Delicing
Is the process of removing of external parasites like ticks, mites and fleas
which suck the blood from the bird .The following symptoms are observed during
external parasitic infestation: itching, restlessness, external wounds, loss of body
weight, weakness, anemia and drop in production.
Procedure
The dipping of the birds in sunny days has to be done with the following
chemicals to remove the external parasites.
Summation or malathion - 5ml in 100ml of water. The bird has to be
immersed in the chemical solution avoiding eye and mouth. The dipped one has to
be dried in a separate enclosure. The feeders, waters and building should be sprayed
with this chemical solution to remove the external parasites. After dipping, to
relieve stress to the bird vitamin A, B complex has to be given to improve the health
of the birds.
***********************************All the
Best*********************************

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