LESSON 1. SCIENCE AND SOCIETY.

SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS. SCIENCE

AND YOUNG SCIENTISTS.
БЛОК 1

1.1. Read and translate the text into Ukrainian.

SCIENCE AND SOCIETY

Students of science major in various fields of science. They take part in research and development
(R&D) at their institutions. The faculty and staff at the universities and institutes will assist the
students as they fulfill their academic and professional goals.

Research advisors — well-known scientists will help their students with research. Graduate
students spend most of their time in independent study and original research. For example,
graduate studies in the USA can be divided into two phases:

Phase I leads to Master's degree and consists of lecture-type coursework. This degree is usually
required in fields such as engineering, library science etc. The MBA, or Master of Business
Administration usually takes two years.

These degrees are considered stepping stones toward a PhD. Normally few, if any laboratory
courses are offered. A thesis, calling for significant research and/or design effort may be required.

Phase II leads to doctoral degree — PhD (doctorate). Students who are enrolled in a doctoral
program are known as PhD candidates. They will spend some time in class, but the most important
work is spent in first-hand research. It may take three years or more to earn a PhD Degree. This
degree normally requires four to six years of study beyond the Bachelor's degree, culminating in
lengthy, in-depth, original research of a specific topic, which may be both theoretical and applied,
or purely theoretical.

Usually, doctoral studies focus very heavily on developing advanced scientific skills.

A PhD dissertation is considered a unique, original contribution to human knowledge. This paper
must contain views, research or designs that have not been previously published.

The best and the most suitable methods, techniques, approaches and procedures should be used.

Several research publications on issues relevant to the investigation should be prepared. Most
universities awarding the PhD Degree also require doctoral candidates to have a reading
knowledge of two foreign languages, to pass a qualifying examination that officially admits
candidates to the PhD program, and to pass an oral examination on the same topic as the
dissertation.

If the dissertation in all the requirements it will be accepted and approved by a special board of
academics after oral defense.
Most scientists spend many years studying and working in laboratories. Scientists can work
individually or in a team. In many cases, scientists are devoted to their work and may find little
time to do other things. Usually scientists are involved in studying various aspects of their fields,
and work on one or two major projects at one time.

БЛОК 2

2.1. Read and translate the text.

WORD FORMATION. WORDS OF LATIN AND GREEK ORIGIN IN RESEARCH

AND SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE

In English grammar, a root is a word or portion of a word from which other words grow, usually
through the addition of prefixes and suffixes. By learning root words, you can decipher unfamiliar
words, expand your vocabulary, and become a better English speaker.

Most words in the English language are based on words from ancient Greek and Latin. The
root of the word "vocabulary," for example, is voc, a Latin root meaning "word" or "name". This
root also appears in such words as "advocacy," "convocation," "evocative," "vocal," and "vowel."
By dissecting words such as these, etymologists can study how a word has evolved over time and
tell us about the cultures they came from.

In some cases, root words might be slightly transformed en route to becoming part of words
that we're familiar with. In the above example, "vowel" is a word that's clearly related to the voc
root and its family of derivative words, and yet the "c" in "voc" is not present. There are several
reasons for this sort of pattern, and the changes often depend on what language each individual
word comes from, but it serves as a reminder that not every word with the same root will look
exactly the same.

Root words are also useful for creating new words, especially in technology and medicine,
where new innovations occur frequently. Think of the Greek root word tele, which means "far,"
and inventions that traverse long distances, such as the telegraph, telephone, and television. The
word "technology" itself is a combination of two other Greek root words, techne, meaning "skill"
or "art," and logos, or "study." Because several modern languages share some of the same ancestor
languages, it's not entirely uncommon for several related languages to share root words. For
instance, the Latin root voc, described above, is shared by several Romance languages.
Connections between languages can be found in the shared roots between them, although one
always has to be wary of false cognates - that is, words that sound like they have the same roots
(and thus related meanings) but actually don't.

Greek Root Words

Below defines and illustrates 25 of the most common Greek roots.

Root Meaning Examples

anti against antibacterial, antidote, antithesis

ast(er) star asteroid, astronomy, astronaut

aqu water aquarium, aquatic, aqualung

auto self automatic, automate, autobiograph

biblio book bibliography, bibliophile

bio life biography, biology, biodegradable

chrome color monochromatic, phytochrome

chrono time chronic, synchronize, chronicle

doc teach document, docile, doctrinal

dyna power dynasty, dynamic, dynamite

geo earth geography, geology, geometry

gno to know agnostic, acknowledge

graph write autograph, graphic, demographic

hydr water dehydrate, hydrant, hydropower

kinesis movement kinetic, photokinesis

logos word, study astrology, biology, theologian

narc sleep narcotic, narcolepsy

path feel empathy, pathetic, apathy

phil love philosophy, bibliophile, philanthropy

phon sound microphone, phonograph, telephone

photo light photograph, photocopy, photon

schem plan scheme, schematic

syn together, with synthetic, photosynthesis

tele far telescope, telepathy, television

tropos turning heliotrope, tropical

Latin Root Words

Below defines and illustrates 25 of the most common Latin roots.

Root Meaning Examples

ab to move away abstract, abstain, aversion

acer, acri bitter acrid, acrimony, exacerbate

audi hear audible, audience, auditorium

bene good benefit, benign, benefactor

brev short abbreviate, brief

circ round circus, circulate

dict say dictate, edict, dictionary

duc lead, make deduce, produce, educate

fund bottom founder, foundation, funding

gen to birth gene, generate, generous

hab to have ability, exhibit, inhabit

jur law jury, justice, justify

lev to lift levitate, elevate, leverage

log, logue thought logic, apologize, analogy

luc, lum light lucid, illuminate, translucent

manu hand manual, manicure, manipulate

mis, mit send missile, transmit, permit

omni all omnivorous, omnipotent, omniscient

pac peace pacify, pacific, pacifist

port carry export, import, important

quit silent, restive tranquil, requiem, acquit

scrib, script to write script, proscribe, describe

sens to feel sensitive, sentient, resent

terr earth terrain, territory, extraterrestrial

tim to fear timid, timorous

vac empty vacuum, vacate, evacuate

vid, vis to see video, vivid, invisible

Understanding the meanings of the common word roots can help us deduce the meanings of
new words that we encounter. But be careful: root words can have more than one meaning as well
as various shades of meaning. In addition, words that look similar may derive from different roots.
This list includes words such as photo, kinesis, chrome, port, and script. Words like this tend to
have related meanings on their own, then can also act as roots for longer, more complex words.

Answers:

1. The faculty and staff at the universities and institutes will assist the students as they fulfill
their academic and professional … . goals
2. Graduate students spend most of their time in independent … and original research.
Study
3. Doctoral studies … very heavily on developing advanced scientific skills. Focus
4. If the dissertation … all the requirements it will be accepted and approved by a special
board of academics after oral defense. Meets
5. Scientists are … in studying various aspects of their fields, and work on one or two major
projects at one time. Involved
6. I'll keep … gel in my hand, just waiting. Antibacterial
7. Public finances were characterized by a ... budget deficit. Chronic
8. A full … design policy as well as branding standards will be developed for the Platform.
Graphic
9. Proposals should include the title of the presentation as well as a short … (maximum 400
words). Abstract
10. Governments should … people and encourage healthier options. educate

LESSON 2. SCIENCE. MOVING POWERS

OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCHES. WORD
ORDER.
БЛОК 1

1.1. Read and translate the text into Ukrainian.

The word «science» originates from the Latin word «scientia», meaning «knowledge». Thinking
about science, Goethe once said, «To one man it is the highest thing, a heavenly goddess; to
another it is a productive and proficient cow who supplies them with butter». The results of science
and the motives for doing it are diverse.
Curiosity is the most powerful motivation for research professionals — and for many amateurs,
too. Science clarifies, explains and occasionally predicts. Understanding a piece of universe can
bring satisfaction and excitement to anyone. Science serves the missions of improving health,
national security, energy, the environment and communications; it creates new products, meets the
demands of emerging markets and satisfies social needs. But even strong faith in science may
crack in straitened circumstances.

When it comes to future justification for curiosity-driven and mission-oriented research, we

encounter three related undertakings. First, we have to rethink the case from inside the scientific
community. Government, businesses and universities must demonstrate that investments in
science are the only way of fulfilling long- range goals. Research executives will have to document
the ample returns from past investments and then outline future paths. Setting priorities will not
be easy, and stern management to ensure excellence will be essential.

Second, we should broaden the dialogue. Society must be engaged in continuing exchange about
national goals and research priorities. The press, industry, nonprofit organizations must participate.

Finally, we must expand the accessibility of knowledge.

The entire professional community must pay more attention to building a scientifically literate
society. Support for science, and for the benefits of technology, increases with educational level.
To be successful, we need more science, not less.

БЛОК 2

2.1. Read and translate the text.

WORD ORDER

The English language is characterized by a fixed word order. In many cases the word order
indicates the syntactical function of the word.

In declarative sentences the most typical word order is as follows: 1 — subject, 2 — predicate,
3 — direct object. The indirect object is placed between the verb and its direct object. The
prepositional object is usually placed after the direct object or, if there is no direct object, after the
predicate.

Adverbial modifiers are mostly placed after the objects or after the predicate if there are no
objects. Adverbial modifiers of place generally precede those of time and adverbial modifiers of
manner precede those of place and time. Adverbial modifiers of time and place may also be put at
the beginning of the sen¬tence. Adverbs of indefinite time usually precede the predicate but they
follow the verb to be as well as auxiliary and modal verbs.

Adverbial modifiers of manner expressed by adverbs are placed after the predicate or its
object: they can also be put before the predicate but after the verb to be, after auxiliary and modal
verbs.

The direct object expressed by a group of words can be se¬parated from its verb by a
prepositional object or an adverbial modifier.
 With verbs to ring up, to put on, etc. the direct object exp¬ressed by a personal pronoun is
placed between the components of the verb. If the direct object is a noun, it can be placed both
between the components and after the second of them.

The order of words in which the predicate is placed before the subject is called inversion.

Inversion is full when the whole predicate is placed before the subject or partial when only
the auxiliary or modal verb pre¬cedes the subject.

Full inversion is used in sentences with the introductory there.

Full inversion occurs in declarative sentences beginning with adverbial modifiers of place if
the subject of the sentence is a noun and the predicate is an intransitive verb.

Full inversion takes place when the sentence begins with the words here, there, now, then if
the subject is a noun.

Full inversion is used when the words up, off, out, down, etc. open the sentence but only
when the subject is a noun.

Full inversion is found with the verbs to say, to answer, to reply, etc. used after direct speech
if the subject is a noun and the verb has no object.

Partial inversion takes place in sentences beginning with such words as never, seldom,
rarely, little, in vain, hardly, scarcely, not only, nor, neither, no sooner than.

1. The word «science» originates from the … word «scientia», meaning «knowledge».
Latin
2. Science creates new products, meets the … of emerging markets and satisfies social needs.
demands
3. Research executives will have to document the ample … from past investments and then
outline future paths. Returns
4. Society must be engaged in continuing … about national goals and research priorities. exchange
5. The entire professional community must pay more attention to building a … literate society.
scientifically
6. In English, the correct, standard word order in a sentence is: SVO
7. What’s wrong with this sentence? I am going to speak to you very seriously. nothing, it’s
correct
8. What’s wrong with this sentence? Quietly, he entered the classroom. misplaced adverb
9. Correct the word order of this sentence so that it makes sense: No sooner do I sit down than the
phone rang No sooner had I sat down than the phone rang.
10. Correct the word order of this sentence so that it makes sense: Rarely are people care about the
environment enough to give up their car. Rarely do people care about the environment
enough to give up their car.
LESSON 3. NEW TECHNOLOGIES AND
DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE.
ANALYTICAL PROCESSING OF
FOREIGN LANGUAGE SOURCES IN
ORDER TO OBTAIN THE NECESSARY
INFORMATION.
БЛОК 1

1.1. Read and translate the text into Ukrainian.

In industrial countries, there is a close correlation between the rate of increase in the number of
graduate engineers and the level of industrial productivity.

The speed at which new knowledge is transferred to industry is a key factor in preserving
economy's competitive position vis-a-vis tough rivals.

The modern world is facing several disturbing trends in human resources. In quantitative terms,
we will have to cope with the consequences of an aging population, a decline in the working
people. In more qualitative terms, there is a mismatch between the supply of young graduates and
the needs of industry resulting in skills shortage. For that matter, continuing vocational training
and retraining in a constantly changing industrial and technological context need radical
improvement. It has been shown that intellectual capital depreciates by 7% every year if it is not
maintained.

To improve the situation, some recommendations have been made. Most of these are what one
would expect — attract more young people into science, more science in schools, better contact
between industry and education, investment in continuing education to make labor mobility
respond to regional needs, and to avoid a brain drain.

The United States, Japan and Germany each employ between roughly fifty and seventy-five
scientists and engineers for every 10000 workers in the labor force. In developing countries the
number is between five and ten. By emphasizing education at all levels and by selectively entering
globally competitive markets, countries prosper. That prosperity then enables higher investments
in R&D required for economic development. The very dynamics of R&D institutions is changing.
Universities create hybrid academic-industrial centers, often with partial goverment funding, to
accelerate the transfer of scientific results to commercial applications.

Science is valued by society because the application of scientific knowledge helps to satisfy many
basic human needs and improve living standards. Finding a cure for cancer and a clean form of
energy are just two topical examples. Similarly, science is often justified to the public as driving
economic growth, which is seen as a return-on-investment for public funding. During the past few
decades, however, another goal of science has emerged: to find a way to rationally use natural
resources to guarantee their continuity and the continuity of humanity itself; an endeavor that is
currently referred to as “sustainability”.

Scientists often justify their work using these and similar arguments - currently linked to personal
health and longer life expectancies, technological advancement, economic profits, and/or
sustainability - in order to secure funding and gain social acceptance. They point out that most of
the tools, technologies and medicines we use today are products or by-products of research, from
pens to rockets and from aspirin to organ transplantation. However, there is another application of
science that has been largely ignored, but that has enormous potential to address the challenges
facing humanity in the present day education. It is time to seriously consider how science and
research can contribute to education at all levels of society; not just to engage more people in
research and teach them about scientific knowledge, but crucially to provide them with a basic
understanding of how science has shaped the world and human civilization. Education could
become the most important application of science in the next decades. In a more general sense,
education serves to maintain the identity of human culture, which is based on our accumulated
knowledge, and to improve the general cultural level of society.

Analytical processing of science literature.

Analytical processing of science literature it is known as literature review. A literature review

surveys scholarly articles, books and other sources relevant to a particular issue, area of research,
or theory, and by so doing, providing a description, summary, and critical evaluation of these
works. Literature reviews are designed to provide an overview of sources you have explored while
researching a particular topic and to demonstrate to your readers how your research fits into the
larger field of study.

A literature review may consist of simple a summary of key sources, but it usually has an
organizational pattern and combines both summary and synthesis, often within specific conceptual
categories. A summary is a recap of the important information of the source, but a synthesis is a
re-organization, or a reshuffling, of that information in a way that informs how you are planning
to investigate a research problem. The analytical features of a literature review might: give a new
interpretation of old material or combine new with old interpretations, trace the intellectual
progression of the field, including major debates, depending on the situation, evaluate the sources
and advise the reader on the most pertinent or relevant, or usually in the conclusion of a literature
review, identify where gaps exist in how a problem has been researched to date.

The purpose of an analytical literature review is to:

- place each work in the context of its contribution to the understanding of the research
problem being studied,

- describe the relationship of each work to the others under consideration,

- identify new ways to interpret, and shed light on any gaps in previous research,

- resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies,

- identify areas of prior scholarship to prevent duplication of effort,

- point the way in fulfilling a need for additional research, and locate your own research within
the context of existing literature.
БЛОК 2

2.1. Read and translate the text.

WAYS OF EXPRESSING QUANTITIES (A GREAT NUMBER OF, A LARGE

AMOUNT OF, A BIT OF, SCARE, SUFFICIENT, ENOUGH AND OTHERS)

The distinction between countable and uncountable nouns is fundamental in English, because
only by distinguishing between these two forms we can understand when to use singular or plural
verb forms and when to use the indefinite (a/an), definite (the) and zero articles or the appropriate
quantifier (a few, much, many, etc.). Unfortunately, we cannot always rely on common sense to
tell us when a noun is countable or uncountable. For example, the noun advice is uncountable in
English, but its equivalent in Ukrainian and Russian (порада/совет) is countable.

These are things we cannot count. They usually have only one form - singular (without ‘s’ in
the end). You cannot say bloods, music’s, excitements.

Before uncountable nouns you can use the/some/any/much/this/his (the music, some gold,
much excitement, his blood), BUT you cannot use a/an before an uncountable noun. So you
CANNOT say a music, an excitement, or a blood. You can also use an uncountable noun alone,
with no article:

The ring is made of gold.

Blood is red.

As you can see from the last example, we use singular verb forms with uncountable nouns.
The same refers to pronouns:

The food is ready. Get it while it’s hot.

Many uncountable nouns are abstract: love, anger, equality, honesty, information, news, etc.

Names of substances (materials, liquids, gases): leather, paper, wood, metal, silver, water, air,
wine, flour, bread.

Activities: camping, drinking, eating, sailing, jogging, tennis, squash, snooker.

Languages: Arabic, Italian, Japanese, Turkish, etc.

Collective nouns (nouns that refer to a group of people or things): furniture, equipment,
luggage, accommodation, etc.

Use amount for things that cannot be counted and number for things that can be counted:

To answer the questions How much? and How many? certain quantifiers can be used with
countable nouns (friends, cups, people), others with uncountable nouns (sugar, tea, money) and
still others with all types of nouns.

Only with countable nouns: a few, any, several, a great number of, a large number of.

Only with uncountable nouns: a little, a bit of, a great deal of, a large amount of.
 With all types of nouns: no, none, not any, some, a number of, a lot of, lots of, plenty of.

Examples:

He has several apples. I don't have any fruit at all.

She has plenty of clothes for the winter.

You have got rid of a large amount of old clothing.

A bit of use with uncountable nouns to express a small quantity. We also can use a bit (of)
alone.

Examples:

There is a bit of cheese in the fridge.

Wait a bit!

I am coming. a bit (of).

Another ways to express quantity:

Common adverbs of degree: almost, nearly, quite, just, too, enough, hardly, scarcely,
completely, very, extremely. Adverbs of degree are usually placed:

- before the adjective or adverb they are modifying:

The water was extremely cold.

- before the main verb:

He was just leaving. She has almost finished.

Too as an adverb meaning ‘more than is necessary or useful’ goes before adjectives and
adverbs.

Examples:

This coffee is too hot. (adjective)

He works too hard. (adverb)

Enough can be used as a quantifier when it is placed before any noun, to indicate the quantity
required or necessary. It can be used in both affirmative and negative sentences.

Examples:

There is enough bread for lunch.

She has enough money.

There are not enough apples for all of us.

I don't have enough sugar to make a cake.

Enough and too with adjectives can be followed by ‘for someone/something.

Enough and sufficient are synonyms so they are different words with similar meanings.
Like the person before me has said, "sufficient" is more formal but it is not necessarily used less.

Examples:

I have eaten enough.

I have eaten a sufficient amount.

In some sentences, enough and sufficient can't be directly interchanged like the sentences above.

Very goes before an adverb or adjective to make it stronger. If we want to make a negative
form of an adjective or adverb, we can use a word of opposite meaning, or not very.

Examples:

The house was ugly OR The house was not very beautiful

He worked slowly OR He didn’t work very quickly.

These common adverbs are used like very and not very, and are listed in order of strength,
from positive to negative: extremely, especially, particularly, pretty, rather, quite, fairly, rather,
not especially, not particularly. Note: rather can be positive or negative, depending on the
adjective or adverb that follows:

Examples:

Positive: The teacher was rather nice.

Negative: The film was rather disappointing.

LESSON 4. SCIENTIFIC STYLE.

MODALITY OF SCIENTIFIC WRITING.
БЛОК 1

1.1. Read and translate the text:

SCIENTIFIC STYLE
There exists a variety of styles as there are numerous human activities in the world. People always
need to use the language to write about results of their efforts obtained from the research work
which are expected to be represented in a fair, objective and responsible way. A scientific writer
expects to analyze his results in the discussion section, but he should do this in a clear and fair
manner. He may present his own interpretation of the results but should also highlight any
opposing explanations or views. Scientific and technical style is applied when certain scientific
knowledge or information obtained from scientific research has to be conveyed. The style of
science creates the fundamental part of the non-fiction style executing informative function. The
technical style is used in writing guidance, manual, and instructions for installation, specific
characteristics and requirements, books as guides.

There are different types of the texts used in scientific and technical style:

– Scientific and technical literature itself (books/monographs, articles, conferences, symposiums,

lectures, or similar event papers, presentations);

– Educational scientific and technical literature (manuals, books, reference books, theses,

dissertations);

– Popular scientific literature;

– Technical documents;

Clarity is an important part of scientific style. It can be achieved by using simple language choices
in scientific writing as they help to improve the ease with which scientists will be able to
understand. Sentences are not long and don’t contain too many clauses. If a sentence is too long,
it is divided into several smaller ones. The words in the sentences and linking words are repeated
to lead a reader through the smaller sentences and how they relate to each other. Every extra word
gives the reader something extra to read and understand. The more words are used the greater the
chance that there will be a mistake or that the reader will misunderstand something.

It’s also worth saying that scientific writing is formal writing. This means that the words and
language constructions which are used in speaking to someone, writing an email, or even writing
for a website should not be used. No contracted verbs should be used representing spoken English
verbs in a written from.

– The experiments won’t be finished in this class. – incorrect.

– The experiments will not be finished in this class. – correct.

The verb ‘will not’ has been contracted to 'won’t' in the first sentence. This shouldn't be used in
scientific writing. Technical and scientific texts are different from other texts in the vocabulary,
grammar, syntax, and the way of presenting materials. In general, the science vocabulary consists
of a great number of common used every-day words and moreover of a wide layer of words with
written-bookish stylistic colouring, and a wide range of special terms. To common every-day
words we can refer those words used both in oral and written speech such as: to work – працювати,
to know – знати, place – місце, new – новий, obviously – очевидно, etc. General vocabulary is
applied in scientific and technical texts having its direct referential meaning, that is, the words
which are used in scientific and technical style will always tend to be used in their primary logical
meaning. Hardly a single word will be found here which, in contrast to the belles-lettres style, is
used in more than one meaning. There will be no words with contextual meaning. Even the
possibility of ambiguity is avoided. Furthermore, terms are coined so as to be self-explanatory to
the greatest possible degree.

The scientific and technical style also differs from other literary styles in the usage of specific
grammar forms, constructions and tenses [3, р. 45]. It can be vary in:

1) the terms of language means, the constructions of the gerund and participle used to make the
text more condense and precise;

2) the usage of parentheses;

3) the impersonal manner of representing material, impersonal constructions.

Impersonality is required to preserve the character of the style which should be “invariant to all
observers”. Impersonality can be achieved by the usage of passive constructions, general pronoun
we, mostly a third-person style, abstract nouns formed from verbs and adjectives.

The usage of Passive Voice suppresses the author’s role by removing the agent from the sentence
and exclusively aims to describe the facts and phenomena. It appears also in the cases where not
only the agent but also the activity is irrelevant and the only thing that matters is the affected
subject. The first-person pronoun ‘I’ is not used in scientific writing. Instead ‘I’ is often used ‘we’,
‘the team’ or ‘the research group’, to show that the whole group of people is mentioned which was
involved in the reported experiments. This is better than using ‘I’.

БЛОК 2

2.1. Read and translate the text.

MODALITY OF SCIENTIFIC WRITING

Hedging

In academic writing, it is prudent to be cautious in one’s statements so as to distinguish between

facts and claims. This is commonly known as “hedging.” Hedging is the use of linguistic devices
to express hesitation or uncertainty as well as to demonstrate politeness and indirectness.

People use hedged language for several different purposes but perhaps the most fundamental are
the following:

1. to minimize the possibility of another academic opposing the claims that are being made
2. to conform to the currently accepted style of academic writing
3. to enable the author to devise a politeness strategy where they are able to acknowledge that
there may be flaws in their claims

Following are a few words and phrases that can be used to achieve this.

• Introductory verbs – seem, tend, look like, appear to be, think, believe, doubt, be sure, indicate,
suggest
• Certain lexical verbs – believe, assume, suggest
• Modal Adverbs – possibly, perhaps, conceivably
• That clauses – It could be the case that…, it might be suggested that…, there is every hope that…
Consider the following examples:

1. It may be said that the commitment to some of the social and economic concepts was less strong
than it is now.

2. The lives they chose may seem overly ascetic and self-denying to most women today.

In the first statement, the commitment to some of the social and economic concepts was less strong
than it is now while in the second one, the lives they chose seem overly ascetic and self-denying
to most women today.

Language used in hedging:

1. Introductory verbs: e.g. seem, tend, look like, appear to be, think, believe, doubt, be sure,
indicate, suggest
2. Certain lexical e.g. believe, assume, suggest
verbs
3. Certain modal e.g. will, must, would, may, might, could
verbs:
4. Adverbs of e.g. often, sometimes, usually
frequency
4. Modal adverbs e.g. certainly, definitely, clearly, probably, possibly, perhaps, conceivably,
5. Modal adjectives e.g. certain, definite, clear, probable, possible
6. Modal nouns e.g. assumption, possibility, probability
7. That clauses e.g. It could be the case that.
e.g. It might be suggested that.
e.g. There is every hope that .
8. To-clause + e.g. It may be possible to obtain.
adjective e.g. It is important to develop.
e.g. It is useful to study .

LESSON 5. TYPES OF ABSTRACTS.

MODAL VERBS IN SCIENTIFIC
WRITING/PREDICTIONS.
БЛОК 1

1.1. Read and translate the text into Ukrainian:

Types of Abstracts

Types of Abstracts and Their Content

Abstracts are generally described as either informative or indicative, reflecting the mode or
perspective in which they are written. In the informative mode, the original document is
condensed, reflecting its tone and content. An abstract written in the indicative mode describes
rather than paraphrases the original document and its contents. The mode employed in a particular
situation depends on the purpose of the abstract. Both types of abstracts should present as much as
possible of the essential information contained in the text.

Informative Abstracts

Informative abstracts are generally used for documents pertaining to experimental investigations,
inquiries, or surveys. These abstracts state the purpose, methodology, results, and conclusions
presented in the original document. While most abstracts describing experimental work can be
constructed in this sequence, the optimum sequence may depend on the audience for whom the
abstract is primarily intended. For example, a results-oriented arrangement, in which the most
important results and conclusions are placed first, may be useful to some audiences.

Indicative Abstracts

Indicative abstracts are best used for less-structured documents, such as editorials, essays, opinions
or descriptions; or for lengthy documents, such as books, conference proceedings, directories,
bibliographies, lists, and annual reports. Indicative abstracts are usually written for documents that
do not contain information relating to methodology or results. The abstract should, however,
describe the purpose or scope of the discussion or descriptions in the document. Also, it may
describe essential background material, the approaches used, and/or arguments presented in the
text. In practice, original documents may contain elements that necessitate an abstract that
combines the indicative and informative approaches. For example, a largely descriptive paper may
contain an informative conclusion

Purpose

State in the abstract the primary objectives and scope of the study or the reasons the document was
written. Because abstracts are often expected to be read in conjunction with the title, avoid the use
of statements that are, or closely resemble, verbatim versions of the title. Refer to earlier research
literature only if doing so is essential in order to clarify the purpose of the document.

Methodology

Describe techniques or approaches only to the degree necessary for comprehension. Report new
techniques or applications-when emphasized in the original document.

Results

Describe results as concisely and informatively as possible. They may be experimental or

theoretical results obtained, data collected, relationships and correlations noted, effects observed,
etc. When results are too numerous for all of them to be included, those pertaining to new and
verified events or that contradict previous theories should receive priority.

Conclusions

Describe the implications of the results, especially how they relate to the purpose of the
investigation or the reason for preparing the document. Conclusions can be associated with
recommendations, evaluations, applications, suggestions, new relationships, and hypotheses
accepted or rejected.

БЛОК 2
2.1. Read and translate the text.

MODAL VERBS IN SCIENTIFIC WRITING/PREDICTIONS

Although modal verbs occur more often in oral communication, the preceding information
indicated that modal verbs play a crucial role in writing. The role of epistemic modality in
academic writing specifically has been of recent interest to applied linguists. Researchers have
begun discussing the important function of epistemic forms of modality (also referred to as "author
comment") in even the most scientific and objective writing. Some studies covered the broader
topic of modal forms which were not limited to modal verbs, while others were focused only on
modal verbs.

Forms of modality, including modal verbs, have been shown to serve at least four related functions
in scientific writing: to express politeness; to suggest tentativeness; to mark a proposition as the
writer's own viewpoint; and to create a scientific atmosphere. These different functions often occur
simultaneously, and we see in all of the functions that forms of modality are used in academic and
specifically scientific writing to show the place of the writer in relationship to both the text and
the reader. In some cases forms of modality serve as politeness strategies, achieving politeness
through mitigations, often called "hedges" (Hyland, 1996; Myers,1989; Salager-Meyer, 1994;
Varttala, 1998). In other cases modal verbs indicate the author's attitude towards any statement
within the text (Adams Smith, 1984), and show the writer's role as the "understood agent,"
someone who is reporting his or her own views (Thompson and Ylyun, 375:1991).

Scientists also employ modal verbs in order to present their claims more accurately. Expressions
of modality allow writers to express propositions with greater precision, recognizing the
impossibility of exactly quantifying the world. Scientific writers seek to balance fact and
interpretation as they try to present information as accurately as possible, always recognizing that
only a segment of reality can be described. (Hyland, 478:1996).

Certain modal verbs were more likely to appear in scientific writing. Among these, may, would,
could (Hyland, 1996), may and should (in medical writing (Adams Smith, 1984)), and may and
can (in physics, botany and plant physiology writing (Butler, 1990)) have been found to be more
preferred in scientific writing than in other forms of writing.

Butler (1990) found the auxiliaries will, would, could and should were less appropriate in
scientific writing than in more general genres of writing. Hyland's (1996) study also suggested
certain hedging forms-including may, could, and should-are more common in scientific writing
than in other forms of writing. Modal verbs are often used to make the writer's claims more or less
tentative i.e. to suggest that the writer thinks something is more or less probable. On the pther
hand, degrees of certainty or modality of your opinions or argument can be not only tentative, but
strong or moderate as well.

Expression of modality is an important aspect of scientific writing, and modal verbs, which are the
most common forms of modal expression, are perhaps the most important forms of modality. They
serve to qualify statements and are crucial in presenting the scientific researchers' views of their
findings in a manner suggesting both politeness to the larger scientific community and the specific
differences between research findings and unequivocal facts. They are more likely to be found in
the Discussion sections of research articles and are least common in Methods sections. The verbs
may and can are especially common in scientific writing, although other forms also occur. May is
more likely to be used in its extrinsic functions, while can is more likely to be used intrinsically.
The way we describe future events, plans and possibilities in English is quite complex. Firstly,
there is no single “Future Tense” in English; instead we have a variety of verb forms, such as
Modal verbs, expressing different shades of meaning. Secondly, academic writing features a range
of non-verb vocabulary (nouns, adjectives and adverbs) referring to the future.

Verb forms expressing the future (predictions)

(All the forms shown below are found in both Active and Passive)

I will [verb] to talk about what you think or guess or expect the future to be

The second phase of my research will be trickier than this one

I am going to [verb] to talk about decisions or firm intentions

I’m going to ask her for a meeting next week

Present Continuous to talk about fixed plans or arrangements

Did I tell you that we’re getting a new computer on Thursday?

Present Simple to talk about timetables or schedules

Next term starts on 12 October

I am + TO (verb) to talk about fixed plans or decisions made by someone else

The Principal is to visit the new building in a couple of weeks

Future Continuous to talk about something that will be going on at a certain time in the future

By the year 2050 computers will be doing most housework tasks

LESSON 6. TYPES OF REPORTS.

PASSIVE CONSTRUCTIONS.
БЛОК 1

1.1. Read and translate the text into Ukrainian.

TYPES OF REPORTS

Research reports vary greatly in length and type. In each individual case, both the length and
the form are largely dictated by the problems at hand. For instance, business firms prefer reports
in the letter form, just one or two pages in length. Banks, insurance organisations and financial
institutions are generally fond of the short balance-sheet type of tabulation for their annual reports
to their customers and shareholders. Mathematicians prefer to write the results of their
investigations in the form of algebraic notations. Chemists report their results in symbols and
formulae. Students of literature usually write long reports presenting the critical analysis of some
writer or period or the like with a liberal use of quotations from the works of the author under
discussion. In the field of education and psychology, the favourite form is the report on the results
of experimentation accompanied by the detailed statistical tabulations. Clinical psychologists and
social pathologists frequently find it necessary to make use of the case-history form.

News items in the daily papers are also forms of report writing. They represent firsthand on-
the scene accounts of the events described or compilations of interviews with persons who were
on the scene. In such reports the first paragraph usually contains the important information in detail
and the succeeding paragraphs contain material which is progressively less and less important.
Book-reviews which analyze the content of the book and report on the author’s intentions,
his success or failure in achieving his aims, his language, his style, scholarship, bias or his point
of view. Such reviews also happen to be a kind of short report. The reports prepared by
governmental bureaus, special commissions, and similar other organisations are generally very
comprehensive reports on the issues involved. Such reports are usually considered as important
research products. Similarly, Ph.D. theses and dissertations are also a form of report-writing,
usually completed by students in academic institutions.

The above narration throws light on the fact that the results of a research investigation can be
presented in a number of ways viz., a technical report, a popular report, an article, a monograph or
at times even in the form of oral presentation. Which method(s) of presentation to be used in a
particular study depends on the circumstances under which the study arose and the nature of the
results. A technical report is used whenever a full written report of the study is required whether
for recordkeeping or for public dissemination. A popular report is used if the research results have
policy implications. We give below a few details about the said two types of reports:

Technical Report

In the technical report the main emphasis is on

ü the methods employed,

ü assumptions made in the course of the study,

ü the detailed presentation of the findings including their limitations and supporting data.

A general outline of a technical report can be as follows:

1. Summary of results: A brief review of the main findings just in two or three pages.
2. Nature of the study: Description of the general objectives of study, formulation of the
problem in operational terms, the working hypothesis, the type of analysis and data
required, etc.
3. Methods employed: Specific methods used in the study and their limitations. For instance,
in sampling studies we should give details of sample design viz., sample size, sample
selection, etc.
4. Data: Discussion of data collected, their sources, characteristics and limitations. If
secondary data are used, their suitability to the problem at hand be fully assessed. In case
of a survey, the manner in which data were collected should be fully described.
5. Analysis of data and presentation of findings: The analysis of data and presentation of the
findings of the study with supporting data in the form of tables and charts be fully narrated.
This, in fact, happens to be the main body of the report usually extending over several
chapters.
6. Conclusions: A detailed summary of the findings and the policy implications drawn from
the results be explained.
 7. Bibliography: Bibliography of various sources consulted be prepared and attached.
8. Technical appendices: Appendices be given for all technical matters relating to
questionnaire, mathematical derivations, elaboration on particular technique of analysis
and the like ones.
9. Index: Index must be prepared and be given invariably in the report at the end.

The order presented above only gives a general idea of the nature of a technical report; the order
of presentation may not necessarily be the same in all the technical reports. This, in other words,
means that the presentation may vary in different reports; even the different sections outlined
above will not always be the same, nor will all these sections appear in any particular report.
It should, however, be remembered that even in a technical report, simple presentation and ready
availability of the findings remain an important consideration and as such the liberal use of charts
and diagrams is considered desirable.

БЛОК 2

2.1. Read and translate the text.

PASSIVE CONSTRUCTIONS

One of the easiest principles of grammar to remember is to avoid the passive voice, or passive
construction, but it’s just as essential to recall that this rule is not absolute. Passive construction
has its place. Appropriate uses are described below.

Passive constructions are those in which the acted-on noun, rather than the word(s) denoting the
actor, is the subject of the sentence. The well-founded prejudices against the passive include that
such constructions are usually less concise than those organized in the active voice, that they
obscure the identity of the actor, and that they upend traditional English syntax.

But the passive voice is relevant in the following cases:

1. When the emphasis is on the acted-on, not the actor: “The message was conveyed by the
courier.”

2. When the actor is not pertinent or is implied: “The defendant was found not guilty.”

3. When the actor cannot be identified: “The dog was poisoned.”

4. When the actor should not (or does not wish to) be identified: “Mistakes were made.”

5. When an extensive description of the actor follows the mention of the actor: “The alternative
was suggested by John Smith, the consultant hired to analyze the problem and recommend
solutions.” (The active construction, “John Smith, the consultant hired to analyze the problem and
recommend solutions, suggested the alternative” changes the emphasis.)

6. When revealing the actor’s identity should be delayed: “The candelabra was moved by the only
guest who had the opportunity during that time — the professor!”

7. When the passive voice improves the rhetorical impact: “Never in the field of human conflict
was so much owed by so many to so few.”

STANDARD PASSIVES
1. Difference between active and passive constructions (besides verb forms)

Active sentences / clauses

The subject

- establishes what the sentence or clause is about.

- refers to something which is already known by the reader or listener.

Passive sentences / clauses

The subject

- establishes what the sentence or clause is about.

- is not the “doer” (agent) but the “receiver” (“recipient”) of the action.

2. When do we choose passive constructions instead of active ones?

1. When the new / important information is

- what happened to the subject: Individuals have been expected to make their own housing
arrangements.

- who or what did it: Private hospitals, clinics and surgeries are in general well equipped and
efficient and may be run by a variety of commercial organizations or religious groups.

- how it was done: ...; their costing was ill thought out; ...

2. When the agent (“doer”) is unknown or unspecified: The problem of paying for the treatment
of these patients, who must be helped (by whom?) because of health threats to the population, has
become urgent.

3. When we want to avoid very long subjects —a passive construction allows us to put a long and
/ or complex phrase at the end of the clause or sentence, where it is easier to understand than at the
beginning.

3. What do we use standard passive constructions for?

Passive constructions are used

- to describe processes;

- in various forms (often academic) styles of discourse —e.g., to introduce evidence, argument,
or opinion: ..., it is estimated that between 50 to 60 per cent of the population ...or to describe
procedure in formally reporting scientific experiments;
 - to avoid the implication of personal involvement or responsibility: ...how much public
responsibility should be embraced;

- with certain verbs —verbs we use when the person who did the action is generally unimportant.
These verbs often describe claiming, blaming, acts of destruction or emotional reactions: Until the
1960s dependency upon social welfare was widely perceived to be shameful and shaming.

4. What do they look like?

Basic pattern:

AUXILIARY VERB + PAST PARTICIPLE OF MAIN VERB

(Be / Get)

If the agent is specified, it comes at the end of the clause and (generally) follows by.

E.g.: The whole house got flooded.

E.g.: Several protesters were taken away by the police.

5. Choosing between be and get as auxiliary verbs

“Get” is commonly referred to as a colloquial alternative to “be” for forming passive constructions.
In certain cases, this may be so. However, we also use “get” to suggest

- that the action is unexpected, involuntary, or possibly unwelcome:

E.g.: When he picked up the phone we got cut off.

- an achievement based on something that has been built up beforehand:

E.g.: She got elected.

- an achievement in the face of difficulty:

E.g.: I finally got admitted to hospital.

- In other cases, it is possible to choose between “be” and “get” fairly freely:

E.g.: I am not going to get / be tricked.

While in other cases it is not so:

E.g.: The house is being redecorated. NOT * is getting redecorated

6. Verbs which we use with a full infinitive only in passive constructions

Active constructions:

• Verb + “that” + clause:

E.g.: People say that he was fiddling the books.

• Verb + bare infinitive + clause:

E.g.: They made him clear up the mess.

Passive constructions:

• Verb + full infinitive + clause:

E.g.: He was said to have been fiddling the books.

E.g.: He was made to clear up the mess.

7. Passive constructions with it as the subject

00 (IT):

E.g.: It is expected that individuals make their own housing arrangements.

8. Reduced relative clauses

Unreduced relative clause:

E.g.: Many of those in the public sector, which are financed by state and federal funds, tend to
lack…

Reduced relative clause:

E.g.: Many of those in the public sector, financed by state and federal funds, tend to lack ...

9. Prepositions after passive constructions

“By” is not the only preposition that can be used after a passive construction. In fact, we can use
almost any preposition —our choice depends on the meaning we want to express:

E.g.: ... are insured for health care through private insurance schemes.

E.g.: ... which is passed onto the patient or insurer.

10. Passive constructions and adjectives

E.g.: To do this task, the class will be divided in groups of five. PASSIVE

E.g.: American health and medical services are divided between the private and the public sectors.
ADJECTIVE

The past participle used in passive constructions conveys a strong sense of action and is very much
part of the verb. Usually the context will make it clear which of these is the case —passive
construction or adjective.

CAUSATIVE PASSIVES

1. Differences between standard and causative passive constructions

STANDARD PASSIVES

Subject = recipient of some action

CAUSATIVE PASSIVES

Object = recipient of some action

Subject = responsible for what happened, but did not do it.

2. What do we use causative passive constructions for?

We generally use causative passives when

- we describe what we arrange for someone to do for us:

E.g.: She went to hospital and had her blood pressure taken.

- we describe unfortunate experiences:

E.g.: He got his leg broken playing football.

3. What do they look like?

Basic pattern:

AUXILIARY VERB + OBJECT + PAST PARTICIPLE OF MAIN VERB*

(Have / Get)
If the agent is specified, it comes at the end of the clause and (generally) follows by.

E.g.: We had / got the whole house renovated.

E.g.: Can’t we get the rubbish taken away by the council?

*The main verb can only be an object verb:

E.g.: I’ve had two articles published by a very important journal.

4. Choosing between get and have as auxiliary verbs

Have / Get indistinctively:

Have / Get to describe things we arrange to be done for us, but we tend to use Get when some
element of difficulty or achievement is involved:

Compare: She had her blood taken / She never managed to get her article published.

Get (not Have):

To describe unfortunate experiences: Our house got broken into last night.

LESSON 7. WAYS OF AVOIDING

REDUNDANCY IN RESEARCH WRITING.
QUOTATIONS. PASSIVE
CONSTRUCTIONS.
БЛОК 1

1.1. Read and translate the text. Learn the ways of avoiding redundancy in research
writing.

WAYS OF AVOIDING REDUNDANCY IN RESEARCH WRITING

Redundancies in writing are something that should be avoided to make the written piece more
concise and easier to read. Having redundancies creep into the writing is at times inevitable.
Therefore the writer should be very conscious about this aspect of writing. By sticking to the
specific idea and providing more information instead of unnecessary words and phrases, you avoid
clutter and fluff that do not contribute much to the crux of the material.
These are some of the most common tips to help you avoid redundancies. Keep them in mind so
that you can make improvements on your next writing assignment.

Avoid using double negatives. This is a basic concept in writing. Although there are instances in
which double negatives can be used, they are just used to highlight certain ideas or irony. Other
than these instances, double negatives should be avoided as they are totally confusing. The
sentence will also appear shorter when they are not used. These are created by combining a verb’s
negative form, such as “have not,” “did not” and “cannot” with a negative pronoun like “nobody”
and “nothing;” a negative conjunction like “neither” and “nor” or a negative adverb like “hardly”
and “never.” Sentences such as “I didn’t see nothing,” “She is not unattractive”, and phrases “not
unlikely”, “not insignificant” are examples of double negatives.

Beware of pleonasm. This is usually the term used when referring to a phrase that repeats itself.
For instance, you say “12 midnight” instead of just saying midnight. It is also the same when you
say “3 a.m. in the morning” when “3 a.m.” would already suffice. Another example is, “I saw
everything with my own eyes” when you can just say, “I saw everything.” It can also appear in a
sentence. For instance, “I wrote an autobiography about my own life” when autobiography is
already understood.

Be precise, not vague, e.g. use specific numbers instead of ‘many’, ‘a number of’, ‘several’, etc.
Also, avoid using ‘this’ and ‘that’, but specify what you are referring to, even when it seems
obvious.

Be careful when using abbreviations. For instance, people would say ATM machine when the
M in ATM already stands for machine. Another example is CPU unit. CPU actually means Central
Processing Unit. Finally, a common example is HIV virus. The V in HIV already stands for virus.
Sometimes, it is easy to overlook this mistake since everyone is already used to it.

Don’t say the same thing twice, e.g. ‘completely eliminate’, ‘end result’, ‘basic essentials’.

Use intensifiers appropriately. Intensifiers include words such as severely, extremely and very,
which are used to highlight something in a sentence, but in most cases, they are not needed. Avoid
phrases like ‘exactly the same’, ‘absolutely essential’, ‘extremely significant’, and ‘very unique’.
Only use intensifiers that add meaning, e.g. ‘CO accounts for by far the most pollution’.

Be conscious of language origin. This could be another source of redundancy. For instance, the
word anniversary came from the Latin word annum, which means year. Therefore, it is enough to
say 25th anniversary. However, most people would say 25th year anniversary.

Remove unnecessary phrases. This could make the sentence shorter but still retain its thought.
Among these phrases are “As a matter of fact,” “Due to the fact that,” “As far as I’m concerned,”
“In the event that,” “First and foremost,” and many more.

Always observe the “less is more” rule. Find a way to shorten a sentence without sacrificing the
message that you want to convey. If you are trying to reach a certain word limit, then look for
more important facts rather than unnecessary words that will just be viewed as fillers.

БЛОК 2

2.1. Read and translate the text.

QUOTATIONS
To quote is to reproduce what someone else has previously expressed. It is important to pay
attention to quotation rules, such as the necessity to give the exact wording of the source that is
being quoted and to identify the source.

As will be discussed here, quotations must also be contextualised, properly introduced and
identified.

When to quote

The prevalence of quotations differs between disciplines, and writers need to comply with the
conventions of their specific field.

When used, quotations should be smoothly integrated into the text. Writers need to make sure that
they do not quote too much and too often. A text with an excessive number of quotations is not
only difficult to read; in most cases it also comes across as lacking in originality.

Quotations are commonly used to clarify the aspects that is being discussed or to substantiate a
claim that is made in the text:

To clarify or define

A quotation can be used to define, describe or explain something that is being discussed:

Example:

Meerkats, the "foot-tall, slender-tailed, pointy-nosed" little animals that are also called suricates,
belong to the mongoose family (Usborne 2009, para. 1).

Here, the quotation was chosen because it so succinctly describes the animal referred to. The
quotation thus functions as a definition of the animal that is being introduced.

To substantiate a claim

A quotation may also be used to support the claim that is being made:

Example:

Meerkats have become tremendously popular; The Independent claims that "Britain has gone mad
for these upstanding citizens of the Kalahari desert" (Usborne, 2009, para. 2).

To back up a statement (that the popularity of meerkats has increased), a quote from a well-known
newspaper is provided. The reputable source adds to the trustworthiness of the statement, which
itself is quite striking, thus adding to the effect; Britain is said to have "gone mad" and the animals
themselves are referred to as "upstanding citizens of the Kalahari desert".

How to quote

Since quotations by definition are exact renderings of what someone else has written, said or
otherwise expressed, they must be correctly reproduced. Furthermore, they must be contextualised,
properly introduced and identified.
Quotations must be contextualised

Writers must make sure to quote in a way that does not misrepresent the quoted text. To
contextualise a quotation means to frame it in a way that presents the correct situation and gives
the necessary information for the reader to understand the quoted piece. Since the reader cannot
be expected to know the exact context of the quotation, the writer must provide the reader with
this information in order to avoid misrepresentation and misunderstanding.

Quotations must be properly introduced

In order to be fully understood, quotations must be introduced. As stated above, the function of
quotations is often to exemplify or clarify something, and sometimes writers choose to show the
exact wording of a source for some other reason. In any case, the function of a quotation should
be that of illustrating the writer's argument; a quotation must never be the argument itself.
Therefore, quotations must be introduced, and, preferably, also commented on.

Quotations must never stand on their own in between the writer's sentences, but should be merged
into the writer's sentence in an appropriate manner, for instance by using reporting verbs/phrases.
There are various ways of doing this, and practices vary between disciplines and reference styles.

Quotations must be identified

When a quotation is included in a written text, the source must be given. The correct procedure for
this depends on the reference style used.

The use of quotation marks

The punctuation marks used to signal quotations are called inverted commas or quotation marks.
Depending on the font used, quotation marks are either vertical, as the ones used on this website,
or typographical (also known as curly quotation marks).

Single or double quotation marks?

To distinguish between quotations and quotations-within-quotations, either double quotation

marks are used for the quotation and single for the quotation-within-quotation, or vice versa.

British publishers tend to use single quotation marks for quotations, whereas North American
publishers usually favour double quotation marks. As mentioned previously, practices vary,
however; therefore, anyone writing for publication needs to check the preference of the publisher.
In either case, consistency within the text is vital.

Short quotation or long quotation?

When pieces of text are being quoted, this is indicated in different ways, depending on the length
of the quoted passage. Short quotations are fully integrated in the text, whereas long quotations
are set off from the running text in block quotations.

Block quotations do not have quotation marks; by setting the quotation off from the text the writer
indicates that the piece of text is a quotation. The left margin of the block quotation is indented
(sometimes the right margin, too), which means that it is not aligned with the rest of the text. Note
that if there is a quotation within the block quotation, that quotation-within-the-quotation will keep
its quotation marks.
What is defined as a 'long quotation' differs between references styles; for instance, APA draws
the limit at 40 words.

БЛОК 3

3.1. Learn Grammar Material.

THE PASSIVE VOICE CONSTURCTIONS

The English passive is by far the most frequent in scientific writings, and least frequent in
conversation.

We form the passive with the verb to be and the past participle of the main verb:

The electric telegraph was invented by Samuel Morse. – passive voice

Here is a table showing the passive forms for most English verbs:

ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE

Present Simple He delivers the letters. The letters are delivered.
Past Simple He delivered the letters. The letters were delivered.
Future Simple He will deliver the letters. The letters will be delivered.
Present Continuous He is delivering the letters. The letters are being delivered.
Past Continuous He was delivering the letters. The letters were being delivered.
Going to He is going to deliver the letters. The letters are going to be delivered.
Present Perfect He has delivered the letters. The letters have been delivered.
Past Perfect He had delivered the letters. The letters had been delivered.
Future Perfect He will have delivered the letters. The letters will have been delivered.
Infinitive He has to deliver the letters. The letters have to be delivered.
Modals He must deliver the letters. The letters must be delivered.

Note that the majority of passive sentences that occur in speech and writing (about 85 percent) are
agentless (do not have an explicit agent):

Many people are employed in manufacturing.

We denote an agent or instrument the following way:

The poem was written by John, (agent, doer). – Вірш був написаний Джоном.
The poem was written with pencil, (instrument). – Вірш був написаний олівцем.

The results were obtained by professor Smith with the help of new equipment. –

Результати були отримані професором Смітом за допомогою нового обладнання.

THE PASSIVE IS USUALLY USED:

1) when the agent (=the person who does the action) is unknown, unimportant or obvious from the
context:

Jane was shot. (We don’t know who shot her.)

This church was built in 1815. (Unimportant agent)

He has been arrested. (Obviously by the police)

2) to make more polite or formal statements:

The car hasn’t been cleaned. (more polite)

You haven’t cleaned the car. (less polite)

3) when the action is more important than the agent, as in processes, instructions, events, reports,
headlines, new items, and advertisements:

30 people were killed in the earthquake.

4) to put emphasis on the agent:

The new library will be opened by the Queen.

5) when the writer wants the statement to sound objective (the agent and/or the source of
information are not mentioned):

It is thought / believed / assumed

(Вважають, що ...) that this is a promising method.

It used to be thought

(Раніше вважали, що...)

CONSTRUCTIONS WITH PREPOSITIONS IN PASSIVE

When we put an active sentence, where a preposition follows after the verb (e.g. break into, look
after, listen to), into passive – the preposition remains immediately after the verb.
 Active sentence Passive sentence
Someone broke into the pet shop. The pet shop was broken into.
They looked for the baby. The baby was looked for.
Someone shouts at the man. The man is shouted at.
They listen to the music. Music is listened to.

Some verbs have no object. They are called intransitive verbs. We cannot use the passive voice
with these verbs:

agree die look seem

arrive fall occur sleep
be go rain stay
become happen recover walk
come live remain work

PASSIVE CAUSATIVE CONSTRUCTION

Have + object + past participle (have something done)

We usually use 'have something done' when we are talking about paying someone to do something
for us. It's often used for services. The form is 'subject + have + object + past participle'.

I had my car washed.

John will have his house painted.

Get + object + past participle (get something done)

We can also use 'subject + get + object + past participle'. This has the same meaning as 'have', but
is less formal.

The students get their essays checked.

I'll get my hair cut next week.

He got his washing machine fixed.

LESSON 8. RESEARCH ARTICLE AND
CONFERENCE ABSTRACT: MAIN
REQUIREMENTS AND STRUCTURE.
INFINITIVE СONSTRUCTIONS.
БЛОК 1

1. Read and translate the text. Learn the paper structure and common mistakes seen in
scientific papers.

WRITING A RESEARCH PAPER

Conducting scientific research is only the beginning of the scholarship of discovery. In order for
the results of research to be accessible to other professionals and have a potential effect on the
greater scientific community, it must be written and published. The task of writing a scientific
paper (article) and submitting it to a journal for publication is a time‐consuming and often daunting
task.

Once the research question is clearly defined, writing the paper becomes considerably easier. The
paper will ask the question, then answer it. The key to successful scientific writing is getting the
structure of the paper right. The basic structure of a typical research paper is the sequence of
Abstract, Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion (sometimes abbreviated as AIMRaD).
Each section addresses a different objective. The authors state: (i) the problem they intend to
address – in other terms, the research question – in the Introduction; (ii) what they did to answer
the question in the Methods d; (iii) what they observed in the Results section; and (iv) what they
think the results mean in the Discussion.

In turn, each basic section addresses several topics, and may be divided into subsections (Table 1).
In the Introduction, the authors should explain the rationale and background to the study. What is
the research question, and why is it important to ask it? While it is neither necessary nor desirable
to provide a full-blown review of the literature as a prelude to the study, it is helpful to situate the
study within some larger field of enquiry. The research question should always be spelled out, and
not merely left for the reader to guess.

The Methods section should provide the readers with sufficient detail about the study methods to
be able to reproduce the study if so desired. Thus, this section should be specific, concrete,
technical, and fairly detailed. The study setting, the sampling strategy used, instruments, data
collection methods, and analysis strategies should be described. In the case of qualitative research
studies, it is also useful to tell the reader which research tradition the study utilizes and to link the
choice of methodological strategies with the research goals.

The Results section is typically fairly straightforward and factual. All results that relate to the
research question should be given in detail, including simple counts and percentages. Resist the
temptation to demonstrate analytic ability and the richness of the dataset by providing numerous
tables of non-essential results.
The Discussion section allows the most freedom. This is why the Discussion is the most difficult
to write, and is often the weakest part of a paper. Structured Discussion sections have been
proposed by some journal editors. While strict adherence to such rules may not be necessary,
following a plan such as that proposed in Table 1 may help the novice writer stay on track.

References should be used wisely. Key assertions should be referenced, as well as the methods
and instruments used. However, unless the paper is a comprehensive review of a topic, there is no
need to be exhaustive. Also, references to unpublished work, to documents in the grey literature
(technical reports), or to any source that the reader will have difficulty finding or understanding
should be avoided.

Having the structure of the paper in place is a good start. However, there are many details that
have to be attended to while writing. An obvious recommendation is to read, and follow, the
instructions to authors published by the journal (typically found on the journal’s website). Another
concerns non-native writers of English: do have a native speaker edit the manuscript. A paper
usually goes through several drafts before it is submitted. When revising a paper, it is useful to
keep an eye out for the most common mistakes (Table 2). If you avoid all those, your paper should
be in good shape.

Table 1. TYPICAL STRUCTURE OF A RESEARCH PAPER

Paper Abstract State the overall purpose of the study and the research problem(s)

Describe the basic design of the study

Identify major findings found as a result of the research

Analyse the strengths and limitations of the study as conclusion

Introduction State why the problem you address is important

State what is lacking in the current knowledge

State the objectives of your study or the research question

Methods Describe the context and setting of the study

Specify the study design

Describe the ‘population’ (patients, doctors, hospitals, etc.)

Describe the sampling strategy

Describe the intervention (if applicable)

Identify the main study variables

Describe data collection instruments and procedures

Outline analysis methods

Results Report on data collection and recruitment (response rates, etc.)

Describe participants (demographic, clinical condition, etc.)

Present key findings with respect to the central research question

Present secondary findings (secondary outcomes, subgroup analyses,

etc.)
Discussion State the main findings of the study

Discuss the main results with reference to previous research

Discuss policy and practice implications of the results

Analyse the strengths and limitations of the study

Offer perspectives for future work

Table 2. Common mistakes seen in manuscripts submitted to scientific journal:

– The research question is not specified

– The stated aim of the paper is tautological (e.g. ‘The aim of this paper is to describe what we
did’) or vague (e.g. ‘We explored issues related to X’)

– The structure of the paper is chaotic (e.g. methods are described in the Results section)

– The paper much exceeds the maximum number of words allowed

– The Introduction is an extensive review of the literature

– Methods, interventions and instruments are not described in sufficient detail

– Results are reported selectively (e.g. percentages without frequencies, P-values without
measures of effect)

– The same results appear both in a table and in the text

– Detailed tables are provided for results that do not relate to the main research question

– In the Introduction and Discussion, key arguments are not backed up by appropriate references

– References are out of date or cannot be accessed by most readers

– The Discussion does not provide an answer to the research question

– The Discussion overstates the implications of the results and does not acknowledge the
limitations of the study
– The paper is written in poor English.

БЛОК 2

2.1. Read and translate the text. Learn the structure of conference abstract.

PAPER ABSTRACTS and CONFERENCE ABSTRACTS

Many research publications require an abstract, which is a brief synopsis of the text outlining its
major points. As Samuel Johnson defined the term, an abstract is "a smaller quantity containing
the virtue or power of a greater" (quoted in Oxford English Dictionary). Abstracts constitute the
gateway that leads readers to take up an article, journals to select contributions, or organisers of
conferences to accept or reject papers".

Two common types of abstracts are article abstract (анотація статті) and conference abstract
(тези доповіді на конференції).

In research writing, there are different formats for abstract writing. The information below is
therefore of a general kind. The length of the abstract will be decided by the supervisor, publisher,
etc. Generally, though, the word count for abstracts for research articles is 100-200 words.

The function of the abstract is to inform prospective readers of the content and argument of the
text, but also to attract readers to read the whole text. After having read the abstract the reader
should be able to understand the main points of the argument in the text that it sums up.

Another kind of abstract is the one that is submitted to conference CFPs (Call For Papers) –
conference abstract. Researchers wishing to present a paper at a conference send an abstract
outlining their proposed paper.

A call for papers is sent out well in advance of the actual conference. Because of the long-term
planning that is necessary for conference participants, conference abstracts are sometimes written
before the papers they describe have been written. Therefore, they cannot always show the same
level of specificity as will be found in article abstracts.

To attract the attention of conference organisers, conference abstracts need to be to the point. The
author must show his or her command of the topic and the abstract has to be structured in a way
that gives an idea of the organisation of the proposed presentation.

The most common structure for abstracts is Problem-Method-Results-Conclusions, i.e. four parts.
Many abstracts indeed more or less follow the IMRD (Introduction-Method-Results-Discussions)
structure, consisting of an introduction to the topic, a section on method and results, and finally
a concluding part that discusses the findings presented in the article.

БЛОК 3

3.1. Learn Grammar Material.

INFINITIVE СONSTRUCTIONS
In Modern English we find the following predicative constructions with the infinitive:

(1) the Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction;

(2) the Subjective Infinitive Construction;

(3) the for-to-Infinitive Construction.

The Objective-with-the-Infinitive Сonstruction

The Objective-with-the-Infinitive construction is a construction in which the Infinitive is in

predicate relation to a noun in the Common Case or to a pronoun in the Objective case.

I saw him cross the street. – Я бачив, як він переходив вулицю.

It performs the function of a Complex Object in the sentence.

This construction can be used after the following categories of verbs:

1. Verbs of sense perception: to see, to hear, to watch, to notice, to observe, etc.

It was considered a good omen if a warrior saw a raven follow him. – Вважалось хорошим
знаменням, якщо бачив, як ворона йде за ним.

The bare Infinitive is used here.

Notes:

a) The construction is not used after the verb to see used in the meaning of understand.

I saw that she did not understand the rule and explained it again. – Я бачив, що вона не
зрозуміла правило, і пояснив його знову.

b) The construction is not used after the verb to hear used in the meaning to be aware of
something.

I hear that your brother has got married. – Я чув, що твій брат оженився.

c) When the meaning is passive, Participle II in the Objective Participial construction is usually
used.

I saw his camera broken by the policeman. – Я бачив, як його камеру розбив поліцейський.

2. Verbs of mental activity: to consider, to expect, to mean, to think, to believe, to presume, etc.
I believe him to have no conscience at all. (Hardy) – Я вважаю, що у нього зовсім немає
совісті.

Note: After the verbs to consider, to find the verb to be can be omitted.

I consider him (to be) a first rate programmer. – Я вважаю, що він першокласний
програміст.

I find him (to be) pretty. – Я вважаю його симпатичним.

3. Verbs denoting wish: to want, to wish, to desire, would like, etc.

I want you to do it at once. – Я хочу, щоб ти зробив це негайно.

Note: When the meaning is passive, Participle II in the Objective Participial construction is
usually used.

The captain wants the ship unloaded at once. – Капітан хоче, щоб судно розвантажили
негайно.

4. Verbs of compulsion: to order, to make, to force, to compel, to cause in the meaning of

змушувати, вимагати, to bid (bade, bidden), etc.

Mr. Merdle ordered his carriage to be ready early in the morning. (Dickens) – Містер Мердль
наказав, щоб екіпаж був готовий рано вранці.

5. Verbs of allowance: to allow, to permit, to let, etc.

She allowed our luggage to be left at her place.– Вона дозволила, щоб наш багаж залишили у
неї вдома.

6. Verbs of declarance: to declare, to announce, to proclaim, etc.

She declared him to be the most disobedient child in the world. – Вона сказала, що він
найнеслухняніша дитина в світі.

7. Verbs expressing feelings and emotions: to like, to love, to dislike, to hate, cannot stand, etc.

I hate people to be late. – Ненавиджу, коли запізнюються.

Note: (for whole construction): Ukrainian sentences of type «Я люблю, коли мені дарують
квіти», «Він хоче, щоб йому подарували цуценя» are translated into English without any
construction by means of the Passive Infinitive:

I like to be presented with flowers. – Я люблю, коли мені дарують квіти.

He wants to be presented with a puppy. – Він хоче, щоб йому подарували цуценя.

The Nominative-with-the-Infinitive Сonstruction

The Nominative-with-the-Infinitive construction is a construction in which the Infinitive is in

predicate relation to a noun in the Common case or a Pronoun in the Nominative case.

He was seen to cross the street. – Бачили, як він переходив вулицю.

This construction has no single function in the sentence; its nominal element is the subject of the
sentence and the verbal one is a part of the Compound Verbal Modal predicate of special type.

This construction has two models – with the predicate in the Passive voice and with the predicate
in the Active voice.

1.Model I : the predicate is in the Passive voice.

This model can be used with the following categories of verbs:

Verbs of sense perception.

She was heard to sing merrily in the garden. – Було чутно, як вона весело наспівує в саду.

Only the Indefinite Infinitive Active is used here.

Verbs of mental activity: to know, to consider, to suppose, to believe, etc.

All forms of the Infinitive can be used here.

He is known to have been rich once. – Відомо, що колись він був дуже багатим.

They are believed to be working at a new secret weapon. – Припускають, що вони працюють
над секретною зброєю.

He is considered to have been living here for many years. – Вважають, що він живе тут
багато років.

Verbs of information: to say, to report, to inform, to proclaim, to declare, to announce, etc.

All forms of the Infinitive can be used here.

He is said to have been madly in love with an actress. – Говорили, що він безтямно закоханий
в актрису.

Verbs of order and compulsion: to order, to make, to force, to compel, etc.

The monument was ordered to be build in the place of the battle. – Було наказано спорудити
монумент на місці битви.

Only the Indefinite Infinitive is used here.

Notes:

І. When used with the verb to suppose the construction acquires the meaning of obligation.

What were you suppose to do at home? – Що ви повинні були робити вдома?

ІІ. In this special model the nominal element of the construction is not the subject of the
sentence and between the elements of the construction we find not the predicate but a passive
attribute expressed by Participle II.

Yesterday the police arrested a man believed to be the kidnapper of Senator Wilson's daughter.
– Учора поліція арештувала чоловіка, який, як вважають, є викрадачем дочки сенатора
Вілсона.

2. Model II : the predicate is in the Active voice.

А) With the expressions to be sure: to be certain, to be likely, to be unlikely expressing

somebody's supposition.

All forms of the Infinitive can be used here.

He is unlikely to merry her. – Навряд він ожениться на ній.

He is sure to have told them about it. – Він напевне сказав їй про це.

В) With three pairs of synonymic verbs: to seem to = appear – здаватися, to prove = to turn
out – виявлятися, to happen = to chance – ставатися.

All forms of the Infinitive can be used here except the last pair where the actions are always
simultaneous and so the Indefinite and the Continuous only can be used.

He seems to know about our plans. – Здається, він знає про наші плани.

He proved to have been a famous sportsman once. – Виявляється, колись він був відомий як
спортсмен.

Notes:

1. I. The negation can be connected either with the Infinitive or with the finite verb.
He seems not to know about our plans. = He does not seem to know about our plans. –
Здається, він не знав про наші плани.

1. II. Sometimes the nominal element of the construction is not the Subject and we find an
attribute between construction elements expressed by the
adjectives sure, certain, likely, unlikely.

This is a factor unlikely to influence the general political situation in the Middle East. – Це
фактор, який навряд вплине на ситуацію на ближньому Сході.

The For-to-Infinitive Construction

The For-to-Infinitive construction is a construction in which the Infinitive is in predicate relation

to a noun in the Common case or to a pronoun in the objective case preceded by the preposition for.

He waited for me to speak. – Він чекав, поки я заговорю.

This construction can be used in all the five functions in the sentence.

1. In the function of the Subject.

It is necessary for you to do it at once. – Необхідно, щоб ти зробив це негайно.

Like the Infinitive in the function of the Subject the construction usually stands after the predicate
and the sentence is introduced by the introductory subject it.

Note: Still there are cases where the construction stands at the beginning of the sentence.

For the solders to attack such a big group of the enemies was a very risky affair. –Для солдатів
атакувати такой великий загін ворогів було ризиковано.

2. In the function of a Predicate.

The plan was for him to join us in Switzerland. – План полягав у тому, щоб він приєднався до
нас у Швейцарії.

3. In the function of an Object after verbs and expressions which take an object with the
preposition for - to wait, to ask, to be anxious, etc.

She asks for the documents to be brought. – Вона попросила, щоб принесли документи.

She is anxious for her son to marry this girl. – Вона стурбована тим, що її син жениться на
цій дівчині.

4. In the function of an Attribute.

The plan for him to join us in Switzerland was reasonable. – Його план приєднатися до нас у
Швейцарії був розумним.

5. In the function of the Adverbial Modifier.

1. Of result after the adverbs: too, enough, sufficiently.

Molecules are too small for you to see with an eye. – Молекули занадто малі, щоб побачити їх
нозброєним оком.

1. Of purpose.

The territory of the castle was usually very spacious for the peasants to hide in case of an enemy's
attack. – Територія замку зазвичай була досить просторою, щоб селяни могли сховатися в
ньому в разі ворожого нападу.

6. In the function of part of Compound Verbal Modal Predicate with the verb to be.

Whether we shall go to Turkey is for you to decide. – Чи поїдемо ми в Турцію, вирішувати тобі.

LESSON 9. SCIENTIFIC REPORT: MAIN

REQUIREMENTS, STRUCTURE AND
PRESENTATION. EMPHATIC
CONSTRUCTIONS. INVERSION.
БЛОК 1

1.1. Read and translate the text. Learn the report structure and main requirements for a
scientific report.

WRITING A SCIENTIFIC REPORT

A scientific report is a document that describes the process, progress, and or results of technical
or scientific research or the state of a technical or scientific research problem. It might also include
recommendations and conclusion of the research.

Elements of a Scientific Report:

1. Title page

2. Table of contents

3. Abstract

4. Introduction

5. Abstract
6. Material and Methods

7. Results

8. Discussion

9. Conclusion

Title page

The title page will include the following:

• Title of the report:

o Usually 4-12 words in length.
o Should be short, specific and descriptive, containing the keywords of the report.
• Authorship:
o Always publish under the same name.
o Include author addresses.
o Indicate the corresponding author and their contact details.
• Date:
o The date when the paper was submitted.

Table of Contents

A Table of Contents is only required for length reports (usually 6 pages or more).

Abstract

The Abstract is a self-contained synopsis of the report - an informative summary of what you did
and what you found out.

The Abstract should include the following:

• Objectives (as outlined in the Introduction) and scope of the investigation.

• A brief reference to the Materials and Methods.
• A summary of the results and conclusions - a brief but thorough statement of the outcome/s
of the experiment.

If there is a hypothesis, you may state what it is and whether it was supported or refuted.

The following should not be included in the Abstract:

• Literature citations.
• Formulae and abbreviations, references to tables.

Although the Abstract comes first in a report, it is best to write it last, after you have the results
and conclusions.

Introduction
This provides a summary of the analysis to be undertaken. The purpose of the Introduction is to
put the reader in the picture and place the research/experiment within a context.

The following may be included in the Introduction:

• Background about the analysis to be carried out.

• A brief review of previous research (relevant literature) to give a background - paraphrase
relevant facts from the scientific literature, citing the sources to support each statement.
• Reason/s why the research was undertaken.
• Statement of the hypothesis (an idea or concept that can be tested by experimentation) if
there is one.
• An explanation of the different techniques and why they are used.
• A statement of the objective/s – what you hope to achieve.

The Introduction is the what and why of the experiment, and should answer the following
questions:

• What was the purpose or objective of the experiment/research?

• Why was the experiment/research conducted in a particular manner?
• Why was it important in a broader context?

The Introduction should not include any results or conclusions.

Materials and Methods (Experimental)

The Materials and Methods, sometimes called Experimental, is a description of the materials and
procedures used – what was done and how. Describe the process of preparation of the sample,
specifications of the instruments used and techniques employed.

The Method should include such things as sample size, apparatus or equipment used, experimental
conditions, concentrations, times, controls etc.

While the Method does not need to include minute details (e.g. if you followed a set of written
instructions, you may not need to write out the full procedure – state briefly what was done and
cite the manual), there needs to be enough detail so that someone could repeat the work.

Do not keep using the word "then" – the reader will understand that the steps were carried out in
the order in which they are written.

The Method must be written in the past tense and the passive voice.

Results

This section states what you found.

The following will be included in your Results:

• Pictures and spectra.

• Tables and graphs whenever practical.
• Brief statements of the results in the text (without repeating the data in the graphs and
tables). When writing about each picture, graph or table, refer to it parenthetically e.g.
(Figure 1).
 • If possible give a section of related results and then comment on them rather than
presenting many pages of unrelated results and then discussing them at the end.
Subheadings can be used to divide this section so that it is easier to understand.

Massive quantities of data or raw data (not refined statistically) can be presented in appendices.

Include only your own observed results in this section.

The following should not be included in your results:

• What you expected to find or what you were supposed to have observed.
• References to other works (published data or statements of theory).

Use the Discussion section of the report for these.

The Results section should be written in the past tense and passive voice, avoiding the use of "I"
and "we".

Discussion

State your interpretation of your findings, perhaps comparing or contrasting them with the
literature. Reflect on your actual data and observations.

Explain or rationalise errant data or describe possible sources of error and how they may have
affected the outcome.

The Discussion must answer the question "What do the results mean?" It is an argument based on
the results.

Conclusion

This is the summing up of your argument or experiment/research, and should relate back to the
Introduction. The Conclusion should only consist of a few sentences, and should reiterate the
findings of your experiment/research. If appropriate, suggest how to improve the procedure, and
what additional experiments or research would be helpful.

References

Cite any references that you have used, ensuring that each item in the reference list has an in-text
citation, and every in-text citation has a full reference in the reference list at the end of your paper.

Ensure that the references are formatted according to the style required by the journal (or your
lecturer/supervisor), and be careful with spelling (the author whose name you misspell may be
asked to review the paper!)

БЛОК 2

2.1. Learn Grammar Material.

EMPHATIC CONSTRUCTIONS

The word "emphaza" is of Greek origin and is translated as "expressiveness." Under this concept
combine the tools of different levels of language, which are used to make speech expressive and
bright. Without emphyse, speech would be dry, empty, unemotional, more like a robot speech.

Emotive colouring and expressiveness of speech may be achieved by various emphatic means both
grammatical and lexical. Emphatic means are used even in those styles of language which lack
emotive colouring, e.g. the style of scientific prose and official style. Emphatic models give
prominence either to one element of the utterance or make the whole utterance forceful and
expressive.

1. The emphatic Do

Normally the auxiliary verb to do is used in negative and interrogative sentences; the
emphasizing do is used in Affirmative and Imperative ones. Auxiliary verbs do / does / did are a
frequent case of emphatic constructions in English. In this capacity, they themselves are not
translated into Ukrainian, but suggest that they translate that there is emphasis in front of him.
Therefore, in the translation you can use words such as "really", "truth", "actually" and others:

He does speak English fluently. – Він справді вільно говорить по-англійськи.

She does go to the gym every day. – Вона дійсно ходить до спортзалу щодня.

Do sit down! – Та сідайте!

2. The emphasizing It+ to be construction

It is used to emphasize the Subject (model 1), the Object or the Adverbial modifier (model 2). The
word order in such sentences is the following:

who/which + predicate + the rest of the sentence

It + to be + (emphasized part of the sentence)
that + subject + predicate + the rest of the
+
sentence

It is the data that (which) are reliable. – Саме ці дані є надійними.

It was Prof. Petrenko whom I met at the conference yesterday. – Cаме професора Петренка я
зустрів учора на конференції.

It was in the street that I met him yesterday. – Якраз на вулиці я його зустрів учора.
It was after the goods had been delivered that the bill was received by the manager. – Тільки
після того, як товари були доставлені, рахунок був отриманий менеджером.

Model 1 is used to emphasize the Subject, model 2 – the Object and the Adverbial modifier.

Note:

A special type of this structure is the model with not … until.

It was not until the dawn that we returned home. – Ми повернулися додому лише на ранок.

It was not until 9 o’clock that he returned. Тільки о 9 годині він повернувся.

Double negation gives affirmation. This model is used to show that the action took place late.

3. Emphasizing constructions The only thing / The last thing /All (that) are used at the beginning
of the sentence and translated as follow:

The only thing (that)...is (was) – Єдина річ, яку ....це...

The last thing (that)…is (was) – Остання річ, яку ... це...

All (that) …. is (was)– Все, що ... це лише/це ... .

For instance:

The only thing (that) we didn´t find was the key to the door. – Єдина річ, яку ми не знайшли,
були ключі від дверей.

The last thing we bought was the car. – Останнє, що ми придбали, – це автомобіль.

All (that) you need is love. – Все, що тобі потрібно, – це кохання.

4. Emphasizing constructions question word + is/was it + that:

Where is it that you’re planning to go? – Куди ж це ти плануєш поїхати?

Who was it that sent you those flowers? – Хто ж це прислав тобі ці квіти?

When was it that you realised you were being followed? – Коли ж ти усвідомив, що за тобою
слідкують?

5. Emphasizing constructions that is/was + question word are translated as ось + питальне
слово:
That is (That’s) what he told the police. – Ось що він сказав поліції.

That was how he became a successful businessman. – Ось як він став успішним бізнесменом

Is that where he’s living now? – (Так) Ось де він живе зараз?

Was that why he resigned? – (Так) Ось чому він звільнився?

6. Emphasizing construction question word + subject + verb + is/was:

What I need is some good advice. – Що мені треба, так це добра порада.

What I don’t need is criticism. – Чого я не потребую, так це критики.

INVERSION

The inverted word order is the replacement of the Predicate or part of the Predicate before the
Subject. Changing standard word order is called "inversion" (inverted word order; inverse word
order). Inversion in English usually refers to placing the auxiliary, modal, or main verb before the
subject. Inversion is used with a certain aim, often for emphasis. The some cases of inversion are
represented.

There are two ways to invert the subject and the verb:

1) be/have/modal/auxiliary verb + subject;

2) main verb + subject.

The inverted word order of the first model takes place:

1. In conditional sentences in an if-clause instead of “If”:

Should she need anything, tell me. – Якщо їй щось знадобиться, кажіть мені. (= If she need …)

Had he known, he would have made arrangements. – Якби він знав, він би зробив усі
приготування.

Had I more time, I would have done it better. – Мав би я більше часу, я б це зробив краще.

2. Inversion can be provoked by some adverbs:

hardly / scarcely ... when - ледве:

no sooner ...... than — як тільки, ледве

never — ніколи

nothing — нічого

not only — не тільки

never – ніколи

rarely

For instance:

Scarcely ( hardly) had he finished his work when somebody knocked at the door. — Ледве він
закінчив свою роботу, як хтось постукав у двері.

No sooner had this letter arrived than his mind was at work planning a meeting. — Не встиг
надійти цей лист, як він почав будувати плани зустрічі.

Never had he felt such a deep hatred for the enemy. — Ніколи він ще не відчував такої глибокої
ненависті до ворога.

Not only is the position of the earth changing but the earth itself is undergoing changes. — Не
лише положення землі змінюється, але й сама земля піддається змінам.

Rarely do we see him these days. – Нечасто ж ми бачимо її в ці дні.

3. After only in such cases:

Only after – лише після Only then – лише тоді

Only by – лише з (як?) Only now – лише зараз
Only if – лише якщо Only later – лише пізніше
Only in this way – лише таким чином Only once – лише раз
Only in – лише в (де?) Only when – лише коли

Only later did she really think about the situation. – Лише пізніше вона реально осмислила
ситуацію.

Only in the USA have I seen such high buildings. – Лише у США я побачив такі високі будівлі.

Only after eating up the food, did he say a word. – Лише після того, як все з’їв, він зміг щось
сказати.
Only now am I able to understand what happened. – Лише зараз я здатен зрозуміти, що
трапилось.

Note! When the expressions with only come at the beginning of a sentence, the inversion is in
the main clause:

Only if you study hard, can you be successful. – Лише якщо ви будете сумлінно навчатись,
ви зможете досягти успіху.

Only when we had arrived home did I feel calm. – Лише коли ми добралися додому, я відчув
спокій.

4. Inversion takes place with so, such, to such a degree when they come at the beginning of the
main clause of the sentence:

So careful is she that she never makes any mistakes. – Вона така уважна, що ніколи не робить
ніяких помилок.

Such a brilliant student was he that he was offered a scholarship. – Він був настільки відмінним
студентом, що йому запропонували стипендію.

5. With so, neither, nor to express agreement («Я теж»).

“I am going home.” – “So am I. ” – Я йду додому. – Я теж.

“I don’t like meat. ” – “Neither do I. ” – Я не люблю м’ясо. – Я теж.

“I hate horror films.” “So do I.” – Я ненавиджу фільми жахів. – Я теж.

“Jane hasn’t returned our calls.” “Neither/Nor has her husband.” – Джейн нам не
перетелефонувала. – ЇЇ чоловік теж.

The inverted word order of the second model (main verb + subject) takes place:

1. After verbs of movement or adverbial expressions of place when they come at the beginning
of the sentence:

Here comes the bus! – Ось їде автобус!

Here is his new house. – Тут його новий дім.

Here is a nice reasonable restaurant. – Тут є ресторан з нормальними цінами.

There goes the guide, he will answer our questions. – Ось іде гід, він відповість на ваші
запитання.
On the sofa sat an old man. – На дивані сидів старий чоловік.

Away ran the thief! – Он втікає злодій!

Note! If the subject is a pronoun, there is no inversion: Here she comes.

Up you get.

2. In direct speech when the subject of the introductory verbs is a noun:

“How is he?” asked friend. – “Як він?” – запитав друг.

BUT: “How is he?” she asked. – “Як він?” – вона запитала (the subject of the introductory
verbs is a pronoun).

LESSON 10. FEATURES OF OFFICIAL

BUSINESS STYLE. BUSINESS
MEETINGS. CONDITIONAL MOOD OF
THE VERB. FORM WOULD +
INFINITIVE.
БЛОК 1

1.1. Read and translate the text.

Language features of the official-business style

The official and business style is designed to serve legal relations between citizens and the state,
in connection with which it is used in various documents: from state acts and international
contracts to business correspondence. The most important functions of style - message and impact
- are realized in such official documents as laws, decrees, decrees, orders, agreements, agreements,
statements and many others. This style is also called administrative , since it serves the sphere of
official business relations, the field of law and public policy. Another name for it - business speech
- indicates that this style is the oldest of the book, and its origins must be sought in the business
speech of Kievan Rus, as legal documents (Pravda Russkaya, various treaties, letters) were created
already in the 10th century.

The official and business style is distinguished by its stability, closeness and standardization.
Despite the wide variety of business documents, their language is strictly subject to the
requirements of official business presentation. It provides for the accuracy of the wording of legal
norms and the necessity of absolute adequacy of their understanding; the composition of obligatory
elements of the document execution, ensuring its legal competence; standardized nature of the
presentation; stable forms of the location of the material in a certain logical sequence, etc.
For all forms of business letters, strict compliance with the literary norm is necessary at all
language levels: it is inadmissible to use lexical-phraseological means of colloquial, versatile
character, dialectal, professional-slang words; non-literary variants of word change and word
formation; conversational syntactic constructions. The official and business style does not accept
expressive elements: evaluation vocabulary, high or low words (joking, ironic), figurative
expressions. The most important requirement for the language of the document is the objectivity
and impassivity of the presentation of facts.

The official and business style functions primarily in the written form, but oral is not excluded,
in particular statements by state and public figures at solemn meetings, meetings, receptions. The
oral form of a business speech is characterized by a full style of pronunciation, a special
expressiveness of intonation, logical stresses. The speaker can tolerate some kind of emotional
uplift of speech, even the interspersion of language-specific languages, without violating the
literary norm, however. Invalid accents, non-literary pronunciation are inadmissible.

The vocabulary of the official speech is characterized by the wide use of special words and terms
(legal, diplomatic, military, economic, sports, etc.). The desire for brevity calls for reference to
abbreviations, complex names of state bodies and supra-state entities, as well as institutions,
organizations, societies, parties, etc. ( RF, CIS, MOE, Airborne Forces, Air Force, FDI, housing
and communal services, LDPR, MUP, Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Health, Rosstat ). Since
the structure of state bodies, the names of parties and social movements are subject to change,
many new words appear and this part of the vocabulary is constantly updated, replenished.

In business and official texts, words and phrases not used in other styles are used: the above, the
following, the above, the proper, is prohibited, committed, punishable , etc. This includes stable
phrases: measure of restraint; appeal; act of civil status; act of disobedience; a pledge not to leave
the place, etc. Regular use of such words and expressions that do not have synonyms contributes
to the accuracy of speech, excludes inobservance.

Morphological features of the official-business style are largely determined by its nominal nature:
here there is an absolute predominance of nominal parts of speech with little use of verbs. The
inappropriateness of the expressive coloring of the official speech makes it impossible to use
interjections, modal words, a number of particles, words with suffixes of subjective evaluation,
adjectives in comparative and superlative terms. Nouns denoting posts are usually used in the form
of masculine gender ( accountant, director, lab assistant, postman, controller , etc.).

The high frequency of verbal nouns is a consequence of the consolidation of stable speech
(synonymous with verbal expressions): the order of compilation and execution of the
transportation plan; in order to improve the order of tax collection , etc. In such phrases of speech,
there often arises a chain of genitive forms of nouns ( finding out the conditions for the crime,
checking compliance with the passport regime ), which makes the phrase heavy and sometimes
makes it difficult to perceive.

The adjectives and participles in business speech often appear in the meaning of nouns ( sick,
resting, undersigned ) productive short forms of adjectives ( must, mandatory, necessary,
accountable, amenable, responsible ). Appeal to similar forms is dictated by the prescriptive
character of the business speech: The call of experts is mandatory for determining the causes of
death (UPK RSFSR).

The selection of pronouns in business speech is indicative: here personal pronouns i, you, he, she,
they are used due to the complete absence of individualization of speech and concreteness,
accuracy of utterance. Instead of demonstrative pronouns , this, that, such , etc. the words present,
present, appropriate, known, specified, the above, the following , etc., are not found at all.
Unspecified pronouns: some, some, something etc.

In order to characterize verbs in official speech, its nominal system is also important, which
determines the high frequency of the verbs-ligaments ( is, is, is, ), the substitution of the verbal
predicate by the combination of the auxiliary verb with the noun name, assist, supervise, carry out
care , etc.). Compared with other book styles, business style has the lowest frequency of verbs: for
every thousand words, they account for only 60 (in scientific style - 90, in artistic speech - 151).
The prescriptive nature of the official business style, the predominance in it of the ascertaining and
descriptive types of speech over narration and reasoning determine its static character, the
supplanting of verbal forms by verbal nouns.

Among the semantic groups of verbs represented in the business style, the main role is given to
words with the meaning of must ( follows, is to be imputed, committed, ), as well as abstract verbs
indicating being, availability ( is, there is ). See, for example:

Persons who are in constant upbringing and maintenance, are obliged to deliver the content to the
persons who actually raised them, if the last are incapacitated and needing help and can not receive
content from their children or spouses.

In the official speech, non-finite forms of verbs are used - participles, gerunds, infinitives, which
often appear in the sense of an imperative mood ( take note, make a proposal, recommend, remove
from use etc).

Present-day forms fulfil the function of prescription: Enterprises are liable ...; The tenant is
responsible for the property (such verb forms of time are called these prescriptions ).

The forms of the future tense acquire in the context different shades (requirements, prescriptions,
possibilities, close to the need): The boundaries will be by what they existed on October 1, 1941 .
(i.e., established by agreement); The military command will select ... (= should select ). Another
meaning of the future, typical for business texts, is the future conditional (surreal), which usually
occurs in complex sentences with subordinate clauses: The insured amount is paid if permanent
disability occurs during the year .

Completely consistent with the objectives of business speech and the functioning of the past tense.
One of the typical meanings is the past of an accentuated statement, a pronounced fixation of the
information reported in writing (agreements, contracts, etc.):

Ukraine confirms that it transferred the funds ... to pay off part of the debt for the previously
supplied United States gas; We, the undersigned ..., examined, measured, collated drawings and
took a single-family panel house (act).

Verbs of an imperfect type as more abstract in meaning than verbs of a perfect kind prevail in the
genres of general business speech (constitution, codes, charters, etc.). Forms of the perfect kind
are used in texts of more specific content (orders, orders, minutes of meetings, resolutions, acts,
contracts). These forms of the verb are used in combination with the modal words in the meaning
of the obligation and express the categorical order, the permission (must tell, the right to prescribe,
the obligation to transfer, the obligation to provide), and also the statement ( the ministry
considered, adopted measures, made a proposal, organized, paid, completed , etc.).

The syntax of the official business style reflects the impersonal nature of the business speech (
Complaints are submitted to the prosecutor, Cargo is transported ... ). In this regard, passive
constructions are widely used, which allow abstracting from specific performers and focusing
attention on the actions themselves ( According to the competition credited ... - , Ten patients are
accepted, 120 applications are registered; of the order is prolonged provided ... ).

The syntactic constructions in the official speech are saturated with cliched turns with odious
prepositions: for purposes, in communication, on the line, on the basis of , etc. ( in order to improve
the structure, in connection with these complications , for lack of cooperation and mutual
assistance, based on the decision taken ). Such cliches are a specific feature of the official business
style. The use of such syntactic constructions is necessary for expressing typical situations; they
facilitate and simplify the compilation of standard texts.

In official business documents, more often there are composing unions than subordinates (as the
law prescribes, but does not explain, proves, the charter). At the same time, the peculiarity of
business speech is the prevalence of complex syntactic constructions: a simple sentence is not
capable of reflecting the sequence of facts to be considered in an official business plan.

A significant role in the formal-business style is played by conditional-infinitive constructions

(especially in the texts of laws, where it is motivated by the target task - to stipulate the
conditionality of the legal norm). A characteristic feature of a business speech is also the use of
infinitive and impersonal sentences with the meaning of necessity. In order to achieve laconicism
and accuracy, parallel syntactic constructions (participial and adverbial turns, constructions with
verbal nouns) are often used.

For the syntax of business style is characterized by a strict and specific order of words in the
sentence, which is due to the requirement of consistency, consistency, accuracy of the presentation
of thought. A stylistic feature is also the preferential use of indirect speech . To direct speech in
the official business style resorted only in those cases when it is necessary to quote the legislative
acts or other documents verbatim.

In the design of texts of the official business style, an important role is played by paragraph
division and rubrication; Requisites - permanent elements of the content of the document: names,
dates, signatures, as well as the graphic design accepted for this document. All this is of paramount
importance in record keeping, testifies to the literacy of the originator of the document, its
professionalism and the culture of speech.

БЛОК 2

2.1. Read and translate the grammar material about the construction “WOULD +
INFINITIVE” (part 1)

How to use 'would'

We can use subject + would + infinitive (I would go) or subject + would + have + past participle
(I would have gone).

'Would' has quite a lot of different uses. It's often a kind of past tense version of 'will'.
Remember that both 'had' and 'would' can be shorted to 'd. But only 'would' is followed by an
infinitive without 'to'. 'Had' is followed by a past participle or by 'to + infinitive'.

1: The past of 'will' in reported speech

When we use 'will' in direct speech, we often use 'would' to change it into reported speech.

• Direct speech: I will be there at 6pm.

• Reported speech: She said that she would be there at 6pm.

• Direct speech: We won't see you at the party.

• Reported speech: They said that they wouldn't see us at the party.

Read more about reported speech here.

2: Willingness in the past

In the present we use 'will' to talk about willingness (willingness means that you are happy to do
something). For example, if we say 'I will help you', this means 'I'm offering to help you' or 'I'm
happy to help you'. We use 'would' for the same meaning in the past. Usually, we use this in the
negative (when we are not happy to do something) and we use 'won't' for the present and 'wouldn't
for the past'.

• His mother won't let him go to the party.

• His mother wouldn't let him go to the party.

3: Habits in the past

• When we were children, we would go to the beach every summer.

• When I lived in Japan, I would take Japanese lessons three times a week.

This is similar in meaning to 'used to + infinitive'. Read more about habits in the past here.

(We can also use 'will' for typical behaviour or habits in the present, though this is much less
common than using 'would' for the past. An example in the present is 'she'll talk and talk for hours!')

4: Requests
We use both 'will' and 'would' to make requests. The meaning is the same for both, but a request
with 'would' is more polite than a request with 'will'.

• Will you please help me?

• Would you please help me?

LESSON 11. ELECTRONIC

CORRESPONDENCE: E-MAIL.
TELEPHONE COMMUNICATION.
CONDITIONAL MOOD OF THE VERB.
FORM WOULD + INFINITIVE.
БЛОК 1

1.1. Read and translate the text. Learn how to write effective emails with different
purposes.

Effective Email Communication

Although email is a valuable tool, it creates some challenges for writers. Miscommunication can
easily occur when people have different expectations about the messages that they send and
receive. Email is used for many different purposes, including contacting friends, communicating
with professors and supervisors, requesting information, and applying for jobs, internships, and
scholarships. Depending on your purposes, the messages you send will differ in their formality,
intended audience, and desired outcomes.

So, how do you know when sending an email is the most effective way of accomplishing your
communication goals? When is a brief message OK, and when it is more appropriate to send a
longer, more professional-sounding email? How should you decide what style of writing is
appropriate for each task? Keep reading for answers to these questions!

When is email the appropriate form of communication to use?

Email is a good way to get your message across when:

• You need to get in touch with a person who is hard to reach via telephone, does not come
to campus regularly, or is not located in the same part of the country or world (for instance,
someone who lives in a different time zone).
 • The information you want to share is not time-sensitive. The act of sending an email is
instantaneous, but that does not mean the writer can expect an instantaneous response. For
many people, keeping up with their email correspondence is a part of their job, and they
only do it during regular business hours. Unless your reader has promised otherwise,
assume that it may take a few days for them to respond to your message.
• You need to send someone an electronic file, such as a document for a course, a spreadsheet
full of data, or a rough draft of your paper.
• You need to distribute information to a large number of people quickly (for example, a
memo that needs to be sent to the entire office staff).
• You need a written record of the communication. Saving important emails can be helpful
if you need to refer back to what someone said in an earlier message, provide some kind
of proof (for example, proof that you have paid for a service or product), or review the
content of an important meeting or memo.

When is email NOT an appropriate form of communication to use?

Email is not an effective means of communication when:

• Your message is long and complicated or requires additional discussion that would best be
accomplished face-to-face. For example, if you want feedback from your supervisor on
your work or if you are asking your professor a question that requires more than a yes/no
answer or simple explanation, you should schedule a meeting instead.
• The information is highly confidential. Email is NEVER private! Keep in mind that your
message could be forwarded on to other people without your knowledge. A backup copy
of your email is always stored on a server where it can be easily retrieved by interested
parties, even when you have deleted the message and think it is gone forever.
• Your message is emotionally charged or the tone of the message could be easily
misconstrued. If you would hesitate to say something to someone’s face, do not write it in
an email.

Who is your audience?

People have different opinions what email should look like, so it is always helpful to be aware of
the expectations of your audience. For example, some people regard email as a rapid and informal
form of communication – a way to say “hello” or to ask a quick question. However, others view
email as simply a more convenient way to transmit a formal letter. Such people may consider an
informal email rude or unprofessional.

A message like this one might be OK to send your friend, but not to your professor:

Hey Joan,

Do you know what the assignment is about? Can U help me?

M
Although it may be obvious to you that you wouldn’t send such an email to your professor, let’s
carefully examine what assumptions this message makes about the reader and their expectations.
The tone of this message is very casual; it assumes that the reader knows who the sender is and
has a close personal relationship with the sender. Because it contains an ambiguous reference to
“the assignment,” this message also assumes that the reader is familiar with the subject matter at
hand (for instance, it assumes the reader will know which course and which particular assignment
the sender is referring to). The writer also makes an implicit assumption about the reader’s comfort
with the language that is often used when sending an instant message or text message. The “U”
might be taken by some readers as a sign that the writer is too lazy to type out the word “you.”

Making assumptions about your audience’s expectations increases the risk that your message or
its tone will be misinterpreted.

To ensure that your message has its intended effect, use the following questions to help you
think about your audience and their needs:

• Who is your audience? How often does your audience use email to communicate?
• What is your audience’s relationship to you – for example, is the reader your teacher? Your
boss? A friend? A stranger? How well do you know them? How would you talk to them in
a social situation?
• What do you want your audience to think or assume about you? What kind of impression
do you want to make?

Important components of an effective email:

Subject Lines

Email subject lines are like newspaper headlines. They should convey the main point of your
message or the idea that you want the reader to take away. Therefore, be as specific as possible.
One-word subjects such as “Hi,” “Question,” or “FYI” are not informative and don’t give the
reader an idea of how important your message is. If your message is time sensitive, you might
want to include a date in your subject line, like “Meeting on Thurs, Dec 2”. Think about the subject
lines on the email messages you receive. Which ones do you think are most effective? Why?

Greetings and Sign-offs

Use some kind of greeting and some kind of sign-off. Don’t just start with your text, and don’t just
stop at the end without a polite signature. If you don’t know the person well, you may be confused
about how to address them (“What do I call my TA/professor?”) or how to sign off (Best?
Sincerely?). Nonetheless, it is always better to make some kind of effort. When in doubt, address
someone more formally to avoid offending them. Some common ways to address your reader
are:
 • Dear Professor Smith,
• Hello, Ms. McMahon,
• Hi, Mary Jane,

If you don’t know the name of the person you are addressing, or if the email addresses a
diverse group, try something generic, yet polite:

• To whom it may concern,

• Dear members of the selection committee,
• Hello, everyone,

Your closing is extremely important because it lets the reader know who is contacting them.
Always sign off with your name at the end of your message. If you don’t know the reader well,
you might also consider including your title and the organization you belong to; for example:

Mary Watkins

Senior Research Associate

Bain and Company

Joseph Smith

UNC-CH, Class of 2009

For your closing, something brief but friendly, or perhaps just your name, will do for most
correspondence:

• Thank you,
• Best wishes,
• See you tomorrow,
• Regards,

For a very formal message, such as a job application, use the kind of closing that you might
see in a business letter:

• Sincerely,
• Respectfully yours,

Cc: and Bcc: (‘carbon copy’ and ‘blind carbon copy’)

Copying individuals on an email is a good way to send your message to the main recipient while
also sending someone else a copy at the same time. This can be useful if you want to convey the
same exact message to more than one person. In professional settings, copying someone else on
an email can help get things done, especially if the person receiving the copy is in a supervisory
role. For example, copying your boss on an email to a non-responsive co-worker might prompt the
co-worker to respond. Be aware, however, that when you send a message to more than one address
using the Cc: field, both the original recipient and all the recipients of the carbon copies can see
all the addresses in the To: and Cc: fields. Each person who receives the message will be able to
see the addresses of everyone else who received it.

Blind copying emails to a group of people can be useful when you don’t want everyone on the list
to have each other’s addresses. The only recipient address that will be visible to all recipients is
the one in the To: field. If you don’t want any of the recipients to see the email addresses in the
list, you can put your own address in the To: field and use Bcc: exclusively to address your message
to others. However, do not assume that blind copying will always keep recipients from knowing
who else was copied – someone who is blind copied may hit “reply all” and send a reply to
everyone, revealing that they were included in the original message.

Some additional tips for writing more effective emails

Think about your message before you write it. Don’t send email in haste. First, decide on the
purpose of your message and what outcome you expect from your communication. Then think
about your message’s audience and what they may need in order for your message to have the
intended result. You will also improve the clarity of your message if you organize your thoughts
before you start writing. Jot down some notes about what information you need to convey, what
questions you have, etc., then organize your thoughts in a logical sequence. You can try
brainstorming techniques like mapping, listing, or outlining to help you organize your thoughts.

Reflect on the tone of your message. When you are communicating via email, your words are not
supported by gestures, voice inflections, or other cues, so it may be easier for someone to misread
your tone. For example, sarcasm and jokes are often misinterpreted and may offend your audience.
Similarly, be careful about how you address your reader. For instance, beginning an email to your
professor or TA with “Hey!” might be perceived as being rude or presumptuous (as in “Hey you!”).
If you’re unsure about how your message might be received, you might try reading it out loud to
a friend to test its tone.

Strive for clarity and brevity in your writing. Have you ever sent an email that caused confusion
and took at least one more communication to straighten out? Miscommunication can occur if a
message is unclear, disorganized, or just too long and complex for readers to easily follow. Here
are some steps you can take to ensure that your message is understood:

1. Briefly state your purpose for writing in the very beginning of your message.
2. Be sure to provide the reader with some context. If you’re asking a question, cut and paste
any relevant text (for example, computer error messages, assignment prompts you don’t
 understand, part of a previous message, etc.) into the email so that the reader has some
frame of reference for your question. When replying to someone else’s email, it can often
be helpful to either include or restate the sender’s message.
3. Use paragraphs to separate thoughts (or consider writing separate emails if you have many
unrelated points or questions).
4. Finally, state the desired outcome at the end of your message. If you’re requesting a
response, let the reader know what type of response you require (for example, an email
reply, possible times for a meeting, a recommendation letter, etc.) If you’re requesting
something that has a due date, be sure to highlight that due date in a prominent position in
your message. Ending your email with the next step can be really useful, especially in work
settings (for example, you might write “I will follow this up with a phone call to you in the
next day or so” or “Let’s plan to further discuss this at the meeting on Wednesday”).

Format your message so that it is easy to read. Use white space to visually separate paragraphs
into distinct blocks of text. Bullet important details so that they are easy to pick out. Use bold face
type or capital letters to highlight critical information, such as due dates. (But do not type your
entire message in capital letters or boldface – your reader may perceive this as “shouting” and
won’t be able to tell which parts of the message are especially important.)

Proofread. Re-read messages before you send them. Check your grammar, spelling, capitalization,
and punctuation. If your email program supports it, use spelling and grammar checking tools. Try
reading your message out loud to help you catch any mistakes or awkward phrasing that you might
otherwise miss.

Questions to ask yourself before sending an email message

• Is this message suitable for email, or could I better communicate the information with a
letter, phone call, or face-to-face meeting?
• What is my purpose for sending this email? Will the message seem important to the
receiver, or will it be seen as an annoyance and a waste of time?
• How much email does the reader usually receive, and what will make them read this
message (or delete it)?
• Do the formality and style of my writing fit the expectations of my audience?
• How will my message look when it reaches the receiver? Is it easy to read? Have I used
correct grammar and punctuation? Have I divided my thoughts into discrete paragraphs?
Are important items, such as due dates, highlighted in the text?
• Have I provided enough context for my audience to easily understand or follow the thread
of the message?
• Did I identify myself and make it easy for the reader to respond in an appropriate manner?
• Will the receiver be able to open and read any attachments?

Sample emails

Use what you’ve just learned to explain why Student 2’s email to Professor Jones is more effective
than the email written by Student 1. How does the tone of the messages differ? What makes
Student 2’s email look and sound more appropriate? What are the elements that contribute its
clarity? If you were Professor Jones and you received both messages, how would you respond to
each one?
Email from Student 1:

hey,

i need help on my paper can i come by your office tomorrow

thx

Email from Student 2:

Hi Dr. Jones,

I am in your ENGL 101 class on Thursdays, and I have a question about the paper that is due next
Tuesday. I’m not sure that I understand what is meant by the following sentence in the prompt:

“Write a 10 page paper arguing for or against requiring ENGL 101 for all UNC freshmen and
provide adequate support for your point of view.”

I am not sure what would count as “adequate” support. Would using 3 sources be OK?

Can I come by your office tomorrow at 2:00 pm to talk to you about my question? Please let me
know if that fits your schedule. If not, I could also come by on Friday after 1:00.

Thank you,

Tim Smith

Here are two versions of an email from a supervisor, Jane Doe, to a group of her employees. Which
version do you think is most effective? Why?

Version 1 of Jane Doe’s Email:

Subject: tomorrow

As you know, tomorrow afternoon we’ll be meeting to discuss the status of all of our current
projects. Donuts will be provided. Be sure to arrive on time and bring along the materials you have
been working on this week – bring enough copies for everyone. Some of these material might
include your calendars, reports, and any important emails you have sent. Also, I wanted to remind
you that your parking permit requests are due later this week; you should turn those in to Ms.
Jones, and if she is not at her desk when you stop by, you can email them to her.

Version 2 of Jane Doe’s Email:

Subject: materials for Wed. staff meeting

Hi, everyone –

For tomorrow’s 3 p.m. staff meeting in the conference room, please bring 15 copies of the
following materials:

o Your project calendar

o A one-page report describing your progress so far
o A list of goals for the next month
o Copies of any progress report messages you have sent to clients this past month

See you tomorrow –

Jane

БЛОК 2

2.1. Read and translate the text. Learn how to talk on the phone correctly and professionally.
Why Learn How to Talk on the Phone Professionally

Talking on the phone may be an essential part of your job, or you may only have to make or answer
phone calls in English from time to time. You may need to speak on the phone in English every
day or even as part of an exam or job interview. Sometimes your job may even depend on a phone
call!

Skyping (or video calling) in English involves the same skills as traditional telephoning, but with
a webcam so will be seen by the other person.

You will discover that improving your telephone skills will also help with your speaking skills in
general. What’s more, it will help you gain self-confidence and even improve your self-esteem –
both when speaking English and your native language.

Don’t be afraid of making mistakes

The first time you use some new phrases, you will probably make some mistakes. Everybody does
when they learn something new; it’s completely normal.

Hopefully the people you talk to will be patient and understanding. However, some people who
have never learned a second language don’t understand how difficult it can be. Don’t let them
discourage you! Remind yourself: When you make mistakes, you are making progress.

Learn from your mistakes

Another great thing about mistakes is that you can learn from them. Every time you finish a phone
conversation, write down the mistakes you think you made or the phrases you are not sure about.

You may even want to record your phone conversations if that’s possible and allowed where you
work. Then you can listen later – by yourself or with a tutor – to look closely for new phrases you
used correctly and where you need more practice.

Use three new phrases in your phone conversation every day

Once you read the phrases below, choose three every day to use in your phone conversations or
whenever appropriate. If you don’t use the new words, they will no longer be fresh in your mind.
They will be part of your passive vocabulary, which means you will probably recognize them when
you hear them, but you won’t be able to use them yourself on the spot.

If you can’t find a way to include them in your real telephone conversations, try writing down
imaginary phone conversations so you can use the new phrases. Remember: By using new words,
you learn new words!

Practice new grammar concepts in phone calls

You can use the previous learning strategy with grammar as well, not just with new vocabulary.
Every time you see a new grammar structure, write it down, make your own examples with it and
then use it at work!

Here are some example topics, as they relate to phone conversations.

Modal verbs

• Could I ask who’s calling, please?

• How may I help you?

Expressions followed by verbs ending in “-ing”

• Do you mind waiting a few minutes?

• Thanks for calling.

Expressions followed by infinitives

• I’m calling to clarify…

• I’d like to leave him a message.
• When is a good time to call?

40 Must-know English Phrases for Business Telephone Calls

Taking a call

When you answer the phone at your job, you’ll want to always greet the caller professionally. Here
are two formats you might use to do so.

1. Hello/Good morning/Good afternoon. [Company name], [your name] speaking, how may
I help you?

For example, if your name is Alice and you work at a company called Quick Translations, you
might say:

Good morning! Quick Translations, Alice speaking. How may I help you?

This quickly tells the caller who you are, and then lets them explain why they’re calling.

2. [Company name], [your name] speaking.

This second one is a shorter greeting: Quick Translations, Alice speaking.

You can also use “This is [your name]” as another way to say “[Your name] speaking.”

Making a call

Sometimes you are the one initiating (beginning) a phone call. You may have more time to prepare
in this case. You can use one of the formats below for greeting people when you call them:

3. Hello, this is [your name] from [company name].

For example, if you are Neil Jenkins and you work at ABC Travels, you might say:

“Hello, this is Neil Jenkins from ABC Travels.

You may want to include your surname (last name) if you know the caller doesn’t know you very
well.

4. Hi, it’s [your name] from [company name].

You may also say “Hi, it’s Neil Jenkins from ABC Travels” to start a phone conversation.

Asking for somebody

It’s important to know exactly who you want to talk to and you can use one of the options below.

5. May I speak to [person’s name]?

This first phrase is a question, and slightly more polite than the next option. Here’s an example:

May I (please) speak to Mr. Smith?

6. I’d like to speak to [person’s name], please.

For example, “I’d like to speak to Mr. Smith, please.” You may use this one when you’re quite
sure the person is available to talk to you.

Giving reasons for calling

At the beginning of the phone conversation it’s best to clarify why you are calling. This helps both
speakers talk about what’s relevant.

7. I’m calling to ask about/discuss/clarify…

I’m calling to ask about your current printing promotion.

8. I just wanted to ask…

I just wanted to ask if you need any more articles for next month’s magazine.

9. Could you tell me…?

Could you tell me the address of Friday’s networking event?

Small talk

Whenever you want to be friendly with someone, you can make small talk. You can ask them
about their day, or you may be more specific if you remember details from your past conversations.

10. Hi, [first name], how are you?

This one is more general and you can use it when you don’t remember anything specific to ask
about.

11. How are you getting on with…?

This second phrase is more specific and should be used if you remember certain details. This will
make the other person feel good about talking to you and may even improve your relationship. For
example, if you remember that a company will move to a new office building, you might ask:

How are you getting on with preparations to change office buildings next month?

Taking messages

If you answer a phone call and the caller wants to speak to someone who is unavailable, you should
take a message. You can do that in any of the following ways:

12. I’m sorry, she/he’s not here today. Can I take a message?

13. I’m afraid he/she’s not available at the moment. Can I take a message?

This response doesn’t tell the caller why “he/she” is unavailable. However if you know why, and
it’s okay to share that information, you might say something like this:

I’m afraid she’s in a meeting until 4 p.m. Can I take a message?

14. Could I ask who’s calling, please?

You can use this phrase to politely find out who is calling.

15. I’ll give him/her your message as soon as he/she gets back.

After you’ve written down the caller’s message, you can say this phrase.

Leaving messages

On the other hand, when you make a phone call and the person you want to talk to is not there, you
should leave a message for them. Here’s what you could say:

16. Could you please take a message? Please tell her/him that…

Could you please take a message? Please tell her that Cindy from accounting called about Mr.
Shapiro’s expense reports.
17. I’d like to leave her/him a message. Please let her/him know that…

I’d like to leave him a message. Please let him know that tomorrow’s lunch meeting is cancelled.

Asking when somebody will be available

If you don’t want to leave a message, you can ask when would be a good time to call again:

18. When is a good time to call?

19. When is she/he going to be back?

Asking for information

When you ask people to give you information, it’s important to be polite. Using the modal verb
“could” and a question is helpful in this case.

20. Could I ask what company you’re with?

21. Could you give me your mobile number, please?

Asking the other person to repeat information

Don’t worry if you can’t always understand people on the phone. It happens to native speakers all
time! Just ask the person to repeat the information for you: “I’m sorry, could you please repeat
that?”

If you have to write down names, it’s best to ask people to spell words out for you. You can use
either of the following two phrases:

22. Could you spell that for me, please?

23. How do you spell that, please?

It’s always safe to repeat important information just to double check:

24. Let me see if I got that right.

Let me see if I got that right. Your name is Tom Holmes, H-O-L-M-E-S, and your phone number
is 555-222-1111, correct?

Sometimes the connection is bad and it’s okay to ask the other person to speak more loudly:

25. Would you mind speaking up a bit? I can’t hear you very well.

Whenever you don’t understand something, it’s best to ask. The information may be important, so
just ask them to repeat it for you:

26. I’m sorry, I didn’t catch your first name.

Making arrangements
If you have to make arrangements, it’s important to be polite as you negotiate. Here are some
phrases you might use:

27. Shall we say January 20?

28. How about the following week?

29. Would the week of January 18 work for you?

Asking for suggestions

When you have to decide on times and places to do things, you can invite the other person to
make suggestions. It can be seen as a sign of politeness.

30. What would you suggest?

31. Do you have a time/place in mind?

Making requests

When you ask people to do things for you, it’s again essential to be polite. You can use the magic
words “could” and “please” as seen below:

32. Could you send me an email with the detailed offer?

33. Do you mind sending me the report again, please?

Promising action

When you promise action, you may want to add when something is going to happen. Remember
that in English we don’t use the future tense after time expressions like “when” and “as soon as.”

34. I’ll ask him to call you as soon as he gets back.

Notice that after “as soon as” we use “he gets back,” present tense.

35. I’ll send you the report as soon as possible.

Saying you cannot help

There are situations when you can’t help the other person, and it may be hard to say so. Just be
firm and polite:

36. I’m afraid I can’t give you that information.

37. Sorry, but I’m not allowed to give details about that.

Ending the call

Remember to thank the other person for calling or for helping you. You can do that in any of the
following ways:
38. Thank you very much for your help.

39. Thanks for calling.

40. Thank you for your time.

Once you learn some of these expressions to help you with phone calls, you will feel much better
about your language skills. Don’t forget to practice them every day, and remember: People can’t
always tell how long you’ve been studying English, but they can easily tell if you are smiling when
speaking on the phone!

БЛОК 3

3.1. Read and translate the grammar material about the construction “WOULD +
INFINITIVE” (part 2)

5: The second conditional

We use 'would + infinitive' in the second conditional.

• If I had enough money, I would travel around the world.

• If we lived in Madrid, we would study Spanish.

Read more about the second conditional here.

6: The third conditional

We use 'would + have + past participle' in the third conditional.

• If I had gone to bed earlier, I wouldn't have been so tired.

• If the train hadn't been late, we would have arrived on time.

Read more about the third conditional here.

Read about 'could have' / 'would have' / 'should have' here.

7: With 'wish'

• I wish that he wouldn't smoke so much.

 • I wish you would come to see me more often.

See more about 'wish' here.

8: With set phrases to talk about what we want

We use 'would' with some set phrases. These have some 'willingness' meaning in them.

• I would like some coffee.

• She would rather go to the cinema.
• We would prefer to leave immediately.
• Would you mind helping me?

LESSON 12. FOREIGN LANGUAGE

WRITING FOR RECRUITMENT
EXECUTION: THE LETTER OF
APPLICATION. CURRICULUM VITAE
OR RESUME. THE SYNTAX OF
BUSINESS WRITING.
БЛОК 1

1.1. Read and translate the text. Learn how to write the letter of application and a resume
(CV).

THE LETTER OF APPLICATION

Many recruiters ask graduates to apply using a company application form. This enables an
employer to compare applicants on a like-with-like basis in terms of their approach to and
completion of a standard form. The use of application forms usually indicates a more transparent
and scientific approach to recruitment on the part of the employer. People who are interested can
apply for the job by sending in a letter of application or covering letter (US cover letter) and a
curriculum vitae or CV (in US — resume) containing details of their education and experience. A
company may also ask candidates to complete a standard application form. The company's Human
Resources Department will then select the most suitable applications and prepare a short list of
candidates or applicants, who are invited to attend an Interview. Another way for a company to
hire is by using the services of a recruitment agency (in US — search firm) which provides a list
of suitable candidates.
The application form usually includes the following sections: general information about
institution, benefits, responsibilities, applicants’ criteria, closing data for application.

– Personal details (data):

Family name/Legal name (last, first, middle);

Title (Mr/Mrs/Miss/Dr);

Sex (male, female);

Permanent home address, phone/fax number or present address;

Place and date of birth;

Marital status (single, married, divorced, widowed);

Military status (liable to military service, reservist, military man).

– Academic background usually includes all academic qualification obtained since completing
secondary education, stating the institutes attended, the main subjects of study and when the main
courses started and finished. Usually the applicants attach photocopies of all relevant academic
certificates with accompanying translations into English, if they are issued in another language.

– Professional background lists all positions held since completing secondary education.

– Residency issues (citizenship, permanent residence status, previous country of residence).

Print a copy of your application and keep it with the job advertisement details. You may need this
later for interview preparation! The letter of application can be as important as the CV in that, it
often provides the first direct contact between a candidate and an employer. If this letter is not well
written and presented, it will make a poor impression. The letter of application normally contains
four parts in which you should:

– confirm that you wish to apply and say where you learned about the job;

– say why you are interested in the position and your interests are the same as those of the
company;

– show that you can contribute to the job by highlighting your most relevant skills and
experience;

– indicate your willingness to attend an interview (and possibly say when you would be free to
attend).

Of all the things a person does in his/her life, few are more important than getting a job. Job seeking
is directly related to his/her future success and happiness. It is vital to conduct the job search
properly. The job search requires a set of activities, such as:

a) preparing a Cover Letter and a Resume to be given a chance to participate in the interview;

b) completion of an application form;

c) interviewee's participation in the interview.

The primary purpose of a Cover Letter and a Resume is to persuade the recruiter to grant an
applicant the Interview. A Cover Letter is important because it gives an applicant the opportunity
to show the employer that he/she can write well and adapt his/her presentation of him/herself to a
specific job. By tailoring communication to the interests of the addressee firm, an applicant can
add value to his/her resume in any of 3 ways:

– highlighting positive characteristics that are of particular interest to the reader, an applicant is
giving them the prominence, emphasizing what he wants from a particular situation;

– reframing items from a Resume to address the particular interests of a potential employer;

– introducing new material that is of specific interest to an employer and that might be very
difficult or awkward to include in a Resume.

Writing Cover Letter can be time-consuming. Each Cover Letter should include 4 core paragraphs
that cover these topics:

– purpose of writing;

– positive characteristics;

– why an applicant wants a job;

– the next step after receipt of a Resume.

An applicant must bear in mind that each paragraph will contain several sentences not more. The
first paragraph states the purpose of the letter and how a person came to know about the position.
It often tells why an applicant is interested in the particular job and company. The second
paragraph usually highlights a person's qualifications, positive characteristics and draws the
recruiter's attention to particularly impressive training, qualifications, work experience. The third
paragraph explains why an applicant wants to work for that firm. The fours paragraph asks for an
interview, suggests times when an applicant will be available, and thanks the recruiter for
consideration. Each cover letter is adapted somewhat to the particular job and should be freshly
typed.

Sample Letter of application

201 Green St.

Champaign, IL 61820

20 February 2020

Dr Jane Doe

Director of Personnel
Aurora East School District 131 417 Fifth Street

Aurora, IL 60505 Dear Dr. Doe,

I would like to apply for the position you have available for an elementary teacher for the fifth
grade at Yankee Ridge Elementary School for September, 2020. I learned of your vacancy through
the job vacancy web site of the University of Illinois Educational Career Services Office and the
advertisement that appeared in the January 10, 2020, Champaign News-Gazette.

I am currently seeking an elementary teaching position for autumn, 2020, since I completed my
BS degree in elementary education at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign in
December, 2019, and have been substitute teaching since January in several elementary schools
in the Urbana School District. I also completed my student teaching at Yankee Ridge Elementary
School, so I am very familiar with the students, staff, and instructional program at the school.

I believe that my academic preparation in education and my work experience in education would
allow me to make significant contributions to your school and district as a member of the staff at
Yankee Ridge. Attached you will find a resume that will provide you with information about my
qualifications. Of special interest to you may be my interest in programs for gifted children since
your position announcement indicates that the person selected for this position may be involved in
developing such programs. I have had several courses in teaching gifted children, and with my
preparation in math, I would be interested in developing curricula in the area of computer
applications of math.

I would very much like to be considered a candidate for the position you have available, and I can
be available for an interview at most any time. In addition, I have requested that a copy of my
educational placement file be sent to you from the University of Illinois' Educational Career
Services Office and that a copy of my academic transcript be sent to you from the University of
Illinois' Transcript Division in the Office of Admissions and Records. I would be pleased to
complete a district application form if you so request.

I look forward to hearing from you that you should consider me a candidate worthy of your
consideration.

Sincerely yours,

Dr Jane Doe

CURRICULUM VITAE OR RESUME

A resume, sometimes called a Curriculum Vitae or CV, is a summary of your career history, the
skills and experience you have gained during the course of it.

A good resume should:

– attract attention;

– create a positive impression;

– present your skills and qualities clearly and concisely.

The purpose of the resume is to tell the employer why you should be hired. Consider it as your
personal marketing instrument. A good resume will help you to open the door to a job interview.
When you are looking for a job, a resume is usually a necessary part of your search equipment.
You should consider your time and effort spent on writing your resume to be an investment rather
than an expense, because a well-written resume is the means to increase the probability of getting
a job inter- view. So, your resume should be thought of as a way to present to an employer those
positive characteristics that would make you a valuable employee. It also serves to highlight a
person’s background, education, achievements, experience.

There are 4 key points to be remembered when writing a resume:

– your resume is the presentation of you, not a series of job descriptions;

– your resume must be reader-friendly-presented in a manner that is relevant, interesting and

clear to the reader;

– keep your resume brief, remembering that it is not a life history;

– a good resume increases the probability of getting an interview, but there are no guarantees.

So, a resume should be designed in such a way that to give the expected information in easy-to-
read form. It should contain:

– name, addresses and telephone numbers;

– career objectives or goals. This is usually a kind of job you are seeking;

– summary. In summary, we must keep in mind that we must show how our past is a good
predictor, of what we can contribute to an employer in future. A summary conveys the message
and is a road map for reading positive characteristics one wants to present.

– educational background. Degree(s), special trainings and other significant educational

experiences should be listed with their dates;

– experience. List the jobs you have had, beginning with the most recent. Include job title, name
of an employer, your specific duties and a scope of responsibilities. List any special
accomplishments;

– honors. List any special awards, recognitions and scholarships;

– activities. Here you should list clubs, professional societies and interests you were engaged in;

– references are always furnished on requests.

There are two kinds of resume: employment and academic. The employment resume is typically
shorter. Academic interview generally includes several additional sections such as:

– conferences, seminars attended;

– papers given;

– publications;
– professional affiliations.

The academic resume is used when applying to research bodies, international or educational
organizations, etc.

The resume, as a standard summary of information, may be copied and sent off to many employers,
changing sections of the content according to the different needs of the organizations contacted.

Resume writing tips. As you write your resume, keep in mind the following:

– use concise language;

– minimize or omit everything which is irrelevant;

– select and order the major categories so that the most relevant information is placed near the
top of your resume where it will receive the majority of the reader's attention;

– your resume must be free of typographical and grammatical errors;

– have your resume critiqued by an experienced person;

– print your resume on white paper.

Sample Curriculum Vitae – Academic

John Smith

Street, City, State, Zip Phone: 5251103

Cell: 5658874

johnsmith@email.com

Assistant Professor, Psychology

Objective Education

Ph.D., Psychology, University of Minnesota, 2016.

Concentrations: Psychology, Community Psychology.

Thesis: A Study of Learning Disabled Children in a Low Income Community. M.A., Psychology,
University at Albany, 2015.

Concentrations: Psychology, Special Education.

Thesis: Communication Skills of Learning Disabled Children.

B.A, Psychology, California State University, Long Beach, CA, 2014.

Experience

2014 – 2016 Instructor, University of Minnesota.

Course: Psychology in the Classroom.

2012 – 2013 Teaching Assistant, University at Albany.

Courses: Special Education, Learning Disabilities.

Research Skills:

Extensive knowledge of SPSSX and SAS statistical programs.

Presentations:

Smith John (2016). The behaviour of learning disabled adolescents in the class- rooms. Paper
presented at the Psychology Conference at the University of Minnesota.

Publications:

Smith, John (2015). The behaviour of learning disabled adolescents in the class- room. Journal of
Educational Psychology, 120-125.

Grants and Fellowships:

– RDB Grant (University of Minnesota Research Grant, 2015), $2000.

– Workshop Grant (for ASPA meeting in New York, 2014), $1500.

Awards and Honors:

– Treldar Scholar, 2015.

– Academic Excellent Award, 2013.

Skills and Qualifications:

– Microsoft Office, Internet

– Programming ability in C++ and PHP

– Fluent German, French and Spanish

References:

Excellent references available upon request.

БЛОК 2

2.1. Learn Grammar Material.

 THE SYNTAX OF BUSINESS WRITING

How you write can affect your reputation and your company's reputation. When you send out
communications to your colleagues, seniors, vendors, associates, and consumers, you will be
judged by the level of proficiency your writing exhibits. If your writing is marred with spelling
and grammatical mistakes, your reader will lose interest and respect. A piece of writing that is
immaculate in its spelling and grammar will successfully convey the desired message to the reader.

Abbreviations: Often people write the way they talk. While in colloquial usage, certain
abbreviations and short forms are understandable, they should be avoided in business writing.
Business writing is professional, and at times the use of short forms makes it appear
unprofessional. Abbreviations also are not understood by everyone. Avoid using abbreviations
when you know that some of your readers may not understand them. Abbreviations and short forms
may confuse the readers and your communication will fail to deliver its message

Jargon: By definition, jargon is a characteristic language of a particular group. It is a vocabulary

common to a set of people who are in the same profession. While it might be acceptable for people
in the same profession to use jargon when they are talking, it becomes a problem when the jargon
is extended to people beyond the closed group.

Here are some of the problems that people using jargon in business writing encounter:

• Readers become confused and unable to follow the meaning of the words.
• Readers feel alienated and form negative impressions.
• The message of your communication is lost.
• It makes communication needlessly complicated.

Punctuation: Here are some basic rules of punctuation:

Comma (,): Often misused or overused, here are a few pointers on when to use it:

To set off clauses: "The director is in a meeting, he is expected to arrive soon, and we will continue
at that time."

Another example: She prefers to wear purple, especially when cold, but will consider yellow.

Replace periods within quotation marks: "I might not go," said Julia.

This is most often done when quoting. One mistake that people often make is to put the comma
outside of the quotation mark. It should be placed within the quotation mark.

Correct examples:

"She left last night," Jane said.

"Please spell correctly," said Professor Whitman.

"I don't think I want to go there."

Jane believes in "justice for all."

Incorrect examples:
"She left last night", Jane said.

"Please spell correctly", said Professor Whitman.

"I don't think I want to go there".

Jane believes in "justice for all".

Commas also are used to separate items listed in a document:

Before conjunctions: "This blender will save you time, and it also will make your food taste better."

Commas are used to separate three more items in a row. Examples include:

She loves to eat apples, pears, bananas, and spinach.

He loves to play basketball, soccer, and hockey.

Please select from the brown, blue, or black paint.

Commas separate two complete sentences joined by a conjunction.

For example: She went to the store, and now has food to prepare dinner.

In that example, the word "and" acts as a coordinating conjunction to link the sentences together.
The two complete sentences it would be joining together are the following: She went to the store.
She now has food to prepare dinner.

To join the two complete sentences together, you must use a coordinating conjunction. Otherwise,
it would not read correctly and would be punctuated wrong. Written without a coordinating
conjunction it would look like this:

Incorrect example: She went to the store, she now has food to prepare dinner.

That example would be considered a comma splice because it actually is two complete sentences.
The sentences need to be joined together correctly, either by a coordinating conjunction or a
semicolon. Keep in mind that "and" is not the only coordinating conjunction; others include such
words as "but," "yet," and "nor," among others.

When using commas, it often is considered better to aim for fewer of them. Too much punctuation
in a document, especially in the form of commas, can be distracting. Fewer commas usually are
considered better. Many years ago, the common thought was to always place a comma where you
would pause. This has since been frowned upon because it tends to create an overuse of commas.

Colon ( : Essentially, the colon says, "Pay attention to the information that follows." It usually
comes before a clause, and the sentence preceding should be complete in its sense, though the
sentence following need not.

Example: "There are two things that are most important in business writing: clarity and
correctness."
You also can use a colon to introduce a list of things.

Examples: The shopping list contains the following list of goods: pens, markers, notebooks, and
scissors.

Bring the following items on picnic day: sunscreen, food, drinks, and napkins.

The colon also can be used when quoting someone after an introductory sentence. Here are some
examples:

Jane Loop, noted secretary, once said: "All secretaries deserve to be paid more money."

John F. Kennedy is famous for saying: "Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you
can do for your country."

The colon also is used after the salutation in a business letter or memo. Here are some examples:

Dear Sir:

To Whom It May Concern:

The colon also is used when writing out time, such as 6:30 p.m.

Semicolon (;): Combine two separate but complete sentences and make them one. It also is used
to emphasize a point. Just as was discussed previously, if you are going to combine two complete
sentences together, they must be combined with a coordinating conjunction or with a semicolon.

Example: Punctuation is an important part of business writing; it can make or break an impression.

Dash (–): Dashes are two hyphens used next to each other. A dash is more formal than a comma
and less formal than a colon. It precedes a subordinate clause, and often links two ideas or
sentences together.

Example: In business writing, your aim – if you want to improve – should be to pay close attention
to details.

Quotation marks (“”): These are used to quote someone directly or to indicate titles of books,
poems, stories, etc. Sometimes quotation marks are used to convey irony or sarcasm as well.
Quotation marks are used in additional ways, such as when someone wants to emphasize
something she or he is writing about or is pointing out something ironic. For example:

She thinks she looks "dorky" when she wears pink.

He says she acted liked a "great chef on wheels" on their first date.

She "loves" to have to fill in on graveyard after working all day.

He "loved" her to death.

Question mark (?): Question marks are used while asking a question or to end a sentence of
inquiry. If the question is part of a quote, then the question mark goes inside the quotation mark.
If it is not part of the quote, then it goes outside. For example:
"Will you be going to the concert?"

Did she ask, "What time is the concert"?

Exclamation point (!): This mark is used when expressing surprise and great emotion; it is the
equivalent of shouting verbally. The use of exclamation marks should be limited and reserved for
emergencies, strong commands, or scorn. Following are some examples:

Get out of there, now!

Get help!

Congratulations on your graduation!

Parentheses (): These marks, to be used sparingly, go on either side of a word or phrase and are
used when adding examples or words that are not directly related to the sentence. Here are some
examples:

Most of the class (my sister was there as well) left early for the holiday break.

The car has some wonderful features (such as a GPS system and gasoline savings account) that
makes it appealing.

LESSON 13. BUSINESS WRITING. A

PROPOSAL LETTER. A LETTER OF
INQUIRY. PARTICIPLE AND
PARTICIPLE CLAUSES.
БЛОК 1

1.1. Read and Translate the Text. Learn How to Write a Proposal Letter and a Letter of
Inquiry.

A PROPOSAL LETTER

How you communicate in business environments directly impacts how you and your ideas are
perceived. A proposal letter is a written form of communication that can have a major effect on
your career. When constructing a proposal letter, it's important that your ideas are clear,
informative and persuasive.

A proposal letter is a professional document that introduces your business ideas to an important
recipient who holds a decision-making role. A proposal letter can introduce an idea to try to
convince the recipient to read a full document with supporting information, or it can be the
proposal itself.
Proposal letters can be used for a variety of endeavors, including small business projects, like
requesting a loan or suggesting a new marketing plan to your manager. Proposal letters can also
be sent as a brief precursor to a larger, more-detailed business proposal, like a government grant
for a research project.

Proposal letters are important because they are normally the first impression your recipient has of
you and your business. A clear and influential letter will increase the likelihood of your audience
favoring your proposal and moving forward with it.

What you include in your proposal letter will vary based on the project. Here are some common
details you should consider including when composing a proposal letter:

1. Introduce yourself and provide background information: The goal of your proposal's
introduction is to gain the interest of your reader. This paragraph should include basic
information about your company and an overview of the topic to make it clear what the
recipient will be reading. If you are following up on a meeting, briefly mention the meeting
in the opening statements for context. If your business already has a relationship with your
letter's recipient, mention this as well.
2. State your purpose for the proposal: Your purpose for the proposal is what you intend to
accomplish, or what problem exists that you intend to fix. A proposal for a business
arrangement would provide clear details and basic terms of the arrangement, while a
proposal to redesign a company website would discuss your understanding of their current
website issues.
3. Define your goals and objectives: Describe the long-term outcomes you plan to meet and
the objectives you will establish to get you there. Be very clear and include specific figures
if possible. For example, instead of, "We will increase our productivity significantly with
this loan," you might write, "We will increase our productivity by 40% over the next year
with the loan amount we have requested. We will increase our productivity with the
addition of two new machines and four additional employees."
4. Highlight what sets you apart: If your proposal is the answer to a company's problem,
showcasing your valuable assets can help you stand out. State some of your special skills
related to the project and reasons you are the best fit for the job. This might include past
experience with a similar issue or outlining a unique process that gets great results. If your
proposal is for a business venture, highlight a few factors that differentiate your ideas from
others. When highlighting your key differentiators, you could use bullet points to list your
features so they're easier to read.
5. Briefly discuss budget and how funds will be used: Cost is a major factor for decision-
makers. Depending on your reason for writing a proposal letter, you may need to include
details on how you will use a loan or how much your project will cost investors. You will
probably not need to include a full account of costs, but providing a general idea of the
budget will give investors a better look at the project.
6. Finish with a call to action and request a follow-up: A call to action is a request for your
recipient to take additional steps and creates an urgency for them to move forward. This
can increase the chances that they will respond. This action might be to simply reply to
your proposal if they would like to speak further. Also, including your intentions to follow
up with them makes it clear you are serious about your proposal. Let them know the
specific day you will contact them again so they can expect your call or email.
7. Close the letter and provide contact details: Thank the recipient for their consideration of
your proposal and encourage them to contact you if they have any questions. End the letter
with a professional closing, such as "Sincerely" or "Regards," followed by a comma. Type
your name a few lines below, then sign your name above your typed name.
Here is a template you can use as a general point of reference to ensure you include all the
important information in your next proposal letter:

[Your name]

[Company if applicable]

[Your address]

[Date]

[Recipient's name]

[Recipient's company]

[Recipient's mailing address]

[Greeting]

[This first sentence should include your name and your company. Mention any previous meetings
regarding the topic or any previous company history. Give a brief overview of what your proposal
is about.]

[In the second paragraph, state the purpose of your proposal. Include specific information to make
it clear.]

[In the third paragraph, identify the specific goals you intend to reach and the objectives you have
set up to accomplish those goals.]

[In the fourth paragraph, provide an overview of what makes your mission unique. In the following
sentences, support your claims with specific examples of previous experiences and successes. Use
numbers to quantify your success whenever possible.]

[In the fifth paragraph, briefly discuss how you will allocate your loan or grant, or give an overview
of a project's cost to the investors.]

[In the sixth paragraph, give your recipient a call to action to urge them to act on your proposal.
Include when and how you will follow up with them.]

[In the first sentence of your closing paragraph, express gratitude and thank the recipient for their
time reviewing your proposal. Include your contact information and let them know you are happy
to answer any questions.]

[Sign off]

[Signature]
Proposal letter example
Here is an example of a proposal letter for a business plan:

Sarah Johnson

Pro Design LLC

555 Silver Lane

Raleigh, NC 27513

December 5, 2019

Garrett Williams

Marketing Masters

1443 East Drive

Raleigh, NC 27514

Dear Mr. Williams,

Our team at Pro Design enjoyed discussing the opportunity to work with you on developing a new
website for your company. We began working on this project last week after our initial email, and
are submitting a proposed action plan for your review.

On December 12th, we discussed your growing concerns regarding the design of your website.
The difficult navigation and lack of mobile compatibility were slowly affecting customer
acquisition. By making the interface more eye-catching, user-friendly and compatible with both
Android and IOS, we can increase the amount of time potential clients spend on your website,
resulting in a greater number of leads and clientele.

Per the goal you expressed in the meeting, our objective will be to increase your clientele by 30%
and increase your leads by 40% within the next year. This goal will be accomplished through the
following steps:

1. Researching your ideal clientele to define your company's branding

2. Working with your marketing team to develop consistent messaging to target your ideal client

3. Rebuilding the website from the foundation using the most user-friendly features

4. Creating a flawless mobile design that draws mobile consumers in

5. Seamlessly incorporating your branding and messaging with the new interface

Our company successfully completed a similar project for a hotel in Atlanta eight months ago.
Our design kept users on their website 150% longer and resulted in a 40% increase in sales over
the course of six months.
For a project of this caliber, we estimate a budget of roughly $12,000 to $15,000. We can discuss
the plan in more detail if you choose to proceed, and can adjust the budget based on your specific
needs and our recommendations.

If you would like to move forward with our proposal, please send me an email so we can begin
discussing and planning next steps right away. I will follow up with you through email next
Thursday, December 12th.

Thank you kindly for reviewing our proposal. If you have additional questions, I am available by
email at sjohnson@gmail.com or by phone at 919-222-3333.

Sincerely,

Sarah Johnson

Letters of Inquiry
A letter of inquiry asks someone for specific information. In some cases, such as a request for
promotional material, the recipient will have a clear interest in responding to your letter. In other
cases, such as a request for specific information on a product, the recipient may or may not be as
motivated to respond quickly. Consequently, always make the tone of the letter friendly and make
it easy for the recipient to identify and provide the information you need.

Format of a Letter of Inquiry

Follow this format in writing a letter of inquiry:

1. In the first paragraph, identify yourself and, if appropriate, your position, and your
institution or firm.
2. In the second paragraph, briefly explain why you are writing and how you will use the
requested information. Offer to keep the response confidential if such an offer seems
reasonable.
3. List the specific information you need. You can phrase your requests as questions or as a
list of specific items of information. In either case, make each item clear and discrete.
4. Conclude your letter by offering your reader some incentive for responding.

The following letter is a letter of inquiry for computers

Date 20th June, 2020

Name/Title Mary Roe

Address 795 E Dragram

City, State, Zip Code Tucson, AZ, 85705

Subject: Inquiry about a computer

Dear Mr. Tyson,

This letter is to inquire about the HP Laptop. I am planning to buy ten laptops for my business
purpose.

We are an advertising firm and would require laptop with graphic features. Our budget for ten
laptops is ₴150,000. We would be requiring laptops which are fast and portable, with large size
RAM.

I would like to know about the varieties of laptops with all the features that I have mentioned
above. If required I am not against another brand too.

Regards,

Tom Moody

Managing Director

Broker Finances Limited

БЛОК 2

2.1. Learn Grammar Material.

PARTICIPLES

There are three kinds of participles in English: present participle, past participle and perfect
participle. You probably know the first two from certain tenses and adjective forms. Apart from
that, participles are also used to shorten sentences.

Present Participle

The present participle is the ing-form. You surely know this form:
 ▪ from progressive / continuous tenses (e.g. Present Continuous) – I am speaking.
▪ as an adjective form – The film is interesting.
▪ as a gerund – He is afraid of flying.

The present participle can be used to describe the following verbs:

come, go, sit

Example: The girl sat crying on the sofa.

The present participle can also be used after verbs of the senses if we do not want to emphasise
that the action was completed. (see Infinitive or Ing-Form)

feel, find, hear, listen to, notice, see, smell, watch

Example: Did you see him dancing?

Furthermore, the present participle can be used to shorten or combine active clauses that have the
same subject.

Example: She left the house and whistled. – She left the house whistling.

Past Participle

The past participle is the third form of the verb (ending –ed or the third column of lists with
irregular verbs):

▪ from perfect tenses – I have spoken.

▪ from passive voice – The letter was written.
▪ as an adjective form – I was bored to death.

The past participle can also be used to shorten or combine passive clauses that have the same
subject.

Example: The boy was given an apple. He stopped crying. – Given an apple, the boy stopped
crying.

Perfect Participle

The perfect participle can be used to shorten or combine clauses that have the same subject if …

▪ … one action (the one where the perfect participle is used) is completed before the next
action starts.

Example: She bought a bike and cycled home. – Having bought a bike, she cycled home.

▪ … one action has been going on for a period of time when another action starts.

Example: He had been living there for such a long time that he didn't want to move to another
town. – Having lived there for such a long time, he didn't want to move to another town.

The perfect participle can be used for active and passive voice.
 ▪ active voice: having + past participle (Having cooked, he set the table.)
▪ passive voice: having been + past participle (Having been cooked, the food looked
delicious.)

LESSON 14. BUSINESS WRITING: AN

ORDER LETTER, A CONFIRMATION
LETTER, COMPLAINT AND RESPONSE
TO THE COMPLAINT LETTERS.
PARTICIPLE CLAUSES.
БЛОК 1

1.1. Read and translate the texts. Learn how to write an Order Letter, a Confirmation
Letter, a Letter of Complaint and a Response to a Complaint Letter.

An Order Letter

An order letter is usually written when you need to assign orders for goods. It is quite common
and is written almost on a daily basis. The language of the letter, however, needs to be formal and
the letter follows a standard format, since the information is very specific.

An order letter needs to pen down the terms and conditions of the purchase. These benefit both the
involved parties. It generally contains details such as product specifications, their quantities, a
price that the parties have agreed upon, the date of delivery, what to do in case there occurs a late
delivery, etc.

Before writing the order letter, here are some tips for you:

1. The letter should be very precise, there is no pep talk or casual talking required here.
2. The language should be easy while also being formal.
3. Do not make any mistakes in the specifications and quantities.
4. Avoid spelling and grammatical errors.
5. Stick to the topic
6. Be polite. You are ordering for goods, you're not ordering the person.
7. Avoid using too many adjectives.
8. Don't use jargons.
9. Don't hesitate to place the order, but don't forget to plan before writing.

Elements of the Order Letter:

An order letter needs the following things to be in check:

• Contact information about yourself, the person/company that will supply to you and the
date.
• A subject line that helps the recipient to understand your purpose at once.
 • A salutation, like, if you know the name of the seller, write, “Dear ……………”. If you
don't know the name of your seller, simply write “Dear Seller”
• Information about your company; but this is totally optional. However, this can ensure a
long-term relationship. You can also say a few words about your future plans related to the
sale.
• Order details: the model number, color, size, number, etc. Be attentive since they'll send
whatever you will write. If possible, use bullet points or tables. If you are buying different
items of different types, describe them in separate paragraphs.
• Mention your payment mode or if you've paid already, mention that next.
• Indicate your preferred delivery method and date.
• Include any special instructions as a part of the terms and conditions agreed between the
parties.
• Tell them that you'll enjoy future cooperation with them and encourage them to contact if
needed.
• Close with “Sincerely”, your signature and name.

The quality of the delivered goods will depend on your instructions. Not just that, it is literally a
legal document between yourself and the seller. So beware of what goes in your order letter and
pay a good deal of attention while drafting one.

A sample order letter is given below which will explain what is needed while writing an order
letter.

May 5, 2020

Mrs. Linda Ramos

IGM marketing,

Angeles city

Dear Mrs. Ramos,

Please send me the following goods by parcel from your April catalogue immediately:

1 piece bathing suit, cream and blue, size 31, No H61- $ 70.00

2 pairs of white canvas shoes, size 4, B width- $ 50.00

1 black sweater, round neck, size 28, no B22- $ 52.00

Please send the above materials within a week. I have enclosed a check of 100$ as advance for
the order.

The remaining payment will be made after I get my order.

Yours truly,

Gwenn Harry

A Confirmation Letter

If you are notified about something, it will be polite of you to confirm the received message. A
letter can be written back to the sender; this letter can be identified as a confirmation letter. It is
used to acknowledge or confirm that you have received and well understood the message sent to
you at first. With many types of confirmation letters out there to choose from, they have the same
format. You need to confirm something.

There are several different types of confirmation letters, each requiring a slightly different format.
Basic confirmation letters written to confirm the details of a meeting, event, or other arrangements
are typically brief and to the point. Employment confirmation letters usually include specific terms
and conditions, so they may be longer. If you are called upon to write a letter for someone receiving
the Catholic sacrament of Confirmation, your letter will be significantly more personal.

Tips For Writing A Confirmation Letter

• Make sure you mention that you understand every aspect of the given topic.
• The tone should be polite.
• Make sure not to make any grammatical errors or spelling mistakes.
• Make sure you formally write the letter.

A sample of a Confirmation Letter is given below:

From,

Winy Angaya

Nairobi, Kenya

12th August 2014to,

To,

Spinners and Spinners

Nairobi, Kenya

P.O. Box 62000-00200, Nairobi

Dear Mr. John,

We are pleased to write to you and inform you that you passed our test program, and we also
reviewed your skills. We are writing to confirm that from 10th April 2003, you will be a part of
our employment team.

You will be required to attend the orientation day, which will be on 8th April 2009. Make sure not
to miss it. You will also be required to adhere to the regulations and terms of our company.

We look forward to your presence at this company; your previous work puts you in favor of most
of our company leaders. If you have any questions or queries or require specific information,
please contact us in advance. See the attached document for more details.

Spinners and Spinners

Winy Angaya

Marketing officer

Regards,

Brenda Angaya.

A Letter of Complaint

It is not surprising that in the process of conducting business, mistakes will happen and services
and products will sometimes fail to please us. That doesn’t mean these problems aren’t addressed
or let to happen in the future. To help the offending company amend their fault(s) and letting them
know what is or may go wrong so that no future customer faces the same/similar trouble, complaint
letters are extremely handy.

What is a complaint letter?

A complaint letter is written to inform the recipient of what is wrong with their service or products.
But as frustrating as a problematic product is, writing a complaint letter isn’t the first thing you
should do when you come to know of it. Let’s see when and how to write it.

When to write it?

You should discuss your matter of complaint with a business representative as the first step of
getting an answer. If your concern is not resolved by an email or a phone call, only then should
you write one. Do not haste to inform the consumer protection agency.

Refer to the following steps to write a letter of complaint:

 • You want to your complaint to reach and be read by the right person, so try to find
information about him and write to him. Customer Service Department will be your
recipient if you have tried enough and are still not sure who to write to.
• Star with your situation. For example, why you are writing in a sentence or two. Include
dates and time.
• State the problem that occurred and follow it by the consequence(s).
• Suggest a fitting solution. Ask questions if needed.
• Give them a time limit by which you wish them to respond and solve the problem. Tell
them a reasonable date till which you’ll wait. Warn them that you will take further actions
if they do not comply or resolve and if you think it is necessary.
• Include contact information and close the letter.

These are the formal steps to write a complaint letter. But there are more things you’ll need to
adhere to. They include:

• Be as clear as possible. When talking about your problem about an item, say a phone, don’t
forget to mention the serial or model number, which branch you got it from, and if possible,
the name of the seller. Furthermore, you can include the details of your discussion with the
seller.
• Remember that they are the ones who can fix your problem. It isn’t necessary and most
times it actually isn’t the case that the person reading your letter is responsible for your
trouble. So, instead of sound angry, threatening or even intending sarcasm, do not insult or
write in a belittling tone. But also don’t sugarcoat the issue.
• If there are work orders, receipts, cash memos or any other document that might be helpful
to solve the issue, include those. Send the copies and keep the original. If you have sent
previous emails or written to another representative or seller, try to include it too.
• All this talk might make you think that only angry and offended customers complain about
faulty products and services. But no, employers can also send a complaint letter to their
employees. The letter is simply tailored to the need of the writer. The basic format still
remains the same.
• Be authoritative. Don’t ramble.
• Proofread for grammar and spell checking.

Example complaint letter:

56 Disgruntled Street

Somewhere Unhappy

1AM MAD

Customer Service Manager

That Awful Company

Somewhere Awful

UR BAD
June 15, 2020

Dear Sir/Madam,

I am writing today to complain of the poor service I received from your company on June 12, 2020.
I was visited by a representative of That Awful Company, Mr. Madman, at my home on that day.

Mr. Madman was one hour late for his appointment and offered nothing by way of apology when
he arrived at noon. Your representative did not remove his muddy shoes upon entering my house,
and consequently left a trail of dirt in the hallway. Mr. Madman then proceeded to present a range
of products to me that I had specifically told his assistant by telephone I was not interested in. I
repeatedly tried to ask your representative about the products that were of interest to me, but he
refused to deal with my questions. We ended our meeting after 25 minutes without either of us
having accomplished anything.

I am most annoyed that I wasted a morning (and half a day's vacation) waiting for Mr. Madman
to show up. My impression of That Awful Company has been tarnished, and I am now concerned
about how my existing business is being managed by your firm. Furthermore, Mr. Madman's
inability to remove his muddy shoes has meant that I have had to engage the services, and incur
the expense, of a professional carpet cleaner.

I trust this is not the way That Awful Company wishes to conduct business with valued customers—
I have been with you since the company was founded and have never encountered such treatment
before. I would welcome the opportunity to discuss matters further and to learn of how you propose
to prevent a similar situation from recurring. I look forward to hearing from you.

Yours faithfully,

V. Angry

A Response to a Complaint Letter

As a service provider, when you receive a letter of complaint about your service, your first
response may be resentment or irritation. It’s only natural – nobody likes to be criticised, and
having your labours faulted can feel like a personal attack. It’s important to appreciate that all
letters of complaint are feedback of the patient’s personal experience of the service they have
received. They may be fully justified in complaining or sometimes their viewpoint may seem
unreasonable – yet, irrespective of our initial feelings, all complaints give us an insight into what
our patients are thinking and provide an opportunity to change the actual service if something is
not working, or to provide appropriate information to change public perception, if that’s the
problem.
There are some tips to write a response properly.

1. Use a formal register.

2. Choose vocabulary that is more objective and reduces negative emotions where possible,
e.g. dissatisfied rather than unhappy/upset, inconvenience rather than trouble/problem.
3. Acknowledge the complaint and show you understand the problem. Focus on the facts and
avoid making excuses or placing blame on individual people.
4. Apologise and explain what steps will be taken to ensure it doesn't happen again.
5. Emphasise the positive relationship with the customer:

We value your custom … / feedback …

In appreciation of the many years you have been a customer …

We are happy to ...

We trust that you will ...

1. Offer some kind of solution or compensation if appropriate.

When responding to a customer complaint, it’s important to do three specific things:

1. Respond specifically to the issues brought up by the customer.

2. Provide a specific apology that acknowledges any mistakes on your end.
3. State exactly what you intend to do (or have already done) to make it right.
4. Propose how you will improve the customer’s experience in the future.

Customers don’t want a vague non-response that insults their intelligence. If you are going to
respond to a complaint, it’s important to be very specific.

First, actually address each portion of the customer’s complaint. If the complaint came via a brief
or mid-sized message, respond to each point. If it was a lengthy rant, try to address the main (or
rational) points.

Next, take ownership of anything your business messed up or could have done better. If you made
a legitimate error, say sorry. If your customer was confused about something most people
understand, apologize that the experience wasn’t more intuitive.

Most importantly, make it right. Resolve the issue. Fix the problem. And then tell the customer
EXACTLY what you did to ensure that they are happy in the end.

Finally, tell your customer about how you will their experience with your business better in the
future. In some cases, this might just be a fix on your end. In other cases, it might require the
customer to better understand your product. Either way, tactfully propose a solution that ensures
the customer’s next experience with your business is a positive one.

To better understand these points, let’s look at a real-life example from Andrew Neitlich.
I got quite frustrated with my experience with Yahoo!’s Overture advertising service yesterday
when loading up terms for a new site. I don’t know if you agree with me, but I find Google’s
advertising interface much, much, much easier to work with than Yahoo!’s.

So I filled in a customer feedback form and sent in my complaint to Yahoo! Mostly I did this to
vent, as I didn’t expect a response from a huge company like Yahoo!. Most companies don’t
respond anymore to individual online complaints.

Yet Yahoo! responded with a terrific, personalized letter. (Had I known I’d get a response, I would
have provided much more detailed feedback). I print the response here, because it is an excellent
example of how to respond online to a complaint. I still like using Google much more, but at least
I’m not going to cancel my Yahoo! account and stop advertising (which is where I was at
yesterday). Notice how they cover in detail my issues, apologize where appropriate, explain their
service, and give advice about things I can do better.

Here is their response, printed here as a template you might use for your sites or even clients:

Dear Andrew,

I sincerely apologize for any inconvenience these issues may have caused you. I have taken the
liberty of resubmitting your listings that were incorrectly declined for Broken Site. According to
my research, your listings that were declined for Blocked Site were also declined for Duplication
of Results. This means that the keywords that you were attempting to add to your account, already
existed in your account, and were seen as a duplicate of an existing listing. This means that the
keywords you were hoping to add already exist in your account.

You are correct, after further review it was acknowledged that your site does not offer a product
of service that Yahoo! does not to be affiliated with, and therefore the Blocked Site decline reason
was an incorrect one. This decline reason did not affect the outcome of your submission.

The keywords that were declined for Insufficient Content, were declined correctly. You were
attempting to bid on keywords like “business coach executive professional,” and “life and
business coach,” but it is not clear if a user can actually find a business coach on your site, or if
they will be referred to 3rd party for assistance with that request. If you were to offer more
information on the “Locate an Executive Coach” section of your site, you could be approved for
those keywords.

You may be interested to know that Yahoo! is developing a new advertiser interface that will offer
business owners a more powerful advertising experience, and we plan to roll this interface out
during the second half of this year.

I understand that there are several things in your account that you would like changed, and I
would just like to let you know that we take advertiser feedback very seriously as we are always
striving to improve our services. We welcome any additional feedback you may have.

Please do not hesitate to contact us if we can be of any further assistance. Thank you for choosing
Yahoo! Search Marketing!

Sincerely,
John Smith

Executive Services

Yahoo! Search Marketing

БЛОК 2

2.1. Learn Grammar Material.

PARTICIPLE CLAUSES

Participle clauses enable us to say information in a more economical way. They are formed using
present participles (going, reading, seeing, walking, etc.), past participles (gone, read, seen,
walked, etc.) or perfect participles (having gone, having read, having seen, having walked, etc.).

We can use participle clauses when the participle and the verb in the main clause have the same
subject. For example,

Waiting for Ellie, I made some tea. (While I was waiting for Ellie, I made some tea.)

Participle clauses do not have a specific tense. The tense is indicated by the verb in the main clause.

Participle clauses are mainly used in written texts, particularly in a literary, academic or
journalistic style.

Present participle clauses

Here are some common ways we use present participle clauses. Note that present participles have
a similar meaning to active verbs.

• To give the result of an action:

The bomb exploded, destroying the building.

• To give the reason for an action:

Knowing she loved reading, Richard bought her a book.

• To talk about an action that happened at the same time as another action:

Standing in the queue, I realised I didn't have any money.

• To add information about the subject of the main clause:

Starting in the new year, the new policy bans cars in the city centre.

Past participle clauses

Here are some common ways that we use past participle clauses. Note that past participles
normally have a passive meaning.
 • With a similar meaning to an “if” condition:

Used in this way, participles can make your writing more concise. (If you use participles in this
way, … )

• To give the reason for an action:

Worried by the news, she called the hospital.

• To add information about the subject of the main clause:

Filled with pride, he walked towards the stage.

Perfect participle clauses

Perfect participle clauses show that the action they describe was finished before the action in the
main clause. Perfect participles can be structured to make an active or passive meaning.

• Having got dressed, he slowly went downstairs.

• Having finished their training, they will be fully qualified doctors.
• Having been made redundant, she started looking for a new job.

Participle clauses after conjunctions and prepositions

It is also common for participle clauses, especially with -ing, to follow conjunctions and
prepositions such as before, after, instead of, on, since, when, while and in spite of.

• Before cooking, you should wash your hands.

• Instead of complaining about it, they should try doing something positive.
• On arriving at the hotel, he went to get changed.
• While packing her things, she thought about the last two years.
• In spite of having read the instructions twice, I still couldn’t understand how to use it.

LESSON 15. CONTRACT AND ITS

IMPLEMENTATION. COMPOUND AND
COMPLEX SENTENCES,
COORDINATING AND SUBORDINATE
CONJUNCTIONS.
БЛОК 1

1.1. Read and translate the text.

CONTRACTS AND AGREEMENTS (part I)

Contracts and agreements are important for conducting business for all companies. That an
agreement be made between the parties. To have such an agreement, there must be an offer and
acceptance. The person making an offer is the offeror and the person to whom the offer is made is
the offeree. Various legal rules govern what constitutes an offer; when and how long an offer is
effective; if an offer can be revoked and if so, when; when an acceptance takes place; and what
happens if there is a counteroffer.

Contracts can be verbal (spoken), written or a combination of both. Some types of contract such
as those for buying or selling real estate or finance agreements must be in writing.

Written contracts may consist of a standard form agreement or a letter confirming the agreement.

Verbal agreements rely on the good faith of all parties and can be difficult to prove.

It is advisable (where possible) to make sure your business arrangements are in writing, to avoid
problems when trying to prove a contract existed.

Regardless of whether the contract is verbal or written, it must contain four essential elements to
be legally binding:

– an offer

– an acceptance

– an intention to create a legal relationship

– a consideration (usually money).

However it may still be considered invalid if it:

– entices someone to commit a crime, or is illegal

– is entered into by someone that lacks capacity, such as a minor or bankrupt

– was agreed through misleading or deceptive conduct, duress, unconscionable conduct or

undue influence.

– General terms and structure of an agreement

There is no specific format that a contract must follow. Generally it will include some terms, either
expressed or implied, that will form the basis of the agreement. These terms may outline contract
conditions or contract warranties.

Contract conditions are fundamental to the agreement. If the contract conditions are not met, it is
possible to terminate the contract and seek compensation or damages.

Contract warranties are less important terms and not fundamental to the agreement. You cannot
terminate a contract if the warranties are not fulfilled, however, you may be able to seek
compensation for any losses incurred.
When negotiating the contract terms, make sure the conditions of the contract are clearly defined
and agreed to by all parties.

Contracts may follow a structure that can include, but are not limited to, the following items:

– details of the parties to the contract, including any sub-contracting arrangements

– duration or period of the contract

– definitions of key terms used within the contract

– a description of the goods and/or services that your business will receive or provide

– payment details and dates, including whether interest will be applied to late payments

– key dates and milestones

– required insurance and indemnity provisions

– guarantee provisions, including director’s guarantees

– damages or penalty provisions

– renegotiation or renewal options

– complaints and dispute resolution process

– termination conditions

– special conditions

A standard form contract is a pre-prepared contract where most of the terms are set in advance
with little or no negotiation between the parties. These contracts are usually printed with only a
few blank spaces for adding names, signatures, dates etc.

Examples of standard form contracts can include:

– employment contracts

– lease agreements

– insurance agreements

– financial agreements

Standard form contracts are generally written to benefit the interests of the person offering the
contract. It is possible to negotiate the terms of a standard form contract. However in some cases
your only option may be to ‘take it or leave it’. You should read the entire contract, including the
fine print, before signing.
If you intend to offer standard form contracts you must not include terms that are considered unfair.
This could include terms that:

– allow one party (but not another) to avoid or limit their obligations

– allow one party (but not the other) to terminate the contract

– penalise one party (but not another) for breaching or terminating the contract

– allow one party (but not another) to vary the terms of the contract.

There are laws protecting consumers from unfair contract terms in circumstances where they had
little or no opportunity to negotiate with businesses (such as standard form contracts).

Before you sign a contract:

– read every word, including the fine print

– ensure that it reflects the terms and conditions that were negotiated

– seek legal advice

– allow plenty of time to consider and understand the contract

– don’t be pressured into signing anything if you are unsure

– never leave blank spaces on a signed contract – cross them out if you have nothing to add so
they cannot be altered later

– make sure that you and the other party initial any changes to the contract

– obtain a copy of the signed contract for your records.

Once you’ve signed a contract you may not be able to get out of it without compensating the other
party for their genuine loss and expenses. Compensation to the other party could include
additional court costs if the other party takes their claim against you to court. Some contracts may
allow you to terminate early, with or without having to pay compensation to the other party.

Most contracts end when the work is completed and payment has been made.

Contracts can also end:

– by agreement – both parties agree to end contract before the work is completed.

– by frustration – where the contract cannot continue due to some unforeseen circumstances
outside the parties’ control.
– for convenience – where the contract allows a party to terminate at any time by providing
notice to the other party.

– due to a breach – where one party has not complied with an essential contract condition, the
other party may decide to terminate the contract and seek compensation or damages.

If a contract warranty or minor term has been breached it is unlikely that it can be terminated,
though the other party may seek compensation or damages. Some contracts may specify what will
be payable if there is a breach. This is often called liquidated damages.

If there is a dispute regarding the contract it is important both parties communicate clearly to
attempt to resolve the matter.

БЛОК 2

2.1. Learn Grammar Material.

Compound and Complex sentences, Coordinating and Subordinate conjunctions.

A compound sentence joins two or more independent clauses with a coordinator such as for, and,
but, or a semi-colon.

Independent clauses are two phrases that can stand alone as a complete thought. They're not
dependent upon one another to express a complete thought, but they tie together similar ideas.

This makes compound sentences distinct from complex sentences, which contain an independent
clause joined by at least one dependent clause. A dependent clause does not form a complete
thought and cannot stand alone.

An independent clause contains three elements:

1. A subject (something or someone that the sentence is about)

2. An action (a verb - something that is being done)

3. A complete thought (there are no questions as to meaning at the end of the sentence)

There are seven coordinating conjunctions in the English Language, which are used to link the
independent clauses:

– For

– And

– Nor

– But
– Or

– Yet

– So

You can use the acronym FAN BOYS to help you remember the seven coordinating conjunctions.
When you have two independent clauses joined by one of these coordinators, usually a comma is
required, before the coordinator.

Compound sentences and semi-colons work hand in hand, they both join independent clauses. The
trick with semi-colons is to use them when the two independent clauses are related ideas, as in the
example below.

– I'm looking forward to our dinner tonight; you're going to love dining on the water.

Compound vs. Complex Sentences

Only independent clauses joined by one of the above coordinating conjunctions can be considered
a compound sentence.

If you ever see an independent clause joined by a dependent clause, you're looking at a complex
sentence. For example: When I visit my mother, I eat cookies. This is not a compound sentence.
"When I visit my mother" is a dependent clause (doesn't express a complete thought) and a
coordinator is not used.

Complex sentences contain an independent clause and at least one dependent clause.

An independent clause has the ability to stand alone as a sentence. It always makes a complete
thought. A dependent clause cannot stand alone, even though it has a subject and a verb.

To connect independent and dependent clauses, you need subordinating conjunctions .

List of Common Subordinate Conjunctions

after since

although so that

as though

as if till

as long as unless
as though until

because when

before whenever

even though where

if wherever

once while

provided whether

If the dependent clause comes first, you will generally need to separate the clauses with a comma.

LESSON 16. CONTRACT AND ITS

IMPLEMENTATION. COMPOUND AND
COMPLEX SENTENCES,
COORDINATING AND SUBORDINATE
CONJUNCTIONS.
БЛОК 1

1.1. Read and translate the text.

CONTRACTS AND AGREEMENTS (part II)

A contract is a verbal or written agreement to do some work in exchange for some benefit, usually
a payment. The purpose of a contract is to establish the agreement that the parties have made and
to fix their rights and duties in accordance with that agreement. Parties to a contract are bound by
the terms to which they have agreed. As a general rule, contracts equitably made by competent
persons, are valid and enforceable in the courts. Although the kinds of business contracts are
numerous, they are typically divided into four categories: sales-related agreements, employment-
related agreements, leases and general business contracts. A sales contract is an agreement between
a buyer and seller covering the sale and delivery of goods, securities, and other personal property.
An agreement for the sale of goods provides specific information about the goods or services being
sold. When a business sells goods to a buyer paying in installments, a security agreement gives
the business the right to repossess the goods if the buyer doesn't make payments. A bill of sale
legally transfers the title of property and is most commonly used for items such as cars and boats.
Businesses may have contracts with their employees, such as an employment agreement,
employment separation agreement, employee non-compete agreement or confidentiality
agreement. For non-employees providing services, a business may have an independent contractor
agreement or consulting agreement. The two types of leases are real property leases and equipment
leases. Real property leases, sometimes called commercial leases, involve renting buildings, land
or other space. An equipment lease might involve anything from renting a copier to a fleet of
construction equipment. General business contracts are available for almost any type of business
arrangement. Someone who buys a franchise will enter into a franchise agreement with the home
office. Businesses that decide to work together or pool resources on a project will have a
partnership agreement . With an indemnity agreement, one party agrees to protect the other party
against specified future claims or losses. When doing business, the general rule to remember is, if
something is not in writing, it's usually not legally enforceable. Written contracts provide more
certainty for both parties than verbal agreements. They clearly set out the details of what was
agreed. Matters such as materials, quality, timeframes, payments, a procedure to follow in the
event of a dispute, etc. can all be set out in a contract. A written from the outset contract will
minimise business risks by making the agreement clear and specifying how either party can
terminate the contract before the work is completed. A ‘standard form’ contract is a pre-prepared
contract where most of the terms are set in advance and little or no negotiations between the parties
occur. Often, these are printed with only a few blank spaces for filling in information such as
names, dates and signatures. However, standard contracts are not a must. Some articles may be
altered and supplemented. Here are some of the items which arе part and parcel of any contract:
legal title of the contracting parties, subject of the contract, quality, price, delivery and payment
terms. Clear contracts make good business relationships because they help both parties understand
their rights and obligations.

БЛОК 2

2.1. Learn Grammar Material.

Compound and Complex Sentences, Coordinating and Subordinate conjunctions

A compound sentence is a sentence that uses comma, semicolon, or conjunction to combine at

least two independent clauses. An independent clause is a clause that has a subject and verb and
forms a complete thought. An example of a compound sentence : This house is too expensive,
and that house is too small.

Сomplex sentence is a sentence that contains one independent and at least one dependent clause
(sometimes called a subordinate clause). An independent clause is a phrase that would make
sense if it were a sentence on its own, whereas a dependent clause will not form a sentence on its
own. When these two types of clauses appear in a sentence, we create a complex sentence, for
instance:

- I like to eat the candy before I watch a movie.

“I like to eat the candy” is an independent clause as it would make a complete sentence on its
own.

“Before I watch a movie” is a dependent clause, as it doesn’t make a complete sentence on its
own. It is ‘dependent’ on the first clause of the phrase to make sense.
In the examples of complex sentences below, the dependent clause comes first. Notice that the
dependent clause begins with a subordinating conjunction (words like since, because, while) and
that the clauses are separated by a comma:

– While I am a passionate basketball fan, I prefer football.

– Although she was considered smart, she failed all her exams.

– Whenever it rains, I like to wear my blue coat.

In the complex sentence examples shown below, the independent clause comes first. Notice that
in most examples there is no separation of the clauses by a comma, which is the general rule in
complex sentences starting with an independent clause. However, the last example has a comma
as it is an example of an extreme contrast. This extreme contrast refers to the clauses expressing
ideas that are almost opposite in meaning or that must be heavily emphasized.

– Having a party is a bad idea because the neighbors will complain.

– I am extremely happy since I retired.

– The dog jumped on his lap while he was eating.

– Annie was still crying, although she had been happy about the news.

We have mentioned several times that a complex sentence contains an independent clause and at
least one dependent clause. But what are clauses in a sentence? And why are they important in
grammar?

Let’s look back at the earlier example of a complex sentence:

- I like to eat candy before I watch a movie.

As we stated earlier, “I like to eat candy” is an independent clause. It makes sense as a

standalone sentence. “Before I watch a movie” does not make sense on its own. However, let’s
tweak the sentence a bit:

- I like to eat candy, but I don’t like to eat popcorn.

The sentence now contains two independent clauses, as “I like to eat candy” and “I don’t like to
eat popcorn” could both form complete sentences. The example has now become a compound
sentence, i.e. one that contains two independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction
(but).

However, there is an important distinction to be made when a subordinating conjunction is added

to a clause. These words – such as since, whenever, although, because – act to make a clause a
dependent clause, even if it looks like an independent clause.

– I like to eat candy (independent clause – makes sense on its own).

– Because I like to eat candy (dependent clause – does not make sense on its own without
more information).
As we have seen with the previous examples, the structure for a complex sentence essentially
looks like this:

– Dependent Clause + Independent Clause (comma splits the clause)

– Independent Clause + Dependent Clause (comma usually does not split the clause)

So, using that structure we can easily form examples of complex sentences, for example:

– Despite her advancing years, Elesa was still the best player on the team.

– Since Hannah got here, she’s been nothing but trouble.

– Hannah has been nothing but trouble since she got here.

You should also be aware that a complex sentence can contain more than one dependent clause.
Here are some examples of those types of complex sentences:

– Because I was often late, and since I was always forgetting things, I was regarded as a
scatterbrain by my friends.

– Although the war ended, and as people tend to have short memories, the city’s people were
still divided over its impact.