‫‪Endocrine Glands‬‬

‫القسم‪ :‬التخدير‬

‫المرحلة ‪:‬األوىل‬

‫المجموعة ‪A1:‬‬

‫االسم‪ :‬النعمان منذر‬

 Endocrine Glands
The endocrine system is made up of
the endocrine glands that secrete hormones.
Although there are eight major endocrine glands
scattered throughout the body, they are still
considered to be one system because they have
similar functions, similar mechanisms of influence,
and many important interrelationships.

Some glands also have non-endocrine regions

that have functions other than hormone secretion.
For example, the pancreas has a major exocrine
portion that secretes digestive enzymes and an
endocrine portion that secretes hormones. The
ovaries and testes secrete hormones and also
produce the ova and sperm. Some organs, such as
the stomach, intestines, and heart, produce
hormones, but their primary function is not
hormone secretion.

Pituitary & Pineal

Glands

The pituitary gland or hypophysis is a

small gland about 1 centimeter in diameter or the size
of a pea. It is nearly surrounded by bone as it rests in
the sella turcica, a depression in the sphenoid bone.
The gland is connected to the hypothalamus of
the brain by a slender stalk called the infundibulum.
There are two distinct regions in the gland: the
anterior lobe (adenohypophysis) and the posterior
lobe (neurohypophysis). The activity of the
adenohypophysis is controlled by releasing hormones
from the hypothalamus. The neurohypophysis is
controlled by nerve stimulation.
Hormones of the Anterior Lobe (Adenohypophysis)
Growth hormone is a protein that stimulates the growth of bones, muscles, and
other organs by promoting protein synthesis. This hormone drastically affects the
appearance of an individual because it influences height. If there is too little
growth hormone in a child, that person may become a pituitary dwarf of normal
proportions but small stature. An excess of the hormone in a child results in an
exaggerated bone growth, and the individual becomes exceptionally tall or a
giant.

Thyroid-stimulating hormone, or thyrotropin, causes the glandular cells of

the thyroid to secrete thyroid hormone. When there is a hypersecretion of
thyroid-stimulating hormone, the thyroid gland enlarges and secretes too much
thyroid hormone.

Adrenocorticotropic hormone reacts with receptor sites in the cortex of

the adrenal gland to stimulate the secretion of cortical hormones,
particularly cortisol.

Gonadotropic hormones react with receptor sites in the gonads, or ovaries and
testes, to regulate the development, growth, and function of these organs.

Prolactin hormone promotes the development of glandular tissue in the

female breast during pregnancy and stimulates milk production after the birth of
the infant.

Hormones of the Posterior Lobe (Neurohypophysis)

Antidiuretic hormone promotes the reabsorption of water by the kidney tubules,
with the result that less water is lost as urine. This mechanism conserves water for
the body. Insufficient amounts of antidiuretic hormone cause excessive water loss
in the urine.

Oxytocin causes contraction of the smooth muscle in the wall of the uterus. It also
stimulates the ejection of milk from the lactating breast.

Pineal Gland
The pineal gland, also called pineal body or epiphysis cerebri, is a small cone-
shaped structure that extends posteriorly from the third ventricle of the brain. The
pineal gland consists of portions of neurons, neuroglial cells, and specialized
secretory cells called pinealocytes. The pinealocytes synthesize the
hormone melatonin and secrete it directly into the cerebrospinal fluid, which
takes it into the blood. Melatonin affects reproductive development and
daily physiologic cycles.

Thyroid & Parathyroid Glands

Thyroid Gland

The thyroid gland is a very vascular organ that is located in the neck. It consists of
two lobes, one on each side of the trachea, just below the larynx or voice box. The
two lobes are connected by a narrow band of tissue called the isthmus. Internally,
the gland consists of follicles, which
produce thyroxine and triiodothyronine hormones. These hormones
contain iodine.

About 95 percent of the active thyroid hormone is thyroxine, and most of the
remaining 5 percent is triiodothyronine. Both of these require iodine for
their synthesis. Thyroid hormone secretion is regulated by a negative feedback
mechanism that involves the amount of circulating hormone, hypothalamus, and
adenohypophysis.

If there is an iodine deficiency, the thyroid cannot make sufficient hormone. This
stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete thyroid-stimulating hormone, which
causes the thyroid gland to increase in size in a vain attempt to produce more
hormones. But it cannot produce more hormones because it does not have the
necessary raw material, iodine. This type of thyroid enlargement is called
simple goiter or iodine deficiency goiter.

Calcitonin is secreted by the parafollicular cells of the thyroid gland. This

hormone opposes the action of the parathyroid glands by reducing
the calcium level in the blood. If blood calcium becomes too high, calcitonin is
secreted until calcium ion levels decrease to normal.

Parathyroid Gland
Four small masses of epithelial tissue are embedded in the connective
tissue capsule on the posterior surface of the thyroid glands. These are
parathyroid glands, and they secrete parathyroid hormone or parathormone.
Parathyroid hormone is the most important regulator of blood calcium levels. The
hormone is secreted in response to low blood calcium levels, and its effect is to
increase those levels.

Hypoparathyroidism, or insufficient secretion of parathyroid hormone, leads to

increased nerve excitability. The low blood calcium levels trigger spontaneous
and continuous nerve impulses, which then stimulate muscle contraction

Adrenal Gland

The adrenal, or suprarenal, gland is paired with one gland located near the upper
portion of each kidney. Each gland is divided into an outer cortex and an
inner medulla. The cortex and medulla of the adrenal gland, like
the anterior and posterior lobes of the pituitary, develop from different
embryonic tissues and secrete different hormones. The adrenal cortex is essential
to life, but the medulla may be removed with no life-threatening effects.
The hypothalamus of the brain influences both portions of the adrenal gland but
by different mechanisms. The adrenal cortex is regulated by negative feedback
involving the hypothalamus and adrenocorticotropic hormone; the medulla is
regulated by nerve impulses from the hypothalamus.

Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex

The adrenal cortex consists of three different regions, with each region producing
a different group or type of hormones. Chemically, all the cortical hormones
are steroid.

Mineralocorticoids are secreted by the outermost region of the adrenal cortex.

The principal mineralocorticoid is aldosterone, which acts to
conserve sodium ions and water in the body. Glucocorticoids are secreted by the
middle region of the adrenal cortex. The principal glucocorticoid is cortisol, which
increases blood glucose levels.

The third group of steroids secreted by the adrenal cortex is the

gonadocorticoids, or sex hormones. These are secreted by the innermost region.
Male hormones, androgens, and female hormones, estrogens, are secreted in
minimal amounts in both sexes by the adrenal cortex, but their effect is usually
masked by the hormones from the testes and ovaries. In females, the
masculinization effect of androgen secretion may become evident
after menopause, when estrogen levels from the ovaries decrease.

Hormones of the Adrenal Medulla

The adrenal medulla develops from neural tissue and secretes two
hormones, epinephrine and norepinephrine. These two hormones are secreted
in response to stimulation by sympathetic nerve, particularly during stressful
situations. A lack of hormones from the adrenal medulla produces no significant
effects. Hypersecretion, usually from a tumor, causes prolonged or continual
sympathetic responses.
Pancreas—Islets of Langerhans

The pancreas is a long, soft organ that lies transversely along

the posterior abdominal wall, posterior to the stomach, and extends from the
region of the duodenum to the spleen. This gland has an exocrine portion that
secretes digestive enzymes that are carried through a duct to the duodenum.
The endocrine portion consists of the pancreatic islets, which
secrete glucagons and insulin.

Alpha cells in the pancreatic islets secrete the hormone glucagons in response to
a low concentration of glucose in the blood. Beta cells in the pancreatic islets
secrete the hormone insulin in response to a high concentration of glucose in the
blood.

Gonads
The gonads, the primary reproductive organs, are the testes in the male and the
ovaries in the female. These organs are responsible for producing the sperm
and ova, but they also secrete hormones and are considered to
be endocrine glands.
Testes

Male sex hormones, as a group, are called androgens. The

principal androgen is testosterone, which is secreted by the testes. A small
amount is also produced by the adrenal cortex. Production of testosterone begins
during fetal development, continues for a short time after birth, nearly ceases
during childhood, and then resumes at puberty. This steroid hormone is
responsible for:

 The growth and development of the male reproductive structures

 Increased skeletal and muscular growth
 Enlargement of the larynx accompanied by voice changes
 Growth and distribution of body hair
 Increased male sexual drive
Testosterone secretion is regulated by a negative feedback system that
involves releasing hormones from the hypothalamus and gonadotropins from
the anterior pituitary.

Ovaries

Two groups of female sex hormones are produced in the ovaries, the estrogens
and progesterone. These steroid hormones contribute to the development and
function of the female reproductive organs and sex characteristics. At the onset of
puberty, estrogens promotes:

 The development of the breasts

  Distribution of fat evidenced in the hips, legs, and breast
 Maturation of reproductive organs such as the uterus and vagina
Progesterone causes the uterine lining to thicken in preparation for pregnancy.
Together, progesterone and estrogens are responsible for the changes that occur
in the uterus during the female menstrual cycle.

Other Endocrine Glands

In addition to the major endocrine glands, other organs have some hormonal
activity as part of their function. These include the thymus, stomach, small
intestines, heart, and placenta.

Thymosin, produced by the thymus gland, plays an important role in the

development of the body's immune system.

The lining of the stomach, the gastric mucosa, produces a hormone,

called gastrin, in response to the presence of food in the stomach. This hormone
stimulates the production of hydrochloric acid and the enzyme pepsin, which are
used in the digestion of food.

The mucosa of the small intestine secretes the

hormones secretin and cholecystokinin. Secreting stimulates the pancreas to
produce a bicarbonate-rich fluid that neutralizes the stomach
acid. Cholecystokinin stimulates contraction of the gallbladder, which
releases bile. It also stimulates the pancreas to secrete digestive enzyme.

The heart also acts as an endocrine organ in addition to its major role of
pumping blood. Special cells in the wall of the upper chambers of the heart,
called atria, produce a hormone called atrial natriiuretic hormone, or atriopeptin.

The placenta develops in the pregnant female as a source of nourishment and

gas exchange for the developing fetus. It also serves as a temporary endocrine
gland. One of the hormones it secretes is human chorionic gonadotropin, which
signals the mother's ovaries to secrete hormones to maintain the uterine lining so
that it does not degenerate and slough off in menstruation.
References: -
1- https://training-seer-cancer-gov.translate.goog/anatomy/endocrine/gland
2- https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/wellness-and-prevention/anatomy-of-
the-endocrine-system
3- https://www.msdmanuals.com/