Exploration

The practice of locating natural gas and petroleum deposits has been transformed
dramatically in the last 20 years with the advent of extremely advanced, ingenious
technology. In the early days of the industry, the only way of locating underground
petroleum and natural gas deposits was to search for surface evidence of these
underground formations. Those searching for natural gas deposits were forced to
scour the earth, looking for seepages of oil or gas emitted from underground before
they had any clue that there were deposits underneath. However, because such a low
proportion of petroleum and natural gas deposits actually seep to the surface, this
made for a very inefficient and difficult exploration process. As the demand for fossil
fuel energy has increased dramatically over the past years, so has the necessity for
more accurate methods of locating these deposits.

Sources of Data

Technology has allowed for a remarkable increase in the success rate of locating
natural gas reservoirs. In this section, it will be outlined how geologists and
geophysicists use technology and knowledge of the properties of underground
natural gas deposits to gather data that can later be interpreted and used to make
educated guesses as to where natural gas deposits exist. However, it must be
remembered that the process of exploring for natural gas and petroleum deposits is
characteristically an uncertain one, due to the complexity of searching for something
that is often thousands of feet below ground.
Exploration for natural gas typically begins with geologists examining the surface
structure of the earth, and determining areas where it is geologically likely that
petroleum or gas deposits might exist. It was discovered in the mid 1800s that
‘anticlinal slopes’ had a particularly increased chance of containing petroleum or gas
deposits. These anticlinal slopes are areas where the earth has folded up on itself,
forming the dome shape that is characteristic of a great number of reservoirs. By
surveying and mapping the surface and sub-surface characteristics of a certain area,
the geologist can extrapolate which areas are most likely to contain a petroleum or
natural gas reservoir. The geologist has many tools at his disposal to do so, from the
outcroppings of rocks on the surface or in valleys and gorges, to the geologic
information attained from the rock cuttings and samples obtained from the digging
of irrigation ditches, water wells, and other oil and gas wells. This information is all
combined to allow the geologist to make inferences as to the fluid content, porosity,
permeability, age, and formation sequence of the rocks underneath the surface of a
particular area. For example, in the picture shown, a geologist may study the
outcroppings of rock to gain insight into the geology of the subsurface areas.

For more information on geology in general visit the United States Geological
Survey. For more information on petroleum geology visit the American Association
of Petroleum Geologists (AAPG).
Once the geologist has determined an area where it is geologically possible for a
natural gas or petroleum formation to exist, further tests can be performed to gain
more detailed data about the potential reservoir area. These tests allow for the more
accurate mapping of underground formations, most notably those formations that
are commonly associated with natural gas and petroleum reservoirs. These tests are
commonly performed by a geophysicist, one who uses technology to find and map
underground rock formations.

Arguably the biggest breakthrough in petroleum and natural gas exploration came
through the use of basic seismology. Seismology refers to the study of how energy,
in the form of seismic waves, moves through the Earth’s crust and interacts
differently with various types of underground formations. In 1855, L. Palmiere
developed the first ‘seismograph’, an instrument used to detect and record
earthquakes. This device was able to pick up and record the vibrations of the earth
that occur during an earthquake. However, it wasn’t until 1921 that this technology
was applied to the petroleum industry and used to help locate underground fossil
fuel formations.

The basic concept of seismology is quite simple. As the Earth’s crust is composed
of different layers, each with its own properties, energy (in the form of seismic
waves) traveling underground interacts differently with each of these layers. These
seismic waves, emitted from a source, will travel through the earth, but also be
reflected back toward the source by the different underground layers. Through
seismology, geophysicists are able to artificially create vibrations on the surface and
record how these vibrations are reflected back to the surface, revealing the properties
of the geology beneath.

An analogy that makes intuitive sense is that of bouncing a rubber ball. A rubber
ball that is dropped on concrete will bounce in a much different way than a rubber
ball dropped on sand. In the same manner, seismic waves sent underground will
reflect off dense layers of rock much differently than extremely porous layers of
rock, allowing the geologist to infer from seismic data exactly what layers exist
underground and at what depth. While the actual use of seismology in practice is
quite a bit more complicated and technical, this basic concept still holds.

Here is a more detailed overview of seismic exploration.

Onshore Seismology

In practice, using seismology for exploring onshore areas involves artificially

creating seismic waves, the reflection of which are then picked up by sensitive pieces
of equipment called ‘geophones’ that are embedded in the ground. The data picked
up by these geophones is then transmitted to a seismic recording truck, which records
the data for further interpretation by geophysicists and petroleum reservoir
engineers. The drawing shows the basic components of a seismic crew. The source
of seismic waves (in this case an underground explosion) creates that reflect off the
different layers of the Earth, to be picked up by geophones on the surface and relayed
to a seismic recording truck to be interpreted and logged.
Although the seismograph was originally developed to measure earthquakes, it was
discovered that much the same sort of vibrations and seismic waves could be
produced artificially and used to map underground geologic formations. In the early
days of seismic exploration, seismic waves were
created using dynamite. These carefully planned, small explosions created the
requisite seismic waves, which were then picked up by the geophones, generating
data to be interpreted by geophysicists, geologists, and petroleum engineers.

Recently, due to environmental concerns and improved technology, it is often no

longer necessary to use explosive charges to generate the needed seismic waves.
Instead, most seismic crews use non-explosive seismic technology to generate the
required data. This non-explosive technology usually consists of a large heavy-
wheeled or tracked-vehicle carrying special equipment designed to create a large
impact or series of vibrations. These impacts or vibrations create seismic waves
similar to those created by dynamite. In the seismic truck shown, the large piston in
the middle is used to create vibrations on the surface of the earth, sending seismic
waves that are used to generate useful data.

Offshore Seismology

The same sort of process is used in offshore seismic exploration. When exploring
for natural gas that may exist thousands of feet below the seabed floor, which may
itself be thousands of feet below sea level, a slightly different method of seismic
exploration is used. Instead of trucks and geophones, a ship is used to pick up the
seismic data and hydrophones are used to pick up seismic waves underwater. These
hydrophones are towed behind the ship in various configurations depending on the
needs of the geophysicist. Instead of using dynamite or impacts on the seabed floor,
the seismic ship uses a large air gun, which releases bursts of compressed air under
the water, creating seismic waves that can travel through the Earth’s crust and
generate the seismic reflections that are necessary.
Magnetometers

In addition to using seismology to gather data concerning the composition of the

Earth’s crust, the magnetic properties of underground formations can be measured
to generate geological and geophysical data. This is accomplished through the use
of magnetometers, which are devices that can measure the small differences in the
Earth’s magnetic field. In the early days of magnetometers, the devices were large
and bulky, and only able to survey a small area at a time.

Gravimeters

In addition to using variances in the Earth’s magnetic field, geophysicists can also
measure and record the difference in the Earth’s gravitational field to gain a better
understanding of what is underground. Different underground formations and rock
types all have a slightly different effect on the gravitational field that surrounds the
Earth. By measuring these minute differences with very sensitive equipment,
geophysicists are able to analyze underground formations and develop clearer
insight into the types of formations that may lie below ground, and whether or not
the formations have the potential for containing hydrocarbons like natural gas.

Exploratory Wells

The best way to gain a full understanding of subsurface geology and the potential
for natural gas deposits to exist in a given area is to drill an exploratory well. This
consists of digging into the Earth’s crust to allow geologists to study the composition
of the underground rock layers in detail. In addition to looking for natural gas and
petroleum deposits by drilling an exploratory well, geologists also examine the drill
cuttings and fluids to gain a better understanding of the geologic features of the area.
Logging, explained below, is another tool used in developed as well as exploratory
wells. Drilling an exploratory well is an expensive, time consuming effort.
Therefore, exploratory wells are only drilled in areas where other data has indicated
a high probability of petroleum formations. For more information on the process of
drilling natural gas wells, click here.

Logging

Logging refers to performing tests during or after the drilling process to allow
geologists and drill operators to monitor the progress of the well drilling and to gain
a clearer picture of subsurface formations. There are many different types of logging,
in fact; over 100 different logging tests can be performed, but essentially they consist
of a variety of tests that illuminate the true composition and characteristics of the
different layers of rock that the well passes through. Logging is also essential during
the drilling process. Monitoring logs can ensure that the correct drilling equipment
is used and that drilling is not continued if unfavorable conditions develop.

It is beyond the scope of this website to get into detail concerning the various types
of logging tests that can be performed. Various types of tests include standard,
electric, acoustic, radioactivity, density, induction, caliper, directional and nuclear
logging, to name but a few. Two of the most prolific and often performed tests
include standard logging and electric logging.

Standard logging consists of examining and recording the physical aspects of a well.
For example, the drill cuttings (pieces of rock displaced by the drilling of the well)
are all examined and recorded, allowing geologists to physically examine the
subsurface rock. Also, core samples are taken by lifting a sample of underground
rock intact to the surface, allowing the various layers of rock and their thickness to
be examined. These cuttings and cores are often examined using powerful
microscopes that can magnify the rock up to 2,000 times. This allows the geologist
to examine the porosity and fluid content of the subsurface rock, and to gain a better
understanding of the earth in which the well is being drilled.

Electric logging consists of lowering a device used to measure the electric resistance
of the rock layers in the ‘down hole’ portion of the well. This is done by running an
electric current through the rock formation and measuring the resistance that it
encounters along its way. This gives geologists an idea of the fluid content and
characteristics. A newer version of electric logging, called induction electric
logging, provides much the same types of readings, but is more easily performed and
provides data that is more easily interpreted.

An example of the data obtained through various forms of logging is shown below.
In this representation, the different columns indicate the results of different types of
tests. The data is interpreted by an experienced geologist, geophysicist, or petroleum
engineer, who is able to learn from what appear as ‘squiggly’ lines on the well data
readout.

The drilling of an exploratory or developing well is the first contact that a geologist
or petroleum engineer has with the actual contents of the subsurface geology.
Logging, in its many forms, uses this opportunity to gain a fuller understanding of
what actually lies beneath the surface. In addition to providing information specific
to that particular well, vast archives of historical logs exist for geologists interested
in the geologic features of a given or similar area.
To get more in-depth and technical information on well logging, click here.

Data Interpretation

There are many sources of data and information for the geologist and geophysicist
to use in the exploration for hydrocarbons. However, this raw data alone would be
useless without careful and methodical interpretation. Much like putting together a
puzzle, the geophysicist uses all of the sources of data available to create a model,
or educated guess, as to the structure of the layers of rock under the ground. Some
techniques, including seismic exploration, lend themselves well to the construction
of a hand- or computer-generated visual interpretation of an underground formation.
Other sources of data, such as that obtained from core samples or logging, are taken
into account by the geologist when determining the subsurface geological structures.
Despite the amazing evolution of technology and exploration techniques, the only
way of being sure that a petroleum or natural gas reservoir exists is to drill an
exploratory well. Geologists and geophysicists can make their best guesses as to the
location of reservoirs, but these are not infallible.

2-D Seismic Interpretation

Two-dimensional seismic imaging refers to geophysicists using the data collected

from seismic exploration activities to develop a cross-sectional picture of the
underground rock formations. The geophysicist interprets the seismic data obtained
from the field, taking the vibration recordings of the seismograph and using them to
develop a conceptual model of the composition and thickness of the various layers
of rock underground. This process is normally used to map underground formations,
and to make estimates based on the geologic structures to determine where it is likely
that deposits may exist.

Another technique using basic seismic data is known as ‘direct detection.’ In the
mid-1970s, it was discovered that white bands, called ‘bright spots’, often appeared
on seismic recording strips. These white bands could indicate deposits of
hydrocarbons. The nature of porous rock that contains natural gas could often result
in reflecting stronger seismic reflections than normal, water-filled rock. Therefore,
in these circumstances, the actual natural gas reservoir could be detected directly
from the seismic data. However, this does not hold universally. Many of these ‘bright
spots’ do not contain hydrocarbons, and many deposits of hydrocarbons are not
indicated by white strips on the seismic data. Therefore, although adding a new
technique of locating petroleum and natural gas reservoirs, direct detection is not a
completely reliable method.

Computer Assisted Exploration

One of the greatest innovations in the history of petroleum exploration is the use of
computers to compile and assemble geologic data into a coherent ‘map’ of the
underground. Use of this computer technology is referred to as ‘CAEX’, which is
short for ‘computer assisted exploration’.
With the development of the microprocessor, it has become relatively easy to use
computers to assemble seismic data that is collected from the field. This allows for
the processing of very large amounts of data, increasing the reliability and
informational content of the seismic model. There are three main types of computer-
assisted exploration models: two-dimensional (2-D), three-dimensional (3-D), and
most recently, four-dimensional (4-D). These imaging techniques, while relying
mainly on seismic data acquired in the field, are becoming more and more
sophisticated. Computer technology has advanced so far that it is now possible to
incorporate the data obtained from different types of tests, such as logging,
production information, and gravimetric testing, which can all be combined to create
a ‘visualization’ of the underground formation. Thus geologists and geophysicists
are able to combine all of their sources of data to compile one clear, complete image
of subsurface geology. An example of this is shown where a geologist uses an
interactive computer generated visualization of 3-D seismic data to explore the
subsurface layers.

3-D Seismic Imaging

One of the biggest breakthroughs in computer-aided exploration was the

development of three-dimensional (3-D) seismic imaging. Three-D imaging utilizes
seismic field data to generate a three dimensional ‘picture’ of underground
formations and geologic features. This, in essence, allows the geophysicist and
geologist to see a clear picture of the composition of the Earth’s crust in a particular
area. This is tremendously useful in allowing for the exploration of petroleum and
natural gas, as an actual image could be used to estimate the probability of
formations existing in a particular area, and the characteristics of that potential
formation. This technology has been extremely successful in raising the success rate
of exploration efforts. In fact, using 3-D seismic has been estimated to increase the
likelihood of successful reservoir location by 50 percent.
Although this technology is very useful, it is also very costly. Three-D seismic
imaging can cost hundreds of thousands of dollars per square mile. The generation
of 3-D images requires data to be collected from several thousand locations, as
opposed to 2-D imaging, which only requires several hundred data points. As such,
3-D imaging is a much more involved and prolonged process. Therefore, it is usually
used in conjunction with other exploration techniques. For example, a geophysicist
may use traditional 2-D modeling and examination of geologic features to determine
if there is a probability of the presence of natural gas. Once these basic techniques
are used, 3-D seismic imaging may be used only in those areas that have a high
probability of containing reservoirs.

In addition to broadly locating petroleum reservoirs, 3-D seismic imaging allows for
the more accurate placement of wells to be drilled. This increases the productivity
of successful wells, allowing for more petroleum and natural gas to be extracted
from the ground. In fact, 3-D seismic can increase the recovery rates of productive
wells to 40-50 percent, as opposed to 25-30 percent with traditional 2-D exploration
techniques.

In addition to broadly locating petroleum reservoirs, 3-D seismic imaging allows for
the more accurate placement of wells to be drilled. This increases the productivity
of successful wells, allowing for more petroleum and natural gas to be extracted
from the ground. In fact, 3-D seismic can increase the recovery rates of productive
wells to 40 to 50 percent or greater, as opposed to 25 to 30 percent with traditional
2-D exploration techniques.

Three-D seismic imaging has become an extremely important tool in the search
natural gas. By 1980, only 100 3-D seismic imaging tests had been performed.
However, by the mid 1990s, 200 to 300 3-D seismic surveys were being performed
each year. In 1996, in the Gulf of Mexico, one of the largest natural gas-producing
areas in the U.S., nearly 80 percent of wells drilled in the Gulf were based on 3-D
seismic data. In 1993, 75 percent of all onshore exploratory surveys conducted used
3-D seismic imaging.

2-D Seismic Imaging

Two-dimensional (2-D) computer-assisted exploration includes generating an image

of subsurface geology much in the same manner as in normal 2-D data interpretation.
However, with the aid of computer technology, it is possible to generate more
detailed maps more quickly than by the traditional method. In addition, with 2-D
CAEX it is possible to use color graphic displays generated by a computer to
highlight geologic features that may not be apparent using traditional 2-D seismic
imaging methods.

While 2-D seismic imaging is less complicated and less detailed than 3-D imaging,
it must be noted that 3-D imaging techniques were developed prior to 2-D
techniques. Thus, although it does not appear to be the logical progression of
techniques, the simpler 2-D imaging techniques were actually an extension of 3-D
techniques, not the other way around. Because it is simpler, 2-D imaging is much
cheaper, and more easily and quickly performed, than 3-D imaging. Because of this,
2-D CAEX imaging may be used in areas that are somewhat likely to contain natural
gas deposits, but not likely enough to justify the full cost and time commitment
required by 3-D imaging.
4-D Seismic Imaging

One of the latest breakthroughs in seismic exploration and the modeling of

underground rock formations has been the introduction of four-dimensional (4-D)
seismic imaging. This type of imaging is an extension of 3-D imaging technology.
However, instead of achieving a simple, static image of the underground, in 4-D
imaging the changes in structures and properties of underground formations are
observed over time. Since the fourth dimension in 4-D imaging is time, it is also
referred to as 4-D ‘time lapse’ imaging.

Various seismic readings of a particular area are taken at different times, and this
sequence of data is fed into a powerful computer. The different images are
amalgamated to create a ‘movie’ of what is going on under the ground. By studying
how seismic images change over time, geologists can gain a better understanding of
many properties of the rock, including underground fluid flow, viscosity,
temperature and saturation. Although very important in the exploration process, 4-
D seismic images can also be used by petroleum geologists to evaluate the properties
of a reservoir, including how it is expected to deplete once petroleum extraction has
begun. Using 4-D imaging on a reservoir can increase recovery rates above what can
be achieved using 2-D or 3-D imaging. Where the recovery rates using these two
types of images are 25 to 30 percent and 40 to 50 percent respectively, the use of 4-
D imaging can result in recovery rates of 65 to 70 percent.
Extraction

Once a potential natural gas deposit has been located by a team of exploration
geologists and geophysicists, it is up to a team of drilling experts to dig down to
where the natural gas is thought to exist. This section will describe the process of
drilling for natural gas, both onshore and offshore. Although the process of digging
deep into the Earth’s crust to find deposits of natural gas that may or may not actually
exist seems daunting, the industry has developed a number of innovations and
techniques that both decrease the cost and increase the efficiency of drilling for
natural gas. Advancements in technology have contributed greatly to the increased
efficiency and success rate for drilling natural gas wells.

Determining whether to drill a well

depends on a variety of factors, including
the economic potential of the hoped-for
natural gas reservoir. It costs a great deal of
money for exploration and production
companies to search and drill for natural
gas, and there is always the inherent risk
that no natural gas will be found.

The exact placement of the drill site

depends on many factors, including the
nature of the potential formation to be
drilled, the characteristics of the subsurface
geology, and the depth and size of the
Source: Anadarko Petroleum target deposit. After the geophysical team
Corporation identifies the optimal location for a well, it
is necessary for the drilling company to
ensure that it completes all the necessary steps so that it can legally drill in that area.
This usually involves securing permits for the drilling operations, establishment of
a legal arrangement to allow the natural gas company to extract and sell the resources
under a given area of land, and a design for gathering lines that will connect the well
to the pipeline.

There are a variety of potential owners of the land and mineral rights of a given area.
To learn more about permitting, leasing, and royalties associated with the extraction
of natural gas, visit the regulation section of our website.
If the new well, once drilled, does in fact come in contact with natural gas deposits,
it is developed to allow for the extraction of this natural gas, and is termed a
‘development’ or ‘productive’ well. At this point, with the well drilled and
hydrocarbons present, the well may be completed to facilitate its production of
natural gas. However, if the exploration team was incorrect in its estimation of the
existence of a marketable quantity of natural gas at a wellsite, the well is termed a
‘dry well’, and production does not proceed.

Onshore and offshore drilling present unique drilling environments, requiring

special techniques and equipment.
Processing Natural Gas

Source: Duke Energy Gas Transmission Canada

Natural gas, as it is used by consumers, is much different from the natural gas that
is brought from underground up to the wellhead. Although the processing of natural
gas is in many respects less complicated than the processing and refining of crude
oil, it is equally as necessary before its use by end users.

The natural gas used by consumers is composed almost entirely of methane.

However, natural gas found at the wellhead, although still composed primarily of
methane, is by no means as pure. Raw natural gas comes from three types of wells:
oil wells, gas wells, and condensate wells. Natural gas that comes from oil wells is
typically termed ‘associated gas’. This gas can exist separate from oil in the
formation (free gas), or dissolved in the crude oil (dissolved gas). Natural gas from
gas and condensate wells, in which there is little or no crude oil, is termed
‘nonassociated gas’. Gas wells typically produce raw natural gas by itself, while
condensate wells produce free natural gas along with a semi-liquid hydrocarbon
condensate. Whatever the source of the natural gas, once separated from crude oil
(if present) it commonly exists in mixtures with other hydrocarbons; principally
ethane, propane, butane, and pentanes. In addition, raw natural gas contains water
vapor, hydrogen sulfide (H2S), carbon dioxide, helium, nitrogen, and other
compounds. To learn about the basics of natural gas, including its composition,
click here.
Natural gas processing consists of separating all of the various hydrocarbons and
fluids from the pure natural gas, to produce what is known as ‘pipeline quality’ dry
natural gas. Major transportation pipelines usually impose restrictions on the make-
up of the natural gas that is allowed into the pipeline. That means that before the
natural gas can be transported it must be purified. While the ethane, propane, butane,
and pentanes must be removed from natural gas, this does not mean that they are all
‘waste products’.

In fact, associated hydrocarbons, known as ‘natural gas liquids’ (NGLs) can be very
valuable by-products of natural gas processing. NGLs include ethane, propane,
butane, iso-butane, and natural gasoline. These NGLs are sold separately and have
a variety of different uses; including enhancing oil recovery in oil wells, providing
raw materials for oil refineries or petrochemical plants, and as sources of energy.

While some of the needed

processing can be accomplished at
or near the wellhead (field
processing), the complete
processing of natural gas takes
place at a processing plant, usually
located in a natural gas producing
region. The extracted natural gas is
transported to these processing
plants through a network of
A Natural Gas Processing Plant gathering pipelines, which are
small-diameter, low pressure
Source: Duke Energy Gas Transmission Canada
pipes. A complex gathering system
can consist of thousands of miles
of pipes, interconnecting the processing plant to upwards of 100 wells in the area.
According to the American Gas Association’s Gas Facts 2000, there was an
estimated 36,100 miles of gathering system pipelines in the U.S. in 1999.

In addition to processing done at the wellhead and at centralized processing plants,

some final processing is also sometimes accomplished at ‘straddle extraction plants’.
These plants are located on major pipeline systems. Although the natural gas that
arrives at these straddle extraction plants is already of pipeline quality, in certain
instances there still exist small quantities of NGLs, which are extracted at the
straddle plants.
The actual practice of processing natural gas to pipeline dry gas quality levels can
be quite complex, but usually involves four main processes to remove the various
impurities:

• Oil and Condensate Removal

• Water Removal
• Separation of Natural Gas Liquids
• Sulfur and Carbon Dioxide Removal

Scroll down, or click on the links above to be transported to a particular section.

In addition to the four processes above, heaters and scrubbers are installed, usually
at or near the wellhead. The scrubbers serve primarily to remove sand and other
large-particle impurities. The heaters ensure that the temperature of the gas does not
drop too low. With natural gas that contains even low quantities of water, natural
gas hydrates have a tendency to form when temperatures drop. These hydrates are
solid or semi-solid compounds, resembling ice like crystals. Should these hydrates
accumulate, they can impede the passage of natural gas through valves and gathering
systems. To reduce the occurrence of hydrates, small natural gas-fired heating units
are typically installed along the gathering pipe wherever it is likely that hydrates
may form.

Oil and Condensate Removal

In order to process and transport associated dissolved natural gas, it must be

separated from the oil in which it is dissolved. This separation of natural gas from
oil is most often done using equipment installed at or near the wellhead.

The actual process used to separate oil from natural gas, as well as the equipment
that is used, can vary widely. Although dry pipeline quality natural gas is virtually
identical across different geographic areas, raw natural gas from different regions
may have different compositions and separation requirements. In many instances,
natural gas is dissolved in oil underground primarily due to the pressure that the
formation is under. When this natural gas and oil is produced, it is possible that it
will separate on its own, simply due to decreased pressure; much like opening a can
of soda pop allows the release of dissolved carbon dioxide. In these cases, separation
of oil and gas is relatively easy, and the two hydrocarbons are sent separate ways for
further processing. The most basic type of separator is known as a conventional
separator. It consists of a simple closed tank, where the force of gravity serves to
separate the heavier liquids like oil, and the lighter gases, like natural gas.
In certain instances, however, specialized
equipment is necessary to separate oil and
natural gas. An example of this type of
equipment is the Low-Temperature
Separator (LTX). This is most often used
for wells producing high pressure gas along
with light crude oil or condensate. These
separators use pressure differentials to cool
the wet natural gas and separate the oil and
condensate. Wet gas enters the separator,
being cooled slightly by a heat exchanger. Gas Processing Engineers
The gas then travels through a high
Source: ChevronTexaco Corporation
pressure liquid ‘knockout’, which serves to
remove any liquids into a low-temperature
separator. The gas then flows into this low-temperature separator through a choke
mechanism, which expands the gas as it enters the separator. This rapid expansion
of the gas allows for the lowering of the temperature in the separator. After liquid
removal, the dry gas then travels back through the heat exchanger and is warmed by
the incoming wet gas. By varying the pressure of the gas in various sections of the
separator, it is possible to vary the temperature, which causes the oil and some water
to be condensed out of the wet gas stream. This basic pressure-temperature
relationship can work in reverse as well, to extract gas from a liquid oil stream.

Water Removal

In addition to separating oil and some condensate from the wet gas stream, it is
necessary to remove most of the associated water. Most of the liquid, free water
associated with extracted natural gas is removed by simple separation methods at or
near the wellhead. However, the removal of the water vapor that exists in solution
in natural gas requires a more complex treatment. This treatment consists of
‘dehydrating’ the natural gas, which usually involves one of two processes: either
absorption, or adsorption.

Absorption occurs when the water vapor is taken out by a dehydrating agent.
Adsorption occurs when the water vapor is condensed and collected on the surface.
Glycol Dehydration

An example of absorption dehydration is known as Glycol Dehydration. In this

process, a liquid desiccant dehydrator serves to absorb water vapor from the gas
stream. Glycol, the principal agent in this process, has a chemical affinity for water.
This means that, when in contact with a stream of natural gas that contains water,
glycol will serve to ‘steal’ the water out of the gas stream. Essentially, glycol
dehydration involves using a glycol solution, usually either diethylene glycol (DEG)
or triethylene glycol (TEG), which is brought into contact with the wet gas stream
in what is called the ‘contactor’. The glycol solution will absorb water from the wet
gas. Once absorbed, the glycol particles become heavier and sink to the bottom of
the contactor where they are removed. The natural gas, having been stripped of most
of its water content, is then transported out of the dehydrator. The glycol solution,
bearing all of the water stripped from the natural gas, is put through a specialized
boiler designed to vaporize only the water out of the solution. While water has a
boiling point of 212 degrees Fahrenheit, glycol does not boil until 400 degrees
Fahrenheit. This boiling point differential makes it relatively easy to remove water
from the glycol solution, allowing it be reused in the dehydration process.

A new innovation in this process has been the addition of flash tank separator-
condensers. As well as absorbing water from the wet gas stream, the glycol solution
occasionally carries with it small amounts of methane and other compounds found
in the wet gas. In the past, this methane was simply vented out of the boiler. In
addition to losing a portion of the natural gas that was extracted, this venting
contributes to air pollution and the greenhouse effect. In order to decrease the
amount of methane and other compounds that are lost, flash tank separator-
condensers work to remove these compounds before the glycol solution reaches the
boiler. Essentially, a flash tank separator consists of a device that reduces the
pressure of the glycol solution stream, allowing the methane and other hydrocarbons
to vaporize (‘flash’). The glycol solution then travels to the boiler, which may also
be fitted with air or water cooled condensers, which serve to capture any remaining
organic compounds that may remain in the glycol solution. In practice, according to
the Department of Energy’s Office of Fossil Energy, these systems have been shown
to recover 90 to 99 percent of methane that would otherwise be flared into the
atmosphere.

To learn more about glycol dehydration, visit the Gas Technology Institute’s
website here.
Solid-Desiccant Dehydration

Solid-desiccant dehydration is the primary form of dehydrating natural gas using

adsorption, and usually consists of two or more adsorption towers, which are filled
with a solid desiccant. Typical desiccants include activated alumina or a granular
silica gel material. Wet natural gas is passed through these towers, from top to
bottom. As the wet gas passes around the particles of desiccant material, water is
retained on the surface of these desiccant particles. Passing through the entire
desiccant bed, almost all of the water is adsorbed onto the desiccant material, leaving
the dry gas to exit the bottom of the tower.

Solid-desiccant dehydrators are

typically more effective than
glycol dehydrators, and are usually
installed as a type of straddle
system along natural gas pipelines.
These types of dehydration
systems are best suited for large
volumes of gas under very high
pressure, and are thus usually
located on a pipeline downstream
of a compressor station. Absorption Towers
Source: Duke Energy Gas Transmission Canada

Two or more towers are required due to the fact that after a certain period of use, the
desiccant in a particular tower becomes saturated with water. To ‘regenerate’ the
desiccant, a high-temperature heater is used to heat gas to a very high temperature.
Passing this heated gas through a saturated desiccant bed vaporizes the water in the
desiccant tower, leaving it dry and allowing for further natural gas dehydration.
 Gas Processing Plant with Absorption Towers
Source: Duke Energy Gas Transmission Canada

Separation of Natural Gas Liquids

Natural gas coming directly from a well contains many natural gas liquids that are
commonly removed. In most instances, natural gas liquids (NGLs) have a higher
value as separate products, and it is thus economical to remove them from the gas
stream. The removal of natural gas liquids usually takes place in a relatively
centralized processing plant, and uses techniques similar to those used to dehydrate
natural gas.

There are two basic steps to the treatment of natural gas liquids in the natural gas
stream. First, the liquids must be extracted from the natural gas. Second, these
natural gas liquids must be separated themselves, down to their base components.

NGL Extraction

There are two principle techniques for removing NGLs from the natural gas stream:
the absorption method and the cryogenic expander process. According to the Gas
Processors Association, these two processes account for around 90 percent of total
natural gas liquids production.
The Absorption Method

The absorption method of NGL

extraction is very similar to using
absorption for dehydration. The
main difference is that, in NGL
absorption, an absorbing oil is used
as opposed to glycol. This
absorbing oil has an ‘affinity’ for
NGLs in much the same manner as
glycol has an affinity for water.
Before the oil has picked up any
NGLs, it is termed ‘lean’ Pipes and Absorption Towers
absorption oil. As the natural gas is Source: Duke Energy Gas Transmission Canada
passed through an absorption
tower, it is brought into contact with the absorption oil which soaks up a high
proportion of the NGLs. The ‘rich’ absorption oil, now containing NGLs, exits the
absorption tower through the bottom. It is now a mixture of absorption oil, propane,
butanes, pentanes, and other heavier hydrocarbons. The rich oil is fed into lean oil
stills, where the mixture is heated to a temperature above the boiling point of the
NGLs, but below that of the oil. This process allows for the recovery of around 75
percent of butanes, and 85 – 90 percent of pentanes and heavier molecules from the
natural gas stream.

The basic absorption process above can be modified to improve its effectiveness, or
to target the extraction of specific NGLs. In the refrigerated oil absorption method,
where the lean oil is cooled through refrigeration, propane recovery can be upwards
of 90 percent, and around 40 percent of ethane can be extracted from the natural gas
stream. Extraction of the other, heavier NGLs can be close to 100 percent using this
process.

The Cryogenic Expansion Process

Cryogenic processes are also used to extract NGLs from natural gas. While
absorption methods can extract almost all of the heavier NGLs, the lighter
hydrocarbons, such as ethane, are often more difficult to recover from the natural
gas stream. In certain instances, it is economic to simply leave the lighter NGLs in
the natural gas stream. However, if it is economic to extract ethane and other lighter
hydrocarbons, cryogenic processes are required for high recovery rates. Essentially,
cryogenic processes consist of dropping the temperature of the gas stream to around
-120 degrees Fahrenheit.

There are a number of different ways of chilling the gas to these temperatures, but
one of the most effective is known as the turbo expander process. In this process,
external refrigerants are used to cool the natural gas stream. Then, an expansion
turbine is used to rapidly expand the chilled gases, which causes the temperature to
drop significantly. This rapid temperature drop condenses ethane and other
hydrocarbons in the gas stream, while maintaining methane in gaseous form. This
process allows for the recovery of about 90 to 95 percent of the ethane originally in
the gas stream. In addition, the expansion turbine is able to convert some of the
energy released when the natural gas stream is expanded into recompressing the
gaseous methane effluent, thus saving energy costs associated with extracting
ethane.

The extraction of NGLs from the natural gas stream produces both cleaner, purer
natural gas, as well as the valuable hydrocarbons that are the NGLs themselves.

Natural Gas Liquid Fractionation

Once NGLs have been removed from the natural gas stream, they must be broken
down into their base components to be useful. That is, the mixed stream of different
NGLs must be separated out. The process used to accomplish this task is called
fractionation. Fractionation works based on the different boiling points of the
different hydrocarbons in the NGL stream. Essentially, fractionation occurs in stages
consisting of the boiling off of hydrocarbons one by one. The name of a particular
fractionator gives an idea as to its purpose, as it is conventionally named for the
hydrocarbon that is boiled off. The entire fractionation process is broken down into
steps, starting with the removal of the lighter NGLs from the stream. The particular
fractionators are used in the following order:

• Deethanizer – this step separates the ethane from the NGL stream.
• Depropanizer – the next step separates the propane.
• Debutanizer – this step boils off the butanes, leaving the pentanes and heavier
hydrocarbons in the NGL stream.
• Butane Splitter or Deisobutanizer – this step separates the iso and normal
butanes.

By proceeding from the lightest hydrocarbons to the heaviest, it is possible to

separate the different NGLs reasonably easily.
Sulfur and Carbon Dioxide Removal

In addition to water, oil, and NGL removal, one of the most important parts of gas
processing involves the removal of sulfur and carbon dioxide. Natural gas from some
wells contains significant amounts of sulfur and carbon dioxide. This natural gas,
because of the rotten smell provided by its sulfur content, is commonly called ‘sour
gas’. Sour gas is undesirable because the sulfur compounds it contains can be
extremely harmful, even lethal, to breathe. Sour gas can also be extremely corrosive.
In addition, the sulfur that exists in the natural gas stream can be extracted and
marketed on its own. In fact, according to the USGS, U.S. sulfur production from
gas processing plants accounts for about 15 percent of the total U.S. production of
sulfur. For information on the production of sulfur in the United States, visit the
USGS here.

Sulfur exists in natural gas as

hydrogen sulfide (H2S), and the
gas is usually considered sour if the
hydrogen sulfide content exceeds
5.7 milligrams of H2S per cubic
meter of natural gas. The process
for removing hydrogen sulfide
from sour gas is commonly
referred to as ‘sweetening’ the gas.

Gas Sweetening Plant

Source: Duke Energy Gas Transmission Canada

The primary process for sweetening sour natural gas is quite similar to the processes
of glycol dehydration and NGL absorption. In this case, however, amine solutions
are used to remove the hydrogen sulfide. This process is known simply as the ‘amine
process’, or alternatively as the Girdler process, and is used in 95 percent of U.S. gas
sweetening operations. The sour gas is run through a tower, which contains the
amine solution. This solution has an affinity for sulfur, and absorbs it much like
glycol absorbing water.

There are two principal amine solutions used, monoethanolamine (MEA) and
diethanolamine (DEA). Either of these compounds, in liquid form, will absorb sulfur
compounds from natural gas as it passes through. The effluent gas is virtually free
of sulfur compounds, and thus loses its sour gas status. Like the process for NGL
extraction and glycol dehydration, the amine solution used can be regenerated (that
is, the absorbed sulfur is removed), allowing it to be reused to treat more sour gas.

Although most sour gas sweetening involves the amine absorption process, it is also
possible to use solid desiccants like iron sponges to remove the sulfide and carbon
dioxide.

Sulfur can be sold and used if reduced to its elemental form. Elemental sulfur is a
bright yellow powder like material, and can often be seen in large piles near gas
treatment plants, as is shown. In order to recover elemental sulfur from the gas
processing plant, the sulfur containing discharge from a gas sweetening process must
be further treated. The process used to recover sulfur is known as the Claus process,
and involves using thermal and catalytic reactions to extract the elemental sulfur
from the hydrogen sulfide solution.

In all, the Claus process is usually able to

recover 97 percent of the sulfur that has been
removed from the natural gas stream. Since it
is such a polluting and harmful substance,
further filtering, incineration, and ‘tail gas’
clean up efforts ensure that well over 98
percent of the sulfur is recovered.

Elemental Sulfur Production in a

Gas Treatment Plant
Source: Duke Energy Gas
Transmission Canada
Gas processing is an instrumental piece of the
natural gas value chain. It is instrumental in ensuring that the natural gas intended
for use is as clean and pure as possible, making it the clean burning and
environmentally sound energy choice. Once the natural gas has been fully processed,
and is ready to be consumed, it must be transported from those areas that produce
natural gas, to those areas that require it.
The Transportation of Natural Gas

The efficient and effective movement of natural gas from producing regions to
consumption regions requires an extensive and elaborate transportation system. In
many instances, natural gas produced from a particular well will have to travel a
great distance to reach its point of use. The transportation system for natural gas
consists of a complex network of pipelines, designed to quickly and efficiently
transport natural gas from its origin, to areas of high natural gas demand.
Transportation of natural gas is closely linked to its storage: should the natural gas
being transported not be immediately required, it can be put into storage facilities
for when it is needed.

There are three major types of pipelines along the transportation route: the gathering
system, the interstate pipeline system, and the distribution system. The gathering
system consists of low pressure, small diameter pipelines that transport raw natural
gas from the wellhead to the processing plant. Should natural gas from a particular
well have high sulfur and carbon dioxide contents (sour gas), a specialized sour gas
gathering pipe must be installed. Sour gas is corrosive, thus its transportation from
the wellhead to the sweetening plant must be done carefully. Review the treatment
and processing of natural gas.

Pipelines can be characterized as interstate or intrastate. Interstate pipelines are

similar to in the interstate highway system: they carry natural gas across state
boundaries, in some cases clear across the country. Intrastate pipelines, on the other
hand, transport natural gas within a particular state. This section will cover only the
fundamentals of interstate natural gas pipelines, however the technical and
operational details discussed are essentially the same for intrastate pipelines.

Interstate Natural Gas Pipelines

The interstate natural gas

pipeline network transports
processed natural gas from
processing plants in producing
regions to those areas with high
natural gas requirements,
particularly large, populated
urban areas. As can be seen, the
pipeline network extends across
the entire country.
Interstate pipelines are the Interstate Natural Gas Pipelines
‘highways’ of natural gas Source: National Energy Technology Laboratory,
transmission. Natural gas that is DOE
transported through interstate pipelines travels at high pressure in the pipeline, at
pressures anywhere from 200 to 1500 pounds per square inch (psi). This reduces the
volume of the natural gas being transported (by up to 600 times), as well as
propelling natural gas through the pipeline.

This section will cover the components of the interstate pipeline system,
the construction of pipelines, and pipeline inspection and safety. For more
information on interstate pipelines in general, click here to visit the website of the
Interstate Natural Gas Association of America.

Pipeline Components

Interstate pipelines consist of a number of components that ensure the efficiency and
reliability of a system that delivers such an important energy source year-round,
twenty four hours a day, and includes a number of different components.
Transmission Pipes

Transmission pipes can measure anywhere

from 6 to 48 inches in diameter, depending on
their function. Certain component pipe
sections can even consist of small diameter
pipe, as small as 0.5 inches in diameter.
However, this small diameter pipe is usually
used only in gathering and distribution
systems. Mainline transmission pipes, the
principle pipeline in a given system, are
usually between 16 and 48 inches in diameter.
Lateral pipelines, which deliver natural gas to
or from the mainline, are typically between 6 Pipes in Transit
and 16 inches in diameter. Most major Source: Duke Energy Gas
interstate pipelines are between 24 and 36 Transmission Canada
inches in diameter. The actual pipeline itself,
commonly called ‘line pipe’, consists of a strong carbon steel material, engineered
to meet standards set by the American Petroleum Institute (API). In contrast, some
distribution pipe is made of highly advanced plastic, because of the need for
flexibility, versatility and the ease of replacement.

Transmission pipelines are produced in steel mills, which are sometimes specialized
to produce only pipeline. There are two different production techniques, one for
small diameter pipes and one for large diameter pipes. For large diameter pipes, from
20 to 42 inches in diameter, the pipes are produced from sheets of metal which are
folded into a tube shape, with the ends welded together to form a pipe section. Small
diameter pipe, on the other hand, can be produced seamlessly. This involves heating
a metal bar to very high temperatures, then punching a hole through the middle of
the bar to produce a hollow tube. In either case, the pipe is tested before being
shipped from the steel mill, to ensure that it can meet the pressure and strength
standards for transporting natural gas.

Line pipe is also covered with a specialized coating to ensure that it does not corrode
once placed in the ground. The purpose of the coating is to protect the pipe from
moisture, which causes corrosion and rusting. There are a number of different
coating techniques. In the past, pipelines were coated with specialized coal tar
enamel. Today, pipes are often protected with what is known as a fusion bond epoxy,
which gives the pipe a noticeable light blue color. In addition, cathodic protection is
often used; which is a technique of running an electric current through the pipe to
ward off corrosion and rusting.

Compressor Stations

As mentioned, natural gas is highly pressurized as it travels through an interstate

pipeline. To ensure that the natural gas flowing through any one pipeline remains
pressurized, compression of this natural gas is required periodically along the pipe.
This is accomplished by compressor stations, usually placed at 40 to 100 mile
intervals along the pipeline. The natural gas enters the compressor station, where it
is compressed by either a turbine, motor, or engine.

Turbine compressors gain their

energy by using up a small
proportion of the natural gas that
they compress. The turbine itself
serves to operate a centrifugal
compressor, which contains a type
of fan that compresses and pumps
A Compressor Station the natural gas through the
Source: Duke Energy Gas Transmission Canada pipeline. Some compressor
stations are operated by using an electric motor to turn the same type of centrifugal
compressor. This type of compression does not require the use of any of the natural
gas from the pipe, however it does require a reliable source of electricity nearby.
Reciprocating natural gas engines are also used to power some compressor stations.
These engines resemble a very large automobile engine, and are powered by natural
gas from the pipeline. The combustion of the natural gas powers pistons on the
outside of the engine, which serves to compress the natural gas.

In addition to compressing natural gas, compressor stations also usually contain

some type of liquid separator, much like the ones used to dehydrate natural gas
during its processing. Usually, these separators consist of scrubbers and filters that
capture any liquids or other unwanted particles from the natural gas in the pipeline.
Although natural gas in pipelines is considered ‘dry’ gas, it is not uncommon for a
certain amount of water and hydrocarbons to condense out of the gas stream while
in transit. The liquid separators at compressor stations ensure that the natural gas in
the pipeline is as pure as possible, and usually filter the gas prior to compression.
Metering Stations

In addition to compressing natural gas to reduce its volume and push it through the
pipe, metering stations are placed periodically along interstate natural gas pipelines.
These stations allow pipeline companies to monitor the natural gas in their pipes.
Essentially, these metering stations measure the flow of gas along the pipeline, and
allow pipeline companies to ‘track’ natural gas as it flows along the pipeline. These
metering stations employ specialized meters to measure the natural gas as it flows
through the pipeline, without impeding its movement.

Valves

Interstate pipelines include a great

number of valves along their entire
length. These valves work like
gateways; they are usually open
and allow natural gas to flow
freely, or they can be used to stop
gas flow along a certain section of
pipe. There are many reasons why
a pipeline may need to restrict gas
flow in certain areas. For example,
if a section of pipe requires
replacement or maintenance, A Ground Valve
valves on either end of that section Source: Duke Energy Gas Transmission Canada
of pipe can be closed to allow
engineers and work crews safe access. These large valves can be placed every 5 to
20 miles along the pipeline, and are subject to regulation by safety codes.

Control Stations and SCADA Systems

Natural gas pipeline companies have customers on both ends of the pipeline – the
producers and processors that input gas into the pipeline, and the consumers and
local gas utilities that take gas out of the pipeline. In order to manage the natural gas
that enters the pipeline, and to ensure that all customers receive timely delivery of
their portion of this gas, sophisticated control systems are required to monitor the
gas as it travels through all sections of what could be a very lengthy pipeline
network. To accomplish this task of monitoring and controlling the natural gas that
is traveling through the pipeline, centralized gas control stations collect, assimilate,
and manage data received from monitoring and compressor stations all along the
pipe.

Most of the data that is received by

a control station is provided by
Supervisory Control and Data
Acquisition (SCADA) systems.
These systems are essentially
sophisticated communications
systems that take measurements
and collect data along the pipeline
(usually in a metering or
compressor stations and valves)
Pipeline Control Station and transmit it to the centralized
Source: Duke Energy Gas Transmission Canada control station. Flow rate through
the pipeline, operational status,
pressure, and temperature readings may all be used to assess the status of the pipeline
at any one time. These systems also work in real time, meaning that there is little lag
time between the measurements taken along the pipeline and their transmission to
the control station.
The data is relayed to a centralized control station, allowing pipeline engineers to
know exactly what is happening along the pipeline at all times. This enables quick
reactions to equipment malfunctions, leaks, or any other unusual activity along the
pipeline. Some SCADA systems also incorporate the ability to remotely operate
certain equipment along the pipeline, including compressor stations, allowing
engineers in a centralized control center to immediately and easily adjust flow rates
in the pipeline.

Pipeline Construction

As natural gas use increases, so does the need to have transportation infrastructure
in place to supply the increased demand. This means that pipeline companies are
constantly assessing the flow of natural gas across the U.S., and building pipelines
to allow transportation of natural gas to those areas that are underserved.
Constructing natural gas pipelines
requires a great deal of planning
and preparation. In addition to
actually building the pipeline,
several permitting and regulatory
processes must be completed. In
many cases, prior to beginning the
permitting and land access
processes, natural gas pipeline
companies prepare a feasibility
analysis to ensure that an Surveying the Right-of-Way
acceptable route for the pipeline Source: Duke Energy Gas Transmission Canada
exists that provides the least impact to the environment and public infrastructure
already in place.

Assuming a pipeline company obtains all the required permits and satisfies all of the
regulatory requirements, construction of the pipe may begin. Extensive surveying of
the intended route is completed, both aerial and land based, to ensure that no
surprises pop up during actual assembly of the pipeline.

Installing a pipeline is much like an assembly line process, with sections of the
pipeline being completed in stages. First, the path of the pipeline is cleared of all
removable impediments, including trees, boulders, brush, and anything else that may
prohibit the construction. Once the pipeline’s path has been cleared sufficiently to
allow construction equipment to gain access, sections of pipes are laid out along the
intended path, a process called ‘stringing’ the pipe. These pipe sections are
commonly from 40 to 80 feet long, and are specific to their destination. That is,
certain areas have different requirements for coating material and pipe thickness.

‘Stringing’ the Pipe

Source: Duke Energy Gas Transmission Canada Once the pipe is in place, trenches
are dug alongside the laid out pipe. These trenches are typically five to six feet deep,
as the regulations require the pipe to be at least 30 inches below the surface. In
certain areas, however, including road crossings and bodies of water, the pipe is
buried even deeper. Once the trenches are dug, the pipe is assembled and contoured.
This includes welding the sections of pipe together into one continuous pipeline, and
bending it slightly, if needed, to fit the contour of the pipeline’s path. Coating is
applied to the ends of the pipes. The coating applied at a coating mill typically leaves
the ends of the pipe clean, so as not to interfere with welding. Finally, the entire
coating of the pipe is inspected to ensure that it is free from defects.

Once the pipe is welded, bent, coated, and inspected it can be lowered into the
previously-dug trenches. This is done with specialized construction equipment
acting to lift the pipe in a level manner and lower it into the trench. Once lowered
into the ground, the trench is filled in carefully, to ensure that the pipe and its coating
retain their integrity. The last step in pipeline construction is the hydrostatic test.
This consists of running water, at pressures higher than will be needed for natural
gas transportation, through the entire length of the pipe. This serves as a test to ensure
that the pipeline is strong enough, and absent of any leaks of fissures, before natural
gas is pumped through the pipeline.

Laying pipe across streams or

rivers can be accomplished in one
of two ways. Open cut crossing
involves the digging of trenches on
the floor of the river to house the
pipe. When this is done, the pipe
itself is usually fitted with a
concrete casing, which both
ensures that the pipe stays on the
bottom of the river and adds an Lowering Pipe
extra protective coating to prevent Source: Duke Energy Gas Transmission Canada
any natural gas leaks into the
water. Alternatively, a form of directional drilling may be employed, in which a
‘tunnel’ is drilled under the river through which the pipe may be passed. The same
techniques are used for road crossings – either an open trench is excavated across
the road and replaced once the pipe is installed, or a tunnel may be drilled underneath
the road.
Once the pipeline has been installed and covered, extensive efforts are taken to
restore the pipeline’s pathway to its original state, or to mitigate any environmental
or other impacts that may have occurred during the construction process. These steps
often include replacing topsoil, fences, irrigation canals, and anything else that may
have been removed or upset during the construction process. For more information
on natural gas pipeline construction, visit the website of theInterstate Natural Gas
Association of America.

Pipeline Inspection and Safety

In order to ensure the efficient and

safe operation of the extensive
network of natural gas pipelines,
pipeline companies routinely
inspect their pipelines for
corrosion and defects. This is done
through the use of sophisticated
pieces of equipment known as
‘smart pigs.’ Smart pigs are
Pig – Pipeline Inspection Tool intelligent robotic devices that are
Source: Duke Energy Gas Transmission Canada propelled down pipelines to
evaluate the interior of the pipe.
Smart pigs can test pipe thickness, and roundness, check for signs of corrosion,
detect minute leaks, and any other defect along the interior of the pipeline that may
either impede the flow of gas, or pose a potential safety risk to the operation of the
pipeline. Sending a smart pig down a pipeline is fittingly known as ‘pigging’ the
pipeline.

In addition to inspection with smart pigs, there are a number of safety precautions
and procedures in place to minimize the risk of accidents. In fact, the transportation
of natural gas is one of the safest ways of transporting energy, mostly due to the fact
that the infrastructure is fixed, and buried underground. According to
the Department of Transportation (DOT), pipelines are the safest method of
transporting petroleum and natural gas. While there are in excess of 100 deaths per
year associated with electric transmission lines, according to the DOT’s Office of
Pipeline Safety in 2009, there were 0 deaths associated with transmission pipelines,
and 10 deaths associated with distribution systems. To learn more about pipeline
safety, visit the DOT’s Office of Pipeline Safety.

A few of the safety precautions associated with natural gas pipelines include:
 • Aerial Patrols – Planes are used to ensure no construction activities are
taking place too close to the route of the pipeline, particularly in residential
areas. Unauthorized construction and digging is the primary threat to pipeline
safety, according to INGAA
• Leak Detection – Natural gas detecting equipment is periodically used by
pipeline personnel on the surface to check for leaks. This is especially
important in areas where the natural gas is not odorized.
• Pipeline Markers – Signs on the surface above natural gas pipelines indicate
the presence of underground pipelines to the public, to reduce the chance of
any interference with the pipeline.
• Gas Sampling – Routine sampling of the natural gas in pipelines ensures its
quality, and may also indicate corrosion of the interior of the pipeline, or the
influx of contaminants.
• Preventative Maintenance – This involves the testing of valves and the
removal of surface impediments to pipeline inspection.
• Emergency Response – Pipeline companies have extensive emergency
response teams that train for the possibility of a wide range of potential
accidents and emergencies.
• The One Call Program – All 50 states have instituted what is known as a
‘one call’ program, which provides excavators, construction crews, and
anyone interested in digging into the ground around a pipeline with a single
phone number that may be called when any excavation activity is planned.
This call alerts the pipeline company, which may flag the area, or even send
representatives to monitor the digging. The national 3-digit number for one
call is “811.”

While large interstate natural gas pipelines transport natural gas from the processing
regions to the consuming regions and may serve large wholesale users such as
industrial or power generation customers directly, it is the distribution system that
actually delivers natural gas to most retail customers, including residential natural
gas users.