DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCH development: growth, maintenance, and

regulation of loss.
| PSYCH 103
Development is a Co-construction of
Characteristics of Life-span Perspective Biology, Culture, and the Individual -
Development is lifelong - In the life-span Development is a co-construction of
perspective, early adulthood is not the biological, cultural, and individual factors
endpoint of development; rather, no age period working together (Baltes, Reuter-Lorenz, &
dominates development. Researchers Rösler, 2012). For example, the brain shapes
increasingly study the experiences and culture, but it is also shaped by culture and the
psychological orientations of adults at experiences that individuals have or pursue.
different points in their lives.
Development is Multidimensional - No Chap 1: Study of Human Development
matter what your age might be, your body,
mind, emotions, and relationships are THINKING ABOUT DEVELOPMENT
changing and affecting each other. Recurring Issues in Human Development
Development has biological, cognitive, and
socioemotional dimensions. Even within a Nature and Nurture - The degree to which
dimension, there are many components. genetic or hereditary influences (nature) and
experiential or environmental influences
Development is Multidirectional - (nurture) determine the kind of person you are.
Throughout life, some dimensions or
components of a dimension expand, and others Continuity and Discontinuity - Concerns
shrink. whether a particular developmental
phenomenon represents a smooth progression
Development is Plastic - Plasticity means the throughout the life span (continuity) or a series
capacity for change. For example, can you still of abrupt shifts (discontinuity).
improve your intellectual skills when you are
in your seventies or eighties? Or might these Universal and Context-Specific Development -
intellectual skills be fixed by the time you are Concerns whether there is one path of
in your thirties so that further improvement is development or several.
impossible?
Development is Multidisciplinary -
Psychologists, sociologists, anthropologists,
neuroscientists, and medical researchers all
share an interest in unlocking the mysteries of
development through the life span.
Development is Contextual - All
development occurs within a context or
setting. Contexts include families, schools,
peer groups, churches, cities, neighborhoods, Basic Forces in Human Development: The
university laboratories, countries, and so on. Biopsychosocial Framework
Each of these settings is influenced by
historical, economic, social, and cultural
factors.
Development Involves Growth,
Maintenance, and Regulation of Loss - the
mastery of life often involves conflicts and
competition among three goals of human

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 personality, perceptual, and related
elements.
o These factors collectively define
individuals and significantly influence
behavior.
Central Role in Self-Description:
o Describing oneself often involves
psychological attributes, highlighting
their familiarity and relevance.
Biological Forces that include all genetic and o Examples include traits like having a
health-related factors that affect development. nice personality, intelligence, and self-
Genetic Determinants: confidence.

o Major aspects of development are Dominance in Developmental Focus:

influenced by the genetic code. o Psychological forces receive the most
o Observable in the resemblance of attention among the three main
many children to their parents. developmental forces.
Beyond Genetics: o Their impact is pervasive throughout
developmental processes.
o Biological forces extend beyond
genetics to include factors like diet Sociocultural Forces that include
and exercise. interpersonal, societal, cultural, and ethnic
o Illustrates that development is shaped factors that affect development. Human
development occurs within the context of
by a combination of genetic and
interactions between individuals and their
environmental influences.
environments. Development is viewed as part
Dual Role of Biological Forces: of a larger system, including family, friends,
teachers, coworkers, and societal institutions.
Raw Material Provider:
Components of Sociocultural Forces:
o Biological forces offer the essential
building blocks for development. o Family, extended family, friends,
teachers, coworkers, and institutions
Boundary Conditions (Genetics)
shape an individual's development.
o Genetics sets the limits or conditions o Society and culture at large play a
within which development occurs. crucial role in influencing an
individual's growth.
Psychological Forces include all internal
perceptual, cognitive, emotional, and
personality factors that affect development.
Formation of Culture:
Psychological forces are commonly used to
describe a person's characteristics. Often o Culture encompasses knowledge,
expressed in self-descriptions, emphasizing attitudes, and behavior associated with
qualities like personality, intelligence, honesty, a group of people.
and self-confidence. o Linked to specific countries, historical
periods, or identifiable cultural
Internal Factors:
traditions.
o Psychological forces encompass
Importance of Research on Cultural Groups:
internal cognitive, emotional,

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 o Acknowledges the need for research o Highlights that the timing of
on diverse cultural groups to avoid events in a person's life plays a
generalizations from a limited crucial role in shaping their
perspective. experiences and outcomes.
o Encourages the role of individuals, o Emphasizes the need to consider
perhaps the reader, in contributing to the broader context of an
developmental research. individual's life when
understanding the impact of
Caution in Generalizations:
significant events.
o Acknowledges potential pitfalls in
Neuroscience
generalizing findings to entire groups
based on broader terms. The study of the brain and the nervous system,
o Encourages consideration of specific especially in terms of brain–behavior
subgroups within the larger categories relationships. Utilizes various methods,
for more accurate conclusions. including molecular analyses and imaging
techniques.
Life-Cycle Forces that reflect differences in
how the same event affects people of different X-ray Vision Analogy:
ages.
o Compares the ability to observe
Scenario 1: Jacqui (32-year-old): developmental forces in action to
having "X-ray vision," like Superman.
o Happily married for six years with a o Neuroscience provides a tangible way
steady income. to see the interaction of biological,
o Decides to start a family and becomes psychological, sociocultural, and life-
pregnant. cycle forces.
o Positive outcome: Pregnancy brings
happiness and eager anticipation due Applications in Human Development:
to stable life circumstances. o Focus on memory, reasoning, and
Scenario 2: Jenny (17-year-old): emotion.
1. Investigates developmental changes in
o Sexually active for six months, not in specific brain regions to explain
a stable relationship. phenomena like risky behavior in
o Discovers pregnancy after missing her adolescents and short-term memory
period. issues in older adults.
o Different outcome: Pregnancy brings
anxiety and concern due to unstable Contributions of Neuroscience:
life circumstances. o Reveals patterns of brain activity.
Factors Influencing Outcomes: o Enhances understanding of
interactions among developmental
o Age, financial situation, and social forces.
support systems significantly
influence the consequences of life Unique Expression of Forces:
events. o Each person is considered a unique
o Illustrates how the same event expression of biological,
(pregnancy) can lead to psychological, sociocultural, and life-
contrasting emotions based on cycle forces.
individual life situations. o Neuroscience aids in identifying and
Lifecycle Forces Principle: comprehending these complex
interactions.

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DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES
Psychodynamic Theory
Emphasize that development is primarily
influenced by the resolution of conflicts at
various stages of life. Rooted in Sigmund
Freud's theory that personality arises from
conflicts between individual desires and
societal expectations.
Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory
Building on Freud's ideas, Erikson proposed a
comprehensive life-span view. Remains a
significant theoretical framework in the field
of developmental psychology.
Psychosocial Theory Principles:
o Expands on Freud's emphasis on
conflicts, introducing psychosocial
stages across the entire lifespan.
o Focuses on the resolution of
psychosocial crises at different life
Learning Theory
stages, shaping personality
development. Focuses on how learning shapes an
o Personality development results from individual's behavior. Emphasizes the role of
the interplay between internal experience, particularly the influence of
maturational processes and external rewards and punishments on behavior.
societal demands.
o Life cycle consists of eight stages, Behaviorism:
each with a biologically fixed order o Central tenet: Behavior is learned
and a specific challenge. through conditioning, where actions
o Challenges vary across stages, are reinforced or punished.
reflecting age-specific tasks. o Rewards and punishments play a
o Challenges are addressed through a crucial role in shaping and modifying
combination of inner psychological behavior.
influences and external social
influences. Social Learning Theory:
o Successful resolution of challenges o Highlights the importance of
prepares individuals for the next stage. observational learning.
Epigenetic Principle: o People learn by observing and
imitating the behaviors of others in
o The sequence of stages is based on their social environment.
the epigenetic principle, where
each psychosocial strength has a Behaviorism
period of particular importance. John Watson's Behaviorism:
o Acquisition of psychosocial
strengths occurs throughout a
lifetime.

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 o Believed infants' minds were "blank making the undesirable behavior less likely to
slates" and argued that learning alone occur again.
determines individuals' development.
o Viewed experience as the primary
determinant of developmental Negative Reinforcement - A consequence that
outcomes. decreases the likelihood of a behavior by
removing a pleasant stimulus.
B.F. Skinner's Contributions:
Example: Revoking the privilege of FaceTime
o Studied operant conditioning, where
with friends for not completing chores.
behavior is shaped by its
consequences. Application: The father may restrict his
o Identified two influential daughter's access to FaceTime if she fails to
consequences: reinforcement and clean her room, thereby removing a desirable
punishment. activity because of her behavior.

Types of Consequences in Operant

Conditioning
1. Positive Reinforcement - A
consequence that increases the
likelihood of a behavior by adding a Social Learning Theory
desirable stimulus.
Emphasizes learning through observation,
Example: Giving rewards such as chocolate, imitation, and modeling of others' behavior.
gold stars, or paychecks to encourage desired People learn not only through reinforcement or
behavior. punishment but also by watching those around
them.
Application: A father may reinforce his
daughter's cleaning behavior by praising her or Imitation and Observational Learning:
giving her treats.
o Individuals learn by observing and
Negative Reinforcement - A consequence that imitating the behavior of others.
increases the likelihood of a behavior by o Example: A child throwing a toy after
removing an aversive stimulus. seeing a peer do the same or offering
Example: Allowing the daughter to skip to help an older adult after witnessing
chores if she cleans her room, thus removing parents do so.
the unpleasant task of washing dishes. Complexity of Imitation:
Application: A father may remove the chore of o Imitation is more than mere mimicry;
washing dishes as a reward for his daughter it involves understanding appropriate
cleaning her room. behavior based on social cues.
2. Positive Punishment - A consequence o Factors influencing imitation include
that decreases the likelihood of a the importance, popularity,
behavior by adding an aversive intelligence, or talent of the model, as
stimulus. well as the consequences of the
observed behavior.
Example: Nagging or scolding the daughter
for not cleaning her room. Albert Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory:

Application: The father may nag or scold his o Based on a complex view of reward,
daughter for failing to complete her chores, punishment, and imitation.

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 o Incorporates cognitive processes, Piaget's theory remains one of the most
emphasizing active interpretation of influential frameworks in cognitive
events and learning from others. development research.

Self-Efficacy:
Refers to individuals' beliefs about their own Information-Processing Theory:
abilities and talents.
o Views individuals as processing
Determines when people will imitate others; information similarly to computers,
individuals are more likely to imitate those becoming more efficient in processing
they believe they can emulate successfully. over the lifespan.
o Focuses on how cognitive processes
Contrasts with Operant Conditioning:
such as attention, memory, and
o Differs from Skinner's operant problem-solving evolve and improve
conditioning, which views individuals with age.
as responding mechanically to
Cultural Approach:
reinforcement and punishment.
o Social cognitive theory emphasizes o Emphasizes the influence of culture on
active interpretation of events and the thinking and cognitive growth.
role of cognitive processes in learning. o Considers how cultural beliefs, values,
and practices shape individuals'
Common Ground with Learning Theories:
cognitive processes and development.
o Despite differences, all learning
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
theorists agree that experience plays a
crucial role in shaping individuals' Focuses on how children actively construct
developmental journeys. knowledge and how their understanding of the
o Experience influences behavior, world evolves over time. Jean Piaget is
learning, and developmental considered one of the most influential
outcomes. developmental psychologists of the 20th
century.

Cognitive Developmental Theory

Children as Scientists:
Focuses on the development of thought
processes and how individuals actively o Piaget proposed that children naturally
construct knowledge. Highlights how thinking seek to understand their world and act
changes over time as a central aspect of like scientists, creating theories about
development. physical and social phenomena.
o They test their theories through daily
Three Approaches in Cognitive-
experiences, revising them based on
Developmental Theory
outcomes.
Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development:
Proposes that thinking evolves through a
Construction of Knowledge:
universal sequence of stages.
 Children integrate their experiences
Individuals progress through stages of
into coherent theories about objects
cognitive development, each characterized by
and people, continually refining and
distinct ways of understanding the world.
revising their understanding.

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 greater memory capacity and more
efficient arithmetic methods.

Cognitive Aging:
o Some researchers attribute cognitive
aging to deterioration in both mental
Information Processing Theory hardware and mental software.
o Declines in memory capacity and
Draws parallels between human cognition and efficiency of cognitive processes may
computer processing to explain cognitive accompany normative aging,
development across the lifespan. Views human impacting information processing
cognition as consisting of mental hardware abilities.
(cognitive structures) and mental software
(cognitive processes). Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
Lev Vygotsky emphasized that children's
thinking is influenced by the sociocultural
Analogy to Computers: context in which they grow up. Believed
o Compares cognitive structures to that every aspect of a child's development
computer hardware (e.g., memory must be understood within the cultural
systems) and cognitive processes to backdrop of their society.
computer software (e.g., problem- Sociocultural Context:
solving algorithms).
o Emphasizes encoding, storage, and o Vygotsky highlighted the role of
retrieval processes in cognitive tasks, culture in shaping children's
like how computers process development and thinking.
information. o Example: In different cultures,
such as the United States and
Mali, parents emphasize different
Cognitive Hardware and Software: skills and values based on societal
norms and survival needs.
o Mental hardware: Cognitive structures
such as memory systems where Apprenticeship in Development:
information is stored. o Viewed development as an
o Mental software: Cognitive processes apprenticeship where children
enabling specific tasks like reading, learn and develop by working
problem-solving, or decision-making. with skilled adults, such as
Developmental Changes in Thinking: teachers and parents.
o Children acquire cultural values
o Posits that cognitive development and skills through interaction with
involves improvements in both mental knowledgeable individuals in their
hardware and mental software over community.
time.
o Adolescents and adults typically Development of Thinking:
possess more powerful and o Vygotsky proposed that learning and
sophisticated cognitive processors thinking develop as part of and in
compared to younger children. response to the cultural context.
o Example: Adolescents may excel in o Children's thinking becomes more
solving math word problems due to sophisticated as they engage in

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 culturally valued activities and learn o Individuals may belong to multiple
from skilled individuals. microsystems simultaneously, which
strongly influence development.
Comparison with Other Theories:
o Vygotsky's perspective contrasts with
Piaget's theory of active construction Mesosystem:
of knowledge and information-
o Provides connections across
processing theory's focus on cognitive
processes. microsystems, indicating how
o While Piaget and information- interactions in one microsystem can
impact others.
processing theorists explain cognitive
o Example: Stressful experiences at
development differently, Vygotsky
emphasizes the role of cultural work or school may affect behavior
transmission and interaction in and interactions at home, illustrating
shaping development. the interconnectedness of
microsystems.
Ecological and Systems Approach
Exosystem:
Emphasizes the importance of the environment
in shaping human development. Views o Refers to social settings that indirectly
development as inseparable from influence an individual's development.
environmental contexts, with interconnected o Examples include changes in
influences. government policies or community
resources that impact individuals'
Brofenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory opportunities and experiences.
Urie Bronfenbrenner proposed that human
development occurs within a series of
interconnected and interactive systems. Macrosystem:
Divided the environment into four levels: o Encompasses the broader cultural
microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and
context in which microsystems,
macrosystem.
mesosystems, and exosystems are
embedded.
o Includes cultural values, norms, and
beliefs shared by a particular group.
o Cultural identity, heritage, and values
shape individuals' development within
this broader context.

Influence on Human Development:

o Bronfenbrenner's theory emphasizes
Microsystem: the multi-level nature of influences on
human development.
o Consists of the people and objects in o Individuals are directly influenced by
an individual's immediate immediate relationships and indirectly
environment. impacted by broader social systems
o Includes close relationships such as and cultural contexts.
family, friends, and caregivers. o Human development is shaped by
interactions at all levels, from intimate

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 family dynamics to broader cultural o An adult's social skills must match the
influences. demands of their work group for
effective integration and acceptance.
o The match between an individual's
Evolution of Macrosystem: competence in social skills and the
group's social demands determines
o The macrosystem evolves over time, their level of acceptance within the
reflecting changes in cultural norms, group.
values, and societal structures.
o Each generation may experience a
unique macrosystem, contributing to
variations in development across time
and cultural contexts.
Competence-Environmental Press Theory
o Proposed by Lawton and Nahemow
(1973), this theory suggests that
individuals adapt most effectively
when their competence matches the
demands (environmental press) of
their environment.
o Originally developed to explain the
functioning of older adults, it applies
across the lifespan.
Competence:
o Refers to individuals' abilities, skills,
and capabilities to cope with
environmental demands.
Environmental Press:
o Represents the demands placed on
individuals by their environment,
including physical, social, and
psychological demands.

Adaptation:
o Effective adaptation occurs when
individuals' competence aligns with
the environmental press, enabling
them to meet the demands of their
environment successfully.
Example Application:

Social Skills and Work Group Dynamics:

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 4. **Multidisciplinary**: Think about going
to school. Learning involves many subjects
like math, science, and reading. Teachers from
different fields work together to help you learn
and grow.
5. **Contextual**: Picture making friends.
How you act might change depending on if
you're at home, at school, or at a friend's
house. Making friends can be different in
different situations.
6. **Growth, Maintenance, and Regulation
of Loss**: Think about getting better at a
sport. You practice improving (growth), keep
practicing to stay good (maintenance), and
learn from mistakes when you miss a shot or
lose a game (regulation of loss).
7. **Co-construction of Biology, Culture,
and the Individual**: Imagine learning to
cook. You use ingredients from recipes
(biology), follow family traditions (culture),
and add your own special twist (individuality)
to make delicious meals.

THINKING ABOUT DEVELOPMENT

RECURRING ISSUES IN HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT

EASIER EXPLANATIONS Nature: Think about how your eye color is

determined by genes from your parents. You
DEVELOPMENT IS… might have blue eyes because your mom has
1. **Multidimensional**: Think about a blue eyes.
baby growing up. They don't just get bigger; Nurture: Consider how your personality can
they also learn to crawl, walk, and talk. be shaped by your experiences. If you're
Growing up involves many different changes, praised for being kind, you might become
not just one. even kinder over time.
2. **Multidirectional**: Imagine you're Continuity: Picture a tree growing taller each
learning to write. Sometimes your handwriting year. It's a steady progression without sudden
gets neater, but other times it might get changes, just like how you gradually grow
messier if you're not practicing enough. taller as you get older.
Writing can improve in different ways
depending on how much you practice. Discontinuity: Imagine a caterpillar turning
into a butterfly. There's a big change from
3. **Plasticity**: Consider learning math. crawling to flying, and it happens suddenly,
Even if you find it hard at first, with practice, not gradually.
you can get better. Your brain can learn new
math skills, like adding or subtracting, no Universal: Think about how most children
matter how old you are. around the world learn to walk and talk around

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the same age, no matter where they live. These understand people better and avoid making
milestones happen universally. wrong assumptions.
Context-Specific: Consider how different 4. **Life-Cycle Forces**:
cultures have different traditions for
- **Scenario 1: Jacqui (32-year-old)**:
celebrating birthdays. While everyone
Jacqui is happily married and plans to have a
celebrates birthdays, the specific customs and
baby, which brings joy because she's
rituals can vary depending on the culture.
financially stable.
Basic Forces in Human Development: The
- **Scenario 2: Jenny (17-year-old)**:
Biopsychosocial Framework
Jenny is not ready for a baby and feels anxious
1. **Biological Forces**: when she finds out she's pregnant because
she's young and not in a stable relationship.
- **Genetic Determinants**: Kids often look
like their parents because of shared genes. - **Factors Influencing Outcomes**: Age,
money, and support affect how people react to
- **Beyond Genetics**: Eating healthy food
major life events like pregnancy.
and exercising can affect how kids grow up.
- **Lifecycle Forces Principle**: Timing
- **Dual Role of Biological Forces**:
matters – the same event can lead to different
- **Raw Material Provider**: Like how emotions based on where someone is in their
bricks build a house, biological forces provide life.
the basic stuff for development.
NEUROSCIENCE
- **Boundary Conditions (Genetics)**:
Sure, let's simplify and shorten the
Genetics set limits on how tall or smart
explanation:
someone can be.
**Neuroscience in Human Development**:
2. **Psychological Forces**:
- **Definition**: It's about studying the brain
- **Internal Factors**: Things like thinking,
and how it affects behavior.
feeling, and personality traits shape who we
are. - **X-ray Vision Analogy**: It's like having
superpowers to see how different things affect
- **Central Role in Self-Description**:
our development, just like Superman's X-ray
When describing themselves, people often talk
vision.
about their personality traits like being
friendly or smart. - **Applications**: Scientists use it to
understand things like memory, thinking, and
- **Dominance in Developmental Focus**:
feelings.
These internal factors get a lot of attention
because they affect how we behave and feel. - **Contributions**: It helps us see how the
brain works and how different forces (like
3. **Sociocultural Forces**:
genes or culture) affect us.
- **Components of Sociocultural Forces**:
- **Unique Expression**: Everyone's
Family, friends, teachers, and culture all
different because of how their brain and life
influence how we grow up.
experiences interact.
- **Formation of Culture**: Culture
**Example**:
includes the beliefs and behaviors of a group
of people, like traditions in different countries. - Scientists use neuroscience to understand
why teenagers sometimes take risks. They
- **Importance of Research on Cultural
look at how the brain changes during
Groups**: Studying different cultures helps us
adolescence and how that affects behavior.

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 - **Key Points**:
- **Behaviorism**: We learn by what
happens to us, like getting rewarded or
punished.
- **Social Learning Theory**: We also
learn by watching others and copying what
they do.

DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES
**Behaviorism**:
Psychodynamic Theories
- **John Watson's Ideas**: He thought babies
- **Definition**: It says how we grow is are like blank slates and learn everything from
shaped by how we handle conflicts in life. experience.
- **Origin**: Comes from Sigmund Freud's - **B.F. Skinner's Ideas**: He studied how
idea that our personality comes from conflicts our behavior changes based on what happens
between what we want and what society afterward.
expects.

**Types of Consequences in Operant

**Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory**: Conditioning**:
- **Building on Freud**: Erikson added more - **Positive Reinforcement**: Giving rewards
stages to cover our whole life. to encourage good behavior, like getting a
- **Key Principles**: gold star for cleaning your room.

- **Stages Across Lifespan**: We face - **Negative Reinforcement**: Taking away

different challenges at different ages. something bad to encourage good behavior,
like not having to do dishes if you clean your
- **Inner and Outer Influences**: Our room.
personality grows from both our inner
thoughts and outside pressures. - **Positive Punishment**: Adding something
bad to discourage bad behavior, like getting
- **Successful Resolution**: Solving these scolded for not cleaning your room.
challenges helps us grow and prepare for the
next stage. - **Negative Punishment**: Taking away
something good to discourage bad behavior,
**Epigenetic Principle**: like not being allowed to use your phone if
you don't clean your room.
- **Definition**: Each stage has its own
special time when we need to learn specific
skills.
**Social Learning Theory**:
- **Example**: Just like how kids need to
learn to talk when they're young, each stage - **Imitation and Observational Learning**:
has its own important things we need to learn. We learn by watching and copying others, like
throwing a toy after seeing a friend do it.
- **Albert Bandura's Ideas**: He said we
LEARNING THEORY learn by watching others and thinking about
what they do.
- **Definition**: It's about how we learn,
which affects how we act.

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**Self-Efficacy**: - **Cognitive Hardware and Software**: Our
memory and thinking skills improve over time,
- **Definition**: It's about believing we can
like how older kids are better at solving
do something.
problems.
- **Difference from Operant Conditioning**:
- **Cognitive Aging**: Just like computers
It's not just about rewards and punishments;
can slow down over time, our thinking can too
it's also about what we believe we can do.
as we get older.
**Common Ground with Learning
**Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory**:
Theories**:
- **Sociocultural Context**: Our culture
- Despite differences, all agree that what
shapes how we think and learn, like how
happens to us affects how we grow up.
different societies value different skills.
Experience shapes how we act and learn.
- **Apprenticeship in Development**: We
learn from others around us, like parents and
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTAL teachers, who pass on their knowledge and
THEORY skills.

- **Definition**: It's about how we think and - **Development of Thinking**: Our thinking
understand things, and how that changes as we gets better as we engage in activities that our
grow. culture values and learn from skilled people.

- **Key Points**: - **Comparison with Other Theories**:

Vygotsky focuses more on how culture and
- **Piaget's Theory**: Says we go through interaction shape our thinking, while Piaget
different stages of thinking as we grow up. and information-processing theories focus on
- **Information Processing Theory**: how we develop thinking skills internally.
Compares our thinking to how computers
work and how it gets better with age.
ECOLOGICAL AND SYSTEMS
- **Cultural Approach**: Shows how our APPROACH
culture affects how we think and learn.
- **Definition**: It's about how the
environment affects how we grow up, with
**Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive everything connected.
Development**: - **Key Points**:
- **Children as Scientists**: Kids are like - **Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems
little scientists, always trying to understand Theory**: Says our development is shaped by
how the world works by testing their ideas. different levels of our environment, like
- **Construction of Knowledge**: They build family, community, and culture.
their understanding of the world by taking in - **Competence-Environmental Press
new experiences and adjusting their thoughts. Theory**: It's about how we adapt to our
environment based on our skills and what's
expected of us.

**Information Processing Theory**:

**Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems
- **Analogy to Computers**: Compares our Theory**:
brain to a computer, with memory as hardware
and problem-solving as software.

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- **Microsystem**: It's about the people and
things closest to us, like family and friends,
which affect us a lot.
- **Mesosystem**: This connects different
parts of our life, like how stress at work can
affect how we act at home.
- **Exosystem**: It's about bigger things, like
laws or community resources, that can
indirectly affect us.
- **Macrosystem**: This is our broader
culture, like shared beliefs and values, that
shapes how we grow up.

**Influence on Human Development**:

- Bronfenbrenner's theory says we're affected
by everything around us, from our close
relationships to our culture.
- Our development is influenced by everything
from family dynamics to broader cultural
ideas.
**Competence-Environmental
Press .Theory**:
- **Competence**: It's about how good we are
at dealing with things.
- **Environmental Press**: This is all the
demands our environment puts on us.
**: We do best when our skills match what our
environment asks of us.
**Example Application**:
- **Social Skills and Work Group
Dynamics**: If someone has good social skills
and fits well with their work group, they'll be
accepted and do well.

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