YEAR 2

Integrated Chapter:
Lifespan &
Personality
Development
Artist credits:
Ms. Mrinalika
Faculty: Vidhi Agarwal Bansal
(Batch
2023-25)
 This chapter has knowledge links to “Personality”,
“Stress & Stress Management” “Intelligence” and

Objectives “Psychological Disorders & Psychotherapy”

This is a blended chapter. At the end of the chapter you should be able to
demonstrate:

KNOWLEDGE OF
 Integrated Chapter Brief

Introduction to Developmental Psychology: Key concepts of growth, maturation and

development; principles of development, nature and nurture.

Contexts of Development: The Ecological Model by Urie Bronfenbrenner

Domains of Development: Physical & Motor Development (only till infancy), Emotional
Development (Attachment and attachment patterns by Mary Ainsworth); Self & Personality
Development (Freud & Erikson), Cognitive Development (Jean Piaget), Sexual Development
(overview), Moral Development (Kohlberg)

Adolescence: Puberty & Identity formation; Issues: Eating Disorders & Body Image, Substance
Abuse, Delinquency
 Success Criteria

M A P

Make your own Ask questions Pre read for class

notes
Developmental Psychology-
Key Terms & Broad Issues
Excerpt from “As you like it”
by William Shakespeare.
 Key Terms In Developmental Psychology
Developmental psychology examines biological, physical, psychological, and
behavioral changes that occur as we age (Passer & Smith)

Lifespan Development: Pattern of movement or change that begins at conception and continues
through the human life span- Santrock

GROWTH refers to quantifiable, physical changes in the body which include changes in weight, height
and shape of the body.

MATURATION Genetically determined naturally unfolding course of growth- Berk

Broad Issues In Developmental Psychology-Questions

Text taken from Passer & Smith

(Development Over The Lifespan)
 Broad Issues In Developmental Psychology- Answers

I. Nature and nurture in development: Development is influenced by both “nature,” or heredity, and “nurture,” or
the environment.

II. Continuity and change in development: For ease of studying life span development, we speak of stages from infancy
through old age, but in reality, people develop in continuous fashion throughout life. Even periods marked by specific biological
changes, such as puberty and the climacteric (menopause in women), occur in gradual fashion.

III. The related issue of stability versus change in development refers to the question of whether individuals’ dispositions change as they
get older. Personality researchers in particular have attempted to determine whether there are dispositions that remain consistent over life.
Moreover, even researchers who at one time believed, along with William James, that personality was fixed by the age of 30, now
acknowledge that changes in traits can continue to occur throughout old age.

IV. Critical periods can involve biological changes, such as the growth of the nervous system, which may be affected negatively by maternal
illness early in pregnancy. Critical periods are also referred to as sensitive periods since the term critical period implies that something has to
happen in a specific time period to develop normally. In general, as individuals grow older, the relevance of critical periods weakens
considerably. At later ages, there is evidence instead for considerable plasticity. People may suffer injuries or illnesses which they compensate
for by recruiting other abilities.
 Principles of Lifespan Perspective
Content taken from Santrock: Lifespan Development

Development is lifelong: In the life-span perspective, early adulthood is not the endpoint of
development; rather, no age period dominates development.

Development Is Multidimensional: The individual’s age, body, mind, emotions, and

relationships keep changing and affecting each other.

Development Is Multidirectional: Throughout life, some dimensions or components of a

dimension expand and others shrink. Example: aging may impact the bones of the body but one may display
greater awareness and social intelligence.

Development Is Continuous: It begins at the time of conception and continues for the entirety of
one’s lifespan. Development happens from “womb to tomb”

Development Is Plastic: Plasticity means the capacity for change. Neuroplasticity posits that the brain
can develop new neural pathways enabling us to keep acquiring skills at any age and stage.
 Principles of Lifespan Perspective
Content taken from Santrock: Lifespan Development

Development Is a Co-Construction of Biology, Culture and the Individual.

Heredity and environmental factors interplay and influence the development of the individual.

Development Is A Consistent process: Individual differences exist in the rate of growth and
development of different individuals. But the overall development follows a consistent orderly sequence and
similar pattern across all individuals.

Development happens from general to specific: An infant begins making general responses
to its environment and gradually masters specific goal directed activities. Example: An infant develops attraction
towards humans and then later shows preference for specific (familiar) people over unfamiliar people.

Development occurs by a spiral pattern of movement : A child’s development does not

follow a linear graph as it does not occur in a constant, steady pace. It occurs in fits and starts showing almost no
change in one time and a sudden spurt in the other.

Development and growth are predictable: At every stage of development, certain physical and
mental growth can be predicted or expected due to established developmental milestones. Since development is
cumulative and consistent, developmental changes at different or particular ages are predictable.
 Principles of Lifespan Perspective
Content taken from Santrock: Lifespan Development

Developmental Science Is Multidisciplinary: Psychologists, sociologists, anthropologists,

neuroscientists, and medical researchers all share an interest in unlocking the mysteries of development through
the lifespan.

Development Is Contextual: All development occurs within a context, or setting. Contexts include
families, schools, peer groups, churches, cities, neighborhoods, university laboratories, countries, and so on. Each
of these settings is influenced by historical, economic, social, and cultural factors

Development Involves Growth, Maintenance, and Regulation of Loss: Baltes and

his colleagues (2006) assert that the mastery of life often involves conflicts and competition among three goals of
human development: growth, maintenance, and regulation of loss.

Development Is Cumulative: The development at each stage occurs depending on the development
of the prior stage. any new development is an addition to the already developed skills.
The Role of Nature-Nurture
 The impact of Nature-Nurture
(ISC Chhaya, NCERT & APA TOPPS)
Nature refers to the genetic blueprint received by offspring from parents. Through genetic transmission, the
characteristics of personality, intelligence, special abilities, susceptibility to certain diseases and aptitudes are
transmitted to children known as genotype. Further observable physical characteristics such as facial features,
body shape are also passed from parents to offspring. They are known as phenotype.
The male and female reproductive organs produce germ cells or gametes. The male gamete is known as the
sperm and the female gamete is known as the ovum. At the time of fertilisation, each gamete contributes 23
chromosomes. Fertilisation of the sperm and the ovum result in the formation of the zygote which marks the
beginning of a new life. Hereditary transmission begins from the moment of conception or fertilisation.

Nurture refers to the environmental conditions to which the growing zygote is exposed to. This could be
in-utero in the form of maternal nutrition, maternal mental and physical health and exposure to teratogens or
it could be external in the form of socio-cultural practices, peer relations, level of schooling or exposure to
media.
Development is influenced both by nature and nurture. Further, specific environmental factors can influence
the expression of genes. Example: Maternal stress may alter the genetic material of her fetus. Similarly, in later
adulthood, an individual may have a genetic risk for developing Alzheimer’s but not be afflicted by the disorder
if he or she is intellectually or physically active.
 The impact of Nature-Nurture
Table made from Baron-Misra

Teratogens are external agents that cause abnormal prenatal development- Passer & Smith.
Teratogens are factors in the environment that can harm the developing fetus- Baron-Misra

Teratogen Impact on Fetus

German Measles Blindness, Deafness or Heart Disease
Genital herpes Paralysis and Brain damage due to deafness/blindness

AIDS Death before first birthday

Maternal consumption of caffeine can slow fetal growth, contribute to premature birth, and produce
increased irritability in newborns whose mothers have consumed large
amounts of this drug.
Maternal consumption of alcohol Fetal Alcohol Syndrome, intellectual disability, learning disorders, and
stunted growth among their children
 The impact of Nature-Nurture
Table made from Baron-Misra

“The term teratogen refers to any environmental agent that causes damage during the prenatal period. Scientists
chose this label (from the Greek word teras , meaning “malformation” or “monstrosity”) because they first learned
about harmful prenatal influences from cases in which babies had been profoundly damaged…”- Berk

Teratogen Impact on Fetus

Maternal smoking/passive smoking Decreased birth weight and size and increased risk for miscarriage and
stillbirth. Interference with cognitive development in early childhood,

Maternal consumption of aspirin (otc drug) Harm to fetal circulatory system.

Maternal consumption of cocaine premature birth, brain lesions, impaired sensory functioning, increased
irritability, and heart deformities.
 Twin studies: Critical research
(APA TOPPS)

- Only a small minority of monozygotic twins (1%) are truly identical; 20-25% are dichorionic diamniotic (two
placentas and two amniotic sacs). The remainder are monochorionic diamniotic (one placenta and two
amniotic sacs). This means that most identical twins actually had different prenatal environments, which
could differentially have affected their growth. These differences can persist throughout life.
- The most common twin study is that which compares identical (monozygotic) and same-sex fraternal twins
(dizygotic) with genetic factors indicated by a higher similarity (concordance rate) for monozygotic than
dizygotic twins. This type of design is criticized because of the assumption that monozygotic and dizygotic
twins share identical environments because they are reared at the same time. In fact, dizygotic twins are more
likely to be treated differently than monozygotic twins.
- Previous studies on identical twins reared apart exaggerated similarities and ignored differences. The very
impressive books and documentaries showing the similarities between identical twins who never met until
adulthood tended to report the hits but not the misses between them. These studies might be criticized
because of the degree to which monozygotics split at birth experience very different environments.
Growth, Maturation & Development
Development Growth & Maturation Definitions
Development refers to a progressive. sequential series of changes that occur in an orderly, predictable
pattern as a result of maturation and experience. It comprises of both growth and maturation.

Growth refers to structural and physical changes that take place in the body. Growth is linear and always
positive.
Maturation relates to the interplay of genetics and socio-environmental influences. It entails the
gradual unfolding of the intellectual, emotional and physical characteristics of the individual which
follow a genetic blueprint and are common to all. For example, a child will walk only by 12 months
and special efforts to accelerate the process won’t yield results. Maturation is essentially a process
of modification from within.
Development Growth & Maturation Comparison
Maturation
It is about overall change in shape, form or
structure resulting in improved working or
functioning.

Measures qualitative or character changes

Growth is measured quantitatively.

Maturation can be inferred.

Maturation is a continuous process

 Contexts of Development: The
Ecological Systems Theory by Urie
Bronfenbrenner
The Ecological Systems Model: Bronfenbrenner
The Ecological Systems Model: Bronfenbrenner
 Stages of development

YOUNG ADULTHOOD

19-25 YEARS

DEVELOPMENT IN
ADOLESCENCE
13-19 YEARS

DEVELOPMENT IN
CHILDHOOD EARLY CHILDHOOD 2-6 YEARS

MIDDLE CHILDHOOD 7-12 YEARS

DEVELOPMENT IN
INFANCY 0-2 YEARS

9 MONTHS

PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
Prenatal Development
Physical Development
 Trends in Physical Development
Developmental milestones are things most children can do by
a certain age.
Skills such as taking a first step, smiling for the first time, and

waving “bye-bye” are called developmental milestones.

Children reach milestones in how they play, learn, speak, act,

and move. You see children reach milestones every day.

Though all children develop at their own pace, most children

reach developmental milestones at or about the same age.

Text: Passer & Smith Source: Centers for Disease Control &
Prevention
All about Reflexes (IN SYLLABUS: REFLEXES HIGHLIGHTED IN PURPLE)
A reflex is an inborn,
automatic response to
a particular form of
stimulation.

Berk
 Reflexes In Infancy

Palmar Grasp
Rooting

Babinski
Moro/Startle
Sheldon

Motor Development.
Developmental
milestones are things most Motor
children can do by a certain Development
age.

Gross- Motor Fine Motor

Usage of large
muscles involved in Usage of smaller

the movement of muscles as present

arms, legs, hips and in the fingers and

knees wrists.
Sheldon

Motor Milestones (Baron & Misra)

Emotional Development
 Defining Attachment

In humans,Inattachment refers to refers

humans, attachment the strong
to theemotional bond that
strong emotional develops
bond that between childre
develops between children and their
and their primary
primary caregivers. the first few
caregivers
years of life seem to be a sensitive period when we can most easily form a
secure bond with caregivers that enhances our adjustment later in life
(Sroufe, 2002). Although it may be more difficult to form strong first
attachments to caregivers later in childhood, it is still possible.- Passer &
Smith

A strong affectional bond between infants and their caregivers-

Baron-Misra
An early, stable, affectional relatinoship between a child and another
person, usually a parent -Morgan & King.
Formation of Attachment- Passer & Smith

Konrad Lorenz (1937) defines imprinting as “a sudden,

biologically primed form of attachment.” It occurs in some
Bill Lishman imprinted
bird species, including ducks and geese, and in a few Canada geese hatchlings
mammals, such as shrews. Imprinting involves a critical to the sight of his
ultralight airplane.
time period. Although the geese have
now matured, the
Human infants do not automatically imprint on a caregiver, ultralight still represents
“mother” to them, and
and there is not an immediate post birth critical period they follow it in flight.
during which contact is required for infant-caregiver
bonding. Instead, the first few years of life seem to be a
sensitive period.

Bowlby believed that the human infant, like the young of other animal species, is endowed with a set of built-in
behaviors that keep the parent nearby to protect the infant from danger and to provide support for exploring
and mastering the environment (Waters & Cummings, 2000). Contact with the parent also ensures that the baby
will be fed, but Bowlby pointed out that feeding is not the basis for attachment. Rather, attachment can best be
understood in an evolutionary context in which survival of the species—through ensuring both safety and
competence—is of utmost importance. According to Bowlby, the infant’s relationship with the parent begins as a
set of innate signals that call the adult to the baby’s side. Over time, a true affectionate bond forms, supported
by new emotional and cognitive capacities as well as by a history of warm, sensitive care. Attachment develops in
four phases:
Development of Attachment- Berk
“Clear-cut” attachment phase (6 to 8
Preattachment phase (birth to 6
months to 18 months to 2 years).
weeks). Built-in signals—grasping,
Now attachment to the familiar
smiling, crying, and gazing into the adult’s
caregiver is evident. Babies display
eyes—help bring newborn babies into close
separation anxiety, becoming upset
contact with other humans. Babies of this
when their trusted caregiver leaves .
age recognize their own mother’s smell,
voice, and face
Formation of a reciprocal
“Attachment-in-the-making” phase (6 weeks relationship (18 months to 2 years
to 6 to 8 months). During this phase, infants and on). By the end of the second
respond differently to a familiar caregiver than to a year, rapid growth in representation
stranger. For example, the baby smiles, laughs, and and language enables toddlers to
babbles more freely with the mother and quiets understand some of the factors that
more quickly when she picks him up. As infants influence the parent’s coming and
learn that their own actions affect the behavior of going and to predict her return. As a
those around them, they begin to develop a sense of result, separation protest declines.
trust —the expectation that the caregiver will Now children negotiate with the
respond when signaled—but they still do not protest caregiver, using requests and
when separated from her. persuasion to alter her goals.
With increasing age and more
opportunities of social interaction
with others, the child forms multiple
attachments.
Ainsworth’s Strange Situation Test
Strange Situation Explained (UNDERSTANDING ONLY)
 Ainsworth’s Attachment Patterns
Secure attachment: These infants use
the parent as a secure base. When Resistant /Ambivalent attachment: Before
separated, they may or may not cry, but separation, these infants seek closeness to
if they do, it is because the parent is the parent and often fail to explore. When the
absent and they prefer her to the parent leaves, they are usually distressed,
stranger. When the parent returns, they and on her return they combine clinginess
actively seek contact, and their crying is with angry, resistive behavior, struggling
when held and sometimes hitting and
reduced immediately .
pushing. Many continue to cry and cling after
being picked up and cannot be comforted
easily.
Avoidant attachment : These infants
seem unresponsive to the parent when she
Disorganized/disoriented attachment: This
is present. When she leaves, they usually
pattern reflects the greatest insecurity. At
are not distressed, and they react to the
reunion, these infants show confused,
stranger in much the same way as to the
contradictory behaviors—for example, looking
parent. During reunion, they avoid or are
away while the parent is holding them or
slow to greet the parent, and when picked
approaching the parent with flat, depressed
up, they often fail to cling
emotion. Most display a dazed facial
expression, and a few cry out unexpectedly
after having calmed down or display odd,
frozen postures
 Demonstration of
Secure/Anxious/Avoidant Styles
 Self & Personality Development
(Portions from the Chapter Personality)
 Personality & The Self
Allport, (1938): “personality is the dynamic organisation within the individual of those psycho-physical
systems that determine his unique adjustment to his environment”

“An individual’s unique and relatively stable patterns of behaviours, thoughts and emotions”- Nelson &
Miller (1995)

“The psychological forces that make people unique”- Friedman & Schustack (1997)

A newly born child has no idea of itself. As a child grows older, the idea of
self emerges and its formation begins. Parents, friends, teachers and
other significant persons play a vital role in shaping a child’s ideas about
self. Our interaction with other people, our experiences, and the
meaning we give to them, serve as the basis of our self. The structure of
self is modifiable in the light of our own experiences and the experiences
we have of other people.- NCERT
The self can be thought of as the space between the questions of how “Riley’s self concept”- Image
does the individual see themselves as an observer and how others see taken from Inside Out 2
the individual as the subject.
 The Emergence of the Self- Berk

The way we perceive ourselves and the ideas we hold about our competencies and attributes is also called self-concept. At around 4-5
years, the child’s self concept could be influenced by their competencies in athletic, academic, social and our physical appearance. At a
very general level, this view of oneself is, overall, either positive or negative.
 Personality Development
Exploring the ideas of Sigmund Freud, Erik
Erikson
Psychoanalytic view of Personality

Psychoanalytic View of Personality

Stages of
Structure of
Psychosexual
Personality
Development

Sigmund Freud
Freud’s Structure of Personality
Sigmund Freud developed the psychoanalytic theory to explain human
personality and behaviour.
To explain the structure of personality, he likened the mind to an iceberg having
three levels of conscious, preconscious and unconscious.
The conscious part of the brain was seen as the tip of the iceberg that could be
seen.The conscious part of the brain is what we are aware of at the present
moment. The pre conscious part of the brain according to him remained
submerged but could be brought to conscious awareness. This part of the brain
contains dreams, memories and moral teachings from our caregivers which can
be brought to conscious awareness.
The unconscious part of the brain remains wholly submerged and hence hidden
from view. This part of the brain contains unwanted sexual-aggressive impulses
and traumatic memories. He posited that a large part of our personality is
hidden, made of unconscious motives and desires. Each level of the brain houses
an intrapsychic force according to him. He believed that our personality is
shaped by the interaction and influence of these intrapsychic forces of id, ego,
superego.
Freud’s Structure of Personality
Each level of the brain houses an intrapsychic force according to him. He believed that our personality is shaped by the interaction
and influence of these intrapsychic forces of id, ego, superego.

Id is present at birth and lies in the unconscious. It is the storehouse of all psychic energy (libido) , making it the primary
component of personality. This aspect of personality includes all instinctive and primitive sexual-aggressive impulses and works on
the pleasure principle which concerns itself with the immediate gratification of needs.

Ego: The term ego is often used informally to suggest that someone has an inflated sense of self. However, the ego in personality
has a positive effect. It is the part of your personality that keeps you grounded in reality and prevents the id and superego from
pulling you too far toward your most basic urges or moralistic virtues. In Freudian terminology, Having a strong ego means having
a strong sense of self-awareness. Ego develops from about 2 years of age and develops from the id. It ensures that the impulses of
the id can be expressed in a manner that is acceptable in the real world.The ego functions in the conscious, preconscious, and
unconscious mind. is the mediator of personality and works on the reality principle, it works to find a realistic, acceptable
solution between the impulsive, instinctive aggressive demands of the id and the moral demands of the superego.

Superego: Superego is the moral arm of personality according to Freud.. The superego holds the internalized moral standards and
ideals that we acquire from our parents and society (our sense of right and wrong). Hence, it concerns itself with right and wrong
actions and in behaving in socially acceptable ways. According to Freud, the superego begins to emerge at around age 5.

Like the ego, the superego is present in the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious.

The superego has two parts:

The conscience includes information about things that are viewed as bad by parents and society. These behaviors are often
forbidden and lead to bad consequences, punishments, or feelings of guilt and remorse.5

The ego ideal includes the rules and standards for behaviors that the ego aspires to.
 Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Personality (ISC Chhaya) add morgan
and king
According to him human beings seek to maximize pleasure and avoid pain. The dynamic energy required to achieve these motives was referred to as
psychic energy or libido (life instinct). In his first formulation, Sigmund Freud conceived of libido as narrowly sexual, but subsequently he broadened
the concept to include all expressions of love, pleasure, and self-preservation.
 Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Personality (ISC Chhaya)

*Please consider the age ranges given on

slide 53 for psychosexual development
 Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Personality: Criticisms

- Freud's structure of personality theory, consisting of the id, ego, and

superego, has faced criticism for its lack of empirical evidence and
overemphasis on early childhood experiences as determinants of personality
development.
- Critics argue that Freud's theory is too deterministic and fails to account for
the impact of social and cultural factors on personality.
- Additionally, the concept of the psychosexual stages, such as the oral, anal,
and phallic stages, has been criticized for its heteronormative bias and
limited applicability to diverse populations.
- Critics suggest that Freud's focus on sexual development overlooks other
important influences on personality and behavior.
 Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory of
Identity

Erik Erikson

Table taken from SimplyPsychology

 Erik Erikson vs Sigmund Freud

Domain ERIKSON FREUD

Model Proposed the 8 stages of Psychosocial model of personality Proposed the 5 stage psychosexual model of
personality.

Motivational Source According to the model, humans are motivated to achieve a sense of According to the model, humans are motivated to
competency and adequacy. hence each stage presents a fulfill their sexual impulses from an early age. Over
developmental crisis that if successfully resolved builds a sense of fulfilling or not adequately fulfilling these needs
adequacy. can lead to fixation.

Erik Erikson View of maturity The ability to reflect on a life well lived (successful resolution of ego The ability to pursue and maintain
identity vs despair) is the cornerstone of maturity according to sexual-romantic relations (successful resolution of
Erikson. the genital stage) is the cornerstone of maturity
according to Freud.
Views on development Development occurs through one’s lifespan. Development peaks in the adulthood years.

COMMONALITIES OF THE THEORIES PROPOSED:

Both theories are stage models of personality

Sigmund Freud Each stage involves a crisis that needs to be resolved.

Each stage is cumulative i.e. the next stage builds upon the gains made i the previous stage.
 Erik Erikson vs Sigmund Freud: A
comparison of the theories

Erik Erikson

Sigmund
Freud
Criticism on Psychosocial theory

1. Erikson's psychosocial stages of development have been criticized for

their vague and subjective nature, making them difficult to measure
or test empirically.
2. Critics argue that Erikson's stages lack specificity and may not apply
universally across different cultures and individuals.
3. Additionally, some critics question the emphasis on age-related
stages of development, suggesting that individuals may progress
through these stages at different rates or in a different sequence.
4. The idea of a fixed sequence of psychosocial crises in each stage has
also been challenged, as it may oversimplify the complex nature of
human development and individual experiences.
Cognitive Development
 Graphical representation: Piaget’s Model
Jean Piaget studied his own three
children longitudinally to
formulate the Cognitive
Development Model

Piaget’s thoughts: If I can’t

have a sample, I’ll create a
sample

The witticisms of Ms. Sukriti Rai Batch

(2023-25)
Piaget’s Stage Model- Santrock
Piaget’s Stage Model- Santrock
 Piaget’s Sensorimotor Stage

Baron-Misra

Berk
 Piaget’s Sensorimotor Stage

Sensorimotor Development

1. Reflexive Schemes (Birth 1- month): Piaget saw newborn reflexes as the building blocks of
sensorimotor intelligence. In Substage 1, babies suck, grasp, and look in much the same way, no
matter what experiences they encounter. Berk
 Piaget’s Sensorimotor Stage
Sensorimotor Development (Continued)

2. Primary Circular Reaction: (1 month- 4 months): Around 1 month of age, babies enter Substage 2 and start
to gain voluntary control over their actions through the primary circular reaction, by repeating chance behaviors
largely motivated by basic needs. This leads to some simple motor habits, such as sucking the fist or thumb.
Babies in this substage also begin to vary their behavior in response to environmental demands. For example,
they open their mouths differently for a nipple than for a spoon. And they start to anticipate events: A hungry
3-month-old is likely to stop crying as soon as his mother enters the room—a signal that feeding time is near.

3. Secondary Circular Reaction: (4 months-8 months): infants sit up and become skilled at reaching for and
manipulating objects—motor achievements that strengthen the secondary circular reaction, through which they
try to repeat interesting events in the surrounding environment that are caused by their own actions. However, 4-
to 8-month-olds cannot adapt flexibly and quickly enough to imitate novel behaviors (Kaye & Marcus, 1981).
Although they enjoy watching an adult demonstrate a game of pat-a-cake, they are not yet able to participate.

Berk
 Piaget’s Sensorimotor Stage
Sensorimotor Development (Continued)

4. Coordination of Secondary Circular Reactions (8-12 months): 8- to 12-month-olds can engage in intentional or
goal-directed, behavior, coordinating schemes deliberately to solve simple problems. For example, the ability to retrieve
a hidden toy by pushing away its cover and grasping the toy was considered a cognitive milestone for the child. This
mean-end analysis according to him was the foundation of all problem solving.
In this stage, infants have begun to master object permanence , the understanding that objects continue to exist when
they are out of sight, cannot be seen, heard or touched.
But this awareness is not yet complete. Babies still make the A-not-B search error : If they reach several times for an
object at one hiding place (A), then see it moved to another (B), they still search for it in the first hiding place (A). Piaget
concluded that the babies do not yet have a clear image of the object as persisting when hidden from view.

Berk
 Piaget’s Sensorimotor Stage
Sensorimotor Development (Continued)

5. Tertiary circular reaction (12-18 months): Toddlers can repeat behaviors with variation in this
stage. They can figure out how to fit a shape through a hole in a container by turning and twisting it,
and they can use a stick to obtain a toy that is out of reach. According to Piaget, this capacity to
experiment leads to a more advanced understanding of object permanence. Toddlers look for a
hidden toy in more than one location, displaying an accurate A–B search. Their more flexible action
patterns also permit them to imitate many more behaviors—stacking blocks, scribbling on paper,
and making funny faces.

6. Mental Representation (18-24 months): In Substage 6, sensorimotor development culminates

in mental representation. One sign of this capacity is that 18- to 24-month-olds arrive at solutions to
problems suddenly rather than through trial-and-error behavior, apparently experimenting with
actions inside their heads. Representation also enables older toddlers to solve advanced object
permanence problems involving invisible displacement —finding a toy moved while out of sight, such
as into a small box while under a cover. Second, it permits deferred imitation —the ability to
remember and copy the behavior of models who are not present. And it makes possible
make-believe play, in which children act out everyday and imaginary activities. As the sensorimotor
stage draws to a close, mental symbols have become major instruments of thinking.

Berk
A not B Search Error Demonstration
Piaget’s Preoperational Stage (2-7 years)

Text: Passer
& Smith

Text: Baron
Piaget’s Preoperational Stage (2-7 years)
Piaget’s Preoperational Stage (2-7 years)

Berk
 Piaget’s Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 )

In this stage, logical reasoning replaces intuitive reasoning as long as the reasoning can be applied to specific or concrete examples.

Berk
Elimination of egocentrism: Children in this stage begin to understand that others have different perspectives and
viewpoints, reducing their tendency to see the world only from their own perspective.
Children do not conserve all quantities or conserve on all tasks simultaneously. The order of their Reversibility: Understanding that actions can be reversed, and that objects can return to their original state (e.g.,
mastery is number, length, liquid quantity, mass, weight, and volume. Horizontal décalage is understanding that adding and subtracting numbers is reversible).
Piaget’s concept that similar abilities do not appear at the same time within a stage of development.
During the concrete operational stage, conservation of number usually appears first and
Improvement in inductive logic: Piaget determined that children in the concrete operational stage were fairly good at the
conservation of volume last. 4
use of inductive logic (inductive reasoning). Inductive logic involves going from a specific experience to a general principle.
An example of inductive logic would be noticing that every time you are around a cat, you have itchy eyes, a runny nose, and a
swollen throat. You might then reason from that experience that you are allergic to cats.
Piaget’s Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 )

Berk
Piaget’s Formal Operational Stage (11-15 )

Passer & Smith

Berk
This is also known as propositional thought.
Piaget’s Formal Operational Stage (11-15 )

Passer & Smith

Berk
 Piaget’s Formal Operational Stage (11-15 )
- Induction and Deduction: Induction refers to observing a number of specific events and inferring an
abstract general principle. Deduction on the other hand, refers to reasoning from general abstract principles to
specific hypotheses that follow from these principles. The two processes can be seen in the adolescent’s
reasoning about nature, science and even social problems.

- Reflective thinking: It is the process of evaluating or testing one’s own reasoning. Reflective thinking allows
the formal operational person to be his own critic, to evaluate a process, idea or solution from the perspective
of an outsider and to find errors or weak spots in it. The reflective thinker can then sharpen plans, arguments
or points of view; making them more effective and powerful.

- Abstract thinking: A general feature of formal-operational thought is the ability to think in terms of abstract
concepts that link concrete actions or objects together. For example: when asked about what did they like
about their mothers, children gave more concrete examples such as “she makes my favourite food” vs
adolescents who responded with abstract statements such as “she sets a good example”. ( Weisz, 1980).
Morgan & King
Criticism of Piagetian Theory
Sexual Development (Overview)
 Self & Gender: Baron-Misra/Berk

Gender refers to the sociocultural aspect of being born male or female. Sex refers to the
biological anatomical presentation of gender in terms of one’s genitalia.As children develop self
awareness by 2 years of age, they also develop a growing awareness of sex and gender differences
between males and females. This awareness lays the foundation for their gender identity (the
perception of self as male or female). Around the age of 4, they develop the concept of gender
stability which refers to the understanding of the permanence of one’s gender throughout
their lives. For example, the idea that a boy will remain a boy throughout their life. At the age of
6-7 years, children develop the concept of gender consistency. It refers to the understanding
that one’s gender will remain constant even if the dress code, attitudes, hairstyles of the other
gender was adopted by them. The complete understanding of all these processes is referred to as
sex-category consistency.
Sex-category consistency leads to the adoption of gender roles which refer to the expected
social roles of males and females. Further, gender stereotypes also develop which are widely
held beliefs about the typical behaviours of boys and girls. Example boys should play with cars
while girls should play with dolls.
 Meet Genderbread Person (Understanding only)
Anatomical sex is the physical traits
Gender Norms are rules pertaining to
behaviour by a particular gender that may Gender identity is how you, in your head,
be formally taught to us. The experience and define your gender, based on
you’re born with or develop that we think of as
consequences of breaking gender norms
could be dire.
how much you align (or don’t align) with what
you understand the options for gender to be.
Gender roles A “role” is a societal station Gender identity is all about how you think about

“sex characteristics,” as well as the sex you are

or position with a list of prescribed
behaviors and responsibilities.
yourself. It’s about how you internally interpret
your personal chemistry in the face of the
socialization you experienced growing up

assigned at birth
Gender Expression is how
you present gender (through
your actions, clothing, and
demeanor, to name a few),
Anatomical sex is the physical traits you’re
and how those presentations
born with or develop that we think of as “sex
are viewed based on social
characteristics,” as well as the sex you are
expectations. Gender
assigned at birth
expression is interpreted by
others perceiving your
gender based on traditional
gender norms (e.g., women
wear lipstick; men wear ties).
Story TIme!
Meet Julian & Jacob
 Puberty & Physical Changes

Puberty refers to biological, cognitive and psychosocial changes at adolescence that lead to an
adult-sized body and sexual maturity
Primary sexual characteristics Physical features of the reproductive organs—ovaries, uterus, and vagina in females; penis,
scrotum, and testes in males
Secondary sexual characteristics Features visible on the outside of the body that do not involve the reproductive organs
but serve as signs of sexual maturity, including breast development in females and the appearance of underarm and pubic
hair in both sexes.
 Puberty & Physical Changes

Spermarche: First discharge of seminal

fluid

Menarche: First menstruation

 Puberty & Physical Changes
- Physical development during puberty is significantly rapid. it depends on both hereditary factors which influence the
endocrine glands and environmental factors chiefly nutrition. Pubertal changes can be observed in girls between the
ages of 9-15 while in boys, such changes are seen between the ages of 11-15 years. After reaching its peak, the rate of
growth slows down. The following changes are observed during puberty:
- Biological changes: Development of primary and secondary sexual characteristics. Example: breast development in
girls, the development of the Adam’s apple in boys, pubic and armpit hair in all adolescents.
- Glandular changes: During this period, secretion from different glands leads to a growth spurt and a shaping up of
bones and muscles and the development of secondary sexual characteristics.
- Changes in body size: Puberty leads to rapid changes in body weight and height for males and females. girls gain
approximately 3 inches per year while boys experience a sudden growth spurt between the ages of 13-14. On an
average, boys are usually taller than girls.
- Body proportions: The bodies of girls becomes curvier, while the shoulders broaden for boys.
Moral Development
About Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

Berk
The Moral Judgement interview

Berk
 The Heinz Dilemma

In Europe, a woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There
was one drug that the doctors thought might save her. It was a form of
radium that a druggist in the same town had recently discovered. the drug
was expensive to make, but the druggist was charging ten times what the
drug cost him to make. He paid $400 for the radium and charged $4,000
for a small dose of the drug. The sick woman's husband, Heinz, went to
everyone he knew to borrow the money and tried every legal means, but
he could only get together about $2,000, which is half of what it cost. He
told the druggist that his wife was dying, and asked him to sell it cheaper or
let him pay later. But the druggist said, "No, I discovered the drug and I'm
going to make money from if." So, having tried every legal means, Heinz
gets desperate and considers breaking into the man's store to steal the
drug for his wife. Source: Haverford.edu
The Preconventional Level

Berk
Pre conventional Moral Reasoning

Berk
The Conventional Level

Berk
Conventional Moral Reasoning

Berk
The Postconventional Level

Berk
Post conventional Moral Reasoning

Berk
Moral Reasoning: Video Resources
 Research on Moral Reasoning

Reasoning at Stages 1 and 2 decreases from late childhood to early adolescence, while Stage
3 reasoning increases through mid‐adolescence and then declines. Stage 4 reasoning rises
over the teenage years until, among college‐educated young adults, it is the typical
response. Few people move beyond Stage 4.
postconventional morality is so rare that no clear evidence exists that Kohlberg’s Stage 6
actually follows Stage 5.

Berk
Moral Reasoning Exercise

Manisha is 18 years old and has grown up in a conservative household. Ever since shifting to a new city for college,
Manisha has been contemplating making changes to her lifestyle which includes colouring her hair, staying out late
and getting a tattoo.She is scared that considering her parent’s orthodox views, her parents may not agree to this
lifestyle choice.
 Answer

Preconventional Level Punishment vs Obedience Orientation: I’d rather not Instrumental Purpose Orientation: It’s too much of
colour my hair/get tattoo because my parents will scold/hit a risk to engage in these lifestyle changes/ I will have to
me if they see me like this hide my tattoo/dye my hair back to its original shade in
front of my parents.
Conventional Level Good boy/Good girl orientation: Am I not a good person The social order maintaining orientation:
for my parents if I make changes to my lifestyle? Can I How would society view me with these lifestyle
engage in practices that keep both my parents and I happy? changes? What social norms have I broken?
Can I do these things later in life if my parents disagree now?
Post conventional The social contract orientation Universal Ethical Principle: My parents getting hurt
level I have the right to life and freedom of expression and by because of my lifestyle choices is due to their own
colouring my hair and getting a tattoo I haven’t done conditioning of what girls are supposed to be like. It is
anything wrong. important to me to be true to myself. We may not see
eye to eye on this and that is okay. I wish they’ll grow
and learn too…
As long as we can strive to maintain a mutual sense of
respect for each other, it should be fine.
 Concerns of adolescence:
Identity Formation
Delinquency
Feeding & Eating Disorders
 Adolescence (13-19 years)

d. Adolescence
Adolescence is commonly defined as
is commonly the stageas
defined of life
thethat begins
stage ofatlife
the that
onset of puberty,
begins atwhen
the onset of pubert
whensexual maturity,
sexual or the ability
maturity, or theto reproduce is attained.
ability to reproduce It has been regarded asIta has
is attained. periodbeen
of rapid
regarded as a per
change, both biologically and psychologically. Though the physical changes that take place during
of rapid change, both biologically and psychologically. Though the physical changes that ta
this stage are universal, the social and psychological dimensions of the adolescent’s experiences
placeonduring
depend thiscontext.
the cultural stage For areexample,
universal, the social
in cultures and
where the psychological
adolescent dimensions
years are viewed as of the
adolescent’s
problematic or experiences depend
confusing, “a period on the
of storm andcultural
stress” the context. Forhave
adolescent will example, in cultures where t
very different
experiences from someone who is in a culture, adolescent yearsyears
where adolescent areare viewed as beginning of
adult behaviour and, therefore, undertaking responsible tasks.
Text taken from NCERT
 Understanding Identity (Adapted from Passer & Smith)

Identity as understood by Erikson involves finding answers to the questions of “Who am I?” and “What are my beliefs and values”?
Our sense of identity has multiple components (Camilleri & Malewska-Peyre, 1997). These include
(1) our gender, ethnicity, and other attributes by which we define ourselves as members of social groups (“daughter,” “student,”
“athlete”);
(2) how we view our personal characteristics (“shy,” “friendly”); and
(3) our goals and values. Typically, we achieve a stable identity regarding some components before others, and changing situations may
trigger new crises and cause us to reevaluate prior goals and values.
Role of culture in Identity
Our cultural upbringing influences the way we view concepts such as “self” and “identity.” Individualistic cultures (such as in Europe
and USA) have clear concepts on privacy, autonomy and boundaries thus the emergent self focuses on the personal self. But in
collectivistic cultures (such as Asian countries) , the concept of “self” is traditionally based more strongly on the connectedness between
people (Kagitçibasi, 1997). Thus, the question “Who am I?” is more likely to be answered in ways that reflect a person’s relationships
with family members, friends, and others and reflects a “relational self”.
 The Development of Adolescent Identity: Erikson & Marcia (Berk/Passer & Smith)

Erikson believed that an adolescent’s “identity crisis” (a term he coined) can be resolved
positively, leading to a stable sense of identity, or it can end negatively, leading to confusion
about one’s identity and values. Building on Erikson’s work, James Marcia (1966, 2002)
studied adolescents’ and young adults’ search for identity. Marcia classified the “identity
status” of each person as follows:
• Identity diffusion: These teens and adults had not yet gone through an identity crisis.
They seemed unconcerned or even cynical about identity issues and were not committed to
a coherent set of values.
• Foreclosure: These individuals had not yet gone through an identity crisis either, but for
a different reason: They committed to an identity and set of values before experiencing a
crisis. For example, some automatically adopted peer-group or parental values without
giving these values much thought.
• Moratorium: These people wanted to establish a clear identity, were currently
experiencing a crisis, but had not yet resolved it.
• Identity achievement: These individuals had gone through an identity crisis,
successfully resolved it, and emerged with a coherent set of values. Marcia found that most
young adolescents are in identity diffusion or foreclosure; they have not experienced an
identity crisis. But during the teen years, people typically begin to think more deeply about
who they are, or they reconsider values they had adopted previously. This often leads to an
identity crisis, and more than half successfully resolve it by early adulthood.
 Common concerns in adolescence: Delinquency (Adapted from Berk)
Delinquency refers to socially disapproved behaviours carried out in the period of late adolescence (16+) . These behaviours violate the rules and regulations of society and
require punishment or corrective actions. These behaviours can range from socially unacceptable behaviour to a legal offence to criminal acts or juvenile crimes. Theft,
violence and assault, intoxication and murder, destruction of property, sexual offences are all considered a juvenile crimes. Girls and boys are both susceptible to act in
delinquent behaviours. However serious violent crimes are mostly reported to have been conducted by boys.
Two routes to adolescent delinquency: Persistent adolescent delinquency follows two paths of development, one involving a small number of youths with an onset of
conduct problems in childhood, the second a larger number with an onset in adolescence. The early‐onset type is far more likely to lead to a life‐course pattern of aggression
and criminality (Moffitt, 2006b). The late‐onset type usually does not persist beyond the transition to early adulthood. Both childhood‐onset and adolescent‐onset youths
engage in serious offenses; associate with deviant peers; participate in substance abuse, unsafe sex, and dangerous driving; and spend time in correctional facilities.
Factors for delinquent behaviour:
- Inheritance of traits and temperament: violence‐prone boys are emotionally negative, restless, willful, and physically aggressive as early as age 2. Preschoolers high in
relational aggression also tend to be hyperactive and frequently in conflict with peers and adult
- Socio-cognitive deficits: Subtle deficits in cognitive functioning that seem to contribute to disruptions in the development of language, memory, and cognitive and
emotional self‐regulation (Moffitt, 2006a; Shaw et al., 2003). Some have attention‐deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), which compounds their learning and
self‐control problems. cognitive and social skills result in high rates of school dropout and unemployment, contributing further to antisocial involvements.
- Inept parenting styles: Neglectful or indulgent parenting over life course can increase the likelihood of delinquent behaviours.
- Peer rejection due to socio cognitive deficits and academic failure puts delinquent youth at risk to befriend other deviant youths, who facilitate one another’s violent
behavior while relieving loneliness.
- Pubertal Changes can lead to typical adolescent novelty seeking urges and receptiveness to peer influence.
- Poverty and Life Stressors: Unemployment, personal stress and lack of financial resources and lack of financial resources might cause delinquent behaviours.
- Both police arrests and self‐reports show that delinquency rises over early and middle adolescence and then declines (Farrington, 2009; U.S. Department of Justice,
2010). changes in the brain’s emotional/social network at puberty contribute to an increase in antisocial behavior among teenagers. ). Over time, decision making,
emotional self‐regulation, and moral reasoning improve; peers become less influential; and young people enter social contexts (such as higher education, work, career,
and marriage) that are less conducive to lawbreaking.. Being employed or in school and forming positive, close relationships predict an end to criminal offending by age
20 to 25 (Farrington, Ttofi, & Coid, 2009; Stouthamer‐Loeber et al., 2004) .
Common concerns in adolescence: Delinquency (Adapted from Berk)
 Common concerns in adolescence: Substance Abuse
Disorders relating to maladaptive
behaviours resulting from regular
and consistent use of the substance
involved are called substance abuse
disorders. NCERT
Substances are psychoactive i.e.
they affect the functioning of the
brain and bring changes in mood,
awareness, thoughts, feelings or
behaviours.

Two types of substance disorders:

Substance dependence: There is intense craving for the addictive substance; body develops tolerance, withdrawal symptoms when trying to stop
and compulsive consumption of the substance.
Substance abuse: In substance abuse, there are recurrent and significant adverse consequences related to the use of substances. People who
regularly ingest drugs damage their family and social relationships, perform poorly at work, and create physical hazards. NCERT
 Common concerns in adolescence: Substance Abuse
Causes of substance abuse: The reasons for smoking and drug use could be peer pressure and the adolescents’ need to be accepted by the group, or
desire to act more like adults, or feel a need to escape the pressure of school work or social activities. The addictive powers of nicotine make it difficult to
stop smoking.
Psychological Characteristics of people with substance abuse: It has been found that adolescents who are more vulnerable to drugs, alcohol, and
nicotine use, are impulsive, aggressive, anxious, depressive, and unpredictable, have low self-esteem, and low expectation for achievement. Drug use if
continued long enough can lead to physiological dependency, i.e. addiction to drugs, alcohol or nicotine may seriously jeopardise the rest of the
adolescents’ lives.
Effects of substance abuse:
- PHYSICAL DEPENDENCE: After using the drug for some period of time, the body becomes unable to function normally without the drug and
the person is said to be dependent or addicted, a condition commonly called physical dependence. One sign of physical dependence is the
development of a drug tolerance (Pratt, 1991). As the person continues to use the drug, larger and larger doses of the drug are needed to achieve the
same initial effects of the drug. Another sign of a physical dependence is that the user experiences symptoms of withdrawal when deprived of the
drug. Depending on the drug, these symptoms can range from headaches, nausea, and irritability to severe pain, cramping, shaking, and dangerously
elevated blood pressure.
- PSYCHOLOGICAL DEPENDENCE: It is the belief that the drug is needed to continue a feeling of emotional or psychological well-being, which
is a very powerful factor in continued drug use. The body may not need or crave the drug, and people may not experience the symptoms of physical
withdrawal or tolerance, but they will continue to use the drug because they think they need it. In this case, it is the rewarding properties of using the
drug that cause a dependency to develop. Although not all drugs produce physical dependence, any drug can become a focus of psychological
dependence. Indeed, because there is no withdrawal to go through or to recover from, psychological dependencies can last forever
 Interventions for substance abuse
Positive relationships with parents, peers, siblings, and adults play an important role in preventing drug abuse. In India, a successful anti-drug programme is the Society
for Theatre in Education Programme in New Delhi. It uses street performances to entertain people between 13 to 25 years of age while teaching them how to say no to
drugs. The United Nations International Drug Control Programme (UNDCP) has chosen the programme as an example to be adopted by other non governmental
organisations in the region.
Text taken from NCERT

Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) is a widely used approach that helps individuals identify and change negative thought patterns and behaviors that contribute to
substance abuse. Through CBT, individuals learn coping skills to manage cravings, avoid triggers, and deal with stress in healthier ways. CBT also helps individuals
develop strategies to prevent relapse and maintain long-term sobriety. Contingency management is a behavioral therapy approach that uses positive reinforcement to
encourage abstinence from substances. In this approach, individuals receive rewards or incentives for meeting sobriety goals, such as passing drug tests or attending
therapy sessions. Contingency management helps reinforce positive behaviors and motivate individuals to stay committed to their recovery.
In addition to psychotherapeutic interventions, support groups and psychosocial rehabilitation programs like Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) play a significant role in
helping individuals maintain sobriety and find a sense of community. AA is a fellowship of individuals who share their experiences, strengths, and hopes with each
other to solve their common problem and help others recover from alcoholism.

One of the core components of AA is the 12-Step Program, which provides a structured approach to recovery based on spiritual principles. The 12 steps outline a series
of actions that individuals can take to address their addiction, make amends for past wrongs, and improve their overall well-being. Through regular meetings,
sponsorship, and working the steps, individuals in AA find support, accountability, and guidance on their journey to sobriety.

ANSWER WRITING TIP: Design intervention plans kind of questions may come in the boards. Points can be taken from here to write
answers for psychotherapeutic interventions for substance abuse .
 Common concerns in adolescence: Substance Abuse

Stimulants spike
energy while
tranquilizers calm
the nervous
system. Nicotine
found in cigarettes
have both
stimulant and
tranquilizing
properties.
 TRIGGER WARNING

The following section contains real life case studies which are intended
to help you understand the concept. However they can be extremely
uncomfortable to read/hear. You are requested to self soothe by
drinking water/keeping your head down/engage in slight
rocking/feeling your feet on the ground/excusing yourself from the
classroom in case of extreme discomfort
 Common concerns in adolescence: Eating Disorders
Bulimia nervosa An eating disorder that involves a repeated
cycle of binge eating followed by purging of the food. (Passer
& Smith) For bulimia nervosa, the age group at highest
risk is young women in the age range of 21 to 24
(Zerwas et al., 2014).

Anorexia nervosa An eating disorder involving a severe

and sometimes fatal restriction of food intake (Passer & Smith)
Children as young as age 7 have been
known to develop eating disorders, especially anorexia
nervosa.
Anorexia nervosa is most likely to develop in
16- to 20-year-olds.

As per findings from DSM 5

 Bulimia nervosa (Adapted from Berk/ Carson)
In bulimia nervosa, young people (again, mainly girls but boys are also vulnerable) engage
in strict dieting and excessive exercise accompanied by binge eating, often followed by
deliberate vomiting and purging with laxatives (Herzog, Eddy, & Beresin, 2006;
Wichstrøm, 2006). Bulimia typically appears in late adolescence and is more common
than anorexia nervosa, affecting about 2 to 4 percent of teenage girls, only 5 percent of
whom previously suffered from anorexia.
Common factors seen in people with bulimia:
Biological factors: Twin studies show that bulimia, like anorexia, is influenced by heredity
(Klump, Kaye, & Strober, 2001). Overweight and early menarche increase the risk.
Psychological factors: Some adolescents with bulimia, like those with anorexia, are
perfectionists. But most are impulsive, sensation-seeking young people who lack self-control
in many areas, engaging in petty shoplifting, alcohol abuse, and other risky behaviors. They
may also show persistent anxiety about gaining weight.
Parent-Child Interactions: Experience of their parents as disengaged and emotionally For understanding purposes only

unavailable rather than over controlling (Fairburn & Harrison, 2003).

Treatment: People with bulimia usually feel depressed and guilty about their abnormal
eating habits and desperately want help. As a result, bulimia is usually easier to treat than
anorexia, through support groups, nutrition education, training in changing eating habits,
and anti-anxiety, antidepressant, and appetite-control medication (Hay & Bacaltchuk, Case Study Ahead

2004).
Bulimia Case Study (Butcher)

Contains Potentially
triggering content
 Anorexia Nervosa (Adapted from Berk/Carson-Butcher)
Anorexia nervosa: Individuals with anorexia have an extremely distorted body image. Even after
they have become severely underweight, they see themselves as too heavy. Most go on self-imposed
diets so strict that they struggle to avoid eating in response to hunger. To enhance weight loss, they
exercise strenuously. In their attempt to reach “perfect” slimness, individuals with anorexia lose
between 25 and 50 percent of their body weight. Because a normal menstrual cycle requires
about 15 percent body fat, either menarche does not occur or menstrual periods stop
(known as amenorrhea). Malnutrition causes pale skin, brittle discolored nails, fine dark hairs all
over the body, and extreme sensitivity to cold. If it continues, the heart muscle can shrink, the
kidneys can fail, and irreversible brain damage and loss of bone mass can occur. About 6 percent of
individuals with anorexia die of the disorder, as a result of either physical complications or suicide For understanding purposes only

(Katzman, 2005).
Common factors seen in people with anorexia: Forces within the person, the family, and the larger
culture give rise to anorexia nervosa.
Biological factors: Identical twins share the disorder more often than fraternal twins, indicating a genetic
influence. Abnormalities in neurotransmitters in the brain, linked to anxiety and impulse control, may
make some individuals more susceptible (Kaye, 2008; Lock & Kirz, 2008).
Controlled eating in early childhood: Problem eating behavior in early childhood—persistently refusing
to eat or eating very little—is linked to anorexia in adolescence (Nicholls & Viner, 2009).
Gull’s patient with anorexia nervosa. (A)
Before treatment. (B) After treatment.
Source: Gull, W. (1888). Anorexia
nervosa. Lancet, pp. i, 516–17
 Anorexia Nervosa (Adapted from Berk)
Psychological factors: Many young people with anorexia have unrealistically high standards for their
own behavior and performance, are emotionally inhibited, and avoid intimate ties outside the family.
Consequently, they are often excellent students who are responsible and well-behaved.

Societal factors: The societal image of “thin is beautiful” contributes to the poor body image of many
girls— especially early-maturing girls, who are at greatest risk for anorexia nervosa (Hogan & Strasburger,
2008).

Parent–adolescent interactions: Often the mothers of these girls have high expectations for physical
appearance, achievement, and social acceptance and are overprotective and controlling. Fathers tend to
be emotionally distant. These parental attitudes and behavior may contribute to affected girls’ persistent
anxiety and fierce pursuit of perfection in achievement, respectable behavior, and thinness (Kaye, 2008).
Treatment: Individuals with anorexia typically deny or minimize the seriousness of their disorder,
treating it is difficult (Couturier & Lock, 2006). Hospitalization is often necessary to prevent
life-threatening malnutrition. The most successful treatment is family therapy plus medication to reduce
anxiety and neurotransmitter imbalances (Robin & Le Grange, 2010; Treasure & Schmidt, 2005). As a
supplementary approach, behavior modification—in which individuals hospitalized with anorexia are
rewarded with praise, social contact, and opportunities for exercise when they eat and gain weight—is
helpful. Still, less than 50 percent of young people with anorexia recover fully. For many, eating problems
continue in less extreme form Case Study Ahead
Anorexia Nervosa Case Study (Butcher)

Contains Potentially
triggering content
Eating Disorders in Men

Eating disorders have long been regarded as occurring primarily in women. Although
in the past it was thought that the gender ratio was as high as 10:1, more recent
estimates suggest that there are three females for every male with an eating disorder
(Jones & Morgan, 2010). This downward revision of the gender ratio reflects the fact
that eating disorders in men may have been underdiagnosed in the past because of the
stereotype that they are female disorders. Another reason for the underdiagnosis of
eating disorders in men is the gender bias in the DSM criteria. These emphasize the
type of weight and shape concerns (e.g., desire to be thin) and methods of weight
control (dieting) that are more typical of women. For men, body dissatisfaction often
involves a wish to be more muscular. Over Exercising as a means of weight control is
also more common in men. As a result, men are less likely to recognize that they have
an eating disorder, are more likely to be misdiagnosed when they do, and are less likely
to receive specialist treatment (Jones & Morgan, 2010)
One established risk factor for eating disorders in men is homosexuality. Gay and
bisexual men have higher rates of eating disorders than heterosexual men do (Feldman
& Meyer, 2007). Gay men (like heterosexual men) value attractiveness and youth in
their romantic partners. Because gay men (like women) are seeking to be sexually
attractive to men, body dissatisfaction may therefore be more of an issue for gay men
than it is for heterosexual men.
TEXTBOOK REFERENCES:
Bhatnagar AK (n.d.). Psychology Class 12. CBSE Full Marks Private
Limited
Berk, L E (2013) Child Edition (9th ed.). Pearson.
Benson, N C & Van Loon, B (2012): Introducing Psychology A graphic
guide. Clays Ltd.
Butcher JN, Hooley, J & Mineka, S. (2015) Abnormal Psychology, 16th
Edition. Pearson.
Chattopadhyay, P. (2021). ISC Psychology Class XII. Chhaya Prakashani.
Thank you
Ciccarelli, S. K., & White, J. N. (2018). Psychology Global Edition (5th
ed.). Pearson.
Corey G (2017): Theory & Practice of Counselling & Psychotherapy (10th
Edition), Cengage Learning
Passer, M. W., & Smith, R. E. (2009). Psychology: The Science of Mind &
Behaviour (4th ed.). McGraw-Hill
Higher Education.
Pupil Analysis Report 2019 (Psychology) ISC
Santrock J.W. (n.d.). Lifespan Development (13th ed.). McGraw-Hill
Higher Education.
Tripathi RC (2023): Psychology for Class 12. NCERT
Whitbourne S.K. (2012): APA TOPPS. American Psychological
Association.