GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE

Global Environmental Change addresses large-scale chemical, biological, geological, and

physical perturbations of the Earth’s surface, ocean, land surface, and hydrologic cycle with
special attention to time scales of decades to centuries, to human-caused perturbations, and
their impacts on society.

Large-scale and global environmental hazards to human health include climate change,
stratospheric ozone depletion, changes in ecosystems due to loss of biodiversity, changes in
hydrological systems and the supplies of freshwater, land degradation, urbanization, and
stresses on food-producing systems.

CLIMATE CHANGE
Climate
the usual condition of the temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, rainfall, and
other meteorological elements in an area of the Earth's surface for a long time.
Climate is the average condition for about thirty years.
Weather is the day to day conditions in the atmosphere.

Types of climates include;

1.) Tropical climates have warm temperature and only two seasons; wet and dry. An
example of a place with a tropical climate is the Amazon Rainforest in Brazil

Wet (rain forest)

 Places with a tropical wet climate are also known as rain forests. These equatorial regions
have the most predictable weather on Earth, with warm temperatures and regular rainfall.
Annual rainfall exceeds 150 centimeters (59 inches), and the temperature varies from 20°
to 23° Celsius (68°-73° Fahrenheit), at dawn to reach 30° to 33° Celsius (86°-91°
Fahrenheit in the afternoon. Rain forests experience very little seasonal change and
average monthly temperatures remain fairly constant throughout the year

Monsoon

 Tropical monsoon climates are mostly found in southern Asia and West Africa.
A monsoon is a wind system that reverses its direction every six months. Monsoons
usually flow from sea to land in the summer, and from land to sea in the winter. Summer
monsoons bring large amounts of rainfall to tropical monsoon regions. People living in
these regions depend on the seasonal rains to bring water to their crops. India and
Bangladesh are famous for their monsoon climate patterns

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Wet and dry (savanna)
 are sometimes called “savanna” climates after the grassland ecosystem defined by wet
and dry periods.Tropical wet and dry climates sit just outside near the Equator. They have
three seasons. One season is cool and dry— Another season is hot and dry -The last
season is hot and wet. Life in these tropical wet and dry regions depends on the wet
season’s rains. During years when rains are light, people and animals suffer
through drought. During especially rainy years, regions may experience flooding.
Havana, Cuba; Kolkata, India; and Africa’s vast Serengeti Plain are in the wet and dry
tropics.

2.) Deserts. They just have one or two seasons such as: Saudi Arabia and most of the African
countries

Regions lying within the dry climate group occur where precipitation is low. There are two dry
climate types: arid and semiarid. Most arid climates receive 10 to 30 centimeters (4 to 12
inches) of rain each year, and semiarid climates receive enough to support extensive grasslands.

Temperatures in both arid and semiarid climates show large daily and seasonal variations. The
hottest spots in the world are in arid climates. The temperature in the arid North African town of
El Aziza, Libya, reached 58° Celsius (136° Fahrenheit) on September 13, 1922—the highest
weather temperature ever recorded.

Although rainfall is limited in all dry climates, there are a few parts of the world where it never
rains. One of the driest places on Earth is the Atacama Desert of Chile, on the west coast of
South America. Stretches of the Atacama have never received rain in recorded history.

3.) Temperate climates – also known as mild and continental climates. Both climate types
have distinct cold seasons. Some of the countries which have a temperate climate are:
Turkey, and most of the European countries.

Mediterranean
 Mediterranean climates have warm summers and short, mild, rainy winters.
Mediterranean climates are found on the west coasts of continents between 30° and 40°
latitude, and along the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. E.g Israel

Humid subtropical
 Humid subtropical climates are usually found on the eastern sides of continents. In cities
such as Savannah, Georgia, in the U.S.; Shanghai, China; and Sydney, Australia,
summers are hot and humid. Winter can be severely cold. Precipitation is spread evenly
through the year. Hurricanes and other violent storms are common in these regions.

Marine
 The marine west coast climate, a type of mild climate typical of cities such as Seattle,
Washington, in the U.S. and Wellington, New Zealand, has a longer, cooler winter than

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 the Mediterranean climate. Drizzle falls about two-thirds of winter days, and
temperatures average about 5° Celsius (41° Fahrenheit).

4.) Continental climates have colder winters, longer-lasting snow, and shorter growing
seasons. They are the transition zones between mild and polar climates. Continental
climates experience extreme seasonal changes. Thunderstorms and tornadoes, among the
most powerful forces in nature, form mostly in continental climates

Warm summer
 often have wet summer seasons, similar to monsoon climates. For this reason, this
climate type is also called humid continental. Most of Eastern Europe, including Romania
and Georgia, has warm summer climates

Cool summer
 have winters with low temperatures and snow. Cold winds, sweeping in from the Arctic,
dominate winter weather. People living in these climates have grown accustomed to the
harsh weather, but those unprepared for such cold may suffer.

Subarctic (boreal)
 These regions, including northern Scandinavia and Siberia, experience very long, cold
winters with little precipitation. Subarctic climates are also called boreal climates
or taiga.

5.) Polar climate characterized by long, usually very cold winters, and short summers. The
two polar climate types, tundra and ice cap, lie within the Arctic and Antarctic Circles
near the North and South Poles.

Tundra
 summers are short, but plants and animals are plentiful. Temperatures can average as
high as 10° Celsius (50° Fahrenheit) in July.

Ice cap
 Few organisms survive in the ice cap climates of the Arctic and Antarctic. Temperatures
rarely rise above freezing, even in summer. The ever-present ice helps keep the weather
cold by reflecting most of the Sun’s energy back into the atmosphere. Skies are mostly
clear and precipitation is low. In fact, Antarctica, covered by an ice cap a mile thick, is
one of the largest, driest deserts on Earth.

The latitude, ground, height and nearby large water bodies can change the climate of a location
Climates are most commonly classified by temperature and precipitation

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CLIMATE OF KENYA

The climate of Kenya essentially depends on three major factors: temperature, rainfall and
humidity. These three factors are controlled by altitude and generally the higher you go the
cooler it becomes.
The main exceptions are the coastal strip and the area along the shores of Lake Victoria. Both are
hot with high rainfall and humidity.

The climate of Kenya can be categorized into seven different zones:

Hot and wet.

This describes the coastal strip and the region around Lake Victoria. The coastal towns
of Mombasa, Malindi and Lamu are in this zone. Temperatures remain steadily hot for most of
the year, but on the beach the humidity is kept at bay by the ocean breeze. Average temperatures
vary little during the year, ranging from 22°C to 31°C.

Very hot and very dry.

This describes the semiarid bushlands of northern and eastern Kenya. The average rainfall is
very low and irregular with temperatures ranging from 20°C to 40°C year-round. These regions
are sparsely populate by pastoral people who keep camels, cattle and goats. Samburu National
Reserve is in northern Kenya and has a pleasant aura of vastness and seclusion.

Hot and dry.

Rain in these regions falls fairly regularly every year, but in very small quantities. Vegetation is
small thorn bushes and scattered huge baobab trees. Examples of these regions are Amboseli
National Parks, Meru National Parks and Tsavo National Parks.
Hot and dry for most of the year, but with a reliable and fairly abundant seasonal rainfall.
This climate typically produces the open grassland known as savannah with small acacia and
evergreen trees. Cattle-ranching pastoralists inhabit these areas, which support large herds of
gazelles, wildebeests and zebras. Examples of these regions are the Maasai Mara, Kedong and
Loita plains.

Warm with moderate and reliable rainfall.

This describes the climate found over much of the higher areas of the country such as Nairobi.
When not cultivated it produces open woodland, but most of these areas are today intensely
cultivated with tea, pyrethrum, horticulture, maize, wheat, barley and dairy cattle.

Cool and wet.

This describes the upper slopes of the Aberdares, Mount Kenya and Mount Elgon. There is dense
forest with bamboo the dominant plant in many regions. Wildlife found in these areas includes
buffalos, elephants, rhino, leopards monkeys and numerous species of birds. Treetops and The
Ark are in this zone.
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Cold and wet.
This describes the climate found high above the forest zone on all mountain ranges. It is
characterized by moorland with crystal clear streams often stocked with trout. The vegetation is
Alpine heather, groundsel and lobelia that grow higher than a man

CLIMATE CHANGE
Climate change, also called global warming, refers to the rise in average surface temperatures on
Earth. An overwhelming scientific consensus maintains that climate change is due primarily to
the human use of fossil fuels, which releases carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases into the
air. The gases trap heat within the atmosphere, which can have a range of effects on ecosystems,
including rising sea levels, severe weather events, and droughts that render landscapes more
susceptible to wildfires

CAUSES OF CLIMATE CHANGE

The primary cause of climate change is the burning of fossil fuels, such as oil and coal, which
emits greenhouse gases into the atmosphere—primarily carbon dioxide.

Other human activities, such as agriculture and deforestation, also contribute to the proliferation
of greenhouse gases that cause climate change.

While some quantities of these gases are a naturally occurring and critical part of Earth’s
temperature control system, the atmospheric concentration of CO 2 did not rise above 300 parts
per million between the advent of human civilization roughly 10,000 years ago and 1900. Today
it is at about 400 ppm, a level not reached in more than 400,000 years.

How Do Human Activities Contribute To Climate Change?

Human activities contribute to climate change by causing changes in Earth’s atmosphere in the
amounts of greenhouse gases, aerosols (small particles), and cloudiness. The largest known
contribution comes from the burning of fossil fuels, which releases carbon dioxide gas to the
atmosphere.

Greenhouse gases and aerosols affect climate by altering incoming solar radiation and out-going
infrared (thermal) radiation that are part of Earth’s energy balance. Changing the atmospheric

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abundance or properties of these gases and particles can lead to a warming or cooling of the
climate system.

Since the start of the industrial era (about 1750), the overall effect of human activities on climate
has been a warming influence. The human impact on climate during this era greatly exceeds that
due to known changes in natural processes, such as solar changes and volcanic eruptions.

Gases that contribute to the greenhouse effect include:

 Water vapor. The most abundant greenhouse gas, but importantly, it acts as a feedback
to the climate. Water vapor increases as the Earth's atmosphere warms, but so does the
possibility of clouds and precipitation, making these some of the most important
feedback mechanisms to the greenhouse effect.
 Carbon dioxide (CO2). A minor but very important component of the atmosphere,
carbon dioxide is released through natural processes such as respiration and volcano
eruptions and through human activities such as deforestation, land use changes, and
burning fossil fuels. Humans have increased atmospheric CO 2 concentration by more
than a third since the Industrial Revolution began. This is the most important long-lived
"forcing" of climate change.
 Methane. A hydrocarbon gas produced both through natural sources and human
activities, including the decomposition of wastes in landfills, agriculture, and especially
rice cultivation, as well as ruminant digestion and manure management associated with
domestic livestock. On a molecule-for-molecule basis, methane is a far more active
greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide, but also one which is much less abundant in the
atmosphere.
 Nitrous oxide. A powerful greenhouse gas produced by soil cultivation practices,
especially the use of commercial and organic fertilizers, fossil fuel combustion, nitric
acid production, and biomass burning.
 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). Synthetic compounds entirely of industrial origin used in
a number of applications, but now largely regulated in production and release to the
atmosphere by international agreement for their ability to contribute to destruction of the
ozone layer. They are also greenhouse gases.

On Earth, human activities are changing the natural greenhouse. Over the last century the
burning of fossil fuels like coal and oil has increased the concentration of atmospheric carbon
dioxide (CO2). This happens because the coal or oil burning process combines carbon with
oxygen in the air to make CO2. To a lesser extent, the clearing of land for agriculture, industry,
and other human activities has increased concentrations of greenhouse gases.

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CLIMATE CHANGES THAT HAVE OCCURRED UPTO DATE

The Earth's climate has changed throughout history. Just in the last 650,000 years there have
been seven cycles of glacial advance and retreat, with the abrupt end of the last ice age about
7,000 years ago marking the beginning of the modern climate era — and of human civilization.
Most of these climate changes are attributed to very small variations in Earth’s orbit that change
the amount of solar energy our planet receives

The current warming trend is of particular significance because most of it is extremely likely
(greater than 95 percent probability) to be the result of human activity since the mid-20 th century
and proceeding at a rate that is unprecedented over decades to millennia.1

The heat-trapping nature of carbon dioxide and other gases was demonstrated in the mid-19th
century.2 Their ability to affect the transfer of infrared energy through the atmosphere is the
scientific basis of many instruments flown by NASA. There is no question that increased levels
of greenhouse gases must cause the Earth to warm in response.

Ice cores drawn from Greenland, Antarctica, and tropical mountain glaciers show that the Earth’s
climate responds to changes in greenhouse gas levels. Ancient evidence can also be found in tree
rings, ocean sediments, coral reefs, and layers of sedimentary rocks. This ancient, or
paleoclimate, evidence reveals that current warming is occurring roughly ten times faster than
the average rate of ice-age-recovery warming.3

The evidence for rapid climate change

Global temperature rise

The planet's average surface temperature has risen about 1.62 degrees Fahrenheit (0.9 degrees
Celsius) since the late 19th century, a change driven largely by increased carbon dioxide and
other human-made emissions into the atmosphere. 4 Most of the warming occurred in the past 35
years, with the five warmest years on record taking place since 2010. 2016 was the warmest
year on record.

Warming Oceans

The oceans have absorbed much of this increased heat, with the top 700 meters (about 2,300
feet) of ocean showing warming of more than 0.4 degrees Fahrenheit since 1969

Shrinking ice sheets

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The Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets have decreased in mass. Greenland has lost an average of
281 billion tons of ice per year between 1993 and 2016, while Antarctica lost about 119 billion
tons during the same time period. The rate of Antarctica ice mass loss has tripled in the last
decade

The Antarctic ice sheet is the largest single mass of ice on earth, accounting for around 90% of
all fresh water on the earth's surface and spanning almost 14 million sq km. This ice plays a
vitally important role in influencing the world’s climate, reflecting back the sun’s energy and
helping to regulate global temperatures. Parts of the west Antarctic Peninsula are among the
fastest-warming places on earth. Even small-scale melting is likely to have significant effects on
global sea level rise.

Glacial retreat

Glaciers are retreating almost everywhere around the world — including in the Alps, Himalayas,
Andes, Rockies, Alaska and Africa

Decreased snow cover

Satellite observations reveal that the amount of spring snow cover in the Northern Hemisphere
has decreased over the past five decades and that the snow is melting earlier

Sea level rise

Global sea level rose about 8 inches in the last century. The rate in the last two decades,
however, is nearly double that of the last century and is accelerating slightly every year

Declining Arctic sea level

Both the extent and thickness of Arctic sea ice has declined rapidly over the last several decades

Extreme events

The number of record high temperature events has been increasing, while the number of record
low temperature events has been decreasing, since 1950. There is also increasing numbers of
intense rainfall events

Ocean acidification

Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, the acidity of surface ocean waters has
increased by about 30 percent. This increase is the result of humans emitting more carbon
dioxide into the atmosphere and hence more being absorbed into the oceans. The amount of
carbon dioxide absorbed by the upper layer of the oceans is increasing by about 2 billion tons per
year

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Oceans are vital ‘carbon sinks’, meaning that they absorb huge amounts of carbon dioxide,
preventing it from reaching the upper atmosphere. Increased water temperatures and higher
carbon dioxide concentrations than normal, which make oceans more acidic, are already having
an impact on oceans.

Oceans are already experiencing large-scale changes at a warming of 1°C, with critical
thresholds expected to be reached at 1.5°C and above.

Coral reefs are projected to decline by a further 70-90% at 1.5°C. At a warming of 2°C virtually
all coral reefs will be lost. It’s not only a tragedy for wildlife: around half a billion people rely on
fish from coral reefs as their main source of protein.

CLIMATE CHANGE AND FORESTS

Climate change and forests

Forests are vitally important as they soak up carbon dioxide, the main greenhouse gas
responsible for global warming, and help regulate the world’s climate. They’re also home to
countless plant and animal species. We’re working with communities, local governments and
businesses to ensure the world’s forests are protected.

Impacts vary in different kinds of forests. Sub-Arctic boreal forests are likely to be particularly
badly affected, with tree lines gradually retreating north as temperatures rise. In tropical forests
such as the Amazon, where there’s abundant biodiversity, even modest levels of climate change
can cause high levels of extinction.

When large areas of forest are destroyed it’s disastrous for the local species and communities
that rely on them. Dying trees emit their stores of carbon dioxide, adding to atmospheric
greenhouse gases and setting us on a course for runaway global warming.

Climate change and Freshwater

Climate change is having serious impacts on the world’s water systems through more flooding
and droughts. Warmer air can hold a higher water content, which makes rainfall patterns more
extreme.

Rivers and lakes supply drinking water for people and animals and are a vital resource for
farming and industry. Freshwater environments around the world are already under excessive
pressure from drainage, dredging, damming, pollution, extraction, silting and invasive species.
Climate change only exacerbates the problem and makes this worse. Extremes of drought and
flooding will become more common, causing displacement and conflict.

In mountainous regions, melting glaciers are impacting on freshwater ecosystems. Himalayan

glaciers feed great Asian rivers such as the Yangtze, Yellow, Ganges, Mekong and Indus. Over

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a billion people rely on these glaciers for drinking water, sanitation, agriculture and hydroelectric
power.

What are the effects of climate change?

Even small increases in Earth’s temperature caused by climate change can have severe effects.

 Record heat - The earth’s average temperature has gone up 1.4° F over the past century
and is expected to rise as much as 11.5° F over the next. That might not seem like a lot,
but the average temperature during the last Ice Age was about 4º F lower than it is today.

 Rising sea levels due to the melting of the polar ice caps (again, caused by climate
change) contribute to greater storm damage;

 Warming ocean temperatures are associated with stronger and more frequent storms; As
well as rising sea levels increasing coastal flood risk, climate change also increases the
risk of floods caused by heavy rainfall, and the probability of heavy storms.

The warming of the oceans means for every 1 degree of warming (we were set to pass 1
degrees by the end of 2015) the moisture in the atmosphere increases by around 6%. This
extra moisture provides additional energy to the developing weather system, enabling
even more moisture to be drawn in to the system

 Additional rainfall, particularly during severe weather events, leads to flooding and other
damage;

 An increase in the incidence and severity of wildfires threatens habitats, homes, and
lives; The number of extreme fire risk days has grown over the past four decades,
particularly in southeast Australia and away from the coast. Future hotter and drier
conditions, especially in southern Australia, are likely to cause further increases in the
number of high fire-risk days and in the length of the fire season. CO 2 fertilisation may
lead to increased foliage cover and hence increased fuel loads in warm arid environments
such as parts of southern Australia

 Heat waves contribute to human deaths and other consequences. The world has seen an
increase in both the frequency and the severity of heat-waves - even close to home: the
2003 heat-wave caused 55,000 to 70,000 deaths across Europe . In 2010, 55,000 people
were killed in Moscow, Russia, when a heatwave struck there, at an average of 700 a day.

India was hit with deadly heatwaves in both 2015, 2016, and this year. Temperatures in
Turbat reached 53.5°C in May 28, the hottest temperature recorded in Pakistan. The
combination of heat and drought killed over 2,500 people in the 2015 heat wave and over
1000 in 2016. While relief came to India eventually in the form of the monsoon rains,
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 later in summer 2016 countries such as Iraq, Iran and Kuwait still suffered in a Middle
East heatwave. For two months, Baghdad endured temperatures of 43°C and higher
nearly every day

 Droughts - Since the 1970s, droughts have become longer and more extreme worldwide,
particularly in the tropics and subtropics. Almost a third (30%) of the global land surface
was in drought conditions at the end of 2015. Half of this was in severe drought (14%). A
particularly severe El Nino contributed to the drought in many regions, but drought risk is
also increasing because of climate change. The United Nations estimated in May that
drought across 13 African countries had put 31 million in need of food aid, with 1.2
million children under the age of 5 suffering from acute malnutrition - and that this
would rise to almost 50 million people by the end of the year.

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