Human Psychology

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KHUMALO SIPHAMANDLA

HUMAN PSYCHOLOGY
BY ALISON
21 APRIL 2024
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Classical Conditioning

The device used by Pavlov to demonstrate the effect of conditioning on dog salivation
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov was a Russian scientist who investigated the digestive
system of dogs by presenting them with meat powder and measuring the
amount of saliva they produced.

Pavlov found that the dogs began to salivate even before the meat powder was
presented as they associated the feeder with the meat powder. This led Pavlov
to conclude that the dogs were conditioned to respond to the feeder through
the process of classical conditioning.

Ethical Conditions in Conditioning Human Behavior


Classical conditioning: This type of learning involves the repeated association
of a previously neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus, to elicit a
conditioned response
Researchers Watson and Raynor wanted to test the idea that fear could be
acquired through classical conditioning. Their subject was Little Albert, an
eleven-month-old son of a female employee at the clinic. The child's mother
knew nothing about the experiment.

Watson and Raynor presented Albert with a white laboratory rat while
sounding a loud noise. Little Albert soon associated the loud noise with the
white rat and was conditioned to fear the rat. This fear was then generalized to
other fluffy white objects such a Santa's beard and a sealskin coat.

It is not known whether this intense fear was reversed. There were many

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ethical issues in this experiment that were overlooked. Ethical guidelines for
psychological research have certainly improved and are much different today.
Key Terms in Classical Conditioning

Some key terms in classical conditioning include


Neutral stimulus (NS)
Neutral stimulus (NS) - a stimulus which, prior to conditioning, would evoke no response.
This always becomes the conditioned stimulus, e.g. the bell in Pavlov's experiments.
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) - a stimulus which innately produces a response
or reflex, such as the meat in Pavlov's experiments.
Unconditioned response (UCR)
Unconditioned response (UCR) - an unlearned response elicited by an
unconditioned stimulus, e.g. the dog involuntarily salivated at the meat (UCS).
Association
Association - a connection between two events which results in learning.
Pavlov's dogs learned to associate the ringing of the bell and the presentation
of the meat so that they eventually learned to salivate at the bell alone.
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
Conditioned stimulus (CS) - After the neutral stimulus has been paired with the
unconditioned stimulus many times, the neutral stimulus becomes the
conditioned stimulus. It now elicits a learned response such as the bell.
Conditioned response (CR)
Conditioned response (CR) - a learned response to a conditioned stimulus.
Pavlov's dogs learned to salivate at the bell.

Remember that conditioning is another term for learning. Any stimulus or


response that is unconditioned, simply means unlearned, or before learning
has taken place.

The Main Elements in Classical Conditioning

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The main elements involved in classical conditioning are:
Extinction - when a conditioned response is no longer reinforced by the
unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned response will cease to occur. For
example, if the bell (CS) is continually presented without the meat (UCS), the
dog will eventually stop salivating (CR) at the bell alone.
Stimulus generalization - when an organism has been conditioned to respond
to a stimulus, it will often respond to similar stimuli. For example, Pavlov's
dogs responded to bells of a similar pitch to the original bell.
Stimulus discrimination - when an organism responds to a conditioned
stimulus but detects a difference in other stimuli and therefore doesn't
respond to them. Pavlov's dogs did not respond to bell-like stimuli that were
quite different from the original bell.
Spontaneous recovery - the reappearance of a conditioned response after
extinction and a rest period.

Operant conditioning

Operant conditioning is learning where the consequence is dependent on the


organism's response. The consequence then influences the likelihood of the
behaviour occurring. Skinner studied hungry rats in specially designed 'skinner'
boxes. These boxes were equipped with a lever which, when pressed,
dispensed food or water.
Skinner would place a hungry rat in the box. Eventually, the rat would
accidentally press the lever and a food pellet would fall. Each time it
accidentally pressed the lever, food would be dispensed. The rat then learned
that each time it pressed the lever it would be rewarded with a food pellet;
thus; it would constantly press the lever. Other Skinner boxes were equipped
with electric shocks to punish the animal for certain responses.

In this way, Skinner developed his theory of operant conditioning where he


believed that our behaviour operates on the environment and that our
behaviour is instrumental in producing the consequences (rewards and
punishments).

An example of a skinner box

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Operant Conditioning Terms
Operant response - a response or behaviour of an organism that is voluntary and
not associated with a particular stimulus. This response acts on or modifies the
environment. For example, e.g. a person picking up a book to read.

Reinforcer - the reward given for a response in order to strengthen it and


increase the likelihood of the response occurring again.

Positive reinforcer - a reward which strengthens a response by providing a


pleasurable consequence such as praise or a chocolate bar.

Negative reinforcer - a reward which strengthens a response by removing or


reducing an unpleasant stimulus such as taking away a house chore or
homework.

Schedules of Reinforcement
This refers to the frequency in which a response is reinforced in operant
conditioning. There are different schedules of reinforcement within this type of
learning.

Continuous reinforcement - when a satisfying response is reinforced every time.

Partial reinforcement - reinforcement which does not occur continuously. The


reinforcement may be administered in the following ways:

 Fixed ratio schedule - a satisfying response is reinforced after a set number of


responses have been made, e.g. every fifth response.

 Fixed interval schedule - a satisfying response is reinforced at regular time


intervals e.g. every five minutes.

 Variable ratio schedule - a satisfying response is reinforced at irregular


intervals, but the average number of responses is fixed, e.g. poker machines.

Variable interval schedule - a satisfying response is reinforced at random


intervals within a fixed length of time e.g. catching four fish within a two-hour
period.

Punishment
Punishment differs from negative reinforcement in that it aims to decrease the
likelihood of the response occurring. Punishment is the introduction of an
unpleasant stimuli such as a hit or yell, whereas negative reinforcement is
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taking away the unpleasant stimulus to increase the probability of the response
occurring.

Potential punishers are any consequences which might lead to a decrease in the
response. Some consequences may be punishers for some people but not others.

Side-effects of punishment include aggression, frustration, avoidance learning,


escape learning and learned helplessness. The punishment may not decrease
the behaviour at all but teach the child to be aggressive or avoid the punisher.
Sometimes the punishment ends up being positive reinforcement or only serves
to satisfy the frustration of the punisher.

Effective punishment should address the person's actions and not the person's
character. It should be related to the undesirable behaviour and it should consist
of penalties or response cost (the removal of a reinforcer) rather than
psychological or physical pain.

Negative Effects of Punishment


The side effects of punishment include;

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Elements in Operant Conditioning
Extinction
If the reinforcement ceases, the operantly conditioned
response will disappear over time.
Stimulus Generalization
When the organism responds to stimuli which are similar to the original
stimulus.

For example, if a pigeon has been operantly conditioned to peck a blue


light by receiving food pellets whenever it does so, the pigeon may also
generalise to other similar coloured lights. However, if other lights are
increasingly different from the original light stimulus, the pigeon is less
likely to peck at them.
Stimulus Discrimination
When the organism learns which responses will be reinforced and which
will not.
Spontaneous Recovery
When the extinguished response reappears after a rest
period.
Shaping

When the organism is reinforced for any response which moves towards the
desired behavior, e.g. rewarding your cat for any behavior that relates to it using
the kitty litter.

Learning Theory

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This resource introduces Psychology students to some of the concepts of


learning theory. Start by reading Learning Theory, an article by Bob Boakes,
McCaughey Professor of Psychology and current Head of the Department of
Psychology at the University of Cambridge, UK and at Harvard University, USA
(located in the resources section).

His main research interests at present concern nausea-based conditioning in


both rats and in cancer patients receiving chemotherapy, as well as the history
of psychology. His article will help you become familiar with the terms used by
Psychologists when discussing theories of learning

Learning by Insight
Learning in humans appears to be more than a simple stimulus-response
process. It involves cognition or the processing of knowledge.

Learning by insight results in a cognitive change which involves the recognition


of previously unseen relationships. This can occur very quickly and the solution
is not easily forgotten.

The main stages of insight learning are:

 Preparation: This involves formulating the problem and gaining information


about it.

 Incubation: This is when you leave the problem for a while and consider other
things. There is a pause in the learner's activity where the learner stops trying to
complete the task.

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 Illumination: This involves insight into the problem. It is often referred to as the
'Ah-Ha experience' as the learner is suddenly able to carry out the task following
the confident recognition of the solution. It is as if the light bulb is suddenly
switched on.

 Verification: This is when you test and evaluate possible solutions. If solutions
do not work, you may go back to the incubation or preparation stages.

Research into Learning by Insight


The earliest research on this type of learning involved a chimpanzee called
Sultan. Kohler (1925) locked Sultan in a cage and placed a banana outside the
cage just out of Sultan's reach. Inside the cage were two hollow bamboo sticks,
both too short to reach the banana.

Kohler observed Sultan trying to reach the banana, first with his arm then with
each stick. He observed Sultan becoming more and more frustrated. After a
while, Sultan began playing with the sticks and suddenly realized that they could
be joined together to create one stick, long enough to reach the banana.

Kohler concluded that Sultan had a flash of insight which lead him to the
solution. Therefore, after a temporary period of confusion and frustration, the
chimpanzee was able to recognize the solution and apply it to his problem.
Kohler then referred to this type of learning as insight learning. It is also
referred to as insight thinking.

Sultan fitting two sticks together

Learning Set

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Learning sets refers to the positive transfer of learning that occurs from one
learning situation to another similar learning situation.

As a result of solving previous problems, rules and habits are established which
help when tackling a new problem.

For example, a person learns how to play a particular card game which involves
certain skills and then decides to try to learn a similar game. Once the first game
is learned, the time taken to learn a new similar card game is faster as the
person can transfer skills they already have.

The key points from this module are;


Ivan Petrovich Pavlov was a Russian scientist who investigated the digestive
system of dogs by presenting them with meat powder and measuring the amount
of saliva they produced.

Pavlov found that the dogs began to salivate even before the meat powder was
presented as they associated the feeder with the meat powder.

10
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Classical conditioning: This type of learning involves the repeated association of
a previously neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus, to elicit a
conditioned response

Researchers Watson and Raynor wanted to test the idea that fear could be
acquired through classical conditioning. Their subject was Little Albert, an
eleven-month-old son of a female employee at the clinic.

Ethical guidelines for psychological research have certainly improved and are
much different today.

Neutral stimulus (NS) - a stimulus which, prior to conditioning, would evoke no


response.

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) - a stimulus which innately produces a response


or reflex.

Unconditioned response (UCR) - an unlearned response elicited by an


unconditioned stimulus.

Association - a connection between two events which results in learning.

Conditioned stimulus (CS) - After the neutral stimulus has been paired with the
unconditioned stimulus many times, the neutral stimulus becomes the
conditioned stimulus.

Conditioned response (CR) - a learned response to a conditioned stimulus.

Extinction - when a conditioned response is no longer reinforced by the


unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned response will cease to occur.

Stimulus generalisation - when an organism has been conditioned to respond to


a stimulus, it will often respond to similar stimuli.

Stimulus discrimination - when an organism responds to a conditioned stimulus


but detects a difference in other stimuli and therefore doesn't respond to them.

Spontaneous recovery - the reappearance of a conditioned response after


extinction and a rest period.

Operant conditioning is learning where the consequence is dependent on the


organism's response. The consequence then influences the likelihood of the
behaviour occurring.

Skinner studied hungry rats in specially designed 'skinner' boxes. These boxes
were equipped with a lever which, when pressed, dispensed food or water.
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Skinner developed his theory of operant conditioning where he believed that our
behaviour operates on the environment and that our behaviour is instrumental in
producing the consequences (rewards and punishments).

Operant response - a response or behaviour of an organism that is voluntary and


not associated with a particular stimulus.

Reinforcer - the reward given for a response in order to strengthen it and


increase the likelihood of the response occurring again.

Positive reinforcer - a reward which strengthens a response by providing a


pleasurable consequence.

Negative reinforcer - a reward which strengthens a response by removing or


reducing an unpleasant stimulus.

Continuous reinforcement - when a satisfying response is reinforced every time.


Partial reinforcement - reinforcement which does not occur continuously. The
reinforcement may be administered in a fixed ratio schedule, a fixed interval
schedule, and a variable ratio schedule.

Fixed ratio schedule - a satisfying response is reinforced after a set number of


responses have been made.

Fixed interval schedule - a satisfying response is reinforced at regular time


intervals.

Variable ratio schedule - a satisfying response is reinforced at irregular


intervals, but the average number of responses is fixed.

Variable interval schedule - a satisfying response is reinforced at random


intervals within a fixed length of time.

Punishment differs from negative reinforcement in that it aims to decrease the


likelihood of the response occurring.

Punishment is the introduction of an unpleasant stimuli such as a hit or yell.

Side-effects of punishment include aggression, frustration, avoidance learning,


escape learning and learned helplessness.

The punishment may not decrease the behaviour at all but teach the child to be
aggressive or avoid the punisher.

Sometimes the punishment ends up being positive reinforcement or only serves


to satisfy the frustration of the punisher.

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Effective punishment should address the person's actions and not the person's
character.

The principles of shaping are used to teach animals certain behaviour.

Positive reinforcement and the withdrawal of reinforcement is administered to


eliminate inappropriate behaviour and to teach new responses.

Token economics is a technique which rewards people for appropriate behaviour


with tokens which can then be traded for privileges.

Learning in humans appears to be more than a simple stimulus-response


process. It involves cognition or the processing of knowledge.

Learning by insight results in a cognitive change which involves the recognition


of previously unseen relationships. This can occur very quickly and the solution
is not easily forgotten.

The main stages of insight learning are preparation, incubation, illumination, and
verification.

The earliest research on insight learning involved a chimpanzee called Sultan.


Kohler (1925) locked Sultan in a cage and placed a banana outside the cage just
out of Sultan's reach.

After a temporary period of confusion and frustration, the chimpanzee was able
to recognise the solution and apply it to his problem.

Kohler then referred to this type of learning as insight learning. It is also referred
to as insight thinking.

Learning sets refers to the positive transfer of learning that occurs from one
learning situation to another similar learning situation.

As a result of solving previous problems, rules and habits are established which
help when tackling a new problem.

MODULE 2: CONCIOUSNESS AND BEHAVIOR

States of Consciousness

Measurement of physiological responses which can indicate different states of


consciousness: electrical activity of the brain and other physiological responses,
including heart rate, body temperature and galvanic skin response.

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A state of consciousness cannot be observed or measured directly. However,


psychologists use various tools to detect changes in levels of consciousness.
The electroencephalograph (EEG) is used to measure the electrical activity of
the brain.

Changes in brain wave patterns provide psychologists with information about a


person's level of consciousness. The EEG has proven most useful in the
identification of the different stages of sleep.

An electroencephalograph is a polygraph that detects, amplifies and records


the electrical activity of the brain

Measurement of Heart Rate


The measurement of an individual's heart rate, body temperature and breathing
rate can also provide psychologists with information about the individual's state
of consciousness. Generally, an altered state of consciousness would reveal a
decrease in heart rate and body temperature.
Psychologists also use the galvanic skin response (GSR) to make inferences
about the changes in an individual's state of consciousness. The GSR measures
changes in electrical conductivity in the skin by using two electrodes placed on
the skin and passing a weak current between them. These changes indicate
arousal of the autonomic nervous system, as arousal causes sweating and the
consequent damp skin increases its electrical conductivity.

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The Ways to Study Sleep


The ways to study sleep are: electroencephalograph (EEG), electromyography
(EMG), electro-ocular gram (eye movements) and sleep laboratories.

Researchers use many different devices to study sleep and gain information
about particular stages of sleep. The most important apparatus of a sleep
laboratory is the polygraph. This is a machine which records on paper the output
of various devices that can be attached to the person being studied. Sleep
researchers use the following devices:

The electroencephalograph (EEG) is used to measure the electrical activity of


the brain through small metal discs pasted to the scalp. Changes in brain wave
patterns provide psychologists with information about a person's level of
consciousness and which stage of sleep they are in.

Beta Waves

When a person is awake and alert, the output of the EEG reveals brain wave
patterns which are high in frequency (15-30 cycles per second) and low in
amplitude. These small, irregular waves are called beta waves. (Try to remember
beta = busy, as the person is active and alert.)

Alpha Waves

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When a person is relaxed and somewhat drowsy, the EEG recording shows a
higher amplitude and lower frequency rhythm (8-12 cycles per second). These
brain waves are called alpha waves. These waves are characteristic of someone
falling asleep, entering stage 1 of sleep. (Try to remember alpha = almost
asleep.)

Delta Waves

As sleep progresses and becomes deeper and deeper, the EEG recordings reveal
brain waves which are slower in frequency and higher in amplitude. Stages three
and four of sleep reveal these slow waves which are called delta waves. (3-5
cycles per second). (Try to remember delta = deep sleep.)

Terms Related to Sleep Research


EMG
An electromyography (EMG) is a device that measures electrical activity in the
muscles through electrodes attached to the chin.

This machine helps to establish if a person is in rapid eye movement (REM)


sleep, as the output would show low activity due to relaxed muscles (atonia) in
REM sleep.

EOG
The electro-ocular gram (EOG, eye movements) is used to measure eye
movements by attaching electrodes to the skin around the eyes.

It also assists in the recognition of REM sleep, as the EOG shows high activity
due to rapid eye movements in REM sleep.

Sleep Laboratory
Most sleep research takes place in a sleep laboratory. As a person's sleep is
affected by their surroundings, a sleep laboratory attempts to mimic a home. It
contains one or more small bedrooms and furnishings and decorations are as
homelike and comfortable as possible.
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A subject may spend a couple of nights in the sleep laboratory before data is
recorded from them, as it is expected that they may be unsettled for the first
night or two because of the new environment. However, by the third night, sleep
is essentially normal and from this point on, observations can be considered
useful.

Characteristics and Patterns of Sleep Stages


Characteristics and patterns of the stages of sleep: rapid eye movement sleep
(REM sleep) and non-rapid eye movement sleep (NREM sleep).

When we are awake and alert the electroencephalograph (EEG) shows wave
lengths which are low in amplitude and high in frequency called beta waves.

As we relax the brain waves become alpha waves, which are higher in amplitude
and lower in frequency. During sleep, periods of rapid eye movement (REM)
alternate with Non-REM (NREM) sleep. The sleep cycle consists of four stages.

Stages of Sleep
Stage One
This stage is characterised by small, irregular waves which are a combination of alpha and theta
waves.

During this stage the individual is drowsy and is drifting off into a light sleep from which they
can be easily awoken. The person's heart rate slows down and their muscles relax.

Apart from the very first time the person enters stage one sleep, this stage is known as REM
sleep.

Stage Two
In this stage sleep spindles begin to occur. These are sharply pointed waves recorded by the
EEG. The EEG also shows rapid bursts of electrical activity with irregular brain waves.

Stage Three
This stage is characterised by the onset of slower delta waves. These brain waves are high in
amplitude and low in frequency.

At this stage, the person becomes harder to awaken, their breathing and pulse rate slow down and
their temperature drops.

Stage Four
This stage consists of pure delta waves and it is extremely difficult to rouse the
sleeper.

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This is the stage when sleep walking, sleep talking and night terrors occur.

Once the sleeper reaches stage four (about an hour after sleep begins) they then
travel back up through stages three, two and one. When stage one is reached for
the second time, REM sleep begins and the sleeper engages in about ten minutes
of dreaming.
As the night progresses, the time spent in stages three and four decreases while
REM sleep increases. The last stages or REM sleep can last up to one hour or so.
The entire cycle of stages one through to four occurs approximately four to six
times during an average eight-hour period of sleep.

REM Sleep
Most dreams occur during the REM stage. The EEG reveals brain wave patterns
that are very similar to beta waves when a person is awake, active and alert. For
this reason, REM sleep has been called 'paradoxical sleep'.

It is also characterized by jerky movements of the eyes beneath the eyelids,


hence the label, rapid eye movement. The person's heart rate also increases,
their blood pressure rises and their breathing becomes faster and more irregular.
Luckily for others, our muscles are paralyzed, preventing us from acting out our
dreams.
Sleep Deprivation
Sleep deprivation may result in irritability, tiredness, confusion, lack of
concentration, headaches, hallucinations and lack of energy. Research has
found that individuals who have been deprived of sleep are abler to concentrate

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on complex tasks than on simple tasks. People do not need to sleep the same
number of hours which they lost to recover from sleep deprivation.

When research subjects are constantly awoken when in REM sleep and are
deprived of REM sleep over successive nights, they appear more tense, irritable
and more anxious than subjects deprived of the same amount of sleep but not
REM sleep. Lack of REM sleep appears to affect our ability to concentrate and
remember. When allowed to sleep uninterrupted, subjects experience REM
rebound. That is, they spend twice as much time in REM sleep as normal to make
up for the REM sleep lost. This indicates that REM sleep is vital for our survival.

Sleep Disorders
Sleep clinics diagnose and treat many people who suffer from sleep disorders.
We may identify with some characteristics of the following disorders however, a
diagnosed sufferer would find the disorder debilitating, having an adverse impact
on their life.

Insomnia
This is when a person has problems getting adequate sleep. This can be a
temporary or chronic problem. It may be caused by stress, depression or
changes in biological rhythms.

Hypersomnia
The person experiences excessive daytime sleepiness and has extreme difficulty
in awakening.

The person feels drowsy during the day no matter how many hours the person
has slept. This may be caused by other sleep disorders such as insomnia,
narcolepsy or sleep apnea.

Sleep Apnea
This is a temporary cessation of breathing during the night (can be 20 seconds or
more) which deprives the person of oxygen.

It is associated with snoring where the person gulps for air then settles back to
sleep. This may happen hundreds of times throughout the night and can be very
dangerous to the person's health.

Narcolepsy
The person has sudden uncontrollable sleep attacks where they go from being
wide awake straight into REM sleep.

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The usual muscle paralysis of REM sleep occurs called cataplexy. This disorder
can be very dangerous, especially if a sleep attack happens when the person is
driving or working with machinery.

Sleep Phenomena
Nightmares
These occur during REM sleep and are frightening REM dreams. They can usually
be remembered and usually occur during a REM episode toward the end of the
night or early morning.

Night Terrors
These occur during NREM sleep (stage 4) and, because the muscles are not paralysed, involve
violent body movements such as thrashing about or running.

The person often wakes up in a sweat and in extreme stress, unable to recall the night terror.
Night terrors occur less frequently than nightmares and usually occur earlier in the night than
nightmares.

Sleep Walking
This occurs during the deep NREM sleep (stage 4) and hence it is difficult to
wake the sleepwalker. It appears to be an inherited trait.

Sleep Talking
This often accompanies sleep walking and also occurs during the deep stages of
NREM sleep (stage 4). It is also thought to have a hereditary link.

Types of Dreams
Daydream
A daydream is an altered state of consciousness where there is a change in
brain wave patterns. The person is awake and experiences thoughts, images and
sensations that are usually positive and pleasant in nature.

The person has some control over daydreams and they have some positive
effects such as:

1. a way of relieving anxiety


2. helping to keep mentally alert
3. helping to solve problems
4. increasing creativity

Nightdream
A night dream is also an altered state of consciousness. They may be positive or negative and
usually people have little control over their contents.

Dreams in REM sleep tend to be more emotional and story-like in quality compared to dreaming
in NREM sleep. NREM dreaming is more like thinking.

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Lucid Dreaming

Lucid dreaming is when a person is aware that they are dreaming and is able to
direct the action in the dream; the person has control over the sequence of
events in the dream.

This has been used as a therapeutic technique where the dreamer attempts to
change the negative ending of the dream to overcome a traumatic event.

States of Consciousness
This area of study focuses on states of consciousness and explores relationships
between consciousness and thoughts, feelings and behaviour. It also examines
the changes in the nervous system associated with different states of
consciousness.

Consciousness refers to the level of awareness of our internal state and of our
external environment. It consists of the sensations, perceptions, memories and
feelings that we are aware of at any given moment. Consciousness exists at
different levels, from being in a coma (unconscious) to being fully alert and in a
state of hyperactivity.
Consciousness also exists in a wide range of states. Depending on what we are
doing, consciousness can be highly focused or more passive. During a typical
day, we experience many different states of consciousness from being very alert
in an exam to feeling drowsy while travelling home on the train.

William James (1842-1910), an American psychologist, likened consciousness to


a stream or river and called the mind a 'stream of consciousness'. He saw
consciousness as a stream that was continuous and ever flowing, not disjointed.
James believed that our thoughts, sensations, images and feelings are
continually blending into each other, always changing and, like a stream, never
ending.

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Characteristics of Waking Consciousness

Internal and external focus


Normal waking consciousness refers to the state of consciousness in which we
are awake, alert and aware of our thoughts, feelings, sensations and our
environment. It is characterised by attention, memory, content and time
limitations.

In normal waking consciousness our attention can shift from our internal
thoughts and feelings to external stimuli, i.e. what is happening around us.
These shifts of attention can be deliberate or they can occur without us being
aware of it. For example, if you were sitting on a train in a state of normal
waking consciousness, your attention may be on your internal thoughts and
feelings, thinking how tired you feel. Your attention might then shift to external
stimuli, the person entering the carriage. You might then focus on their
appearance and where they choose to sit.
We cannot attend to everything that enters our senses. The amount of
information that we attend to in normal waking consciousness at any one time is
limited. We select only certain information and shift our focus and attention to
information that interests or is meaningful to us. In normal
waking consciousness we have an awareness of our memories. We are
conscious of past and present and can clearly differentiate between memories
and what is happening to us at the present moment. We have a familiar sense of
time and place.

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High Level and Lower Level Awareness

Playing video games: high level awareness


The level of awareness in normal waking consciousness varies along a
continuum between being alert, focused awareness and the minimal awareness
characteristic of sleep. For example, at the alert end of the continuum are
activities that demand high concentration, such as sitting an exam or playing a
video game.
Controlled Processes
These types of activities involve controlled processes. Controlled processes
require alert awareness, full attention and they interfere with other ongoing
activities.

For example, when you are first learning how to drive a car, your full
concentration and attention are required. You would probably be so focused on
changing gears, indicating correctly and watching your rearview mirror that you
would not be able to pay much attention to the song playing on the radio. This
focused attention is an example of controlled processes within normal waking
consciousness.

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Controlled processes require alert awareness

Automatic Processes
Once you have had some practice at driving, you will probably feel much more
confident and no longer require such focused attention on the different aspects
of driving a car. Your consciousness then involves automatic processes. This is
when you are awake but on 'automatic pilot'. Automatic processes occur with
little awareness, require minimal attention and do not interfere with many other
activities.

For example, after some experience driving a car, you would probably change
gears or lanes without much effort or little awareness. You could then cope with
changing radio stations while continuing to drive. Sometimes you may even
wonder how you got to your destination as you weren't paying much attention to
your driving.

Automatic processes: the driver is awake but on 'automatic pilot'


Daydreaming
Daydreams are another example of lowered awareness. Daydreaming involves
drifting off into a world of fantasy. Although awake, the person experiences a
reduced awareness of external stimuli. Daydreaming usually occurs while the
person is engaged in automatic processes where minimal attention to the task is
required.

Daydreaming is often considered as a waste of time however, psychologists


maintain that daydreaming can serve a variety of useful functions. It can help
you relax, alleviate boredom and endure frustration.

Characteristics of Altered States of Consciousness


Altered states of consciousness are characterised by a change in brain wave
patterns. In an altered state of consciousness there are significant changes to

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the way people experience thoughts, feelings and sensations. People are more
likely to experience the extremes of sensations and emotions while in an altered
state of consciousness. An altered state of consciousness may occur naturally,
such as sleeping, or it may be intentionally induced, such as meditation.

Brain Activity
In an altered state of consciousness most people report experiencing
psychological changes such as perceptual and cognitive distortions

An altered state of consciousness can change the way we experience


sensations. It can cause distortions in the meanings a person attributes to
information entering the senses. This can result in distorted perceptions of
external stimuli.

Thoughts can become disorganised, often illogical and lacking in sequence, as a


result of an altered state of consciousness. A person in an altered state may also
experience difficulties in solving problems, as information processing is often
impaired. The person's memory of events is not as efficient as in normal waking
consciousness and they may be unable to recall certain events that took place
while they were in an altered state.

Disturbed Time Sense


In an altered state of consciousness, our estimation of time can be inaccurate.
Some people experience the feeling that the time has dragged on while others
may feel that the time has zipped by.

An altered state of consciousness can also change the way we experience


emotions. Some altered states, such as those brought on by certain drugs and
alcohol, can cause a person to feel low, depressed or more emotional. Many
people find that they express their emotions more openly while under an altered
state of consciousness compared to when they are in normal waking
consciousness. They may also be more open to suggestibility and find that they
behave without self control, acting in a way that they would not ordinarily act in
normal waking consciousness.
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An altered state of consciousness can change the way we experience emotions.

Description of Pain
Extreme pain can cause a person to enter an altered state of consciousness
where the individual's thoughts, feelings and sensations are different in some
way to when they are in normal waking consciousness.

In order to deal with and control pain, some people use treatments which
deliberately induce an altered state of consciousness such as meditation and
biofeedback.
Biofeedback
Biofeedback is where an individual is given external feedback about bodily
functions such as blood pressure, pulse rate and muscle tension to bring an
automatic physiological function under voluntary control.

The individual is wired to a machine which displays immediate feedback about


physiological activity. The individual then learns how to change and control
these physiological responses by using mental or physical means in response to
the biofeedback. Subjects can become so skilled at controlling bodily functions
that they eventually do away with the biofeedback device and focus on the
technique alone.

Biofeedback can be successfully used to treat migraines, asthma and other


stress related illnesses. It gives the person some control over their bodily
functions and, like meditation, helps the person to focus on something else other
than the pain.

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Meditation

Meditation is a deliberate attempt to bring on an altered state of consciousness


in order to experience deep relaxation.

Meditation can take many forms, from concentrating one's attention on an


external object or repeating a mantra to allowing the mind to be open and
receptive to the surrounding environment. Whichever technique is used, the aim
is to modify physiological functions in order to control pain. Some physiological
changes resulting from meditation are:

 An alteration in brain wave patterns showing more alpha waves

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 Less oxygen consumption

 Less carbon dioxide exhaled

 Less muscle tension

 Lowered heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration rate

These physiological changes help the person achieve a sense of calm and well
being. Meditation helps the person to focus on something else other than the
pain and it helps to reduce the stress in the body. It serves as a beneficial non-
medicinal pain reliever.

Purpose of Sleep
Psychologists have put forward several theories as to why we sleep however,
two popular theories are the restoration (restorative) theory and the survival
theory.

Survival Theory

The survival theory of sleep suggests that sleep serves as a protective behaviour where the
organism is inactive at the most dangerous time of the day.

Sleep is therefore an adaptive process, evolved from our ancestors who needed to remain hidden
at night to minimise attracting attention from predators at their most vulnerable time. Also, this
theory proposes that sleep serves to preserve energy, or reduce heat loss at night by a lowered
physical activity level.

However, a main criticism of the survival theory of sleep is that when asleep, an animal is less
alert and potentially more vulnerable to attack by predators.

Restorative

According to the restorative theory, we need sleep for physical growth and
repair of the body. Sleep allows damaged cells to be repaired and muscles to rid
themselves of waste products. This theory also maintains that sleep assists with
brain growth and restoration. Most of this restoration takes place during stages
3 and 4 of sleep.

This theory is supported by research which shows that people engaged in


vigorous physical activity sleep longer. The restorative theory of sleep has a few
limitations. These are that:

1. Inactive people such as the disabled, do not necessarily sleep less than more
active people

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2. It is not clear what, if anything, is restored and repaired during sleep
3. During sleep we experience a fall in body temperature and metabolic rate
which indicates that the body is conserving energy rather than restoring or
rejuvenating itself.

The Biological Basis of Behaviour


This resource looks at the biological bases for behaviour. Let's begin with the
role of 'neurons'. The nervous system is made up of long chains of neurons. A
neuron is made up of a soma (cell body), which is the central part of the nerve
cell. Axons and dendrites are fibres that branch off from the cell body. Dendrites
are at one end of the neuron and receive incoming messages from other neurons.

Axons branch out at the other end of the neuron and carry messages away from
the cell body, transmitting these messages to the next neuron. The axons are
insulated with a protective coating called the myelin sheath. The myelin sheath
is a white fatty substance which insulates the axons and accelerates the
transmission of neural messages.

A chemical connection, known as the synapse, bridges the gap between two
neurons. Neurotransmitters carry chemical messages across the synapse to the
dendrite of a receiver neuron. Thus, neural energy is transmitted from one
neuron to another, enabling it to travel from the sensory receptor site to the
brain.

The Cerebral Cortex


The cerebral cortex is the outer layer or "bark" of the cerebral hemispheres, two
large masses that form the greatest bulk of the human brain. It is about 3mm
thick and contains approximately 70% of the neurons in the central nervous
system, i.e. billions of nerve cells.

The cerebral hemispheres looks a little like a giant wrinkled walnut, full of
bulges and separated by grooves. These grooves increase the amount of area
the cortex occupies. In other animals, the cortex is smooth, reducing its total
area. It is often referred to as the brain's grey matter.
Cerebral Hemispheres
The cerebral cortex consists of two sides or hemispheres (half-globes). These
two hemispheres are connected by a thick band of fibres called the corpus
callosum. The corpus callosum is the largest bundle of association fibres in the
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brain, connecting corresponding parts of the cerebral cortex on one side of the
brain with those of the other. It is the major "cable system" through which the
right and left cerebral hemispheres communicate.

The two halves of the brain control opposite sides of the body. The left side of
the brain mainly controls the right side of the body, whereas the right half of the
brain mainly controls left body areas. Therefore, if a person suffers an injury or
stroke that damages one side of the brain, the opposite side of the body will be
affected, becoming paralysed and losing sensations.

Functions of the Four Lobes


The functions of the four lobes of the cerebral cortex are to control motor,
somatosensory, visual and auditory processing in humans.

The principle function of the frontal lobe is the control of movement. The primary
motor cortex, an important arch of tissue, is located at the back of the frontal
lobe and runs laterally over the top of the brain. This area directs the body's
muscles.The frontal lobe is also related to more complex behaviours. Its
functions seem to be related to planning, changing strategies, self-awareness,
attention to emotionally related stimuli and spontaneity of behaviour. Patients
with frontal lobe damage demonstrate:

 slowing of thoughts and behaviour

 getting 'stuck' on tasks and repeating the same wrong answers over and over,
i.e. they have difficulty changing strategies

 loss of self-awareness

 changes in emotional reactions. They react with indifference to events that


normally elicit an emotional response

 deficiencies in planning

 loss of spontaneity

Frontal Lobe Damage


Damage to the back portions of the frontal lobe also leads to problems in the
control of eye movements.

Broca's area is located just below and ahead of the primary motor cortex. It is
essential for the production of speech. It is a language area related to grammar
and pronunciation. Damage to this region results in a form of aphasia (impaired
language ability), characterised by slow, laboured, difficult speech that lacks
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grammatical structure. The person is able to read and understand other people's
speech but have great difficulty speaking or writing themselves.

Parietal Lobe
This lobe is located just above the occipital lobe. The principal sensory function
of the parietal lobe is somatosensory perception, where bodily sensations are
registered. The lower parts of the parietal lobe are concerned with visually and
acoustically related functions. The parietal lobe is also very important in our
perception of space and in monitoring the body's position in space.

Damage to the left parietal lobe can result in alexia, the loss of the ability to
read, or agraphia, the loss of the ability to write. A person's ability to draw is
also impaired when the parietal lobe is damaged.

Occipital Lobe
This lobe is located at the back of the head. The primary function of the occipital
lobe is seeing. Visual input ultimately reaches the occipital lobe of the cortex
where cells communicate with one another extensively in a rich processing
network.

Damage to the primary visual cortex of the occipital lobe produces blindness.
Damage to the visual association cortex (which includes parts of the parietal
and temporal lobes, as well as the occipital lobe) of the left hemisphere affects
the ability to recognise details of a visual scene. However, damage to the visual
association cortex of the right hemisphere affects the visual recognition of
familiar objects.

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Temporal Lobe
This lobe is located at each side of the brain, below the parietal lobe. The
principal sensory function of the temporal lobe is hearing, however, this lobe is
also involved in vision, memory and factors of personality and social behaviour.

One of the most important language areas of the brain is a region of the auditory
association cortex on the left side of the brain called Wernicke's area. This area
is necessary for the identification of spoken words. Damage to Wernicke's area
results in Wernicke's aphasia, where a person finds it difficult to comprehend
speech and language.

Hemispheric Specialisation
Hemispheric specialisation: the cognitive and behavioural functions of the right
and left hemispheres of the cerebral cortex; non-verbal versus verbal and
analytical functions.

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The two hemispheres of the brain appear to differ in abilities. In 95% of people
the left hemisphere is dominant.

Left Hemisphere
• specialises in language
• speaking
• reading
• writing
• superior at maths
• judges time and rhythm
• involved in ordering and co-ordering complex movements
specialises mainly in verbal functions
• people who are left brain dominant tend to work in fields such as computer science, maths, and
education

Right Hemisphere

• superior at perceptual skills such as recognising patterns, faces, and melodies


• involved in the recognition and expression of emotion
• superior at spatial tasks such as negotiating a maze or arranging blocks
• better at visualisation
• specialise mainly in non-verbal functions
• people who are right brain dominant seem to work in fields such as art, music,
or architecture
Hemispheric Specialisation
Evidence of this hemispheric specialisation has come from cases where people
have had brain damage. Brain damage to the left side of the brain, Broca's area,
results in problems with the production of speech. Damage to Wernicke's area,
found in the temporal lobe of the left hemisphere, usually leads to problems in
comprehending language.

To further investigate the special abilities of the two cerebral hemispheres,


researchers have worked with people who have had a rare type of surgery where
their corpus callosum is cut to control severe epilepsy. After the 'split-brain'
operation, it is as if the person has two brains. Each hemisphere seems to have
its own consciousness, sensations, perceptions and behaviours.
Studies of people with intact brains also revealed hemispheric specialisation.
When verbal stimuli are presented to the left hemisphere via the right eye or ear,
they are processed more quickly and more accurately than when they are
presented to the right hemisphere via the left eye or ear. Conversely, the right
hemisphere appears to process visual-spatial tasks, such as recognising a face,
more quickly.

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Functions of the Spinal Cord
The two major functions of the spinal cord are to pass sensory information from
the peripheral nervous system to the brain and to transmit information from the
brain to the peripheral nervous system

The spinal cord acts like a cable connecting the brain to the rest of the body
through the peripheral nervous system. It is an extension of the brain, running
from the base of the brain to just below the level of the waist. The brain and
spinal cord combine to form the central nervous system.

The spinal cord consists of bundles of axons that carry the brain's commands to
the peripheral nerves and relay sensations from the periphery of the body to the
brain.

Sensory vs Motor Neuron Activity


A sensory neuron is a nerve cell that carries messages from the senses toward
the central nervous system, whereas a motor neuron is a nerve cell that carries
motor commands from the central nervous system to muscles and glands.

For example, if a person stepped on a piece of glass it is detected in the foot by


a sensory neuron and a message is fired off to the spinal cord. The sensory
neuron then synapses with a connector neuron inside the spinal cord. The
connector neuron in turn activates another nerve cell, a motor neuron. The motor
neuron leads back to muscle fibres that contract and cause the foot to withdraw
from the piece of glass. This combined activity of the sensory and motor neurons
is called a reflex arc, where brain activity is not required. It is an adaptive
behaviour where the body can react quickly to protect itself from potential harm,
without needing the brain.

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Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems
The role of the somatic nervous system in the control of the skeletal
muscles. The somatic nervous system is the system of nerves which carries
messages to and from the sense organs and skeletal muscles. These nerves are
the cables that carry information from receptors in the skin, muscles and joints
to the central nervous system and then carry commands from the central
nervous system to the muscles. Thus, the somatic nervous system controls
voluntary behaviour, such as moving your leg. It enables us to feel the world and
move around in it.

The role of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) in the control of non-skeletal
muscles. The autonomic nervous system is a system of nerves which carries
information to and from the internal organs and glands. It controls automatic and
involuntary bodily functions that we don't normally think about, such as our heart
rate and perspiration.

Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions

Bodily changes usually associated with, and physiological systems involved in


arousal. The autonomic nervous system (ANS) has two divisions;

• the sympathetic nervous system (arousing)


• the parasympathetic nervous system (calming)
These two divisions are activated when you are aroused. During an emergency,
the sympathetic division of the ANS takes over and prepares us for action; for
fight or flight.
In contrast to the sympathetic division, the parasympathetic nervous system is
responsible for calming the body down. When the emergency is over, the above
physiological changes are reversed and your level of arousal is reduced. For
example, if you are bushwalking and come across a dangerous situation, the
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sympathetic nervous system will be activated to enable you to fight the situation
or flee from it. When the danger is over, the parasympathetic nervous system
works on calming you down to achieve a state of homoeostasis. These
physiological changes equip the body with additional energy for self-protection.

Stress

Stress is the process of adjusting to/or dealing with circumstances that disrupt,
or threaten to disrupt, a person's physical or psychological functioning. Stress
involves a relationship between people and their environments, more
specifically, between stressors and stress reactions.

Stressors are events and situations, such as an exam, to which people must
react. Stressors can be both physical (or environmental) and psychological (or
mental).
Stress weakens the effectiveness of the body's immune system, its natural
defence system. The person is then more vulnerable to harmful cells in the body
and becomes ill. Stress reactions are the physical, psychological and
behavioural responses people display in the face of stressors.

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Types of stress reactions include physical, psychological, and behavioural.
Relationship Between Stress and Disease
Prolonged, intense stress has also been related to illnesses such as
psychosomatic disorders. These are illnesses in which psychological factors
play a part in producing actual damage to the body or changes in how the body
functions.

There are a number of illnesses thought to be psychosomatic such as bronchial


asthma, high blood pressure, migraine headaches, stomach ulcers, arthritis,
heart disease, hives and other disorders associated with over-arousal of the
autonomic nervous system.

General Adaptation Syndrome


One of the major contributors to stress research was Hans Selye (1956) who
identified and described the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS). After he
exposed rats to a large number of physical and psychological stressors, he
concluded that all stressors produced essentially the same pattern of results. He
believes the reactions to prolonged stress consists of three stages:

 alarm: where the individual is mobilised for action

 resistance: the individual attempts to cope with the threat through fight or flight

 exhaustion: the individual is unable to overcome the threat and the energy
resources have been depleted through attempts to reduce the threat. This stage
is associated with signs of physical wear and tear, especially in organ systems
that were weak in the first place or heavily involved in the resistance process

Seyle's model of stress has been very influential but it underestimated the role of
psychological factors, such as emotional factors or the way a person thinks
about stressors. Psychobiological models of stress emphasise the importance of
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psychological as well as biological variables in regulating and producing stress
responses.

The key points from this module are:


A state of consciousness cannot be observed or measured directly. However,
psychologists use various tools to detect changes in levels of consciousness.

An electroencephalograph (EEG) is a polygraph that detects, amplifies and


records the electrical activity of the brain.

Changes in brain wave patterns provide psychologists with information about a


person's level of consciousness.

The EEG has proven most useful in the identification of the different stages of
sleep.

The measurement of an individual's heart rate, body temperature and breathing


rate can also provide psychologists with information about the individual's state
of consciousness.

Psychologists also use the galvanic skin response (GSR) to make inferences
about the changes in an individual's state of consciousness.

The ways to study sleep are: electroencephalograph (EEG), electromyograph


(EMG), electro-oculargram (eye movements) and sleep laboratories.

Small, irregular waves are called beta waves.

A higher amplitude and lower frequency rhythm are called alpha waves.

Brain waves which are slower in frequency and higher in amplitude are called
delta waves.

An electromyograph (EMG) is a device that measures electrical activity in the


muscles through electrodes attached to the chin.

The electro-oculargram (EOG, eye movements) is used to measure eye


movements by attaching electrodes to the skin around the eyes.

Most sleep research takes place in a sleep laboratory. A subject may spend a
couple of nights in the sleep laboratory before data is recorded from them, as it
is expected that they may be unsettled for the first night or two because of the
new environment.

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Characteristics and patterns of the stages of sleep: rapid eye movement sleep
(REM sleep) and non-rapid eye movement sleep (NREM sleep).

Stage one is characterised by small, irregular waves which are a combination of


alpha and theta waves.

In stage two sleep spindles begin to occur. These are sharply pointed waves
recorded by the EEG.

Stage three is characterised by the onset of slower delta waves.

Stage four consists of pure delta waves and it is extremely difficult to rouse the
sleeper.

Most dreams occur during the REM stage. The EEG reveals brain wave patterns
that are very similar to beta waves when a person is awake, active and alert.

REM sleep has been called 'paradoxical sleep'.

Research has found that individuals who have been deprived of sleep are more
able to concentrate on complex tasks than on simple tasks.

Lack of REM sleep appears to affect our ability to concentrate and remember.

Insomnia is when a person has problems getting adequate sleep.

Hypersomnia is when a person experiences excessive daytime sleepiness and


has extreme difficulty in awakening.

Sleep apnea is a temporary cessation of breathing during the night which


deprives the person of oxygen.

Narcolepsy is when a person has sudden uncontrollable sleep attacks where


they go from being wide awake straight into REM sleep.

Nightmares occur during REM sleep and are frightening REM dreams.

Night terrors occur during NREM sleep (stage 4) and, because the muscles are
not paralysed, involve violent body movements such as thrashing about or
running.

Sleep walking occurs during the deep NREM sleep (stage 4) and hence it is
difficult to wake the sleepwalker.

Sleep talking often accompanies sleep walking and also occurs during the deep
stages of NREM sleep (stage 4).

A daydream is an altered state of consciousness where there is a change in


brain wave patterns.
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A night dream is also an altered state of consciousness. They may be positive or


negative and usually people have little control over their contents.

Lucid dreaming is when a person is aware that they are dreaming and is able to
direct the action in the dream; the person has control over the sequence of
events in the dream.

The nervous system is made up of long chains of neurons.

A neuron is made up of a soma (cell body), which is the central part of the nerve
cell.

Axons and dendrites are fibres that branch off from the cell body.

Dendrites are at one end of the neuron and receive incoming messages from
other neurons.

Axons branch out at the other end of the neuron and carry messages away from
the cell body, transmitting these messages to the next neuron.

A chemical connection, known as the synapse, bridges the gap between two
neurons.

Neurotransmitters carry chemical messages across the synapse to the dendrite


of a receiver neuron.

The cerebral cortex is the outer layer or "bark" of the cerebral hemispheres, two
large masses that form the greatest bulk of the human brain.

The cerebral cortex consists of two sides or hemispheres (half-globes). These


two hemispheres are connected by a thick band of fibres called the corpus
callosum.

The left side of the brain mainly controls the right side of the body, whereas the
right half of the brain mainly controls left body areas.

The functions of the four lobes of the cerebral cortex are to control motor,
somatosensory, visual and auditory processing in humans.

Damage to the back portions of the frontal lobe also leads to problems in the
control of eye movements.

Broca's area is located just below and ahead of the primary motor cortex. It is
essential for the production of speech.

The principal sensory function of the parietal lobe is somatosensory perception,


where bodily sensations are registered.

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Damage to the left parietal lobe can result in alexia, the loss of the ability to
read, or agraphia, the loss of the ability to write.

The primary function of the occipital lobe is seeing.

Damage to the primary visual cortex of the occipital lobe produces blindness.

Damage to the visual association cortex of the left hemisphere affects the ability
to recognise details of a visual scene.

The principal sensory function of the temporal lobe is hearing, however, this lobe
is also involved in vision, memory and factors of personality and social
behaviour.

One of the most important language areas of the brain is a region of the auditory
association cortex on the left side of the brain called Wernicke's area.

Hemispheric specialisation: the cognitive and behavioural functions of the right


and left hemispheres of the cerebral cortex; non-verbal versus verbal and
analytical functions.

The two major functions of the spinal cord are to pass sensory information from
the peripheral nervous system to the brain and to transmit information from the
brain to the peripheral nervous system.

The spinal cord consists of bundles of axons that carry the brain's commands to
the peripheral nerves and relay sensations from the periphery of the body to the
brain.

A sensory neuron is a nerve cell that carries messages from the senses toward
the central nervous system.

A motor neuron is a nerve cell that carries motor commands from the central
nervous system to muscles and glands.

The somatic nervous system is the system of nerves which carries messages to
and from the sense organs and skeletal muscles.

The autonomic nervous system is a system of nerves which carries information


to and from the internal organs and glands.

During an emergency, the sympathetic division of the ANS takes over and
prepares us for action; for fight or flight.

The parasympathetic nervous system is responsible for calming the body down.

Stress is the process of adjusting to/or dealing with circumstances that disrupt,
or threaten to disrupt, a person's physical or psychological functioning.

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Stress weakens the effectiveness of the body's immune system, its natural
defence system.

Types of stress reactions include physical, psychological, and behavioural.

Prolonged, intense stress has also been related to illnesses such as


psychosomatic disorders.
There are a number of illnesses thought to be psychosomatic such as bronchial
asthma, high blood pressure, migraine headaches, stomach ulcers, arthritis,
heart disease, hives and other disorders associated with over-arousal of the
autonomic nervous system.

Reactions to prolonged stress consists of three stages; alarm, resistance, and


exhaustion.

MODULE 4 VISUAL PERCRPTION AND ILLUSION

MODULE 4: VISUAL PERCEPTION AND


ILLUSION

Visual Perception

This area of study focuses on perception and the general characteristics of the
visual sensory system.

Reception is the process of receiving electromagnetic energy from the


environment at the site of the visual receptor cells called rods and cones. The
visual receptors then transduce the electromagnetic energy into
electrochemical energy in the form of neural impulses. The neural energy is then
transmitted to the brain via neurones. Visual perception only begins when light
energy has been received and transduced as the result of visual sensation.

The process of visual perception involves the selection, organisation and


interpretation of information. The selection process involves neurones called
feature detectors, which respond selectively to specific features of complex
stimuli.

Once the messages reach the brain, the organisation and interpretation
processes take place. Organisation is achieved through the grouping of single
elements to form a whole. The whole is then interpreted and given meaning.

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Visual perception is influenced by psychological processes unique to the
individual.

The absolute threshold is the smallest magnitude of a stimulus necessary to


produce a sensation that can be detected 50% of the time. For example, under
ideal conditions, the absolute threshold for hearing is the tick of a watch 20 feet
away. The just noticeable difference (JND) is the smallest difference between
two particular stimuli.

Light
Light is the physical energy source for vision. However, the receptor cells in the
eye cannot detect the total electromagnetic radiation spectrum. The narrow
band which the receptors respond to is called the visible light spectrum, ranging
from 300 nanometers (violet) to 740 nanometers (red).
Light waves from the visible light spectrum enter the eye through the cornea
which is a thin, protective covering over the eye. The cornea bends the incoming
light onto the lens. The iris is the coloured part of the eye which contracts or
expands governing the size of the pupil. The light waves travel through the pupil
and reach the lens.

The lens further bends the light waves onto the back of the eye called the retina.
The retina is neural tissue and contains two types of photoreceptors called rods
and cones. There are more rod photoreceptors than cone photoreceptors in the
human retina.

Rods
Rods are used for night vision as they operate in dim light. Rod receptors are
located at the sides of the retina and are used for peripheral vision. Therefore, at
night time it is better to look at objects askance, so the peripheral rods can
detect the objects.

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Cones are used for daylight vision, visual acuity and colour vision. As rods
operate in minimal light conditions, they are more sensitive than cones. The
central fovea vision within the retina contains only cones and is the area of
greatest visual acuity. The light waves are absorbed by the rods and cones
where they are transduced into neural energy and transmitted to the Primary
Visual Cortex of the brain, via the optic nerve.

Psychological Factors
Perceptual set (expectancy): Our past life experiences, especially those which
have had significant personal meaning, contribute to the establishment of a
perceptual expectancy, that is, a tendency to perceive stimuli in a specific way.
We interpret new stimuli in accordance with what we have already experienced.
Some types of stimuli are ignored while others are attended to and we tend to
see what we expect to see.

For example, as our experience with police cars is that they have a siren on the
roof, if we quickly see a vehicle with a siren, out of the corner of our eye, we
might automatically assume it is a police car. On a second look, we realise it is
another type of vehicle and initially perceived what we expected to see.
Factors that Affect Visual Perception
Visual perception does not only involve visual perception principles, but
psychological factors and physiological factors also influence what we see. You
need to know how the following psychological and physiological factors impact
on our visual perception.

Gestalt
The Gestalt school of psychology was developed by a group of German
psychologists in the early 1900s. The Gestaltists believed that sometimes the
whole is greater than the sum of its parts. By this they meant that we take
smaller parts and gradually build them into a whole. Thus, Gestalt is a German
word for 'form' or 'shape'.

As with 'bottom-up' processing, we start with the smaller parts and put them
together to eventually form a shape. The Gestaltists named many principles
which assist us in this process however, you only need to know these four in
preparation for the exam.

Figure-ground

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Some aspects of a stimulus appear to stand out as the figure against a plainer background. For
example, many road signs make use of this principle so a message can stand out and be seen
easily by drivers.

The stop sign is designed with the principle of figure-ground in mind. The word 'stop' is the
figure, printed in white, against a plain red background. This makes the message very clear to see
for the approaching driver.

Closure

This involves the completion of missing contours so that we perceive a


consistent overall form. For example, cartoons characters are often a series of
lines and incomplete figures, however, we fill in the gaps.

Similarity

This is when elements that are similar tend to be grouped together.


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For example, members of the police force at a football game wearing the same
uniform will be seen as belonging to one group.

Proximity

We perceive elements which are near one another as belonging together.

For example, sheep grazing close to one another in a paddock would be seen as
a group.

Depth Perception
There are various depth cues which occur within our bodies and within the
environment or pictures. Those which occur within our bodies are known as
primary depth cues and those in the environment or pictures are called
secondary depth cues.

Another distinction is whether the depth cue involves the use of one eye,
monocular, or the use of both eyes, binocular. There are many depth cues which
we utilise in the process, however, you only need to know the following for the
exam.

Monocular Binocular

retinal disparity
Primary (bodily) accommodation convergence

linear perspective
interposition
texture gradients
Secondary retinal size
(environmental/pictorial) height in the visual field

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Binocular Depth Cue


Retinal Disparity (Binocular Disparity): A primary binocular depth cue which is
caused by the fact that our eyes are 6-7cms apart and thus receive slightly
different retinal images. The difference in locations of the images on each eye
provides a powerful cue to distance. The brain fuses the two retinal images
together to provide us with stereoscopic vision. For example, in 'magic eye'
pictures, each eye observes a slightly different view of the same scene and the
brain fuses the two images together to create a three-dimensional picture.

Convergence: A primary binocular depth cue where the eyes turn inward to
focus on an object so that a single image is formed on both retinas. The closer
the object, the greater the convergence. For example, the eyes converge when
catching a ball.

Monocular Depth Cues


Below is a list of monocular depth cues, and an explanation for each;

Linear perspective
A secondary monocular depth cue where parallel lines appear to converge,
creating a sense of distance. This can be observed when standing in the middle
of railroad tracks.

Interposition
A secondary monocular depth cue where one object which is closer, obscures
another, more distant object. For example, if a fence obscures part of a house,
we know that the fence is in front of the house.

Texture gradients
A secondary monocular depth cue where the amount of detail in a scene decreases as the distance
increases.

For example, if you look at a field of sunflowers, the closer flowers are more detailed while the
distant flowers are less distinct and more hazy.
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Relative size
A secondary monocular depth cue where if separate objects are expected to be
of the same size, the larger ones are seen as being closer.

If an artist wishes to depict two objects of the same size at different distances,
creating a sense of depth and distance on a 2-dimensional surface, they would
draw the more distant object smaller.

Height in the visual field


Also referred to as height in a horizontal plane. A secondary monocular depth
cue which reflects the fact that distant objects appear higher in a picture and
near objects are low in the visual field. In this way, artists create a sense of
depth and distance in their work.

Accommodation
A primary monocular depth cue which involves the adjustment of the shape of
the lens to change the focus of the eye. The lens bulges when focusing on
nearby objects, such as the eye of a needle, and elongates to focus on distant
objects, such as a bird flying.

Visual Constancies
Perceptual constancies are learned visual perception principles which enable us
to perceive stimuli which change in size, shape and brightness as remaining
constant. Although the retina detects sensory changes, our familiarity with the
observed object assists us in maintaining perceptual constancy.

Size Constancy
This is when we maintain an object's perceived size, even though the size of the retinal image
alters due to changes in its distance from us.

For example, when we look at a person from a distance of one metre, the retinal image is much
larger than the one produced when looking at the person from a distance of two metres.

Nevertheless, we keep the person's size constant and do not think that the person is shrinking as
they are walking away from us.

Shape Constancy
This is when we maintain an object's perceived shape, even though the image cast on the retina
changes according to the angle at which it is observed.

For example, the retinal image of a football alters depending on the angle at which it is viewed.
However, we maintain the shape of the football and do not think its shape is distorting.

Brightness Constancy

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This is when an object's perceived brightness, in relation to its surroundings, is
maintained even though there are changes in the amount of light received by the
retina.

For example, the brightness of a car remains constant, even on a cloudy day
with little sunlight, because everything surrounding it has been altered by the
same level of brightness.

Orientation (position constancy)

This is when we are able to maintain an object's location in space, relative to its
surroundings.

For example, light poles, trees and traffic lights are usually perceived as vertical
regardless of which position we are viewing them. We don't think that the object
has changed its orientation or location if we view it from a different position
rather, we maintain its orientation as being constant by comparing it to its
surroundings.

Alcohol
One of the most widely used drugs, alcohol is a depressant to the central
nervous system. This means that it depresses or slows down the functioning of
the body's cells and organs until they are less efficient. Its effect on the brain
influences the centre responsible for coordinating the senses, perception,
speech and judgment.

One of the short-term effects of excessive alcohol is distorted vision. It alters


one's perceptions and can reduce attention and concentration to external
stimuli. Therefore, a person under the influence of alcohol may not be fully
attending to the environment and may find it difficult to make judgments about
objects around them. For example, they might miscalculate the space between
them and a chair or the distance of an oncoming car.

Central nervous system damage is a long-term effect of heavy alcohol use.


Alcohol can affect the cerebellum, the structure of the brain which coordinates
eye and hand movements.

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Old Age
The process of ageing can affect visual perception in a number of ways.
Deterioration of any of the structures of the eye can take place, affecting the
ability to see clearly.

One condition that may arise as a result of old age is cataracts. A cataract is a
clouding of all or part of the normally clear lens within the eye, which results in
blurred or distorted vision. Cataracts are most often found in people over 55
years of age, but they are also occasionally found in younger people. Cataracts
are also related to a high blood sugar level, therefore diabetics have a higher
chance of developing them at an earlier age.
No one knows exactly what causes cataracts, but it is known that a chemical
change occurs within the eye to cause the lens to become cloudy. This may be
due to advancing age, heredity, injury or disease. Although cataracts develop
without pain or discomfort, there are some indications that a cataract may be
forming. These include blurred or hazy vision, the appearance of spots in front of
the eyes and an increased sensitivity to glare or the feeling of having a film over
the eyes. A temporary improvement in near vision may also indicate the
formation of a cataract.

If cataracts develop to the point where they affect the person's daily activities,
surgery is recommended. This is when the eye's natural lens is removed and
usually replaced with a plastic artificial lens.

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Cataracts result in blurred or distorted vision.


Glaucoma
Another condition which occurs most frequently in people over the age of 40 is
glaucoma. Glaucoma is the name for a group of eye conditions in which the optic
nerve is damaged at the point where it leaves the eye. Remember that this nerve
carries information from the light-sensitive retina to the brain where it is
perceived as a picture. The eye needs a certain amount of pressure to keep the
eyeball in shape however, if eye pressure rises, the optic nerve comes under too
much pressure and it can be damaged.

Age is a risk factor for chronic glaucoma. It is uncommon below the age of 40
but affects 1% of people over this age and 5% over 65. The danger with chronic
glaucoma is that the person's eye may seem perfectly normal. There is no pain
and their eyesight will seem to be unchanged. However their vision is being
damaged. The early loss in the field of vision is usually in the shape of an arc, a
little above and/or below the centre when looking straight ahead. If the
glaucoma is untreated, this blank area spreads both outwards and inwards.
Eventually it is like looking through a long tube hence it is called 'tunnel vision'.
In time even this sight would be lost.

Presbyopia
Presbyopia, better known as age-related long-sightedness, affects the majority
of people in their 40's and almost everyone by the age of 55. It is a condition in
which the eye loses its ability to focus on near objects.

Presbyopia is a natural and unavoidable change which can cause blurred near
vision, eye fatigue and even headaches.

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A sufferer of presbyopia or age-related long sightedness.


Retinal Detachment
Retinal detachment can also occur in the elderly. It is when the retina separates
from the pigment caused by holes or tears in the retina, a tumour or fluid
pressure in the area.

Apart from a sudden loss of vision, other early symptoms could be light flashes
or an unusual number of spots and floaters.

Visual Illusions

Visual perception is not always accurate and, at times, is prone to being fallible.
This is demonstrated by visual illusions where we are mislead by the visual
stimuli before us. In an illusion, we make a false judgement of reality.
There are many illusions, but a few examples include;

 Muller-Lyer illusion

 Ames-room

 Ponzo

 Moon illusion

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Muller-Lyer Illusion
This consists of two lines, one with 'arrow-heads' each end and the other, with
'fishtails' at each end. Although both lines are of equal length, we perceive the
line with the 'fishtails' as being longer.

Richard Gregory explains this illusion in terms of depth cues and size constancy.
He believes that we liken the line with 'fishtails' as being the inside corner of a
room and the other line as the edge of a building's outer wall. Both lines cast the
same size image on the retina however, as the line with the outward pointing
arrowheads is perceived to be further away, we apply size constancy and
interpret that it must be longer.

Ames-room
This illusion, which makes use of the misperception of distance, was designed
by Adelbert Ames. It is a specially contrived room which is built with a
trapezoidal rear wall and a sloping floor and ceiling.

When viewed from a certain point, it looks like an ordinary rectangular room. But
in reality, the left corner of the Ames room is taller and farther from the viewer
than the right. Hence, a person standing in the left corner appears very small,
whereas one standing in the shorter and nearer right corner looks like a giant.
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Furthermore, if a person walks across the room from left to right, the viewer is
faced with a conflict.
If the viewer maintains shape constancy, they continue to perceive the room as
square and if they maintain size constancy, they can refuse to see the person
'grow'. Most people maintain shape constancy and as a result perceive the
person to 'shrink' and 'grow' as they walk from one side of the Ames room to the
other.

Ponzo
This illusion, also known as the railway illusion, appears to result from the same
visual perceptual principles at work in the Muller-Lyer and moon illusions.

The upper and lower horizontal lines are the same length but the upper one
appears longer. This illusion probably occurs because the converging lines on
either side convey linear perspective and provide a sense of distance,
suggesting that the upper line is further away.

Just as in the Muller-Lyer illusion, we think that if two lines cast equally long
retinal images, but one seems further away, the more distant one is assumed to
be longer. Thus, the Ponzo illusion is due largely to a combination of the
misapplication of size constancy and the misperception of depth.

Moon Illusion
This is when the moon appears to be larger on the horizon than when it is at its
zenith, high in the sky. This is an illusion because the moon's real size does not
change. The retinal size of the moon at the horizon and at the zenith is the same
and the moon's actual distance from the observer also remains the same at the
two locations.

However, as Kaufman and Rock (1962) propose, the horizon appears further
away to the observer than the zenith because of depth and distance cues. We
then make the conclusion that if two objects cast identical retinal images, but
are at different distances, then the farther object must be larger than the nearer
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object, again misapplying the visual perceptual principle of size constancy. Thus,
we incorrectly perceive the horizon moon as larger than the zenith moon

The key points from this module are:


Reception is the process of receiving electromagnetic energy from the
environment at the site of the visual receptor cells called rods and cones.

The process of visual perception involves the selection, organisation and


interpretation of information.

The just noticeable difference (JND) is the smallest difference between two
particular stimuli.

Light is the physical energy source for vision.

Light waves from the visible light spectrum enter the eye through the cornea
which is a thin, protective covering over the eye.

The iris is the coloured part of the eye which contracts or expands governing the
size of the pupil.

The retina is neural tissue and contains two types of photoreceptors called rods
and cones.

Rods are used for night vision as they operate in dim light.
Cones are used for daylight vision, visual acuity and colour vision.

As rods operate in minimal light conditions, they are more sensitive than cones.

The central fovea vision within the retina contains only cones and is the area of
greatest visual acuity.

Perceptual expectancy is a tendency to perceive stimuli in a specific way.

Visual perception does not only involve visual perception principles, but
psychological factors and physiological factors also influence what we see.

The Gestalt principles include figure-ground, closure, similarity, and proximity.

Figure-ground: when some aspects of a stimulus appear to stand out as the


figure against a plainer background.

Closure: this involves the completion of missing contours so that we perceive a


consistent overall form.

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Similarity: this is when elements that are similar tend to be grouped together.

Proximity: this is when we perceive elements which are near one another as
belonging together.
There are various depth cues which occur within our bodies and within the
environment or pictures.

Depth cues which occur within our bodies are known as primary depth cues and
those in the environment or pictures are called secondary depth cues.

Retinal Disparity (Binocular Disparity): A primary binocular depth cue which is


caused by the fact that our eyes are 6-7cms apart and thus receive slightly
different retinal images.

The brain fuses the two retinal images together to provide us with stereoscopic
vision.

Convergence: A primary binocular depth cue where the eyes turn inward to focus
on an object so that a single image is formed on both retinas.

Perceptual constancies are learned visual perception principles which enable us


to perceive stimuli which change in size, shape and brightness as remaining
constant.

Size consistency is when we maintain an object's perceived size, even though


the size of the retinal image alters due to changes in its distance from us.

Shape consistency is when we maintain an object's perceived shape, even


though the image cast on the retina changes according to the angle at which it
is observed.
Brightness constancy is when an object's perceived brightness, in relation to its
surroundings, is maintained even though there are changes in the amount of light
received by the retina.

Orientation is when we are able to maintain an object's location in space,


relative to its surroundings.

Alcohol’s effect on the brain influences the centre responsible for coordinating
the senses, perception, speech and judgment.

The process of ageing can affect visual perception in a number of ways.


Deterioration of any of the structures of the eye can take place, affecting the
ability to see clearly.

A cataract is a clouding of all or part of the normally clear lens within the eye,
which results in blurred or distorted vision.

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No one knows exactly what causes cataracts, but it is known that a chemical
change occurs within the eye to cause the lens to become cloudy.

Glaucoma is the name for a group of eye conditions in which the optic nerve is
damaged at the point where it leaves the eye.

Presbyopia is a condition in which the eye loses its ability to focus on near
objects.
Retinal detachment can also occur in the elderly. It is when the retina separates
from the pigment caused by holes or tears in the retina, a tumour or fluid
pressure in the area.

Visual perception is not always accurate and, at times, is prone to being fallible.
This is demonstrated by visual illusions where we are mislead by the visual
stimuli before us.

Examples of illusions include the Muller-Lyer illusion, ames-room, ponzo, and the
moon illusion.

Muller-Lyer Illusion: this consists of two lines, one with 'arrow-heads' each end
and the other, with 'fishtails' at each end. Although both lines are of equal
length, we perceive the line with the 'fishtails' as being longer.

Ames-room: this illusion, which makes use of the misperception of distance, was
designed by Adelbert Ames. It is a specially contrived room which is built with a
trapezoidal rear wall and a sloping floor and ceiling.

Ponzo: this illusion, also known as the railway illusion, appears to result from the
same visual perceptual principles at work in the Muller-Lyer and moon illusions.

Moon illusion: this is when the moon appears to be larger on the horizon than
when it is at its zenith, high in the sky. This is an illusion because the moon's
real size does not change.

MODULE 5: MEMORY

Enhancing Retrieval and Memory

A mnemonic device is any strategy or technique used to enhance memory.


There are many techniques used to enhance memory; however, the most
effective ones are those which use imagery, rehearsal or association.
Mnemonic devices which use imagery, rehearsal, or association include;

 Method of loci
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 The peg word method

 Narrative chaining

 Acrostics

 Acronyms

 Rhymes

Method of Loci
The method of loci is an ancient memory aid which involves choosing a location
you know extremely well, such as your home. You then take a mental walk
through the location to choose various resting points along the way, e.g. the
stove and the stereo.

You then associate a segment of information to be remembered with a resting


point. To recall the information, you take a mental walk through the various
locations where each location or resting point acts as a retrieval cue.

Peg Word Method


The peg word method uses imagery or visualisation to recall information.
Information to be remembered is hung on mental 'pegs'. They are:

 One is a bun

 Two is a shoe

 Three is a tree

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 Four is a door

 Five is a hive

 Six is sticks

 Seven is heaven

 Eight is a gate

 Nine is a line

 Ten is a hen

You then associate the items to be remembered with the pegs. For example, if
you needed to remember the words cat, cup and fish you might imagine a cat
eating a bun, a shoe sitting in a cup and a fish hanging from a branch of a tree.

Narrative Chaining
Narrative chaining is another useful way to remember information such as a list
of words. A story is created around the words to be remembered, linking the
words in a specific order. For example, if you needed to remember the following
list:

 cat

 baby

 chair

 book

 fire

 clock

 cupboard

 bed

You might create a story like this;

 There were a cat and a baby sitting on a chair reading a book in front of
the fire. The clock on the cupboard said time for bed.

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Acrostics
Acrostics are phrases, rhymes or poems in which the first letter of each word is
a cue to retrieve another word which begins with the same letter. For example,
an acrostic to remember the planets in their correct order is;

(M)y (V)ery (E)vil (M)other (J)ust (S)liced (U)p (N)ine (P)eople


(Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Pluto).

Acronyms
Acronyms are words which are formed out of the first letters of a series of
words.

For example, NASA is an acronym for (N)ational (A)eronautics and (S)pace


(A)dministration.

Memory
Memory involves an active, information-processing system that receives,
organises, stores and recovers information.

Various strategies have been devised to minimise forgetting and to improve


encoding and retrieval from long-term memory.

Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval


Many definitions of memory liken it to a computer system. For information to be
successfully memorised and retrieved for later use, it goes through a number of
different stages.

Encoding

This involves changing stimuli into a useable form so the information can be transferred into
storage.

This is just like a computer where information punched into the keyboard is transformed into an
electronic code that the computer can store.

Storage

This is the retention of information in our long-term memory (LTM) which can
later be retrieved.

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We store information in different areas of the brain whereas computers store
information on disks. Also, the storage of our LTM is limitless however,
computers have a finite capacity.

Retrieval
This is the process of recovering information from LTM. We retrieve information
via cues or prompts which is similar to computers.

Measures of Retention

One example of recall is going to the supermarket without a shopping list


Recall - the retrieval of information from LTM with minimal cues, e.g. as if you
were given a blank sheet of paper and asked to recall a list of words.

Recognition - when current information matches information stored in our LTM,


e.g. matching the information presented to you in a multiple choice question
with information you have previously learned. Recognition is generally a more
effective method of retrieval compared to recall because it provides cues.
However, it is the least sensitive measure of retention because it relies on cues
being in front of the person.
Relearning - learning material again. Ebbinghaus calculated a savings score
when he relearned information. This is a calculation made of the amount of time
saved each time information is learned again. The savings score is calculated as
follows:

Memory and Rhymes


Rhymes are a verbal mnemonic that helps us remember information. You
probably use rhymes all the time without realising.

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At the end of a month, many people can be heard humming the rhyme 'Thirty
days hath September, April, June and November' in order to work out how many
days in that month. It would be difficult to remember the length of each month
without such a rhyme. Rhymes are old and useful tricks to remember information
more effectively.

Sensory, Short-term and Long-term Memory


As the below table indicates, information in long-term memory appears to be
stored in different locations. Our memory is distributed and fragmented rather
than localised and unitary.

Duration Capacity Properties

• the initial phase of


memory where information
• iconic: registers briefly on the
0.3 of a sensory organs
second • visual sensory memory
Sensory • echoic: • auditory sensory memory
Memory 3-4 • if information is attended
(SM) seconds • large to it is transferred to STM

Short- • less • holds 7 plus or • information is encoded


term than or minus 2 bits of as it enters STM
Memory equal to information • holds information that
(STM) 30 • can increase you are consciously
seconds capacity processing at the time
by chunking, whic • also referred to as
h is the grouping 'working memory' as it is
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where mental manipulation


takes place
• information may be
coming from sensory
memory or being retrieved
from LTM
together of bits of • if information is not
information to form attended to it is lost or
a chunk displaced

- the transfer of information


from STM to LTM involves a
period of time
for consolidation in order
for it to be permanently
stored.Consolidation
theory suggests that
information can be altered
or lost during this
consolidation phase
- information is stored
Long- according to meaning and
term categories known as
Memory - relatively the semantic network
(LTM) permanent - limitless theory

Long-term Memory

Stored information is highly organised into four types of long-term memory;

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Maintenance and Elaborative Rehearsal


For information to be transferred from STM to LTM, it needs to be attended to
and actively rehearsed. There are different ways to rehearse information.

One is maintenance rehearsal which involves repetition of information in order to


keep the material active in short-term memory. The person rehearses or repeats
the information without concentrating on its meaning therefore attending to the
material at only a superficial level of processing.
A second type of rehearsal is elaborative rehearsal. This involves associating
new information with already existing information stored in LTM for easier recall.

The Semantic Network Theory


The semantic network theory describes how information is likely to be stored in
LTM. It proposes that:

 Information is likely to be stored in terms of concepts or categories which are


linked together in terms of their meaning.

 The links between these concepts are organised into a hierarchy where the links
vary in length; and

 The length of the links is related to the strength of the association between the
concepts; the shorter the link between concepts, the stronger the association.

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The Serial Position Effect
The serial position effect refers to the tendency for us to remember items at the
beginning of a list (the primacy effect) and those at the end of a list (the recency
effect).

Information at the beginning has been rehearsed more and therefore is


transferred into LTM, and material at the end is still in STM. The items in the
middle have most likely been displaced.

Theories on Forgetting
Ebbinghaus discovered that information that was forgotten followed a typical
pattern or curve when plotted on a graph. He labelled this a forgetting curve. It is
a graphical representation of the amount of information retained as a function of
time since learning the information.

Ebbinghaus found that after an hour, approximately 50% of the information is


forgotten. The rate of forgetting then seems to level out and by the 31st day
after learning, 28% of the information is retained. However, if the information
holds meaning for the learner or is complex, the rate of forgetting is not as great.

A typical forgetting curve demonstrating the rapid loss of information in the first 20
minutes and the stabilisation of forgetting after about a month

Anterograde and Retrograde Amnesia

Alzheimer's Disease, Dementia and Memory Loss

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Organic Causes of Forgetting
Memory loss can be due to biological or organic causes. This can be as a result
of physical trauma such as a stroke or injury. Organic amnesia is usually partial
and a total loss of memory is rare.

Anterograde Amnesia
When a person cannot remember events which happened after the brain damage
occurred.

'Antero' means forward, therefore it is the loss of memory 'forward' of or after


the brain damage.

Retrograde Amnesia

When a person cannot remember events which happened before the brain
damage occurred.

'Retro' means backwards, therefore it is the loss of memory 'backwards' of or


before the brain damage.

Alzheimer's Disease
Affecting one in 10 people over 65 years of age and nearly half of those aged
over 85, is the most common cause of dementia. It is a degenerative disease
that usually begins gradually, causing a person to forget recent events or
familiar tasks. The rate of progression of Alzheimer's disease varies from person
to person but this brain disease eventually causes confusion, personality and
behaviour changes and impaired judgment.

Communication becomes difficult as the sufferer struggles to find words, finish


thoughts or follow directions. The person experiences difficulties with learning,
thinking and reasoning, and most sufferers become unable to care for
themselves.

Scientists are still unsure as to what causes Alzheimer's. Age and family history
have been identified as potential risk factors. Researchers believe that
Alzheimer's is a complex disease, probably caused by a variety of influences. At
this stage, there is no proven medical treatment to cure or stop the progress of
Alzheimer's disease. Some drugs may temporarily improve symptoms related to
the disease.

Warning signs associated with Alzheimer's disease include;

 Memory loss affecting job skills

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 Difficulty performing familiar tasks

 Problems with language

 Disorientation to time and place

 Poor or decreased judgement

 Problems with abstract thinking

 Misplacing things

 Change in mood or behaviour

 Change in personality

 Loss of initiative

The key points from this module are:


A mnemonic device is any strategy or technique used to enhance memory.

The method of loci is an ancient memory aid which involves associating a


segment of information with a resting point.

The peg word method uses imagery or visualisation to recall information.


Information to be remembered is hung on mental 'pegs'.

Narrative chaining is another useful way to remember information such as a list


of words. A story is created around the words to be remembered, linking the
words in a specific order.

Acrostics are phrases, rhymes or poems in which the first letter of each word is
a cue to retrieve another word which begins with the same letter.

Acronyms are words which are formed out of the first letters of a series of
words.

Memory involves an active, information-processing system that receives,


organises, stores and recovers information.

Various strategies have been devised to minimise forgetting and to improve


encoding and retrieval from long-term memory.

Many definitions of memory liken it to a computer system.

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For information to be successfully memorised and retrieved for later use, it goes
through the encoding, storage, and retrieval stages.

Encoding involves changing stimuli into a useable form so the information can be
transferred into storage.

Storage is the retention of information in our long-term memory (LTM) which can
later be retrieved.

Retrieval is the process of recovering information from LTM.

Recall - the retrieval of information from LTM with minimal cues.

Recognition - when current information matches information stored in our LTM.

Relearning - learning material again.

Rhymes are a verbal mnemonic that helps us remember information.

Memory is distributed and fragmented rather than localised and unitary.

Long-term memory is highly organised into four types; declarative, procedural,


semantic, and episodic.

For information to be transferred from STM to LTM, it needs to be attended to


and actively rehearsed.

Maintenance rehearsal involves repetition of information in order to keep the


material active in short-term memory.

Elaborative rehearsal involves associating new information with already existing


information stored in LTM for easier recall.

The semantic network theory describes how information is likely to be stored in


LTM.

The serial position effect refers to the tendency for us to remember items at the
beginning of a list (the primacy effect) and those at the end of a list (the recency
effect).

Ebbinghaus discovered that information that was forgotten followed a typical


pattern or curve when plotted on a graph. He labelled this a forgetting curve.
Memory loss can be due to biological or organic causes.

Organic amnesia is usually partial and a total loss of memory is rare.

Anterograde amnesia is when a person cannot remember events which


happened after the brain damage occurred.

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Retrograde amnesia is when a person cannot remember events which happened
before the brain damage occurred.

Alzheimer’s disease is the most common cause of dementia.

The rate of progression of Alzheimer's disease varies from person to person but
this brain disease eventually causes confusion, personality and behaviour
changes and impaired judgment.

Researchers believe that Alzheimer's is a complex disease, probably caused by a


variety of influences. Age and family history have been identified as potential
risk factors.

MODULE 7: RESEARCH AND METHODOLOGY

Research Methods in Psychology

This resource covers research methods in Psychology. It looks at a variety of


methods and concepts including: inferential statistics, participant selection and
allocation, the Placebo and experimenter effects, single-blind and double-blind
procedures and inferring from data as well as ethical considerations in the
conduct of psychological research. Let's begin with an overview of inferential
statistics.
Definition of inferential statistics

While descriptive statistics are used by a researcher to organise, summarise and


describe data, inferential statistics are used by a researcher to interpret the
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data and make inferences from observations of a sample in an experiment to
generalise to a wider population.

Participant Selection
Participant selection involves the way in which potential subjects are chosen to
participate in psychological research.

Random Sampling
Ensures that subjects have an equal opportunity to be chosen as participants in
the experiment. Usually, yields a fairly representative result.

This involves the selection of subjects in such a way, that each has an equal
opportunity to be chosen as a participant in the experiment. A number of
methods can be chosen such as:

- picking names out of a hat


- choosing every third person on an alphabetical list

If the sample is large enough, random sampling usually yields a fairly


representative result.

Stratified Sampling
Represents the general population on a certain characteristic. This prevents bias
in the sample and enables the researcher to generalise the findings to the wider
population.

In some experiments, the sample needs to be chosen to represent the general


population on a certain characteristic, e.g. gender or age. Therefore, the
researcher makes sure that the proportion of people in the sample with the
particular characteristic is the same as the proportion of people in the general
population with that characteristic.

When subjects within each stratum are selected in a random way, it is called a
stratified random sample. This method prevents biases in the sample and
enables the researcher to generalise the findings to the wider population.

Participation Allocation
Participant allocation involves the way in which subjects are assigned to the
various conditions in a study.

Independent Variable (IV)


This is the variable that is manipulated or varied by the experimenter. It is
applied to the experimental group and is known as the cause of the results.

Dependent Variable (DV)

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This is the variable which is being observed in the experimental situation to see
the effect of the independent variable. Think of it as the outcome or results of
both the experimental and control groups.

Control Group
The group of subjects which is matched in all ways possible with the subject characteristics and
conditions of the experimental group except that it is not exposed to the independent variable.

This group serves as a baseline measure for comparison with the experimental group. The
control group helps the researcher to determine if the independent variable did, in fact, cause an
effect on the dependent variable.

Experimental Group
The group of subjects which is matched in all ways possible with the subject
characteristics and conditions of the control group but is also exposed to the
independent variable.

The purpose of the experimental group is to provide a measure of the influence


in the dependent variable produced by the intervention.

Placebo Effect

A placebo effect is when there are changes in the subjects' behaviour caused by
the belief that they received an active drug or treatment when, in fact, the drug
was a neutral substance. This inert or neutral 'treatment' is called a placebo and
is used to equalise the expectations of the control and experimental groups.
For example, if you wanted to test the effects of a new drug which was supposed
to improve memory, you could have two groups. The experimental group would
be given the drug in tablet form and the control group would be given tablets
that looked the same as those received by the experimental group, except that
they contained glucose (a placebo). Both groups would then be tested on a
memory task. In this experiment, the subjects feel that they have been treated
equally and any difference in the groups would most likely be due to the drug.

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In another experiment, three groups could be tested where group one was given
the drug, group two, a placebo, and group three nothing. If the results of groups
one and two were very similar and much higher than group three, then this is an
example of a placebo effect.

Experimenter Effect
This is the way in which an experimenter might influence the outcome of an
experiment without realising that he or she is doing so. In order to minimise
subject or experimenter effects, researchers design single and double-blind
experiments.

Single-blind
In a single-blind experiment, the subjects do not know whether they are in the control group or
experimental group condition.

This prevents the subjects' knowledge or expectations of the experiment impacting on the results.

Double-blind

In a double-blind experiment, the data collection is carried out by a third party


who is told what to do but has no knowledge of the expected outcomes or which
group is which.

Thus neither the subjects nor the experimenter can bias the experiment.

Ways to Minimise the Effects of Extraneous Variables


In any experiment, the goal of the researcher is to be able to confidently
conclude that the observed effect was caused by the independent variable
alone. However, the difficulty arises when the dependent variable can be
influenced by variables other than the independent variable.

Variables, other than the independent variable, which may influence the
dependent variable are called extraneous variables. Extraneous variables have
the effect of confounding the results in an experiment and the researcher can no
longer draw conclusions regarding the causal relationship that exists between
the independent variable and the dependent variable.

In order to minimise the effects of extraneous variables, researchers may


choose the following experimental designs:

Repeated-measures Design
In order to control for variations in subject characteristics (which may influence the dependent
variable), a within-subjects design may be used called a repeated-measures design. This is where

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the subjects within an experiment are tested or measured more than once, i.e. they are repeatedly
measured. The same subjects are used in each condition, receiving all levels of the independent
variable thereby guaranteeing equivalence of groups at the beginning of the study.

For example, subjects may be given a pre-test and then asked to complete a post-test. In this way,
the subject characteristics remain constant. Another example is if a researcher wanted to study
attention span for complex and simple visual stimuli. The researcher may test the same children
who would be exposed to both the complex and the simple visual stimuli conditions. The
attention span of all children would be tested under each of the two conditions, hence the
subjects are repeatedly measured. This ensures that the two groups are equivalent in subject
characteristics, minimising the influence of extraneous variables.

Matched-subjects Design
As well as utilising a repeated-measures design to minimise the effects of extraneous variables,
researchers often choose to conduct a matched-subjects design. A matched-subjects design also
attempts to obtain equivalence between groups thus increasing the sensitivity of the experiment.
It is where subjects are matched or equated on one or more variables (other than the independent
variable) assumed to have an effect on the dependent variable. Then, whenever possible, the
subjects are randomly assigned to conditions. In this way, the sensitivity of the experiment is
increased.

For example, a researcher may identify the variable of subject intelligence as having an impact
on the dependent variable. All the subjects would be matched on intelligence level, holding this
variable constant and therefore controlling for it in all groups. The subjects would then be
randomly assigned to experimental conditions.

A matched-subjects design can also mean that each subject has a matched subject in each of the
other conditions so that the groups are correlated. Therefore, rather than using the same subjects
in each condition as in the repeated-measures design, the matched-subjects design uses different
subjects in each condition who have been matched as much as possible on identified variables.

Independent-groups Design
This research design is also known as a between-subject design as it has
different subjects in each group. The separate or independent groups of subjects
receive different levels of the independent variable, so there is no chance of one
treatment contaminating the other. In its simplest form, the experimental group
receives the independent variable and the control group does not.

However, the independent-groups design has the potential of introducing


variables other than the independent variable because of differences among the
subjects in the groups. These extraneous variables may confuse the clear
relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variable.
Therefore, to minimise the confounding of subject characteristics with the

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independent variable, subjects need to be either randomly assigned to the
different conditions or matched between groups on personal characteristics.
These procedures ensure the formation of equivalent groups of subjects.
Definition of Operational Hypothesis
The IV and the DV in an experiment need to be operationalised. This refers to the
precise way in which the variable has been measured. It is a statement of how
the variable can be expressed as a quantity.

Before collecting any data, a hypothesis needs to be formulated. A hypothesis is


an 'educated guess' about the relationship(s) between two or more variables
which can be scientifically tested. Psychologists use the word 'educated' as the
hypothesis is derived from some theory or previous research which educates the
researcher when formulating a hypothesis for his/her study. A hypothesis is also
a 'guess' because it is not a statement of fact or certainty and could be
supported or refuted through the process of data collection.

Initially, the hypothesis may be stated in more general terms, e.g. 'that stress
increases blood pressure'. This form is too broad to be tested statistically and
must be expressed more precisely.

When designing the research, the hypothesis needs to be operationalised, i.e.


the variables must be clearly defined and measurable. The operational
hypothesis should include both the independent and dependent variables and
predict a direction of the changes in the dependent variable.

Inferring from Data


This is when statements or conclusions are drawn from the results obtained in
an experiment. Inferences are made of the effect the IV has on the DV.

Statistical Significance
Statistical significance is a way of using statistical tests to determine the
probability that an observed difference in the results is due to chance. If the
difference is statistically significant, it is improbable that the difference was
caused by chance; therefore, the hypothesis would be supported.

The most commonly used significance levels are .05 and .01. If you decide before
calculating your statistical tests that the .05 significance level is to be used, this
means you will accept as a real difference only one that is so large that it could
have occurred by chance only 5 times in 100 (p less than .05). If the .01
significance level is selected, then the difference can be expected to occur only
1 time in 100 by chance (p less than .01).

Conclusion

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A conclusion is a judgment about the meaning of the results in an experiment. It relates to the
effect of the independent variable on the subjects involved.

If a representative sample was selected, appropriate data collection methods were employed and
conditions carefully controlled, then the study is most likely internally valid and appropriate
conclusions can be drawn. If there is a confounding of variables in the experiment, then the
conclusion may be questioned.

Generalization

A generalisation is a statement that has related the results of the experiment to


a wider population. The statement goes beyond the current experiment and
generalises to other people or settings.

A generalisation can only extend as far as the population that the sample in the
study has represented. This is termed external validity. At times, generalisations

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of the results should not be made because of specific circumstances or subjects
in the experiment.

Scatter Diagram
A scatter diagram is the graphic technique used to represent the relationship
between two variables. The scores of one set of data are plotted on the X axis
and the scores of the other set of data are plotted on the Y axis.

The dots are then observed to see if they cluster in a particular way. If the dots
seem to be dispersed everywhere and the correlation coefficient is zero, then
there is no relationship between the two variables. This is referred to as a zero
correlation, where the change in one variable has no effect on the other variable,
e.g. hair colour and sporting ability.

Scatter Diagram

Measures of Relationship
Relational research attempts to show how two variables change together. The
correlation method of investigation is used when a researcher wants to establish
the relationship between two variables. The degree of relationship between the
two variables is termed the correlation coefficient. A correlation coefficient not
only indicates how strongly two variables are related but also the direction,
whether it be positive or negative, of the relationship.

The correlation coefficient, symbolised by the letter r, extends from -1.00


through 0 to +1.00. A correlation coefficient of -1.00 or +1.00 indicates a perfect
correlation. A score between these figures would indicate either a strong
correlation or a weak correlation. The closer to zero the figure is, whether it be
positive or negative, the weaker the correlation. For example, a correlation of
0.55 indicates a stronger relationship between two variables than a correlation
of 0.25 and a correlation of -0.85 indicates an even stronger relationship.

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Positive Correlation
When both variables change in the same direction, i.e. either increasing or
decreasing in value, it is referred to as a positive correlation. This indicates a
direct relationship between the two variables, where high scores on variable X
are associated with high scores on variable Y and low scores on variable X are
associated with low scores on variable Y.

For example, one could predict a positive correlation between the number of
hours practicing a sport and the number of games won. In this case most of the
dots on the scatter diagram would be clustered together, indicating that an
increase in one variable is associated with an increase in the other variable.

Positive Correlation

Negative Correlation

Negative Correlation
In contrast to a positive correlation, a negative correlation indicates an inverse
relationship between two variables. This means that a high score on variable X
is associated with a low score on variable Y, or a low score on variable X is
associated with a high score on variable Y.

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For example, one could predict a negative correlation between the number of
police patrolling the streets and the rate of crime in that area. The dots on the
scatter diagram would still cluster together but would indicate that as one
variable increases in value the other variable decreases in value.
The correlation method is useful to a researcher as it enables the researcher to
make predictions. It indicates if a relationship exists between two variables and
the strength of the relationship. However, remember that the correlation method
cannot demonstrate causation. The researcher cannot assume that because two
variables are related to one another that one causes the other.

Participants' Rights
Confidentiality refers to the principle that all personal information and responses
of the participants in an experiment must not be revealed without their
permission. Questionnaires or any data collecting devices should not display any
of the participants' personal details and, should the researcher need to retest in
the course of a longitudinal study, information identifying the participants must
be kept separate from their responses.

In any psychological study, participants must be involved on a voluntary basis,


i.e. they are given the freedom to decline participation. Participants must not be
coerced, given inducements or threatened in any way. If they are given a
payment, it should only be to cover any costs incurred in being involved in the
study rather than serving as a money making exercise. Participants should be
told that they are free to withdraw at any stage of the study so their welfare is
not compromised in any way.
Informed Consent Procedures
Before any investigation begins, potential subjects need to decide whether to
participate in an experiment after being informed of the nature and purpose of
the research. As already stated, their participation must be totally voluntary and
whenever possible, their consent should be obtained in writing.

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Debriefing
This is where the researcher, in a post-experimental session, explains the true
nature of the research to the participants. The participants are then given the
opportunity to ask any questions about the research and to comment freely on
any part of the experiment.

This procedure ensures that the participants experience no lasting harm while
still ensuring that the purpose of the investigation is not compromised.

Professional Conduct
The researcher of any study should adhere to the ethical principles outlined
above and should maintain a rigorous standard in each stage of the research.
He/she should respect the rights of the participants and use the data collected
to draw appropriate and valid conclusions in order to further the knowledge base
in the given area.

The objectives of the research should be clear and justify the treatment of the
subjects, whether they be human or animal.

An Overview of Ethical Considerations


Before any psychological research is undertaken, the experimenter must make
sure that all ethical considerations have been taken into account. The research
needs to be carefully designed so that the data can be collected without harming
the participants in any way, whether it be physical or psychological.

Once the experimenter is satisfied that the study does not breach any ethical
guidelines, he/she must submit the proposal of the research to an ethics
committee who scrutinise it before giving the experimenter permission to
proceed.

During the course of the study, the experimenter must act professionally and not
breach any ethical boundaries. They should take all precautions.

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Empirical Research
Referencing accurately and following a particular methodology is crucial when
writing an empirical research activity. In the following pages you will learn how
to correctly reference from books, journals, CD-ROMs and other reference
material

Click on to each section of the empirical research activity for tips on writing a
research report;

Title
• Should be short and concise, yet specific enough for the reader to know what
you are doing exactly
• Should summarise the main idea of the empirical research
• Should identify the actual variables or theoretical issues under investigation
and the relationship between them
• Should make sense. Do not make the mistake of just putting a few terms
together.
• Aim for one to two lines, preferably less than 12 words.
Abstract (100 words)
• This is a summary of all sections in your report to enable the reader to gain an
understanding of the main outline of the research
• Should describe the following in order;
1. the problem being investigated, including the hypothesis(es)
2. participants/subjects and their characteristics eg sex, age, number
3. the method, including apparatus and data collection procedures
4. the main findings
5. the conclusion(s)
• Use past tense to describe what was done and present tense to discuss
conclusions
• Should be in one single paragraph

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• It is easier to write the abstract last after you have completed each section.
however, it does appear immediatly after the title

Introduction (200-250 words


• Provides the background to your experiment
• Should start with a broad general statement, introducing the area of the search
• Begins with the greatest level of generality, then it becomes more specific
leading to the aim and hypothesis of your experiment
• Explain what previous research has been done in the particular area, making
sure to cite references correctly
• State the aim(s) of the study. The aim is the purpose of your experiment, what
you are attempting to test
• State the hypothesis(es). The hypothesis is the predicted outcome of the
research. It is not a random guess but based on previous research, therefore
referred to as an 'educated guess'
• The hypothesis must be able to be tested and stated in operational terms
• There should be no separate sub-headings for the aim and hypothesis
• A good introduction tells the reader what had been done in past research, and
provides adequate justification for the aim and hypothesis

Method (150-200 words)


• Tells the reader how the experiment has been conducted. It has three main
parts, each should provide enough detail for other people to repeat the
experiment in the exact same way
• Specify who has participated in the experiment, the number of subjects, their
age, gender and the method of selection
• Specify the number of subjects assigned to the experimental and control
conditions
• Describe all the equipment used in the order that it was required in the
experiment
• You may include material relevant to the apparatus section in the appendix
such as any questions that were used
• State every step in the experiment in chronological sequence. You must
provide enough detail for someone to replicate your research if they wish
• Do not use terms like 'students' and 'teacher'. Use terms like 'subjects' and
'experimenter''

Results (150-200 words)


• A simple, clear, summary of the main results. order according to the research
question and hypothesis tested
• Do not include raw data but the data that has been processed. remember hat it
is the data from the entire class not just your individual findings
• Organise the data using the appropriate descriptive statistics such as tables,
graphs, charts, or diagrams
• Tables and figures should be numbered in the order of appearance in the report
• They should also have titles
• The number and title of a figure appears underneath the diagram. However,
the number and title of a table appears above the table
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Discussion (200-250 words)
• Relates back to the introduction where you begin by stating whether the
hypothesis(es) is/are supported or rejected
• Never use the words 'prove' or 'disprove' when discussing the hypothesis as, in
psychology, nothing is ever so definite or conclusive. The results of a single
experiment cannot prove or disprove anything
• Compare your results with the previous research mentioned in the introduction.
Remember to discuss the results and not merely state them again
• Identify the main limitations of the design and suggest means of improvement
• Identify the main limitations and difficulties in interpretation of the results
• End your discussion with a broad statement
• The discussion should be approximately the same length as the introduction

References
• Use the Harvard system of referencing
• Mainly needed in the introduction and discussion sections
• Don't leave referencing til the last moment, as you will be creating work for
yourself by having to find the details of books that you can no longer access.
take down the details of every source you use as you are researching
• Keep the referencing information close beside you as you are writing the report
so that you can constantly check your references

Appendices
• Attach any new data, questionaries or additional material that are used in the
experiment
• Number each attachment as Appendix 1, Appendix 2, etc

References

 Use the Harvard system of referencing

 Mainly needed in the introduction and discussion sections

 Don't leave referencing till the last moment, as you will be creating work for
yourself by having to find the details of books that you can no longer access -
take down the details of every source you use as you are researching

 Keep the following steps close beside you as you are writing the report so you
can constantly check your referencing
Referencing within the body of a research report

Any direct quote from a text or paraphrasing of information in the body of the
report must be acknowledged with a reference.

1. For a direct quote from a book or article, you need to indicate which
sentence you are quoting by using quotation marks, i.e. "????"
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2. Immediately after closing the quotation marks, you need to provide the
author(s), year of publication and page number within brackets. For
example, (Plotnik, 1989, p. 212).
3. If you are paraphrasing information, do not use quotation marks but simply
include the author, year and page number within brackets after the
particular paragraph.
4. If the information is from an Internet web site, you need to provide the
author or name of the organisation, date and the internet address within
brackets. The date is not necessarily the original date of publication, but
may be the date when it was added to the database. If you cannot locate
any date on the site, include the date which you accessed it. For example,
(illusionworks, 1995, June 29, http://www.illusionworks.com).
5. For a CD-ROM, provide the author (if it has one), the title of the CD-ROM,
and the year of publication within brackets. For example, (Microsoft
Encarta 96 Encyclopedia, 1993-1995).

References Obtained from Secondary Sources


If you have found a relevant piece of empirical research in a secondary source
(one that discusses the study but is not the original paper on that study), the
reference needs to be included in the essay as follows:

In Cannon and Washburn's (1912) study (cited in Coon,1989, p.285) they found
that...

At the end of the report, you must include a reference list, not a bibliography.
The reference list contains only the resources that you have actually cited. They
are arranged in alphabetical order based on the surname of the first author of a
source. Work through the following steps to make sure you have referenced your
sources accurately.
Referencing Books

1. Author(s): the surname and initials of each author of the book.


2. Year of publication: this is enclosed in brackets and followed by a full
stop.
3. The title of the book: this can either be italicised or underlined and the
edition of the book is also included after the title, followed by a full stop.
4. Place of publication: followed by a colon.
5. Publisher's name: followed by a full stop.

For example: Coon, D. (1995). Introduction to psychology: exploration and


application (7th ed.) St. Paul: West Publishing.

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Referencing Journals

 Author(s): the surname and initials of each author of the article.

 Year of publication: this is enclosed in brackets and followed by a full stop.

 The title of the article: followed by a full stop.

 The title of the journal: this can either be italicised or underlined and is
followed by a comma.

 The volume number of the journal: this can either be italicised


or underlined and is followed by a comma.

 Page numbers: followed by a full stop.

For example: Buckhout, R. (1974). Eyewitness Testimony. Scientific American,


231, pp.23 – 31
.
Referencing Internet Websites

1. Author(s) / organisation: the surname and initials of each author of the


site. If authors are unknown, provide the name of the organisation
responsible for the website.
2. Date: the date is not necessarily the original date of publication, but may
be the date when it was added to the database. If you cannot locate any
date on the site, include the date that you accessed it. The date is
enclosed in brackets and followed by a full stop.
3. The title of the website: this can either be italicised or underlined.
4. Address: provide the full internet website address, making sure the
punctuation is accurate.

For example: Kaiser, P. (1996). The Joy of Visual


Perception http://www.yorku.ca/eye/thejoy.htm

Referencing CD-ROMs

 Author(s)/Organisation: the surname and initials of each author of the CD-ROM if


this is provided or the name of the organisation.

 Year of publication: this is enclosed in brackets and followed by a full stop.

 The title of the article: followed by a full stop.

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 The title of the CD-ROM: this can either be italicised or underlined and is
followed by a full stop.

 Place of publication: followed by a colon.

 Publisher's name: followed by a full stop.

For example: Ryan, C. (1997). Exploring perception: A CD-ROM for Macintosh and
Microsoft windows. Pacific Grove: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company.

As the internet and CD-ROMs are a recent source of information, referencing


procedures for them have yet to be finalised. Remember that the purpose of
referencing material is so that it can be easily located. Make sure you have
provided the information necessary for the reader to locate the reference.
Accurate punctuation is essential

The key points from this module are:


Descriptive statistics are used by a researcher to organise, summarise and
describe data.

Inferential statistics are used by a researcher to interpret the data and make
inferences from observations of a sample in an experiment to generalise to a
wider population.

Participant selection involves the way in which potential subjects are chosen to
participate in psychological research.

Random sampling ensures that subjects have an equal opportunity to be chosen


as participants in the experiment. Usually, yields a fairly representative result.

Stratified sampling represents the general population on a certain characteristic.


This prevents bias in the sample and enables the researcher to generalise the
findings to the wider population.

Participant allocation involves the way in which subjects are assigned to the
various conditions in a study.

A placebo effect is when there are changes in the subjects' behaviour caused by
the belief that they received an active drug or treatment when, in fact, the drug
was a neutral substance.

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The experimenter effect is the way in which an experimenter might influence the
outcome of an experiment without realising that he or she is doing so.

In order to minimise subject or experimenter effects, researchers design single


and double-blind experiments.

In a single-blind experiment, the subjects do not know whether they are in the
control group or experimental group condition.

In a double-blind experiment, the data collection is carried out by a third party


who is told what to do but has no knowledge of the expected outcomes or which
group is which.

In any experiment, the goal of the researcher is to be able to confidently


conclude that the observed effect was caused by the independent variable
alone.

Variables, other than the independent variable, which may influence the
dependent variable are called extraneous variables.

The IV and the DV in an experiment need to be operationalised. This refers to the


precise way in which the variable has been measured.

A hypothesis is a 'guess' because it is not a statement of fact or certainty and


could be supported or refuted through the process of data collection.

The operational hypothesis should include both the independent and dependent
variables and predict a direction of the changes in the dependent variable.

Statistical significance is a way of using statistical tests to determine the


probability that an observed difference in the results is due to chance.

A conclusion is a judgment about the meaning of the results in an experiment.

A generalisation is a statement that has related the results of the experiment to


a wider population.

Relational research attempts to show how two variables change together.

The correlation method of investigation is used when a researcher wants to


establish the relationship between two variables.

The degree of relationship between the two variables is termed the correlation
coefficient.

A correlation coefficient not only indicates how strongly two variables are
related but also the direction, whether it be positive or negative, of the
relationship.

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A scatter diagram is the graphic technique used to represent the relationship
between two variables.

If the dots seem to be dispersed everywhere and the correlation coefficient is


zero, then there is no relationship between the two variables. This is referred to
as a zero correlation.

When both variables change in the same direction, either increasing or


decreasing in value, it is referred to as a positive correlation.

In contrast to a positive correlation, a negative correlation indicates an inverse


relationship between two variables.

The correlation method is useful to a researcher as it enables the researcher to


make predictions. It indicates if a relationship exists between two variables and
the strength of the relationship.

However, remember that the correlation method cannot demonstrate causation.


The researcher cannot assume that because two variables are related to one
another that one causes the other.

Confidentiality refers to the principle that all personal information and responses
of the participants in an experiment must not be revealed without their
permission.

In any psychological study, participants must be involved on a voluntary basis.

Before any investigation begins, potential subjects need to decide whether to


participate in an experiment after being informed of the nature and purpose of
the research.

Debriefing is where the researcher, in a post-experimental session, explains the


true nature of the research to the participants.

The researcher of any study should adhere to the ethical principles outlined
above and should maintain a rigorous standard in each stage of the research.

Before any psychological research is undertaken, the experimenter must make


sure that all ethical considerations have been taken into account.

During the course of the study, the experimenter must act professionally and not
breach any ethical boundaries. They should take all precautions.

Referencing accurately and following a particular methodology is crucial when


writing an empirical research activity.

Any direct quote from a text or paraphrasing of information in the body of the
report must be acknowledged with a reference.

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If you have found a relevant piece of empirical research in a secondary source
the reference needs to be included in the essay.

The reference list contains only the resources that you have actually cited. They
are arranged in alphabetical order based on the surname of the first author of a
source.

Remember that the purpose of referencing material is so that it can be easily


located. Make sure you have provided the information necessary for the reader
to locate the reference.

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HEADING FIVE
Lorem Ipsum is simply dummy text of the printing and typesetting industry.
Lorem Ipsum has been the industry's standard dummy text ever since the
1500s, when an unknown printer took a galley of type and scrambled it to
make a type specimen book.

Lorem Ipsum is simply dummy text of the printing and typesetting industry.
Lorem Ipsum has been the industry's standard dummy text ever since the
1500s, when an unknown printer took a galley of type and scrambled it to
make a type specimen book.

Lorem Ipsum is simply dummy text of the printing and typesetting industry.
Lorem Ipsum has been the industry's standard dummy text ever since the
1500s, when an unknown printer took a galley of type and scrambled it to
make a type specimen book.

DESCRIPTION
Lorem Ipsum is simply dummy text of the printing and typeset

DESCRIPTION
Lorem Ipsum is simply dummy text of the printing and typeset

DESCRIPTION
Lorem Ipsum is simply dummy text of the printing and typeset

90
REPORT TITLE

91

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