CULTURE AND EMOTION

WHAT IS EMOTION
 The James – Lange Theory of Emotions
- Emotions are physiological responses as a product of autonomic
nervous system (change in heart rate, breathing, pupil dilatation,
tear secretion, blood flow to the skin, stomach contraction)
- Emotions are our bodily changes that signal how we should
behave in certain conditions
- Emotion word is a description of a different bodily state (e.g:
Embarrassment is the sensation of blood rushing to the face,
fear is sensation of a pounding heart)
- Suggest that people in all cultures should have the same
emotional experiences (universality in emotional experience)
 WHAT IS EMOTION
 The Two-Factor Theory of Emotion (Schachter and
Singer)
- Emotions are interpretations of our bodily responses (focus on
mind, rather than physical body).
- Two factors: Physical signals and interpretation of those signals.
- Emotional experience come from how we interpret our physical
signal according to our beliefs of the situations that we are in;
we look for cues from our environment to help us label our
physical sensations.
- People might interpret their physical signals in different ways
across culture.
James- Stimulus
Physiological arousal
trembling
Lange snake increased heart rate
Emotion fear

theory

Physiological arousal
trembling
Cannon- Stimulus
increased heart rate
bard snake
theory Emotion fear

Physiological arousal
trembling
Two- increased heart rate
Stimulus Emotion fear
factor
Cognitive interpretation
theory “I feel afraid!”
 Emotions are the result of genetics
and learning, especially early in life.
 Emotions serve as arousal states that help
organisms cope with important recurring
situations.
◼ Learned emotional responses, along and
genetics are both important components
of many psychological disorders, including
depression, panic attacks and phobias.
Why We Have Emotions ?
 It’s impossible to imagine life
without emotions.
 Emotions inform us of who we
are, what our relationships
with others are like, and how
to behave.
 Emotions give meaning to
events.
 Feeling: Subjective experience → Perasaan
 Emotion: A transient, neurophysiological response to a
stimulus that excites a coordinated system of
components; they inform us about our relationship to the
stimulus, and prepare us to deal with it in some way.
→ Components: feelings; expressive behaviors such as
in the face, voice; physiological reactions such as
increased heart rate, faster breathing; action
tendencies such as moving toward or away from an
object; and cognition such as specific pattern of
thinking.
 General Model of Emotion Elicitation

Antecedent
stimulus

EMOTION

Expressive Subjective Physiological Cognitions Motor

Behaviors Experiences reaction Behavior
Face Feelings Heart beating Thoughts Running
Voice Sensations Breathing Attributions Hitting
Gestures Etc. Sweating Etc. Freezing
Etc. Etc. Etc.
EVOLUTION OF HUMAN EMOTION

EMOTION IS FUNCTIONAL
✓ They tell us something
important about our
relationship to the
emotion-eliciting stimulus
✓ Prepares our bodies for
action
✓ Have important social
meaning (e.g: watch out
when our friend is
angry)
 EVOLUTION OF HUMAN EMOTION
 Nonhuman primates have
some emotions: anger, fear,
disgust
 But in human, some emotions
are more complex (e.g: anger)
 Self-conscious emotions
(from self-reflective process):
shame, guilt, pride,
embarrassment
 Moral emotions: contempt
and disgust
 Human also can lie about their
emotions
 UNIVERSALITY OF EMOTION

 In 1872 Darwin saw the universal occurrence of the

same facial expressions as important evidence that
emotions are innate.
Facial expressions: Learned or innate?

Dr. David Matsumoto researched this issue by studying

photos of blind and sighted athletes at the 2004
Olympic and Paralympic games
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5G6ZR5lJgTI)
 UNIVERSALITY OF EMOTION
 Ekman’s study from various people: 6 basic emotions :
Sadness, anger, disgust, happiness, surprised, fear.
 Participants from five different cultures (Argentina,
Brazil, Chile, Japan, United States) in the study tended
to identify the emotion correctly in 80% - 90% of the
photos.
Universality of Emotions

 Despite different
languages, cultures and
social norms, studies
suggest that people “speak
and understand
substantially the same
‘facial language’ the world
around.”

 Essentially, people share a

set of universal emotion
expression that supports
the point to the biological
heritage of the human
species.
 Pictures of Facial Affect (resource) –
16
Ekman and Friesen
• 110 pictures of posed facial emotions
– 10 second display to subjects (male and female 50% mix)
– 70% accurately identified
• Mark each example as one of:
– Happy
– Sad
– Fear
– Anger
– Surprise
– Disgust
 89
17

•Happy
•Sad
•Fear
•Anger
•Surprise
•Disgust
 89
18

•Happy
•Sad
•Fear
•Anger
•Surprise
•Disgust
 79
19

•Happy
•Sad
•Fear
•Anger
•Surprise
•Disgust
 79
20

•Happy
•Sad
•Fear
•Anger
•Surprise
•Disgust
 102
21

•Happy
•Sad
•Fear
•Anger
•Surprise
•Disgust
 102
22

•Happy
•Sad
•Fear
•Anger
•Surprise
•Disgust
 54
23

•Happy
•Sad
•Fear
•Anger
•Surprise
•Disgust
 54
24

•Happy
•Sad
•Fear
•Anger
•Surprise
•Disgust
 76
25

•Happy
•Sad
•Fear
•Anger
•Surprise
•Disgust
 76
26

•Happy
•Sad
•Fear
•Anger
•Surprise
•Disgust
 52
27

•Happy
•Sad
•Fear
•Anger
•Surprise
•Disgust
 52
28

•Happy
•Sad
•Fear
•Anger
•Surprise
•Disgust
 34
29

•Happy
•Sad
•Fear
•Anger
•Surprise
•Disgust
 34
30

•Happy
•Sad
•Fear
•Anger
•Surprise
•Disgust
 94
31

•Happy
•Sad
•Fear
•Anger
•Surprise
•Disgust
 94
32

•Happy
•Sad
•Fear
•Anger
•Surprise
•Disgust
 108
33

•Happy
•Sad
•Fear
•Anger
•Surprise
•Disgust
 108
34

•Happy
•Sad
•Fear
•Anger
•Surprise
•Disgust
 Fore people from New Guinea
are least exposed to Western
culture. In his study, Ekman found
same facial expression of Fore
when they were in this situation:
a) Your friend has come, and you
are happy
b) Your child has died

c) You are angry and about to

fight
d) You see a dead pig that has
been lying there for a long time
Seven Basic Emotions
 Paul Ekman, a leading psychologist in emotions,
suggests humans everywhere can recognize seven
basic emotions: sadness, fear, anger, disgust, contempt,
happiness and surprise.
Anger Happiness Disgust

A sample of 6 of
Ekman’s emotions.
Which one is missing?

Surprise Sadness Fear

Display Rules
 According to Ekman, the seven emotions are
universal, but the display rules vary greatly,
depending on the culture.
 Display rules are the culturally specific rules that
govern which facial expression are appropriate in
a given situation and how intensely they should be
exhibited..
BUT..
 Even though there is a large universal component of
recognizing facial expression, still there’s a smaller culturally
specific component.
 People were about 9% more accurate in judging the facial
expressions of people from their own culture than those of
another culture.
 Not only from the same culture, people are better at
accurately perceiving the emotional expressions of people
they have been exposed to more (more familiar).
 Among certain Arab populations it is dishonorable if a
man does not respond to an insult with a great
demonstration of anger (Abu-Lughod, 1986)
 The Kaluli of New Guinea tend to show their emotions
particulartly intensely and dramatically (Schieffelin,
1979)
 Among the Utku Eskimos, public expressions of anger
are strongly condemned (Briggs, 1970)
 The Balinese have a preference for emotional
“smoothness”, where the emphasis is on avoiding strong
display of emotional feelings, for both positive and
negative emotions (Geertz, 1983)
Even though people in different cultures vary
considerably in how strongly they express certain
emotions, it is possible that they are all experiencing
the same underlying feelings (emotion antecedents).

EMOTION ANTECEDENTS are the events or situations

that trigger or elicit an emotion.
 UNIVERSALITY IN EMOTION ANTECEDENTS
EMOTION THEME
Happiness Accomplishing a goal
Anger Being prevented from accomplishing a goal

Sadness Being kept from something you desire or want

Disgust Being sickened by something

Fear Sensing danger caused by unexpected, novel
events, and being completely helpless to do
something about it
Surprise Acknowledging something new or novel
Contempt Feeling morally superior over someone
Shame and guilt Feeling a high level of responsibility for one’s own
behaviors, which conflicts one’s own standards
 CULTURAL DIFFERENCE IN ANTECEDENTS
(Scherer et al)
Emotions European - American Japanese
JOY The birth of new member,
achievement-related situations

SADNESS Death of family member or Problem in

close friend, physical relationships
separation from loved ones,
world news
FEAR Strangers and achievement- Novel situations,
related situations traffic, and
relationships
ANGER Situations involving Situation involving
relationships strangers
 CULTURAL DIFFERENCE IN EMOTIONS APPRAISAL

EMOTION APPRAISAL : The process by which people evaluate the

events, situations or occurrences that lead to their having emotions.

 American attribute the cause of sadness-producing events to others;

but Japanese to themselves.
 Americans attribute the cause of joy, fear, and shame to other
people; Japanese tend attribute it to chance or fate.
 Japanese believe more than Americans do that no action or
behavior is necessary after an emotion is elicited.
 For fear more Americans believe they can do something to influence
the situation, but for anger and disgust they believe they are
powerless.
 For shame and guilt, more Japanese pretended that nothing had
happened and tried to think something else.
CULTURAL DIFFERENCE IN DISPLAY RULE

 Cultural display rule:

Culturally specific rules
that govern which facial
expressions are
appropriate in a given
situation and how
intensely they should be
exhibited
CULTURAL DIFFERENCE IN DISPLAY RULE

 Ekman and Friesen (1969), multiple ways in which display

rules can act to modify expression:
1. Express less than actually felt (Deamplification)

2. Express more than actually felt (Amplification)

3. Show nothing (Neutralization)

4. Show the emotion but with another emotion to comment on it

(Qualification)
5. Mask or conceal feelings by showing something else

(Masking)
6. Show an emotion when they really don’t feel it (Simulation)
 CULTURAL DIFFERENCE IN DISPLAY RULE

Examples:
 In Arab populations it’s dishonorable if a man doesn’t respond to
an insult with great demonstration of anger (Abu-Lughod, 1986) –
Amplification, Qualification, Simulation
 The Kaluli of New Guinea tend to show their emotions
particularly intensely and dramatically (Schieffelin, 1979) -
Amplification
 For Utku Eskimos, public expressions of anger are strongly
condemned (Briggs, 1970) – Masking
 Balinese have a preference for emotional “smoothness”, where
the emphasis is on avoiding strong displays of emotional feelings
(Geertz, 1983) - Neutralization
CULTURAL DIFFERENCE IN DISPLAY RULE

 Display rules also shape the kinds of facial

expressions that people might display.

 Ritualized display: Highly stylized ways of

expressing specific emotions; differ from the
universal facial expressions identified by Ekman and
colleagues.
• Example: Tongue bite for expressing embarrassment in
Indian people.
 Emotion Regulation Questionnaire

We have both, but we tend to use one of this kind of

regulation.
 1-6 : Total Skor Cognitive re-appraisal / 6

 7-10 : Total Skor Expressive Suppression / 4

DISKUSI
 Bagaimana
pendapatmu mengenai
hasil kuesioner tersebut?
 Apa saja aturan yang
terkait dengan ekspresi
emosi di
keluarga/budayamu?
PESTA DI PEMAKAMAN?

Retrieved from https://i.ytimg.com/vi/8AVTytLadfA/maxresdefault.jpg

 CULTURAL DIFFERENCE IN DISPLAY RULE

The familiarity and intimacy of self-ingroup relations in all culture

provide the safety and comfort to express emotions freely, along with
tolerance for a broad spectrum of emotional behavior.
The Neuro-Cultural Theory

Reasons:
 Triggering events for
particular emotions are
vary across culture
 Rules for controlling facial
expressions are vary across
culture
 Some of the consequences
of emotional arousal are
vary across culture
 Emotions and Language
❑ Basic emotions have a clear English label, but the problem is
many other languages do not have labels that corresponds to
some of these basic emotions.
❑ People categorize their emotions in very different ways.
❑ Example:
❑ Luganda speakers don’t make a distinction between sorrow and anger
❑ The Gidjingali aborigines in Australia use one word (gurakadj) to express both
shame and fear
❑ The Samoans use one word, alofa, to express both love and pity
❑ Many emotion words in other languages that have no equivalent
in English, e.g: Schandefreude (Germany, feelings of pleasure
when witnessing the hard time that befall others), Iklas (Javanese,
somewhat pleasant feelings of frustration)
 More Emotions
 While we can recognize Ekman’s seven emotions, most of us can think
of others like greed, envy, regret, optimism, etc.
 Robert Plutchik suggests that rather than seven, we have eight
primary emotions and eight secondary emotions. He depicts this in
his “Emotion Wheel.”

•More complex emotions occur

when pairs of adjacent
emotions combine.
Ex: love is a combination of
joy and acceptance.
KATEGORI EMOSI
 mbuki-mvuki - dorongan tak tertahankan untuk "melepaskan pakaian
Anda saat menari” – Bahasa Bantu
 Killig - rasa gugup berdebar-debar ketika anda berbicara dengan
seseorang yang Anda suka – Bahasa Tagalog
 Uitwaaien - merangkum efek menyegarkan jalan-jalan saat angin
berhembus sepoi-sepoi – Bahasa Belanda
 Schadenfreude – pleasure derived from another’s misfortune – Bahasa
Jerman
 Itoshii – longing for an absent loved one ; ijirashii – feeling associated with
seeing someone praiseworthy overcoming an obstacles
 Gigil (Tagalog) - dorongan tak tertahankan untuk mencubit seseorang
karena mereka dicintai atau dihargai
See another emotions in: http://www.bbc.com/indonesia/vert-fut-38854671
MASUDA ET AL (2008)

The majority of Japanese participants (72%) reported that their

judgments of the centre person's emotions were influenced by the
emotions of the background figures, while most North Americans
(also 72%) reported they were not influenced by the background
figures at all.
CULTURE AND GENDER
Go to www.menti.com and use the code 25428858

1. Seandainya besok Anda bangun, Anda

menjadi pribadi dengan jenis kelamin
yang berbeda dengan saat ini, tuliskan
satu hal yang sangat ingin (akan) Anda
lakukan?
2. Menurut Anda, jenis kelamin yang
berbeda dengan Anda itu identik dengan
sifat / karakter apa?
Let’s explore
indonesian culture
perspective about gender!
• Sex
Biological and physiological differences between men and
women
• Sex roles
The behaviors and patterns of activities men and women many
engage in that directly related to their biological differences and
the process of reproduction

• Sexual identity
The degree of awarenes and recognition of sex and sex roles an
individual may have
• Gender
The behaviors or patterns of activities that a society or culture
deems appropriate for men and women
• Gender roles
The degree to which a person adopts the gender-specific
behaviors ascribed by his/her culture

• Gender identity
The degree to which a person has awareness or recognition that
he /she adopts a particular gender role

• Gender stereotypes
Psychological or behavioral characteristics typically associated
with men and women
SEX
• Biologis
• Kodrati
• Tidak dapat diubah
• Peran bagi pria : produksi, peran bagi wanita : reproduksi

GENDER
• Kultur, adat istiadat
• Bentukan setelah lahir, diajarkan melalui sosialisasi (internalisasi)
• Konstruksi sosial
• Peran gender : memasak, merawat anak, bekerja, berburu, dll
• All societies not only make decisions about
what only men can do and what only women
can do, they also come up with decisions about
what men and women should do.

• Different cultures ascribe different and unique

meanings to the sex differences and sex roles
that exist within those cultures. These specific
cultural meanings are gender
Georgas, Berry, Vand di Vijver, Kagitcibasi, & Poortinga (2006)
identified three types of roles mothers and fathers played in
families :
1. Expressive – focused on maintaining a pleasant
environment and providing emotional support for one
another
2. Financial – including contributing to and managing
finance
3. Childcare
Whats the do and don’t in
your culture??
WANITA, JIKA MENJADI PRIA
INGIN..
DARI SUDUT PANDANG WANITA,
PRIA IDENTIK DENGAN
PRIA, JIKA MENJADI WANITA
INGIN..
DARI SUDUT PANDANG PRIA,
WANITA IDENTIK DENGAN
 Men Women
• Independent / self-reliant, • Dependent / reliant, weak,
strong, emotionally nurturant and emotional
detached • Generally viewed as
• Generally wived as active, passive, weak, nurturing
strong, critical and and adaptive with
adultlike with psychological pscyhological needs such
needs such as dominance, as abasement, deference,
autonom, aggression, succorance, nurturance
exhibition, achievement and affiliation.
and endurance Aggreableness and
Conscientiousness, neuroticism
extroversion and
openness
5 GENDER IN BUGIS SOCIETY
THE HIJRAS
burrneshë
 Maka Allah menciptakan manusia itu menurut
gambar-Nya, menurut gambar Allah diciptakan-
Nya dia; laki-laki dan perempuan diciptakan-
Nya mereka
(Kejadian 1:27)

Tuhan Allah berfirman : “Tidak baik, kalau

manusia itu seorang diri saja. Aku akan
menjadikan penolong baginya, yang sepadan
dengan dia
(Kejadian 2:18)
BUDAYA DAN PROSES
PSIKOLOGIS DASAR
Are animals had culture too?
Although the Japanese
macaques were able to learn
Imo’s technique of washing
potatoes, they didn’t learn it
very well. It took years for the
potato washing to get learned
by others, and many of the
maceques never figured it out
 CULTURE

“A dynamic system of rules, explicit and

implicit, established by groups in order to
ensure their survival, involving attitudes,
values, beliefs, norms, and behaviors, shared
by a group but harbored differently by each
specific unit within the group, communicated
across generations, relatively stable but with
the potential to change across time.”
(Matsumoto & Juang, 2009, p. 10)

5/18/2017
BUDAYA DAN PROSES
PSIKOLOGIS DASAR
THEORY OF MIND
People understand that others have minds that are
different from their own and thus that other people
have perspectives and intentions that are different
from their own.
Human abilities and motivations to imagine the
perspectives and intentions of others and to share
their own perspectives and intentions of others and
to share their own perspectives and intentions with
others are far superior from animal → this has
important consequences for cultural learning.
(Ex : The child understand that his mother has different thoughts in her head
than he does).
Imitative learning
The learner internalized something of the model’s goals and
behavioral strategies. The learning is copying precisely what it
thinks the model is trying to do.

Emulative learning
The learning is focused on the environmental events that are involved
– how the use of one object could potentially effect changes in the
state of the environment.

(The key difference between emulative learning and imitative

learning is that emulative learning does not require imitating a
model’s behavioral strategies. An emulative learner is only
focusing on the events that happen around the model, rather than
what the model intends to accomplish)
LANGUAGE

Language allows ideas to be communicated without

having to be visually demonstrated.
 Enggel mon sao curito…(Dengarlah sebuah cerita)
Inang maso semonan…(Pada zaman dahulu)
Manoknop sao fano…(Tenggelam satu desa)
Uwi lah da sesewan…(Begitulah mereka ceritakan)

Unen ne alek linon…(Diawali oleh gempa)

Fesang bakat ne mali…(Disusul ombak yang besar sekali)
Manoknop sao hampong…(Tenggelam seluruh negeri)
Tibo-tibo mawi…(Tiba-tiba saja)

Anga linon ne mali…(Jika gempanya kuat)

Uwek suruik sahuli…(Disusul air yang surut)
Maheya mihawali…(Segeralah cari)
Fano me singa tenggi…(Tempat kalian yang lebih tinggi)

Ede smong kahanne…(Itulah smong namanya)

Turiang da nenekta…(Sejarah nenek moyang kita)
Miredem teher ere…(Ingatlah ini betul-betul)
Pesan dan navi da…(Pesan dan nasihatnya).
CULTURE AND COGNITION
KOGNISI
“all the mental processes we use to transform sensory
input into knowledge.” (Matsumoto & Juang, p.104)
 Color-blind approach
“people are the same wherever you go”.

➢They all smile when they happy

➢They all have a word for the color black
➢ They are all disgusted at the idea of incest between parents and
children
➢They all understand the number 2

➢The have the Central Processing Unit (CPU)

GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY
SHWEDER, 1990
Multicultural approach
People from different cultures also
differ in their psychology
→ Psychological processes are shaped
by experiences

o People in different cultures have

many different experiences.
CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY
“thinking is not merely the
operation of the universal CPU. It
involves interacting with the
content that one is thinking about
and the participation in the
context within which one is doing
the thinking”
5/18/2017
Loot at the stimulus.

a. Draw a line in the

first box that is
identical in length
to the line

b. Draw a line that is

identical in
proportion to its
box
a. Draw a line b. Draw a line
in the first that is
box that is identical in
identical in proportion to
length to its box
the line
The East Asians found the absolute length
judgment difficult.

The
The experiences
mind that East
is shaped byAsians and European-
its experiences,
Americans have had in their lives come to
and culturesshape
differentialy differ intheir
how thebrains
kindsrespond
of to simple
experiences
tasks involvingthat they provide
estimating the lengths of lines
Is the rod pointing straight up??
a. Yes
b. No
Are people from different cultures really seeing things
differently, or are they processing the same information
differently ?
a. Yes
b. No
CULTURE AND THINKING
Analytical thinking
Focus on objects and their attributes. Objects are perceived
as existing independently from their contexts they are
understood in terms of their component parts

Holistic thinking
Orientate to the context as a whole. Objects are understood
in terms of how they relate to the rest of the context, and
their behavior is predicted and explained on the basis of
those relationships
CULTURE AND ATTENTION
Analytic thinkers more likely to focus their attention on
separate parts of a scene – field independence
(they can separate objects from their background)
Holistic thinkers direct their attention more broadly,
across an entire scene – field dependence (they
view objects as bound to their backgrounds)
DOG, RABBIT, CARROT
Which word does not
belong?
A. DOG, RABBIT, CARROT
B. DOG, RABBIT, CARROT
CULTURE AND COGNITION
KATEGORISASI : Cara mengelompokkan dan
memberikan label pada sesuatu
• Ekspresi wajah yang menunjukkan emosi dasar
manusia— happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, and
disgust— merupakan hal yang sama di semua budaya
People would see various ways of categorizing objects
(e.g., by color, shape or function) in similar ways.
• African adults tend to use color as category for grouping
objects (Green, Reich, & Oliver, 1966)
• Adults in Western cultures are more likely to group by
function (e.g., animals together, tools together) (Bruner,
Oliver, & Greenfiled, 1996)
• Chinese individuals may categorize people according to
relationships (e.g., parent-child)
• Americans tend to group according to individual
characteristics (e.g., children with children, adults with
adults) (Chiu, 1972; Ji, Zhang, & Nisbett, 2004)

People of different cultures may see (and group) objects

and people in different ways.
CULTURE AND PROBLEM SOLVING
• PROBLEM SOLVING: Mencari cara dalam mencapai
tujuan.
• Cole dkk (1971) mengadakan tiga eksperimen kepada
orang Amerika dan Liberia (dengan menggunakan
aparatus, kotak dengan kunci, gabungan antara aparatus
dan kotak).
Hasilnya hanya di eksperimen kedua di mana orang-orang
Liberia dapat menyelesaikannya dengan mudah →
Kemampuan mereka untuk berpikir secara logis untuk
menyelesaikan masalah tergantung dengan konteks →
Jika sesuatu familiar.
CULTURE AND PROBLEM
SOLVING

• Silogisme: Semua anak senang permen.

Mary adalah anak. Apakah Mary senang permen?
• Luria (1979), dalam studinya terhadap orang dari suku-suku
nomaden di Asia Timur dan Tengah menemukan perbedaan
yang sangat jelas bagaimana seseorang melakukan
pendekatan untuk menyelesaikan masalah ini → Kemampuan
menjawab dengan benar terkait dengan pendidikan
(sekolah).
• Luria menyatakan logical reasoning merupakan keterampilan
yang harus dipelajari dalam setting sekolah.
• Scribner (1979): saat individu yang tidak sekolah diminta untuk
menjelaskan jawaban mereka atas masalah silogisme, mereka
menggunakan alasan personal dan tidak paham natur dari
masalah verbal yang disampaikan.
CULTURE AND
DECISION MAKING

• DECISION MAKING: menggunakan beberapa strategi saat

membuat keputusan
• Umumnya:
Seek information
make judgements about the representativeness of the event to a
prototype
make judgements based on what comes to mind first
compare the information we have to a standard
and judge positive and negative outcomes of an event.
• Umumnya orang dengan berbagai budaya menggunakan strategi yang
sama, yang membedakannya adalah pentingnya proses yang
dilakukan dan perwujudannya.
CULTURE AND
DECISION MAKING

• DECISION MAKING: menggunakan beberapa strategi saat

membuat keputusan
• Amerika: Mencari banyak kemungkinan, menguji hipotesa, dan memilih
solusi terbaik.
• Orang dari budaya yang lebih homogen: Menghindari ketidakpastian,
akan cenderung membuat judgement berdasarkan representasi
(berdasarkan sampel)
MUSYAWARAH UNTUK
MUFAKAT
 CULTURE AND
DECISION MAKING
• Individualis: Mencari informasi sendiri,
Kolektif: cenderung melibatkan orang lain dalam proses
pengambilan keputusan, menanyakan saran dan opini dari teman,
keluarga, orang terdekat.
• Kolektif: Lebih mudah untuk mengadopsi saran orang lain,
terutama orang yang memiliki otoritas dalam budaya tersebut
(orang tua atau suami)
• Yi & Park (2003) melakukan penelitian terhadap mahasiswa dari 5
negara (Korea, Jepang, Cina, USA, Kanada):
Mahasiswa Korea memiliki level paling tinggi dalam kerja sama saat memutuskan
sesuatu (dibanding USA dan Kanada).
Mahasiswa Jepang memiliki level kerja sama paling rendah.
3 negara Asia menunjukkan karakteristik pengambilan keputusan yang lebih
kompetitif daripada Amerika → Menggambarkan perubahan sosial
dalam masyarakat Asia.
CULTURE AND CREATIVITY
• KREATIVITAS: Tergantung pada kemampuan berpikir
divergent.
“ Although creative individuals may share some common
core characteristics across cultures, they need to adapt
their abilities to the specific cultural milieu within which
they function, particularly in the implementation and
adoption of their creative ideas” (Csikszentmihalyi, 1999).
PSIKOLOGI LINTAS BUDAYA
 CULTURE

“A dynamic system of rules, explicit and implicit,

established by groups in order to ensure their
survival, involving attitudes, values, beliefs,
norms, and behaviors, shared by a group but
harbored differently by each specific unit within
the group, communicated across generations,
relatively stable but with the potential to
change across time.”
(Matsumoto & Juang, 2009, p. 10)
• Dynamic: Mendeskripsikan kecenderungan, tidak dapat

menggambarkan keseluruhan perilaku di semua budaya; dinamis

dan selalu ada perubahan

• System of rules: Tidak hanya menggambarkan satu perilaku,

aturan, sikap, atau value, namun keseluruhan sistem.

• Groups and units: Budaya dapat muncul dalam berbagai level –

antar individu, dalam kelompok, antar kelompok dalam satu

kelompok besar

• Ensure their survival: Merupakan cara manusia untuk

menghindari kekacauan dan memastikan kelangsungan hidup

suatu kelompok
• Attitudes, values, beliefs, norms, behaviors: Fokus budaya

adalah ide, sikap, value, dan kepercayaan. Hal ini tidak hanya ada
di pemikiran, namun juga muncul dalam perilaku

• Harbored differently by specific unit: Individu menyimpan value,

kepercayaan, perilaku, dll dalam derajat yang berbeda-beda.

• Communicated across generations, relatively stable: Aspek

utama dari sistem aturan budaya diteruskan ke generasi

selanjutnya.

• With potential to change across time: Stabil, namun tidak statis.

Unit selalu berubah. Perubahan terjadi saat sistem tidak lagi dapat
mendeskripsikan kecenderungan umum yang dimiliki kelompok.
Etics refers to those aspects of life that appear to
be consistent across different cultures. It refer to
universal or pancultural truths or principles

Emics refer to those aspects of life that appear to

differ across cultures. It refer to truths of principles
that are culture-specific.
• In many ways we don’t really come to
understand our own culture until we see it in
contrast to other cultures.

• Studying the cross-cultural research should help

you gain a new perspective on how your culture
has influenced you.
 Human Nature and Culture

Universal
social
motives

Universal
biological

adaptation
needs and Culture
functions

Context

Culture is the product of the interaction between universal biological

needs and function, universal social problems created to those needs
and the context in which people live.
• In order to survive, biological needs (e.g.
reproduction, eating AND social motives (e.g.
negotiating complex hierarchies) must be met.

• All humans need to come up with solutions on how to

adapt to environment to address needs and motives –
environmental adaptation involves culture.

• These solutions are dependent on context (e.g.

physical environment, social factors, types & sizes of
families and communities).
How does culture affect behavior?
 Cross-Cultural Psychology
“The scientific study of variations in human
behavior, taking into account the ways in which
behavior is influenced by cultural context.”
(Berry, dkk., 2002, p.1)

Dua hal pokok:

• Keragaman perilaku manusia
• Konteks budaya
 Tujuan Cross-Cultural Psychology
1. Menguji generality dari teori atau pengetahuan yang ada

di psikologi saat ini → diawali dengan munculnya pertanyaan

mengenai teori perilaku tradisional

2. Mengeksplorasi budaya lain dengan tujuan menemukan

variasi secara budaya dan psikologis yang tidak ada di

dalam pengalaman budaya kita yang terbatas → memahami
perbedaan yang ada

3. Usaha untuk mengumpulkan dan mengintegrasikan hasil

yang kita dapatkan (dari dua tujuan awal) ke dalam satu

ilmu psikologi yang lebih universal
Manfaat Cross-cultural Psychology
• Memahami, menghormati, mengapresiasi, dan berempati
terhadap perbedaan budaya
• Memahami bagaimana proses berjalannya human mind –
Peran dari pengalaman terkait budaya akan terkait dengan
bagaimana seseorang berpikir dan merasakan sesuatu
Kerangka Kerja untuk Cross Cultural Psychology

Berry, dkk (1992) telah membuat suatu model yang dapat

menjelaskan bagaimana praktik budaya dapat memengaruhi
psikologi (bersifat dinamis, bukan statis)

Faktor yang dapat memengaruhi praktik budaya:

1. The ecological context,
2. The sociopolitical context, dan
3. Biological differences

Praktik budaya ini akhirnya dapat memengaruhi karakteristik

maupun trait psikologis.
5/18/2017
 MASUDA ET AL (2008)

The majority of Japanese participants (72%) reported that their

judgments of the centre person's emotions were influenced by
the emotions of the background figures, while most North
Americans (also 72%) reported they were not influenced by the
background figures at all.
Sebutkan kata / istilah dari
bahasa daerah kalian yang
memiliki makna ambigu
dengan bahasa lain
 Cultural
Influences on
Verbal Language
 The Structure of Language (1)

1. Lexicon: words contained in language (tree, eat, how,

slowly)
2. Syntax and grammar: system of rules governing word
forms and how words should be strung together to form
meaningful utterances (cat become cats, small dog – not dog
small)
3. Phonology: system of rules governing how words
should sound
4. Semantics: what words mean
5. Pragmatics: system of rules governing how language is
used and understood in social contexts
The Structure of Language (2)

Semantics: what words mean

(table refers to a physical object that has four legs and a
flat horizontal surface)

Pragmatics: system of rules governing how

language is used and understood in social
contexts
(“it is cold” could be interpreted as a request to close a
window or as a statement of fact about the temperature)
 “Can you pass the salt?”

Literal (Semantic) Meaning: Are you physically

able to do this task?
Literal Response: ‘Yes’

Pragmatic Meaning: Will you pass me the salt?

Pragmatic Response: Pass the salt to the speaker.
Culture and Language Acquisition

All humans have ability to acquire language

Infants produce the same range of phonemes across cultures.

Through interactions with others, infants’ sound production is

shaped and reinforced so that certain sounds are encouraged
while certain others are discouraged.

Elemental sounds become associated with meanings

(morphemes) and gradually combined into words (lexicons)
and sentences.

Culture provides rules for phonology and how words are put
together to form meanings
The feelings, associations, connotations and nuances of language both
influence and influenced by the culture.
Language Differences Across Cultures

Culture and lexicons (words) :

Culture influences self-other referents (what we
call ourselves and others)

– American English: simple use of self-other

referents
– Japanese: more complex self-other referents
I
Watashi,
Watakushi,
Boku or
Ore
Language Differences Across Cultures
• Culture and pragmatics :
– Culture influences pragmatics (rules for how
language is used and understood in different
social contexts)
– High-context vs. Low-context cultures
(how explicit the messages exchanged are and
how much the context means in certain
situations)
– Honorific speech: denotes status differences
 I
Watashi,
Watakushi,
Boku or
Ore

In the Japanese culture, language,

mannerisms and other aspects of behavior
must be modified according to the
relationship and context in which the
communication is occurring.
 Language and Thought:
The Sapir–Whorf Hypothesis
• Sapir–Whorf hypothesis (linguistic relativity):
speakers of different languages think differently
because of differences in their languages.

• People of different cultures think differently, just by

the very nature, structure and function of their
language → Lack of counting words above the number three in
the Piraha tribe of the Amazonia associated with difficulties in
counting tasks (Gordon, 2004)
 CULTURAL
INFLUENCES ON
NONVERBAL
COMMUNICATION
 Cultural Influences on Nonverbal
Communication
• Nonverbal behaviors:
– Facial expressions, nonverbal vocal cues (tone of voice,
pitch, intonation, pauses, silence), gestures, body postures,
interpersonal distance, touching behaviors, gaze and
visual attention
• All our nonverbal behaviors form important
channels of communication as well.
• Bulk of messages conveyed nonverbally:
– Nonverbal channels more important in understanding
meaning and emotion states of the speakers
– Most people consciously attend to verbal language
 Culture and Gestures
• Gestures: hand movements used to illustrate
speech and convey verbal meaning
• Speech illustrators: movements directly tied
to speech; illustrate or highlight what is being
said
• Cultures differ in both amount and type of
various illustrative gestures
• Emblems: culture-specific gestures convey
meaning without words
 Culture and Gaze
• Gaze: powerful nonverbal behavior with evolutionary
roots in animal behavior
– Gaze associated with dominance, power, aggression,
affiliation, and nurturance
• Cultures create rules concerning gazing and visual
attention
• “Contact cultures” vs. “non-contact cultures”
• Gaze often used as nonverbal sign of respect.
– Look at person: sign of respect in U.S.
– Look away: sign of respect in other cultures
INTRACULTURAL AND
INTERCULTURAL
COMMUNICATION
• Intracultural communication:
communication among people of same
cultural background

• Intercultural communication:
communication between people of different
cultural backgrounds
 Intracultural and Intercultural
Communication
• Messages: information and meanings exchanged when
people communicate

• Encoding: process by which people select, imbed messages,

and send signals to others

• Signals: observable behaviors carrying messages encoded

during communication

• Channels: specific sensory modalities by which signals are

sent and messages retrieved

• Decoding: process of receiving signals and translating signals

into meaningful messages
Messages
Encoding

Signals
Channels

Decoding
process of
receiving
signals and
translating
signals into
meaningful
messages
Cultural Influences on Decoding
• Decoding: Cultural filters (learned since
childhood), emotions, and value judgments.

• Culture and stereotype: We may selectively

attend to events that support our
stereotypes, and ignore, albeit
unconsciously, events and situations that
challenge them.
Potential obstacles to effective intercultural
communication:
1. Assumptions of similarities
2. Language differences
(people oftenly think that a word, phrase or sentence has one and only one meaning)

3. Nonverbal misinterpretations
4. Preconceptions and stereotypes
5. Tendency to evaluate
(different cultural values may generate negative evaluation of others)

6. High anxiety or tension

7. Uncertainty and ambiguity, and
8. Conflict
 Improving Intercultural Communication
1. Mindfulness
We requires knowledge of and respect for differences in
worldviews and behaviors, as well as sensitivity to
differences between high-and low-context communication
patterns and differences in cultural perceptions of time.
2. Face (public appearance or image of a person)
Collectivist culture: Important to be mindful of
appearances and potential shame associated with threat to
those appearances; not be pushy; attentive listening skills
(especially in relation to the feelings of others); discard the
model of dealing with problems directly; and let go of
conflict situations if the other party does not want to deal
with them directly.
 Individualist culture: focus on resolving major issues
and expressing their feelings and opinions openly;
engage in assertive conflict behavior; take individual
responsibility for dealing with conflict; provide verbal
feedback; use direct verbal messages; and commit to
working out the problem directly with the other person

3. Emotion regulation
Regulating or controlling negative emotions is a
gatekeeper ability that allows us to become more
mindful of our communication and style and to engage
in more constructive and open creation of new mental
categories.
BILINGUALISM AND
CULTURE
 Psychological Differences as a
Function of Language
• Majority of individuals who speak English also
speak at least one other language fluently
• Bilinguals have two mental representations of
culture encoded in their minds
• Bilinguals show different personalities depending
on if responses are in first language
• Code frame switching: navigating back and forth
from one cultural meaning system to the other
when accessing one language or another
 Perceptions of Bilinguals
• Perception that bilinguals lack intelligence :
– Takes time to respond in second language and
thus appearance of having cognitive difficulties
• Foreign language processing difficulties:
– Arise due to lack of fluency in speaking language,
and because of uncertainty or ambiguity about
intended meaning of messages
• Foreign language effect:
– Temporary decline in thinking ability of people
who use second language
Monolingualism and Ethnocentrism
• Americans are notoriously ignorant of
languages other than English
• Ignorance of other cultures often
accompanied by ethnocentric view rejecting
need to learn, understand, and appreciate
other languages, customs, and cultures
• Americans are most monolingual of all
peoples of world
– Thus, language is intimately tied to culture
 Conclusion
• Language plays critical role in transmission,
maintenance, and expression of culture
• Culture influences language, and language
symbolizes what culture seems important
• Understanding culture–language relationship is
important step for intercultural communicators
• Understanding nonverbal behavior important for
appreciating cultural communication differences
• Emotion regulation and mindfulness enhances
intercultural sensitivity
CULTURE &
MENTAL HEALTH
 4 KEYS TO MENTAL DISORDERS

1. PERSONAL DISTRESS 2. DISABILITY

- Not all mental disorders - Disability: impairment in
cause distress. some important area of life:
- Not all behavior that work / personal relation,
causes distress is social adjustment,
disordered. ADL/IADL, etc.

3. VIOLATION OF SOCIAL 4. DYSFUNCTION

NORMS
- Dysfunction refers to the
- Can be too broad/too interrelationship of
narrow: behavioral, psychological,
- Criminals/killers and biological aspects.
- Highly anxious people
FACTORS RELATED TO
MENTAL ILLNESS

Cognitive and Genetic &

behavior Neurons

Sociocultural

Interpersonal
CULTURAL VARIATION
IN MENTAL ILLNESS

• Some condition of mental illness are vary across culture, others are
very unique in one culture.
• Most of the mental illness are found in western countries (DSM is
from America).
IN GROUPS (15 MENIT)
1. Koro
2. Berserker rage (Beserk)
3. Amok
4. Dhat syndrome
5. Susto
6. Frigophobia
7. Latah

Jelaskan apakah yang dimaksud dengan gangguan di atas,

terjadi pada daerah mana, dan apa yang menjadi sumber
penyebab gangguan di atas.
CULTURE-BOUND
SYNDROMES
“Syndromes that appear to be greatly influenced by
cultural factors and hence occur far less frequently, or
are manifested in highly divergent ways, in other culture.”
“Certain behavioral, affective and cognitive manifestations
seen in specific cultures.”

In other culture, the symptoms that characterize them are largely

absent or do not cluster together, do not occur in the same kinds of
circumstances, or do not appear anywhere near the frequency that they
do in the place where they have been primarily identified.
CULTURE-BOUND
SYNDROMES
• E.g: Eating disorder (Mostly found in Western countries or
countries with more Western influence, few documented cases
in Middle East or South East Asia)
• WHY?

ANOTHER CULTURE-BOUND SYNDROME

• Frigophobia
This various disorders do not map
• Malgri
clearly onto any syndromes
• Agonias commonly identified in West, along
with other, less studied ones from
• Kufungisisa
various small-scale societies.
• Ataques de nervios
UNIVERSAL
SYNDROMES
• The biological foundation play a fundamental role in the
development of psychopathologies (mental illness).
• BUT the manifestation of these syndromes can vary quite
dramatically across culture.
WHAT IS DEPRESSION ???
✓ Intense sadness
✓ Feelings of futility and worthlessness
✓ Withdrawal from others
1. Depressed mood MAJOR
2. An inability to feel pleasure DEPRESSIVE
3. Change in weight or appetite DISORDER
4. Sleep problems (MDD)
5. Psychomotor change *A person must
show evidence of
6. Fatigue or loss of energy at least 5 of the
7. Feelings of worthlessness or guilt following nine
symptoms.
8. Poor concentration or indecisiveness
9. Suicidality
 Cultures vary in terms of their
differentiation and communication of
emotional terminology, in how they
experience and express depression

Kleinman :
Depressive disease is universal. But the expression
and course of the illness are culturally determined
DEPRESSION ACROSS
CULTURE
Not all depressed individual show the same kind of symptoms

• European – American: A flattening of their affect; hardly respond

to emotional – eliciting stimuli
• Asian – American : Exaggerated emotional responses to the
same stimuli
• Hopi Indians: Worry, sickness and heartbrokenness
• Ugandans: Thinking too much / “illness thoughts”
INDIVIDUALISTIC Feelings of loneliness and
isolation dominate the symptom
picture (psychological)

COLLECTIVISTIC Somatic symptoms (physical)

• Chinese people reported more physiological symptoms

(somatization) of depression than psychological symptoms.
E.g: headache and sleep related concern (Zhou et al., 2011)

• On the other hand, Westerners (Canadian) patients reported

more psychological symptoms than physiological (mood-
related content (Zhou et al., 2011)
• WHY?
WHY DIFFERENT?
1. Social Stigma (and its cost)
• There will be greater cost in acknowledging a
psychological disorder in Chinese context (compared in
Western context)
• Social stigma results in the Chinese being less willing
than Westerners to discuss their psychological
difficulties.
2. Focus , or notice, different symptoms
• For Westerners, the psychological symptoms somehow
more meaningful and salient than to the Chinese (even
though the symptoms are similar)
• Westerners appear to be more sensitive to their own
emotional experiences than East Asians
• Chinese psychiatric patients attend less to their
emotional states than Westerners do.
 SOCIAL ANXIETY
“Fear or anxiety about one or more social situations
which the individual is exposed to possible scrutiny
by others. Individual fears that he/she will acts in a
way that will negatively evaluated.” (DSM – V)

• Independence – interdependence culture related to

social anxiety.
• East Asian tend to score higher in social anxiety
than Westerner,
• BUT epidemiological survey find far less evidence
of people who meet the clinical criteria of social
anxiety disorder in East Asia than in the West.
• REASONS?
SOCIAL ANXIETY
Different norm for social behavior
• Western social norm entail more direct communication,
extraversion, and self-promotion than East Asian norms.
• Asian – Canadian report more social anxiety symptoms than do
either East Asians living in Asia or European - Canadians (Hsu et
al., 2012)

❑ Symptoms of social anxiety can be presented differently across

culture
❑ Taijin Kyoufushou (TKS) – Phobia of confronting others (Japan,
Korea, and mainland China).
❑ TKS has different symptoms than social anxiety: physical
symptoms (extensive blushing, heightened odor, sweating,
penetrating gaze), fear of disturbing others
SUICIDE

Suicide rate in the World (WHO, 2015)

http://www.who.int/gho/mental_health/suicide_rates/en/
SUICIDE
“Suicide has been in evidence in every time period in
recorded history and in almost every culture around the
world. It is depected, and reasons for its comittal described,
in tribal folklore, greek tragedies, religious, philosophical
and history ritings, literature, modern soap operas and rock
music” (Kazarian & Persad, 2001, p.275)

✓ The taking of one’s own life

✓ Seppuku / harakiri – the slitting of one’s belly
• In the west, suicide is most
often seen as stemming
from depression,
substance abuse, health
problems, economic
misfortune, and other
tragic life.
• Japan: Forty - Seven ronin
• The idea of suicide (to accept responsibility and
preserve one’s honor) still be observed in modern
Japan.
• Motivations of suicide in Japanese culture are less
familiar among Westerners, and it reflects the
different cultural meanings that suicide had in
Japan.
Why are there still considerable individual
differences in attitudes toward suicide even in
cultures where it is relatively more acceptable?
 MENTAL HEALTH TREATMENT
• If the experience of mental illness can vary across culture,
we should expect that the treatment of those illness would
also vary.
• Cultural expectations and norms can shape the ways that
people understand and react to most aspect of mental
health treatment.
• Stigma about mental health in Western countries might be
different than in Non-Western Countries
• Therapist who work with clients from different cultural
backgrounds should achieve: Culture Competence
MENTAL HEALTH TREATMENT

Cultural Competence:
1. Necessary for therapist to recognize their own
cultural influences, and projections that will be
relevant when they are interacting with clients from
other cultural backgrounds.
2. Therapist should develop knowledge about the
cultural background of their client
3. Therapist should develop the appropriate skills to be
able to intervene in the therapy sessions in a way that
culturally sensitive and relevant.