UNIT-I

Software Project Management (SPM):-

Software Project Management (SPM) is a proper way of planning and leading software projects. It is a
part of project management in which software projects are planned, implemented, monitored, and
controlled. This article focuses on discussing Software Project Management (SPM).

Need for Software Project Management

Software is a non-physical product. Software development is a new stream in business and there is very
little experience in building software products. Most of the software products are made to fit clients’
requirements. The most important is that basic technology changes and advances so frequently and
rapidly that the experience of one product may not be applied to the other one. Such types of business
and environmental constraints increase risk in software development hence it is essential to manage
software projects efficiently. It is necessary for an organization to deliver quality products, keep the cost
within the client’s budget constraint, and deliver the project as per schedule. Hence, in order, software
project management is necessary to incorporate user requirements along with budget and time
constraints.

Types of Management in SPM

1. Conflict Management

Conflict management is the process to restrict the negative features of conflict while increasing the
positive features of conflict.

2. Risk Management

Risk management is the analysis and identification of risks that is followed by synchronized and
economical implementation of resources to minimize, operate and control the possibility or effect of
unfortunate events or to maximize the realization of opportunities.

3. Requirement Management

It is the process of analyzing, prioritizing, tracking, and documenting requirements and then supervising
change and communicating to pertinent stakeholders. It is a continuous process during a project.

4. Change Management

Change management: The purpose of change management is to execute strategies for effecting change,
controlling change, and helping people to adapt to change.

5. Software Configuration Management

Software configuration management includes revision control and the inauguration of baselines.

6. Release Management
Release Management is the task of planning, controlling, and scheduling the built-in deploying releases.
Release management ensures that the organization delivers new and enhanced services required by the
customer while protecting the integrity of existing services.

Aspects of Software Project Management

1. Planning

2. Leading

3. Execution

4. Time Management

5. Budget

6. Maintenance

Aspects of Project Management

Downsides of Software Project Management

Numerous issues can develop if a Software project manager lacks the necessary expertise or knowledge.
Software Project management has several drawbacks, including resource loss, scheduling difficulty, data
protection concerns, and interpersonal conflicts between Developers/Engineers/Stakeholders.
Furthermore, outsourcing work or recruiting additional personnel to complete the project may result in
hefty costs for one’s company.

1. Costs are High

2. Complexity will be increased

3. Overhead in Communication

4. Lack of Originality
Software Project (SP):-

A Software Project (SP) involves a series of planned activities with the objective of creating a software
product. These projects are typically defined by their scope, goals, timelines, resources, and deliverables. The
stages of a software project generally include:

1. Initiation: Defining the project, its objectives, and feasibility.

2. Planning: Developing a detailed project plan, including scheduling, resource allocation, and risk
management.
3. Execution: Building the software, involving design, coding, testing, and integration.
4. Monitoring and Controlling: Tracking the progress, managing changes, and ensuring the project stays
on course.
5. Closure: Finalizing all activities, delivering the product, and closing the project.

SP vs. Other Types of Projects

Software projects differ from other types of projects (like construction, manufacturing, or research projects) in
several ways:

1. Intangibility: Software is intangible and invisible, which makes it harder to measure progress compared
to physical projects.
2. Flexibility: Software projects are often more flexible, allowing changes during development, whereas
physical projects have more rigid constraints.
3. Complexity: Software development can be highly complex, involving many interdependent components
and technologies.
4. Iteration: Software projects often use iterative and incremental development methodologies, such as
Agile, which are less common in other types of projects.
5. Testing and Debugging: Software projects require extensive testing and debugging, unique to software
development.
6. Human Resources: The skills required for software projects are specialized, focusing on programming,
design, and technical knowledge.

Activities Covered by Software Project Management (SPM)

Software Project Management (SPM) encompasses various activities to ensure the successful completion of a
software project. These activities include:

1. Project Planning and Estimation:

o Defining the scope and objectives.
o Estimating time, cost, and resources needed.
o Risk management planning.
2. Resource Management:
o Allocating human resources, tools, and technologies.
o Managing team roles and responsibilities.
3. Scheduling and Time Management:
o Creating a project timeline.
o Setting milestones and deadlines.
o Monitoring progress and adjusting schedules as needed.
4. Quality Management:
o Defining quality standards and metrics.
o Implementing quality assurance (QA) and quality control (QC) practices.
 o Conducting regular code reviews and testing

Categorizing SPs, project as a system, management control:-

Categorizing Software Projects (SPs)

Software projects can be categorized based on various criteria such as size, complexity, purpose, and
methodology. Here are some common categories:

1. Based on Size:
o Small Projects: Simple, with a small team and limited scope (e.g., developing a single feature).
o Medium Projects: Moderate complexity, larger teams, and broader scope (e.g., developing a web
application).
o Large Projects: Highly complex, extensive scope, involving multiple teams (e.g., enterprise software
systems).
2. Based on Complexity:
o Simple Projects: Clear requirements, straightforward implementation.
o Moderately Complex Projects: Some ambiguity in requirements, moderate integration and testing
efforts.
o Highly Complex Projects: Ambiguous requirements, significant integration, and testing challenges.
3. Based on Purpose:
o Custom Software Development: Tailored to meet specific client needs.
o Product Development: Creating commercial software products for the market.
o Maintenance Projects: Updating and maintaining existing software systems.
o Research and Development: Innovative projects exploring new technologies or concepts.
4. Based on Methodology:
o Waterfall Projects: Sequential phases with clear milestones and deliverables.
o Agile Projects: Iterative and incremental development with flexibility to adapt to changes.
o DevOps Projects: Emphasizing continuous integration, continuous delivery, and collaboration between
development and operations.

Project as a System

Viewing a project as a system involves considering it as a set of interrelated components working together to
achieve a common goal. This perspective emphasizes the importance of understanding and managing the
relationships between different elements of the project.

Key Components:

1. Inputs: Resources such as time, money, personnel, and technology.

2. Processes: Activities and tasks that transform inputs into outputs (e.g., planning, designing, coding, testing).
3. Outputs: Deliverables produced by the project (e.g., software product, documentation).
4. Feedback: Information about the performance and outcomes used to make adjustments and improvements.

Management Control in Software Projects

Management control involves monitoring and regulating the project to ensure it meets its objectives within the
constraints of time, budget, and quality. Key aspects of management control in software projects include:

1. Planning and Scheduling:

o Work Breakdown Structure (WBS): Decomposing the project into smaller, manageable tasks.
o Gantt Charts: Visualizing the project timeline and milestones.
 o Critical Path Method (CPM): Identifying the longest sequence of tasks that determine the project
duration.
2. Monitoring and Reporting:
o Progress Tracking: Regularly measuring the actual progress against the planned schedule.
o Status Reports: Providing updates on project health, issues, and risks.
3. Quality Control:
o Testing: Systematic testing to identify and fix defects.
o Reviews and Inspections: Conducting code reviews, design reviews, and inspections to ensure quality.
4. Risk Management:
o Risk Identification: Recognizing potential risks that could impact the project.
o Risk Analysis: Assessing the likelihood and impact of identified risks.
o Risk Mitigation: Developing strategies to minimize the impact of risks.
5. Change Management:
o Change Control Board (CCB): A group responsible for reviewing and approving changes.
o Change Requests: Formal requests for modifications to the project scope, schedule, or budget.
o Impact Analysis: Evaluating the effects of changes on the project.
6. Resource Management:
o Resource Allocation: Ensuring optimal use of available resources.
o Resource Leveling: Adjusting the project schedule to address resource constraints.
7. Communication Management:
o Stakeholder Engagement: Keeping stakeholders informed and involved.
o Information Distribution: Ensuring timely and accurate dissemination of information.
8. Performance Measurement:
o Key Performance Indicators (KPIs): Metrics to evaluate project performance.
o Earned Value Management (EVM): A technique to measure project performance and progress in terms
of scope, time, and cost.

By categorizing software projects, viewing them as systems, and applying effective management controls,
project managers can better navigate the complexities of software development and increase the likelihood of
project success.

Software Project scheduling and planning:-

Software Project Planning and Scheduling are fundamental components of software project management
aimed at ensuring the successful delivery of a software project. Here’s a brief overview of the basic concepts:

Software Project Planning

1. Defining Objectives:
o Clearly outline the goals and objectives of the project.
o Ensure alignment with stakeholders' expectations.
2. Scope Management:
o Determine the project scope, including deliverables and boundaries.
o Use a Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) to break down the project into smaller, manageable
tasks.
3. Resource Allocation:
o Identify and allocate necessary resources, including personnel, tools, and technologies.
o Assign roles and responsibilities to team members.
4. Risk Management:
o Identify potential risks and uncertainties.
o Develop risk mitigation strategies and contingency plans.
5. Budgeting:
 o Estimate costs for resources, tools, and other expenses.
o Create a detailed budget plan and monitor expenses throughout the project.
6. Quality Management:
o Define quality standards and criteria for the project deliverables.
o Implement quality assurance (QA) and quality control (QC) processes.

Software Project Scheduling

1. Task Identification:
o Identify all the tasks and activities required to complete the project.
o Use the WBS to organize tasks hierarchically.
2. Sequencing Tasks:
o Determine the logical order of tasks.
o Identify dependencies between tasks (e.g., task B cannot start until task A is complete).
3. Estimating Durations:
o Estimate the time required to complete each task.
o Consider potential uncertainties and buffer times.
4. Creating the Schedule:
o Develop a project timeline using tools like Gantt charts or network diagrams.
o Establish milestones and deadlines for key deliverables.
5. Critical Path Method (CPM):
o Identify the critical path, which is the longest sequence of dependent tasks.
o Focus on managing and monitoring tasks on the critical path to avoid delays.
6. Resource Leveling:
o Adjust the schedule to address resource constraints.
o Ensure that resources are optimally utilized without overloading.
7. Monitoring and Adjusting:
o Regularly track progress against the schedule.
o Update the schedule as needed to accommodate changes and unforeseen issues.

Tools and Techniques

1. Gantt Charts:
o Visual representation of the project schedule, showing tasks, durations, and dependencies.
2. PERT Charts:
o Program Evaluation and Review Technique charts help visualize task sequences and estimate
project duration with probabilistic time estimates.
3. Project Management Software:
o Tools like Microsoft Project, JIRA, or Trello for planning, scheduling, and tracking.

Summary

 Software Project Planning: Focuses on defining objectives, managing scope, allocating resources,
assessing risks, budgeting, and ensuring quality.
 Software Project Scheduling: Involves identifying tasks, sequencing them, estimating durations,
creating and managing the project timeline, and adjusting for resource constraints.

Effective planning and scheduling are crucial for keeping software projects on track, within budget, and
ensuring timely delivery of high-quality products.
Project scheduling:-

Project schedule simply means a mechanism that is used to communicate and know about that tasks are needed
and has to be done or performed and which organizational resources will be given or allocated to these tasks
and in what time duration or time frame work is needed to be performed. Effective project scheduling leads to
success of project, reduced cost, and increased customer satisfaction. Scheduling in project management means
to list out activities, deliverables, and milestones within a project that are delivered. It contains more notes than
your average weekly planner notes. The most common and important form of project schedule is Gantt chart.

Process :
The manager needs to estimate time and resources of project while scheduling project. All activities in project
must be arranged in a coherent sequence that means activities should be arranged in a logical and well-
organized manner for easy to understand. Initial estimates of project can be made optimistically which means
estimates can be made when all favorable things will happen and no threats or problems take place.

The total work is separated or divided into various small activities or tasks during project schedule. Then,
Project manager will decide time required for each activity or task to get completed. Even some activities are
conducted and performed in parallel for efficient performance. The project manager should be aware of fact that
each stage of project is not problem-free.

Problems arise during Project Development Stage :

 People may leave or remain absent during particular stage of development.

 Hardware may get failed while performing.

 Software resource that is required may not be available at present, etc.

The project schedule is represented as set of chart in which work-breakdown structure and dependencies within
various activities are represented. To accomplish and complete project within a given schedule, required
resources must be available when they are needed. Therefore, resource estimation should be done before
starting development.

Resources required for Development of Project :

 Human effort

 Sufficient disk space on server

 Specialized hardware

 Software technology
  Travel allowance required by project staff, etc.

Advantages of Project Scheduling :

There are several advantages provided by project schedule in our project management:

 It simply ensures that everyone remains on same page as far as tasks get completed, dependencies, and
deadlines.

 It helps in identifying issues early and concerns such as lack or unavailability of resources.

 It also helps to identify relationships and to monitor process.

 It provides effective budget management and risk mitigation.

Task Set and Task Network

In software project management, a task set and a task network are both crucial components for planning and
executing projects effectively. Here's an overview of each:

1. Task Set:
o A task set refers to the collection of individual tasks or activities that need to be completed
within a project. These tasks are typically defined based on the project's requirements, goals, and
timeline.
o Each task within the set should be well-defined, measurable, and assignable to specific team
members or resources. Tasks should also have clear dependencies and priorities.
o Task sets are usually organized hierarchically, with higher-level tasks broken down into smaller,
more manageable sub-tasks.
o The task set serves as the foundation for project planning, scheduling, resource allocation, and
tracking progress throughout the project lifecycle.
2. Task Network:
o A task network, also known as a network diagram or project network, visually represents the
relationships and dependencies between individual tasks within a project.
o It provides a graphical illustration of the sequence in which tasks must be performed and the
dependencies between them, such as which tasks can be started only after others are completed.
o Task networks can take different forms, including Gantt charts, PERT (Program Evaluation and
Review Technique) charts, and dependency diagrams.
o By visualizing task dependencies and critical paths, task networks help project managers and
team members understand the flow of work, identify potential bottlenecks, and optimize
scheduling and resource allocation.
o Additionally, task networks facilitate communication and coordination among team members by
providing a shared understanding of the project's timeline and workflow.

In summary, while a task set outlines the individual activities required to complete a project, a task network
visualizes the relationships and dependencies between those tasks, aiding in planning, scheduling, and
coordination efforts. Both are essential tools for effective software project management.

Task Set:

 A task set is a collection of tasks or activities required to complete a project or a phase of a project.
Each task is a specific piece of work that contributes to the project's objectives.

Task Network:
  A task network (also known as a project network diagram) visually represents the sequence and
dependencies between tasks in a project. It helps in understanding the flow of activities and identifying
the critical path.

Scheduling

Project Scheduling:

 Project scheduling involves determining the start and finish dates for project tasks. It ensures that the
project is completed within the defined timeline.

Key Elements:

1. Task Identification: List all tasks required for the project.

2. Task Sequencing: Determine the order of tasks and their dependencies.
3. Duration Estimation: Estimate how long each task will take.
4. Schedule Development: Create a timeline using tools like Gantt charts or PERT charts.
5. Critical Path Analysis: Identify the longest path of dependent tasks that determine the project duration.
6. Resource Allocation: Assign resources to tasks.
7. Monitoring and Adjusting: Track progress and make adjustments as needed.

Earned Value Analysis (EVA) Indicators

Earned Value Analysis:

 EVA is a project management technique for measuring project performance and progress in an objective
manner.

Key Indicators:

1. Planned Value (PV):

o The estimated value of work planned to be done by a certain date.
o Formula: PV = Planned % Complete x Budget at Completion (BAC).
2. Earned Value (EV):
o The estimated value of work actually performed by a certain date.
o Formula: EV = Actual % Complete x BAC.
3. Actual Cost (AC):
o The actual cost incurred for the work performed by a certain date.
4. Schedule Variance (SV):
o Indicates whether the project is ahead or behind schedule.
o Formula: SV = EV - PV.
5. Cost Variance (CV):
o Indicates whether the project is over or under budget.
o Formula: CV = EV - AC.
6. Schedule Performance Index (SPI):
o Measures the efficiency of time utilization.
o Formula: SPI = EV / PV (SPI > 1 indicates ahead of schedule).
7. Cost Performance Index (CPI):
o Measures the cost efficiency.
o Formula: CPI = EV / AC (CPI > 1 indicates under budget).
Project Elements

Key Project Elements:

1. Project Scope:
o Defines what the project will deliver, including objectives, deliverables, and boundaries.
o Scope statement, Work Breakdown Structure (WBS).
2. Project Schedule:
o Timeline for the project, including start and finish dates for tasks.
o Gantt charts, PERT charts, milestones.
3. Resources:
o The people, equipment, materials, and budget required to complete the project.
o Resource allocation plans, resource leveling.
4. Budget:
o The estimated cost of the project.
o Cost estimates, budget plans, cost control.
5. Quality:
o Standards and criteria to ensure project deliverables meet the required level of quality.
o Quality plans, quality assurance, quality control.
6. Risk Management:
o Identifying, analyzing, and responding to project risks.
o Risk register, risk mitigation plans.
7. Communication:
o Ensuring timely and effective communication among stakeholders.
o Communication plans, status reports, meeting agendas.
8. Stakeholders:
o Individuals or groups with an interest in the project outcome.
o Stakeholder analysis, stakeholder engagement plans.

Summary

 Task Set and Task Network: Task sets are collections of tasks, and task networks are visual
representations of task sequences and dependencies.
 Scheduling: Involves planning start and finish dates for tasks, using tools like Gantt charts, PERT
charts, and critical path analysis.
 Earned Value Analysis Indicators: Include PV, EV, AC, SV, CV, SPI, and CPI, used to measure
project performance and progress.
 Project Elements: Encompass scope, schedule, resources, budget, quality, risk management,
communication, and stakeholders, ensuring comprehensive project management.

WBS [Work Breakdown Structure):-

A Work Breakdown Structure includes dividing a large and complex project into simpler, manageable, and
independent tasks. The root of this tree (structure) is labeled by the Project name itself. For constructing a work
breakdown structure, each node is recursively decomposed into smaller sub-activities, until at the leaf level, the
activities become undividable and independent. It follows a Top-Down approach.

Steps Work Breakdown Structure:

Step 1: Identify the major activities of the project.

Step 2: Identify the sub-activities of the major activities.

Step 3: Repeat till undividable, simple, and independent activities are created.

Work Breakdown Structure

Construction of Work Breakdown Structure

1. Firstly, the project managers and top level management identifies the main deliverables of the project.

2. After this important step, these main deliverables are broke down into smaller higher-level tasks and this
complete process is done recursively to produce much smaller independent tasks.

3. It depends on the project manager and team that upto which level of detail they want to break down their
project.

4. Generally the lowest level tasks are the most simplest and independent tasks and takes less than two
weeks worth of work.

5. Hence, there is no rule for upto which level we may build the work breakdown structure of the project as
it totally depends upon the type of project we are working on and the management of the company.

6. The efficiency and success of the whole project majorly depends on the quality of the Work Breakdown
Structure of the project and hence, it implies its importance.

Uses of Work Breakdown Structure

1. Cost estimation: It allows doing a precise cost estimation of each activity.

2. Time estimation: It allows estimating the time that each activity will take more precisely.
 3. Easy project management: It allows easy management of the project.

4. Helps in project organization: It helps in proper organization of the project by the top management.

Selecting a project, identifying project scope and objectives:-

Selecting a project, identifying its scope, and defining clear objectives are foundational steps in software project
management (SPM). Here's a breakdown of each:

1. Selecting a Project:
o Project selection involves identifying potential projects that align with the organization's
strategic goals, objectives, and resources.
o Projects can be selected based on various criteria such as market demand, technological
feasibility, organizational capabilities, and strategic fit.
o Project selection may involve conducting feasibility studies, cost-benefit analyses, risk
assessments, and stakeholder consultations to evaluate the viability and potential impact of each
project.
2. Identifying Project Scope:
o Project scope defines the boundaries and deliverables of the project. It specifies what will be
accomplished and what won't be included within the project's scope.
o The scope is typically documented in a project scope statement, which outlines the project's
objectives, requirements, constraints, assumptions, and key deliverables.
o Techniques such as brainstorming, stakeholder interviews, and requirements elicitation
workshops are often used to gather and clarify project scope requirements.
o It's crucial to ensure that the project scope is well-defined, realistic, and achievable within the
project's constraints (e.g., time, budget, resources).
3. Defining Project Objectives:
o Project objectives articulate the specific, measurable outcomes or results that the project aims to
achieve. They provide a clear direction and purpose for the project team.
o Objectives should be SMART: Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, and Time-bound.
This helps ensure clarity and alignment with stakeholders' expectations.
o Project objectives should address both tangible outcomes (e.g., deliverables, milestones) and
intangible goals (e.g., customer satisfaction, quality improvement).
o It's essential to involve key stakeholders in defining project objectives to ensure alignment with
organizational goals and priorities.

In summary, selecting a project involves evaluating potential opportunities based on strategic criteria, while
identifying project scope and objectives requires a thorough understanding of project requirements and
stakeholder expectations. These steps lay the groundwork for effective planning, execution, and control of
software projects in SPM.

Identifying project infrastructure, analyzing project characteristics, identifying project products and
activities:-

In software project management (SPM), identifying project infrastructure, analyzing project characteristics, and
identifying project products and activities are essential steps in the project planning phase. Here's an overview
of each:

1. Identifying Project Infrastructure:

 o Project infrastructure refers to the resources, tools, and environments needed to support the
project's development and execution.
o This includes physical resources such as hardware, software, and facilities, as well as
organizational resources such as human capital, expertise, and budget.
o Common components of project infrastructure in software development include development
environments (e.g., IDEs, version control systems), testing environments, project management
tools, communication platforms, and collaboration tools.
o Identifying and establishing the necessary infrastructure early in the project lifecycle ensures that
the project team has the support and resources needed to deliver the project successfully.
2. Analyzing Project Characteristics:
o Project characteristics refer to the unique attributes and parameters that define a particular
project, including its size, complexity, technology stack, industry domain, and organizational
context.
o Analyzing project characteristics helps project managers understand the specific challenges,
risks, and constraints that may impact project planning and execution.
o Techniques such as SWOT analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats), risk
assessment, and stakeholder analysis can be used to identify and analyze project characteristics.
o By understanding project characteristics, project managers can tailor project management
approaches, methodologies, and processes to address the specific needs and requirements of the
project.
3. Identifying Project Products and Activities:
o Project products refer to the tangible deliverables or outcomes that the project will produce, such
as software applications, documentation, training materials, or infrastructure components.
o Project activities encompass the tasks, processes, and workflows required to develop, test,
deliver, and maintain the project products.
o Identifying project products and activities involves breaking down the project scope into
manageable components and defining the specific tasks and activities needed to accomplish each
component.
o Techniques such as work breakdown structure (WBS) and activity planning help organize project
products and activities into a hierarchical structure and establish dependencies and sequencing
between them.
o This process lays the groundwork for developing detailed project plans, schedules, and resource
allocations.

By addressing these aspects early in the project lifecycle, project managers can lay a solid foundation for
effective planning, execution, and control of software projects in SPM.

UNIT-II

Project Estimation and Evaluation

Estimating and evaluating software projects is a critical process in software development that ensures project
goals are met within specified constraints such as time, cost, and resources. Here are the key aspects of project
estimation and evaluation:
1.Software Project Estimation
Software project estimation involves predicting the amount of effort, cost, and time required to complete a
project. This process is crucial for effective planning, budgeting, and resource allocation. Accurate estimation
ensures that project goals are achievable within the specified constraints and helps in managing stakeholder
expectations.
Key Components:
 Effort: The amount of work needed, typically measured in person-hours or person-days.
 Cost: The financial resources required, including salaries, equipment, and overheads.
 Time: The duration needed to complete the project phases and deliverables.
Methods and Techniques:
 Expert Judgment: Leveraging the experience and intuition of seasoned professionals.
 Analogous Estimation: Using data from similar past projects.
 Parametric Models: Applying statistical models based on project parameters, like COCOMO.
 Decomposition Techniques: Breaking down the project into smaller tasks and estimating each separately
(e.g., Work Breakdown Structure).
 Three-Point Estimation: Considering optimistic, pessimistic, and most likely scenarios to calculate an
average.
Effective estimation reduces risks, avoids cost overruns, and helps in setting realistic timelines, ultimately
contributing to the project's success.
2. Decomposition Techniques
Decomposition techniques break down the project into smaller, manageable components, which can then be
estimated more accurately. Common decomposition methods include:
 Work Breakdown Structure (WBS): Divides the project into hierarchical sections of tasks.
 Function Point Analysis (FPA): Measures the functionality provided to the user based on the
complexity and number of inputs, outputs, inquiries, and files.
 User Stories: In Agile, projects are decomposed into user stories that describe small, valuable
increments of functionality from the end-user perspective.
3. Empirical Estimation Models
Empirical models use historical data and statistical methods to predict future project characteristics. Common
models include:
 COCOMO (Constructive Cost Model): Estimates effort, time, and cost based on the size of the
software in terms of lines of code (LOC).
 Putnam Model (SLIM): Uses historical project data to forecast project outcomes using a software
lifecycle model.
 Function Points: As mentioned, this measures software size based on functionality, and empirical
models can use function points to estimate effort and cost.
4. Estimation for Object-Oriented Projects
Object-oriented projects require specific estimation approaches due to their unique characteristics:
 Class and Method Counting: Estimating the number of classes and methods.
 Use Case Points (UCP): Based on use cases, considering actors and scenarios, adjusting for technical
and environmental factors.
 Object Points: Measures the number of object classes and methods to estimate effort.
5. Estimation for Agile Development
Agile development focuses on iterative and incremental delivery, requiring flexible and adaptive estimation
techniques:
 Story Points: Abstract measure used to estimate the effort required to implement a user story.
 Planning Poker: A collaborative estimation technique where team members discuss and estimate user
stories using story points.
 Velocity: Measures the amount of work a team can complete in a sprint, used to forecast future sprints.
6. Estimation for Web Engineering Projects
Web engineering projects often have unique requirements such as performance, security, and user experience:
 Page-Based Estimation: Estimates based on the number of web pages and their complexity.
 Component-Based Estimation: Divides the project into web components like forms, databases, and
scripts, estimating each separately.
 Prototype-Based Estimation: Uses initial prototypes to refine requirements and provide a more
accurate estimate.
Summary
Each estimation technique and model has its strengths and weaknesses and is chosen based on the project's
nature and requirements. Combining multiple methods often provides a more reliable estimate. Proper
estimation is crucial for effective project management, risk mitigation, and ensuring successful project delivery.
Cost benefit analysis, cash flow forecasting, cost benefit evaluation techniques, risk evaluation.
Cost Benefit Analysis, Cash Flow Forecasting, and Risk Evaluation
1. Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA)
Cost Benefit Analysis is a systematic approach to estimating the strengths and weaknesses of alternatives in
order to determine the best option that provides the maximum net benefits.
Steps in CBA:
1. Identify Costs and Benefits: List all the costs (direct, indirect, intangible) and benefits (tangible,
intangible) associated with the project.
2. Quantify Costs and Benefits: Assign monetary values to all identified costs and benefits.
3. Discount Future Values: Use a discount rate to convert future costs and benefits to their present value.
4. Calculate Net Present Value (NPV): Sum the present values of benefits and subtract the sum of
present values of costs.
5. Decision Making: A positive NPV indicates a worthwhile investment, while a negative NPV suggests it
should be reconsidered.

2. Cash Flow Forecasting

Cash flow forecasting predicts the amount of money flowing in and out of a business over a given period. It
helps in managing liquidity and ensuring that the organization can meet its obligations.
Steps in Cash Flow Forecasting:
1. Identify Cash Inflows: Include sales revenue, investment income, loans, etc.
2. Identify Cash Outflows: Include operational expenses, salaries, loan repayments, etc.
3. Project Net Cash Flow: Subtract total outflows from total inflows for each period.
4. Adjust for Uncertainties: Factor in possible variations and uncertainties.
Types of Cash Flow Forecasts:
 Short-term Forecast: Usually covers a period of one month to a year.
 Medium-term Forecast: Covers a period of one to three years.
 Long-term Forecast: Extends beyond three years, often used for strategic planning.
3. Cost Benefit Evaluation Techniques
Several techniques can be used to evaluate costs and benefits in project management:
  Payback Period: Time required to recover the initial investment from the net cash inflows.
Payback Period=Initial InvestmentAnnual Cash InflowPayback Period=Annual Cash InflowInitial Inves
tment
 Return on Investment (ROI): Measures the gain or loss generated relative to the investment.
𝑅𝑂𝐼=Net ProfitTotal Investment×100ROI=Total InvestmentNet Profit×100
 Internal Rate of Return (IRR): The discount rate that makes the NPV of all cash flows equal to zero.
 Benefit-Cost Ratio (BCR): Ratio of the present value of benefits to the present value of costs.
𝐵𝐶𝑅=PV of BenefitsPV of CostsBCR=PV of CostsPV of Benefits
4. Risk Evaluation
Risk evaluation involves identifying and assessing risks to determine their potential impact on a project and the
likelihood of their occurrence.
Steps in Risk Evaluation:
1. Risk Identification: List all possible risks using techniques such as brainstorming, checklists, and
expert judgment.
2. Risk Analysis: Evaluate the likelihood and impact of each risk using qualitative or quantitative
methods.
3. Risk Prioritization: Rank risks based on their severity and probability.
4. Risk Mitigation: Develop strategies to manage and mitigate risks, such as avoidance, transfer,
mitigation, or acceptance.
5. Risk Monitoring: Continuously monitor and review risks throughout the project lifecycle.
Risk Analysis Techniques:
 Qualitative Analysis: Uses tools like risk probability and impact matrix, risk categorization, and expert
judgment.
 Quantitative Analysis: Uses numerical techniques such as Monte Carlo simulation, decision tree
analysis, and sensitivity analysis.
Summary
Effective project estimation, cash flow forecasting, cost-benefit analysis, and risk evaluation are critical
components of project management. They ensure that projects are financially viable, strategically aligned, and
well-prepared to handle uncertainties and risks. By systematically applying these techniques, organizations can
make informed decisions that maximize value and minimize potential downsides.
Selection of an appropriate project report: choice of process model, structured methods, rapid application
development, water fall, spiral models, Prototyping delivery, Albrecht function point analysis.
Selection of an Appropriate Project Report: Process Models and Methods
Selecting the appropriate process model and methods for a software project report involves understanding the
project's specific requirements, constraints, and goals. Here’s an overview of various models and techniques to
consider:
1. Choice of Process Model
1.1 Waterfall Model
 Characteristics:
 Linear and sequential approach.
 Divided into distinct phases: Requirements, Design, Implementation, Verification, and
Maintenance.
 Each phase must be completed before moving to the next.
 Use Case:
 Suitable for projects with well-defined requirements.
 Works well for projects with low risk of requirement changes.
 Advantages:
 Simple and easy to understand.
 Easy to manage due to its rigid structure.
 Disadvantages:
 Inflexible to changes in requirements.
 Late discovery of issues, as testing happens only after implementation.
1.2 Spiral Model
 Characteristics:
 Combines iterative development with systematic aspects of the waterfall model.
 Emphasizes risk analysis and mitigation.
 Cycles through four phases: Planning, Risk Analysis, Engineering, and Evaluation.
 Use Case:
 Suitable for large, complex, and high-risk projects.
 Ideal when requirements are expected to evolve.
 Advantages:
 Risk management is a core component.
 Allows for incremental releases and refinement.
 Disadvantages:
 Can be costly and complex to manage.
 Requires considerable expertise in risk analysis.
1.3 Prototyping Model
 Characteristics:
 Involves creating prototypes early in the development cycle.
 Helps in refining requirements through user feedback.
 Use Case:
 Ideal for projects with unclear or evolving requirements.
 Useful in user-centered design processes.
 Advantages:
 Encourages user involvement and feedback.
 Helps in uncovering and addressing issues early.
 Disadvantages:
 Can lead to scope creep.
 Sometimes results in incomplete or inadequate documentation.
1.4 Rapid Application Development (RAD)
 Characteristics:
 Emphasizes quick development and iteration.
 Involves user participation and the use of reusable components.
  Use Case:
 Best for projects that require rapid development and have a limited scope.
 Suitable for projects where requirements are well understood but time is a constraint.
 Advantages:
 Fast delivery of initial systems.
 High user involvement and feedback.
 Disadvantages:
 Not suitable for large-scale, complex projects.
 May compromise on quality due to rapid development.
1.5 Agile Development
 Characteristics:
 Focuses on iterative and incremental delivery.
 Emphasizes flexibility, customer collaboration, and responsiveness to change.
 Common frameworks include Scrum, Kanban, and XP.
 Use Case:
 Suitable for projects with evolving requirements.
 Ideal for projects that require regular delivery of small, functional pieces of software.
 Advantages:
 High flexibility and adaptability to change.
 Continuous user feedback and involvement.
 Disadvantages:
 Requires experienced team members.
 Can be challenging to predict timelines and costs accurately.
2. Structured Methods
Structured methods provide a systematic approach to software development. These include:
 Structured Systems Analysis and Design Method (SSADM):
 Focuses on a rigorous analysis and design phase.
 Uses data flow diagrams, entity-relationship diagrams, and structured charts.
 Unified Modeling Language (UML):
 Provides a standard way to visualize system architecture.
 Uses diagrams like use case, class, sequence, and activity diagrams.
3. Albrecht Function Point Analysis (FPA)
Function Point Analysis is a method to measure the functionality provided by the software, independent of
technology.
Key Concepts:
 Function Points: Measure of software size based on its functionality.
 Components Analyzed: Inputs, outputs, inquiries, internal files, and external interfaces.
Steps:
1. Identify and classify each function into categories (inputs, outputs, etc.).
2. Assign weights to each function based on complexity (simple, average, complex).
3. Calculate function points using a weighted sum.
4. Adjust for complexity factors to refine the total function points.
Advantages:
 Provides a language-independent measure of software size.
 Useful for comparing productivity across projects.
Disadvantages:
 Can be subjective in assigning weights and complexity factors.
 Requires training and experience to apply effectively.
Summary
Choosing the right process model and method depends on project-specific factors like size, complexity, risk,
and requirements clarity. The Waterfall model suits stable, well-defined projects, while Agile and RAD cater to
projects requiring flexibility and rapid delivery. The Spiral model is ideal for high-risk projects needing
rigorous risk management, and the Prototyping model excels in refining unclear requirements. Structured
methods and Function Point Analysis provide systematic and quantifiable approaches to software development
and evaluation, respectively. Understanding these options helps in selecting the most appropriate approach for a
successful project outcome.

UNIT-III

Activity planning: Objectives of activity planning, project schedule, projects and activities, sequencing
and scheduling activities, Network planning model;

Network Diagrams: CPM, Bar Charts, Gantt Chart, PERT [ Activity-on-arrow network; Activity on
Node network Precedence network; Forward pass; Backward pass; Critical path.

Risk Analysis and Management: Risk and risk types, Risk Break down Structure, Risk management
process,
Evaluating schedule risk using PERT:-
Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT) is a statistical tool used in project management to analyze
and represent the tasks involved in completing a project. PERT helps in understanding the time required to
complete a project and identifying the minimum time needed, along with potential schedule risks.
Steps to Evaluate Schedule Risk Using PERT
1. Identify Tasks and Dependencies:
 List all the tasks required to complete the project.
 Determine the dependencies between tasks (which tasks need to be completed before others can
start).
2. Estimate Task Durations:
 For each task, estimate three time durations:
 Optimistic Time (O): The minimum time required to complete a task if everything goes
perfectly.
 Most Likely Time (M): The best estimate of the time required to complete a task under
normal conditions.
 Pessimistic Time (P): The maximum time required to complete a task if everything goes
wrong.
3. Calculate Expected Time for Each Task:
 Use the PERT formula to calculate the expected time (TE) for each task:

 This formula provides a weighted average that accounts for the uncertainty in task duration
estimates.
4. Construct the PERT Network Diagram:
 Create a network diagram (flowchart) that visually represents the tasks and their dependencies.
 Each task is represented by a node, and arrows indicate the sequence of tasks.
5. Determine the Critical Path:
 Identify the longest path through the PERT network diagram. This path determines the minimum
project duration and is called the critical path.
 The critical path consists of tasks that directly affect the project's completion date. Any delay in
these tasks will delay the entire project.
 6. Calculate the Standard Deviation:
 Find the standard deviation (σ) of the project duration by taking the square root of the total

7. Evaluate Schedule Risk:

 Assess the probability of completing the project within a given time frame using the standard
deviation and the expected project duration (TE).
 Use the standard deviation to calculate the Z-score for the desired completion time (T):

 Use the Z-score to find the probability from the standard normal distribution table.
Example
Summary
Evaluating schedule risk using PERT involves estimating task durations, constructing a network diagram,
identifying the critical path, calculating variances and standard deviations, and assessing the probability of
meeting project deadlines. This structured approach helps project managers to understand and mitigate potential
schedule risks effectively.

UNIT-IV

Resource Allocation & Monitoring Control:-

Resource allocation and monitoring control are essential components of project management. They ensure that
resources are used efficiently and that the project stays on track to meet its objectives.
Introduction
Resource Allocation: Resource allocation involves distributing available resources (human, financial, and
material) to various project tasks to achieve project goals efficiently. It requires careful planning and balancing
to avoid resource overuse or underutilization.
Monitoring and Control: Monitoring and control involve tracking project progress, comparing actual
performance with the planned schedule and budget, and making adjustments as necessary. This ensures that the
project remains aligned with its objectives and constraints.

The Nature of Resources

Types of Resources:
 1. Human Resources: The workforce involved in the project, including developers, designers, testers, and
managers.
2. Financial Resources: Budget allocated for the project, including salaries, equipment, software licenses,
and other expenses.
3. Material Resources: Physical items required for the project, such as hardware, office space, and tools.
4. Information Resources: Data and documentation needed for project execution and decision-making.

Identifying Resource Requirements

Steps to Identify Resource Requirements:
1. Define Project Scope: Clearly outline the project deliverables and scope.
2. Break Down Tasks: Decompose the project into smaller tasks using techniques like Work Breakdown
Structure (WBS).
3. Estimate Resources: Determine the type and quantity of resources needed for each task.
4. Resource Availability: Check the availability of identified resources and any constraints.
5. Assign Resources: Allocate resources to tasks based on their availability and skillsets.

Visualizing Progress
Tools and Techniques for Visualizing Progress:
1. Gantt Charts: Visual timelines that show the start and end dates of project tasks, their dependencies, and
progress.
2. Kanban Boards: Visual boards used in Agile projects to track work items through different stages of the
workflow.
3. Burn-down Charts: Used in Agile projects to show the remaining work versus time.
4. Dashboards: Provide real-time updates on project metrics, including task completion, budget usage, and
resource allocation.

Project Tracking
Methods for Project Tracking:
1. Regular Status Meetings: Conduct frequent meetings to discuss progress, issues, and updates.
2. Progress Reports: Prepare periodic reports that compare planned versus actual progress in terms of time,
cost, and scope.
3. Milestone Reviews: Assess the completion of key project milestones to ensure alignment with project
goals.
4. Performance Metrics: Use Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) such as task completion rate, budget
variance, and resource utilization rates.
Key Elements of Project Tracking:
 Baseline Plan: The initial plan against which actual progress is measured.
 Variance Analysis: Identifying deviations from the plan and understanding their causes.
 Corrective Actions: Implementing measures to address any deviations and get the project back on track.

Summary
Resource allocation and monitoring control are critical to successful project management. By identifying
resource requirements, visualizing progress, and tracking the project effectively, managers can ensure that
resources are utilized optimally and project goals are achieved within the set constraints. This involves a
combination of strategic planning, effective tools, and regular reviews to keep the project on course.

Status Reports, Milestone Analysis, Actual Versus Estimated Analysis of Effort and Schedule.

Status Reports
Introduction: Status reports provide regular updates on the progress of a project. They are essential for keeping
stakeholders informed, identifying issues early, and ensuring that the project stays on track.
Components of a Status Report:
 1. Project Overview: A brief summary of the project goals, scope, and current status.
2. Progress Summary: Highlights of what has been accomplished since the last report, including completed
tasks and milestones.
3. Upcoming Tasks: A list of tasks to be completed in the upcoming period.
4. Issues and Risks: Identification of any issues or risks encountered, along with mitigation strategies.
5. Resource Utilization: Information on how resources are being used, including any over or under-
utilization.
6. Budget Status: Updates on the budget, including expenditures and remaining funds.
7. Schedule Status: Comparison of planned versus actual progress in terms of time.
Benefits:
 Keeps all stakeholders informed.
 Facilitates early identification of issues.
 Provides a documented history of the project’s progress.

Milestone Analysis
Introduction: Milestone analysis involves tracking the achievement of key points or stages in the project
timeline. Milestones are significant events or deliverables that indicate progress.
Key Steps in Milestone Analysis:
1. Define Milestones: Clearly identify and document significant milestones during the project planning
phase.
2. Track Achievement: Monitor progress towards these milestones and record their completion.
3. Compare Planned vs. Actual: Analyze whether milestones are achieved as per the planned schedule.
4. Adjust Plans: Make necessary adjustments to the project plan based on milestone achievements or
delays.
Benefits:
 Provides clear indicators of progress.
 Helps in identifying potential delays early.
 Facilitates better planning and forecasting.

Actual Versus Estimated Analysis of Effort and Schedule

Introduction: This analysis compares the actual effort and time spent on the project tasks against the initial
estimates. It is crucial for understanding the accuracy of estimates and improving future estimation processes.
Steps for Analysis:
1. Gather Data: Collect data on actual effort (hours, days) and actual time taken (schedule) for each task.
2. Compare with Estimates: Compare this data against the estimated effort and schedule documented
during the planning phase.
3. Calculate Variance: Determine the variance for each task.
Variance=Actual Value−Estimated Value
4. Analyze Variances: Identify patterns or common reasons for variances, such as underestimation, scope
changes, or unforeseen complexities.
5. Adjust Estimates: Use the insights gained to refine estimation techniques for future projects.
Benefits:
 Provides insight into the accuracy of the project’s estimates.
 Helps in understanding the reasons behind deviations.
 Aids in improving the accuracy of future project estimates.
Common Metrics:
 Schedule Variance (SV): Difference between the planned and actual completion dates.
 Effort Variance (EV): Difference between the planned and actual effort.
 Cost Variance (CV): Difference between the budgeted cost and actual cost.

Summary
 In software project management, regular status reports, milestone analysis, and actual versus estimated analysis
are essential practices. They ensure that the project remains on track, stakeholders are informed, and future
planning is improved. Status reports provide a snapshot of progress, milestone analysis highlights significant
achievements and potential delays, and variance analysis of effort and schedule helps refine estimation
processes and resource allocation. Together, these practices contribute to effective project management and
successful project delivery.

Software quality and project closure: Defining software quality attributes, ISO 9126, Software quality
measures, Project Closure Analysis. The Role of Closure Analysis, Performing Closure Analysis.

Software Quality and Project Closure

Defining Software Quality Attributes
Software quality attributes are characteristics that determine how well software meets its requirements and satisfies user needs.
These attributes ensure that the software is reliable, efficient, and maintainable. Key quality attributes include:

 Functionality: The degree to which the software performs its intended functions.
 Reliability: The software's ability to perform its required functions under stated conditions for a specified period.
 Usability: The ease with which users can learn and use the software.
 Efficiency: The software's ability to perform its functions with optimal use of resources.
 Maintainability: The ease with which the software can be modified to correct faults, improve performance, or adapt to a
changed environment.
 Portability: The ease with which the software can be transferred from one environment to another.

ISO 9126
ISO 9126 is an international standard for the evaluation of software quality. It defines a quality model that categorizes software
quality into six main characteristics, each with sub-characteristics:

1. Functionality:

 Suitability
 Accuracy
 Interoperability
 Security
 Functionality compliance

2. Reliability:

 Maturity
 Fault tolerance
 Recoverability
 Reliability compliance

3. Usability:

 Understandability
 Learnability
 Operability
 Attractiveness
 Usability compliance

4. Efficiency:

 Time behavior
 Resource utilization
 Efficiency compliance

5. Maintainability:

 Analyzability
 Changeability
 Stability
 Testability
 Maintainability compliance

6. Portability:

 Adaptability
 Installability
 Co-existence
 Replaceability
 Portability compliance

Software Quality Measures

Software quality measures are metrics used to quantify the attributes of software quality. Common measures include:

 Defect Density: The number of defects per unit size of software (e.g., per thousand lines of code).
 Mean Time to Failure (MTTF): The average time the software operates before failing.
 Mean Time to Repair (MTTR): The average time taken to repair a software defect.
 Code Coverage: The percentage of the software code that is executed by test cases.
 Customer Satisfaction: Feedback from users regarding their satisfaction with the software.
 Performance Metrics: Measures such as response time, throughput, and resource utilization.

Project Closure Analysis

Project closure is the final phase of the project management lifecycle. It involves finalizing all project activities, completing
deliverables, and formally closing the project.

The Role of Closure Analysis: Closure analysis ensures that the project meets all objectives, requirements, and expectations. It
provides an opportunity to evaluate the project's success, document lessons learned, and ensure that all project information is
archived for future reference.

Performing Closure Analysis:

1. Completion of Deliverables:

 Verify that all project deliverables are completed and meet the specified requirements.
 Obtain formal acceptance from the customer or stakeholders.

2. Administrative Closure:

 Close out all project-related activities, such as finalizing contracts and releasing project resources.
 Ensure all project documentation is completed and archived.

3. Project Performance Evaluation:

 Conduct a performance review to assess how well the project met its objectives.
 Analyze key performance metrics, such as cost, schedule, and quality.

4. Lessons Learned:

 Document lessons learned throughout the project to identify best practices and areas for improvement.
 Conduct a post-mortem meeting with the project team and stakeholders to gather insights and feedback.

5. Final Project Report:

 Prepare a final project report summarizing the project’s achievements, performance, and lessons learned.
 Distribute the report to stakeholders and archive it for future reference.

6. Celebrate Success:

 Acknowledge and celebrate the successful completion of the project.

 Recognize the contributions of the project team and stakeholders.

Summary
Understanding and implementing software quality attributes, adhering to standards like ISO 9126, and using quality measures
are crucial for delivering high-quality software. Project closure analysis ensures that projects are concluded systematically,
providing a thorough evaluation of project performance, documenting valuable lessons, and ensuring all objectives are met. This
structured approach helps in continuous improvement and successful project management in future endeavors.