GEOG 433: Remote Sensing (RS)

Remote Sensing
Definition

The science (and art) of acquiring information about an object, area or phenomenon, without
getting in physical contact with it, by sensing and recording reflected or emitted energy and
processing, analyzing, and applying that information.

Our eyes are an excellent example of a remote sensing device. We are able to gather
information about our surroundings by gauging the amount and nature of the reflectance of
visible light energy from some external source (such as the sun or a light bulb) as it reflects off
objects in our field of view. Contrast this with a thermometer, which must be in contact with
the phenomenon it measures, and thus is not a remote sensing device.
As humans, we are intimately familiar with remote sensing in that we rely on visual perception to
provide us with much of the information about our surroundings. As sensors, however, our eyes are
greatly limited by
1. sensitivity to only the visible range of electromagnetic energy;
2. viewing perspectives dictated by the location of our bodies; and
3. the inability to form a lasting record of what we view.

Because of these limitations, humans have continuously sought to develop the technological means
to increase our ability to see and record the physical properties of our environment.
Beginning with the early use of aerial photography, remote sensing has been recognized as a
valuable tool for viewing, analyzing, characterizing, and making decisions about our environment. In
the past few decades, remote sensing technology has advanced on three fronts:
1. from predominantly military uses to a variety of environmental analysis applications that
relate to land, ocean, and atmosphere issues;
2. from (analog) photographic systems to sensors that convert energy from many parts of
the electromagnetic spectrum to electronic signals; and
3. from aircraft to satellite platforms.

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1. Energy Source or Illumination (A) - the first requirement for remote sensing is to have an
energy source which illuminates or provides electromagnetic energy to the target of interest.
2. Radiation and the Atmosphere (B) - as the energy travels from its source to the target, it will
come in contact with and interact with the atmosphere it passes through. This interaction may
take place a second time as the energy travels from the target to the sensor.
3. Interaction with the Target (C) - once the energy makes its way to the target through the
atmosphere, it interacts with the target depending on the properties of both the target and the
radiation.
4. Recording of Energy by the Sensor (D) - after the energy has been scattered by, or emitted
from the target, we require a sensor (remote - not in contact with the target) to collect and
record the electromagnetic radiation.
5. Transmission, Reception, and Processing (E) - the energy recorded by the sensor has to be
transmitted, often in electronic form, to a receiving and processing station where the data are
processed into an image (hardcopy and/or digital).
6. Interpretation and Analysis (F) - the processed image is interpreted, visually and/or digitally
or electronically, to extract information about the target which was illuminated.

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7. Application (G) - the final element of the remote sensing process is achieved when we apply
the information we have been able to extract from the imagery about the target in order to
better understand it, reveal some new information, or assist in solving a particular problem.

Aircraft and satellites are the common platforms for remote sensing of the earth and its natural
resources. Aerial photography in the visible portion /band / wavelength of the electromagnetic
spectrum was the original form of remote sensing but technological developments has enabled
the acquisition of information at other wavelengths including near infrared, thermal infrared
and microwave. Collection of information over a large numbers of wavelength bands is referred
to as multispectral or hyperspectral data. The development and deployment of manned and
unmanned satellites has enhanced the collection of remotely sensed data and offers an
inexpensive way to obtain information over large areas. The capacity of remote sensing to
identify and monitor land surfaces and environmental conditions has expanded greatly over the
last few years and remotely sensed data will be an essential tool in natural resource
management.

Electromagnetic Energy and RS

Take an example of a coloured photograph.

The sky is blue, trees green, soil-brown, building roofs (red, silver, green, etc). The sensation of
colour is caused by EM radiation. Red, green, blue, relate to forms of energy which we
commonly refer to as light. Light is EM radiation that is visible to the human eye. The sun emits
light, the earths surface features reflect it, the photosynthetic cells (cones and rods) in our eyes
detect it. Light is not the only form of energy radiated from the sun and other bodies. The
sensation ‘warm’ is caused by thermal emission. Sun tanning or our body generating Vitamin D
is triggered by ultraviolet (UV) radiation.

Electromagnetic waves

Electromagnetic waves transport energy through empty space, stored in the propagating
electric and magnetic fields.

The electromagnetic (EM) spectrum is the continuous range of electromagnetic radiation,

extending from gamma rays (highest frequency & shortest wavelength) to radio waves (lowest
frequency & longest wavelength) and including visible light.
The EM spectrum can be divided into seven different regions —— gamma rays, X-rays,
ultraviolet, visible light, infrared, microwaves and radio waves.

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The Electromagnetic Spectrum (EM)

The Electromagnetic Spectrum (EM)

Remote sensing involves the measurement of energy in many parts of the electromagnetic
(EM) spectrum. The major regions of interest in satellite sensing are visible light, reflected and
emitted infrared, and the microwave regions. The measurement of this radiation takes place in
what are known as spectral bands. A spectral band is defined as a discrete interval of the EM
spectrum. For example the wavelength range of 0.4μm to 0.5μm (μm = micrometers or 10-6m)
is one spectral band. Satellite sensors have been designed to measure responses within
particular spectral bands to enable the discrimination of the major Earth surface materials.

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Scientists will choose a particular spectral band for data collection depending on what they
wish to examine. The design of satellite sensors is based on the absorption characteristics of
Earth surface materials across all the measurable parts in the EM spectrum.

Summary
Remote Sensing Workflow

COMPONENTS IN REMOTE SENSING

Platform
The vehicle which carries a sensor i.e. satellite, aircraft, balloon, etc...

Sensors
Device that receives electromagnetic radiation and converts it into a signal that can be
recorded and displayed as either numerical data or an image

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TYPES OF REMOTE SENSING
a) Passive remote sensing
b) Active remote sensing

Two types of sensors exist, namely

passive and active. A passive sensor
system needs an external energy
source
(Figure on the left). In most cases this
source is the sun. These sensors
generally detect reflective and emitted
energy wavelengths from a
phenomenon. An active sensor system
provides its own energy source. As an
example, a radar sensor sends out
sound waves and records the reflected
waves coming back from the surface.
Passive systems are much more

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Passive sensors utilize the energy from the sun for remote sensing or do not supply the energy
being detected e.g. cameras / photography
Active sensors are those that are able to illuminate the target object or produce their own
energy and record the reflected energy e.g. a camera with a flash.

Most sensors record information about the Earth’s surface by measuring the transmission of
energy from the surface in different portions of the electromagnetic (EM) Spectrum. Because
the Earth’s surface varies in nature, the transmitted energy also varies. This variation in energy
allows images of the surface to be created. Human eyes see this variation in energy in the
visible portion of the EM spectrum. Sensors detect variations in energy in both the visible and
non-visible areas of the spectrum. Energy waves in certain sections of the EM spectrum easily
pass through the atmosphere, while other types do not. The ability of the atmosphere to allow
energy to pass through it is referred to as its transmissivity, and varies with the
wavelength/type of the radiation. The gases that comprise our atmosphere absorb energy in
certain wavelengths while allowing energy with differing wavelengths to pass through.

The areas of the EM spectrum that are absorbed by atmospheric gases such as water vapor,
carbon dioxide, and ozone are known as absorption bands. In the Figure below, absorption
bands (shown in brown) are represented by a low transmission value that is associated with a
specific range of wavelengths. Trying to obtain remotely sensed imagery in the absorption
bands is nearly impossible; thus, sensors are generally designed not to record information in
these portions of the spectrum.

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 Atmospheric Windows

In contrast to the absorption bands, there are areas of the EM spectrum (shown in green in
Figure above and described in Table below) where the atmosphere is transparent (little or no
absorption of energy) to specific wavelengths. These wavelength bands are known as
atmospheric "windows" since they allow the energy to easily pass through the atmosphere to
Earth's surface (Transmission). It is in these windows that sensors are used to gather
information about Earth phenomena.

When solar energy strikes an object or molecules of the atmosphere/hydrosphere, many types
of interaction are possible. The energy is:

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 1. Transmitted. The energy passes through with a change in velocity as determined by the
index of refraction for the two media in question. (Pencil in water?)
2. Absorbed. The energy is given up to the object through electron or molecular reactions.
3. Reflected. The energy is returned unchanged with the angle of incidence equal to the
angle of reflection. Reflectance is the ratio of reflected energy to that incident on a
body. For visible light, the wavelength(s) reflected (not absorbed) determines the color
of an object.
4. Scattered The direction of energy propagation is randomly changed. Rayleigh and
Mie scatter are the two most important types of scatter in the atmosphere.
5. Emitted. When energy is absorbed, some of it is re-emitted, at longer wavelengths for
cooler objects. The object heats up with increasing stored energy.

Energy Interactions in the atmosphere and on the land

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Absorption and Transmission

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  A window in the visible and reflected infrared region, between 0.4 – 2 um. This is
the window where the (optical) remote sensors operate.
 Three windows in the thermal infrared region, namely two narrow windows
around 3 and 5 um, and a third, relatively broad, window extending from
approximately 8 to 14 um.

Because of the presence of atmospheric moisture, strong absorption bands are found at
longer wavelengths. There is hardly any transmission of energy in the region from 22um
to 1mm. The more or less transparent region beyond 1mm is the miscrowave region.

Traditional aerial photographs were black and white pictures based on camera and film
technology. Such photographs related to one region of the EM spectrum. Satellite images are
generally captured using sensors and digital technology. A sensor often records simultaneously
in several different regions of the spectrum creating multi-images taken at the same time. The
regions of the spectrum scanned are called “bands.” A band is identified in nanometers (nm).
For example, an image or band scanned in the visible light region of the spectrum would be
identified as 400-700 nm. With multi-bands various color composite images can be created.
Also, bands of various widths on the spectral scale can be recorded.

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Most remote sensing instruments on aircraft or space-based platforms operate in one or more
of these windows by making their measurements with detectors tuned to specific frequencies
(wavelengths) that pass through the atmosphere. When a remote sensing instrument has a
line-of-sight with an object that is reflecting sunlight or emitting heat, the instrument collects
and records the radiant energy. While most remote sensing systems are designed to collect
reflected energy, some sensors, especially those on meteorological satellites, directly measure
absorption phenomena, such as those associated with carbondioxide (CO2) and other gases.
The atmosphere is nearly opaque to EM energy in part of the mid-IR and all of the far-IR
regions. In the microwave region, by contrast, most of this radiation moves through
unimpeded, so radar waves reach the surface (although weather radars are able to detect
clouds and precipitation because they are tuned to observe backscattered radiation from liquid
and ice particles).

Sensor Types

Photographic vs Non-Photographic RS

Photographic Sensors Photographs can be thought of as consisting of a network of many tiny

electromagnetic energy detectors. The photographic spectrum utilized by these detectors
ranges from 0.3 mm to 0.9 mm. For black and white film, the individual detectors are the grains
of silver halide in the film emulsion. Color and color IR film contains no silver. Rather, the image
is created when light interacts with chemicals on the film. The absorption characteristics of the
three dye layers (yellow, magenta, and cyan) generate the various colors. The developed film
will provide information about the variability within a grower’s field.

Non-photographic sensor systems

Multispectral scanners, or non-photographic devices, provide the opportunity to sense several
wavebands in a wider range of discrete wavelengths than does a photographic sensor figure
below). Hyperspectral scanners provide the opportunity to sense many very narrow wavebands
over a wide range of wavelengths. However, they do so with a much greater number of
sensors. Multispectral systems measure energy in specific, strategically placed portions of the
electro- magnetic spectrum. The hyperspectral systems measure several consecutive
wavebands across a specified region of the electromagnetic spectrum. These sensors measure
the energy and store the data in a digital form. The stored digital number of each pixel in the
multispectral system represents the energy reflected from some area on the ground. That area
is a function of the image array size and the altitude of the sensor platform. To calculate the

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ground resolution of the multispectral system, divide the ground swath width of the sensor by
the image array width.

Advantages of non-Photographic sensor systems

 They acquire and store the data in digital form immediately, therefore, calibration of
non-photographic systems can be easier.
 They also have the advantage when it comes to measuring in more discrete wavelengths
over a much larger range of wavelengths and intensities.
Advantages of Photographic sensor systems
 Photo-graphic systems offer the advantage of greater spatial resolution
 and a lower cost than that of anon-photographic system

NB: If the application requires high spatial resolution and the broad bands are acceptable, then
a photographic system may be appropriate. If the application requires narrow bands and/or
bands beyond the photographic range, then the non-photographic system is necessary.
Photographic systems may be most appropriate for single event qualitative descriptions of field
condition (e.g., soil color or relative crop status). A qualitative analysis of the photographic
imagery is low cost since it does not require extensive image calibration, and the equipment is
relatively inexpensive. System selection should be based on the needs and requirements of
each individual user for each application

A graphical representation of the regions in which photographic and Non-photographic /

multispectral scanners sense

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Remote Sensing Basics
 platforms
o airborne sensor (balloons, planes, etc)
o satellites
 geostationary orbit (telecommunications, meteo)
 mapping (pole-to-pole, or oblique) orbits (a tracking program that
shows the orbits)
 GPS (multiple overlapping orbits, 29 satellites)

 sensor mechanism
1. photographic
 Earliest satellite photographic images from Corona spy satellite
captured on mylar negatives and dropped from the satellite.
 Snagged in the air by planes near Hawaii.
 Now in the public domain (resolution down to 6 ft) at USGS Earth
Exlplorer.
 Missions are named KH1 through KH9. The images extend possible
landscape change analysis back at least a decade. Operated from 1959
to 1972, when a Soviet sub was found to be submerged near the
recovery site.
2. Active digital sensors – emit radiation and record reflection.
 most common one is radar (RAdio Detection And Ranging) and LIDAR
(Light Detection and Ranging)
 Transmission and reception can be polarized and at different "bands"
(C, X, etc, see radar bands)
 interferometry
· a pioneering study of earth movement during the Landers
earthquake in So. Calif. in 1992
· subsidence due to groundwater pumping
· pakistan earthquake, 2005
3. passive digital sensors
 rely on sun’s radiation and reflectance/emission from surface of planet
(or atmosphere) much more on this common
 spatial collection mechanisms
 push-broom (push-broom--SPOT)
 rotating mirror (Whiskbroom, Landsat TM)
spectral characteristics
 "Panchromatic" (SPOT and TM7, band 8) versus narrow bands in the
electromagnetic spectrum.
 multiple, narrower bands (up to hyperspectral, tens to hundreds of bands)
 TM Band 6 is lower resolution due to low radiance and desire to sense at
night (was 120 m on landsat 4&5, now with ETM+ is 60 m)
 errors due to
 sensor calibration differences (spectral error)
 scan line shift (geometric error)
 data types

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 scale – resolution and scale inverse, can’t have both
 large pixel size, broad coverage (1-10 km grids, weather, global land
characterization, ocean temp/chlorophyll mapping)
 small pixel size, detailed coverage (TM for landuse, spy sats,
construction/planning, 30 to <1 m)
image type
 photographic versus digital images
 panchromatic
 multispectral (numerous "bands" of the EM Spectrum Sampled) (plot
of several multispectral sensors)
 hyperspectral (gazillions of bands, still on planes, not yet in space)

ACTIVE and PASSIVE Remote Sensing

In remote Sensing, the sensor measures energy. Passive and active techniques are distinguished.
Passive RS techniques employ natural sources of energy, such as the sun. Active RS techniques,
for example radar and laser, have their own source of energy. Active sensors emit a controlled
beam of energy to the surface and measure the amount of energy reflected back to the sensor.

Passive Sensor systems based on reflection of the sun’s energy can only work during daylight.
Passive sensor systems that measure the longer wavelengths related to the earth’s temperature do
not depend on the sun as a source of illumination and can be operated at any time. Passive sensor
systems need to deal with the varying illumination conditions of the sun, which are greatly
influenced by atmospheric conditions. The main advantage of active sensor systems is that they
can be operated day and night and have a controlled illumination signal.

NON PHOTOGRAPHIC REMOTE SENSING

o optical-mechanical scanners,
o thermal scanners and
o active microwave systems

RS Systems
1) Satellite RS

Remote sensing satellites are equipped with sensors looking down to the earth. They are the "eyes in
the sky" constantly observing the earth as they go round in predictable orbits.

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 The 2001 Mars Odyssey used spectrometers and imagers to hunt for evidence of past or present water and
volcanic activity on Mars.

In this type of RS, the sensors are looking through a layer of atmosphere separating the sensors from the
Earth's surface being observed. Hence, it is essential to understand the effects of atmosphere on the
electromagnetic radiation travelling from the Earth to the sensor through the atmosphere. The atmospheric
constituents cause wavelength dependent absorption and scattering of radiation. These effects degrade the
quality of images. Some of the atmospheric effects can be corrected before the images are subjected to
further analysis and interpretation.

A consequence of atmospheric absorption is that certain wavelength bands in the electromagnetic

spectrum are strongly absorbed and effectively blocked by the atmosphere. The wavelength regions in the
electromagnetic spectrum usable for remote sensing are determined by their ability to penetrate
atmosphere. These regions are known as the atmospheric transmission windows. Remote sensing systems
are often designed to operate within one or more of the atmospheric windows. These windows exist in the
microwave region, some wavelength bands in the infrared, the entire visible region and part of the near
ultraviolet regions. Although the atmosphere is practically transparent to x-rays and gamma rays, these
radiations are not normally used in remote sensing of the earth.

a) Optical and Infrared Remote Sensing

In Optical Remote Sensing, optical sensors detect solar radiation reflected or scattered from the earth,
forming images resembling photographs taken by a camera high up in space. The wavelength region

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usually extends from the visible and near infrared (commonly abbreviated as VNIR) to the short-wave
infrared (SWIR).

Different materials such as water, soil, vegetation, buildings and roads reflect visible and infrared light in
different ways. They have different colours and brightness when seen under the sun. The interpretation of
optical images require the knowledge of the spectral reflectance signatures of the various materials (natural
or man-made) covering the surface of the earth.

There are also infrared sensors measuring the thermal infrared radiation emitted from the earth, from which
the land or sea surface temperature can be derived.

b) Microwave Remote Sensing

There are some remote sensing satellites which carry passive or active microwave sensors. The active
sensors emit pulses of microwave radiation to illuminate the areas to be imaged. Images of the earth
surface are formed by measuring the microwave energy scattered by the ground or sea back to the

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sensors. These satellites carry their own "flashlight" emitting microwaves to illuminate their targets. The
images can thus be acquired day and night. Microwaves have an additional advantage as they can
penetrate clouds. Images can be acquired even when there are clouds covering the earth surface.

A microwave imaging system which can produce high resolution image of the Earth is the synthetic
aperture radar (SAR). The intensity in a SAR image depends on the amount of microwave backscattered
by the target and received by the SAR antenna. Since the physical mechanisms responsible for this
backscatter is different for microwave, compared to visible/infrared radiation, the interpretation of SAR
images requires the knowledge of how microwaves interact with the targets. Laser scanners are also in this
category. They are mounted on aircraft and use a laser beam (infrared light) to measure the distance from
the points located on the ground. This distance measurement is then combined with exact information on
the aircrafts position to calculate the terrain elevation. Laser scanning is mainly used to produce detailed
high resolution Digital Terrain Models (DTM) for topographic mapping. Laser scanning is increasingly used
for other purposes such as production of detailed 3D models of city buildings and for measuring tree
heights in forestry.

c) Thermal scanners

Thermal scanners measure thermal data in the range of 10-14um. The wavelengths in this range
are directly related to an objects temperature. Data on cloud, land and sea surface temperature
are extremely useful for weather forecasting. For this reason, most remote sensing systems
designed for meteorology include a thermal scanner. Thermal scanners can also be used to study
the effects of drought (‘water stress’) on agricultural crops, and to monitor the temperature of

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 cooling water discharged from thermal power plants. Another application is in the detection of
coal fires.

Types and Uses of Satellites

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Advantages of Remote Sensing

1. Provides dense data for large areas

For example, thermal scanners on board of the meteorological / environmental NOAA
satellites can provide us with data at 1km spacing.
2. RS offers high survey repeatability
The European Meteosat provides a new image of the same area every 30mins (since
1977). NASA’s NOAA satellites have a revisit time of 24 hours
3. RS is “multi-channel”
Satellites do not only have a thermal scanner on board (labelled AVHRR) but also other
instruments, which provide us with data on atmospheric temperature, the
concentration and distribution of ozone in the atmosphere, etc.
4. RS is the only way.
A RS approach is specifically suited for areas that are difficult to access. RS allows data
to be acquired globally using the same or a similar sensor. This allows methods for
monitoring and change detection. RS has become an important method of earth
observation and for many applications it is the only suitable one- since an increasing
number of issues are of global concern, such as climate change, environmental
degradation, natural disasters, and population growth.
5. RS can serve several purposes
Data on sea surface temperature acquired for studying El Nino could be used years later
for studying the influences on algae bloom in those specific areas that the data was
collected. Sea surface temperature maps are not only of interest to researchers; they
are used by fishing companies to guide their vessels to promising fishing grounds.

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 6. RS is cost-effective

The validity of the statement that RS is cost-effective is sometimes hard to assess, especially when
dealing with spaceborne RS. Consider an international scientific project that studies the El Nino
phenomenon. Installation and maintenance of bouys cost a lot of money. Meteorological satellites
have already been paid for and the data can be considered “free”. Further use of RS then becomes
cheap.

Assignment: Discuss the various applications of remote sensing on man's use of land. 30mks

Ref: INTRODUCTION TO REMOTE SENSING by Dr Robert Sanderson, New Mexico State

University

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING

Why Process Remotely Sensed Data Digitally?

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Humans are adept at visually interpreting data. We can distinguish millions of

colors, several shades of gray, and have a demonstrated ability to identify

water, vegetation, and urban forms on several types of imagery. Why try to

expand on this?

(1) There are limits to a person's ability to distinguish small differences in color.
We are especially limited in our resolution of shades of gray. If data are collected using 256
shades of gray, but an analyst can only distinguish 8-10 (optimistically) of them, a great deal of
information is potentially lost. The human interpreter is outpaced by the precision of the data.
Computers, however, have no trouble distinguishing 256 shades of gray. Each one is individually
recognizable. And, the analyst has control over the conputer's presentation of the data. She can
group it any way she pleases, extract a portion of it, or display it in false color. Data sets can also
be combined, compared, and contrasted with more ease and precision (not to mention speed)
than if the task were left to humans alone.
(2) Human interpretations are highly subjective, hence, not perfectly repeatable.
Conversely, results generated by computer--even when erroneous--are usually repeatable.
(3) When very large amounts of data are involved (a series of photos of an orange grove
taken at 5 day intervals over an entire growing season) the computer may be better suited to
managing the large body of detailed (and tedious) data.

FUNDAMENTALS OF DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING

• Applications of image processing
• What's an image?
• A simple image model
• Fundamental steps in image processing
• Elements of digital image processing systems

Applications of image processing:

• Interest in digital image processing methods stems from 2 principal application areas:
(1) improvement of pictorial information for human interpretation, and

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(2) processing of scene data for autonomous machine perception.

• In the second application area, interest focuses on procedures for extracting from an image
information in a form suitable for computer processing.
• Examples include automatic character recognition, industrial machine vision for product
assembly and inspection, military recognizance, automatic processing of fingerprints etc.

What's an image?

• An image refers to a 2D light intensity function f(x,y), where (x,y) denote spatial coordinates
and the value of f at any point (x,y) is proportional to the brightness or gray levels of the image
at that point.

• A digital image is an image f(x,y) that has been discretized both in spatial coordinates and
brightness.

• The elements of such a digital array are called image elements or pixels.

A simple image model:

• To be suitable for computer processing, an image f(x,y) must be digitalized both spatially and
in amplitude.
• Digitization of the spatial coordinates (x,y) is called image sampling.
• Amplitude digitization is called gray-level quantization.
The storage and processing requirements increase rapidly with the spatial resolution and the
number of gray levels.

• Example: A 256 gray-level image of size 256x256 occupies 64K bytes of memory.

• Images of very low spatial resolution produce a checkerboard effect.

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Images of different spatial resolution

The use of insufficient number of gray levels in smooth areas of a digital image results in false
contouring.

Fundamental steps in image processing:

1. Image acquisition: to acquire a digital image

2. Image preprocessing: to improve the image in ways that increases the chances for success of
the other processes.

3. Image segmentation: to partitions an input image into its constituent parts or objects.

4. Image representation: to convert the input data to a form suitable for computer processing.

5. Image description: to extract features that result in some quantitative information of interest
or features that are basic for differentiating one class of objects from another.

6. Image recognition: to assign a label to an object based on the information provided by its
descriptors.

7. Image interpretation: to assign meaning to an ensemble of recognized objects.

 Knowledge about a problem domain is coded into an image processing system in the form of a
knowledge database.

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 Fundamental steps in digital image processing

Elements of digital image processing systems:

• The basic operations performed in a digital image processing systems include

(1) acquisition,

(2) storage,

(3) processing,

(4) communication and

(5) display.

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 Basic fundamental elements of an image processing system

THE ROLE OF REMOTE SENSING IN ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

Forestry
Geographic Information Systems for forest management may be characterized by two broad and
related categories:

 resource inventory and monitoring;

 analysis, modeling, and forecasting to support decision making

The development of a fully operational GIS for forest management will likely incorporate each
activity as two distinct stages in its development. For example, spatial data input, editing, and
simple maps characterize the inventory and monitoring stage. In the modeling stage, overlays,
reclassifications and suitability analyses are increasingly included as part of the decision making
process. More sophisticated forecasts and "what if” simulations may then be used to assess
management decisions before any changes or interventions are made on the ground. The
boundaries between these activities, however, are not distinct. Monitoring, for example also
includes an analytical component to assess change or the result of specific interventions.

Resource Inventory Monitoring / Resource Assessment

Resource assessment activities include:
 inventorying forest resources available for harvest, fuel, food, recreation, or conservation
purposes, along with related data such as topography, soils, roads, and hydrology,

 monitoring changes that occur to these resources over time, and

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  evaluating potential land productivity for forest types given certain biophysical and
climatic factors. It is in forest resource assessment that other technologies related to GIS,
remote sensing, and global positioning systems, make direct and substantial
contributions.

Inventory
The acquisition of basic inventory data is fundamental to timber management as well as efforts
to conserve certain forest ecosystems. Data include soil type, species type, size, class/stand
structure, crown closure, density, and the boundaries of management units (e.g., stands). Once
data are entered in a GIS, maps can be displayed showing general species distributions and the
area of stands can be calculated. As the data are updated over time, changes in these distributions
can be recorded and analyzed. More customized maps may be created to answer specific
resource questions, such as a map that displays the locations of only stressed or diseased species.
Creating maps that show the spatial relationships between harvestable tree species and other
features such as mills, steep slopes, or even ecologically sensitive riparian areas are possible and
useful to managers.

Monitoring
While an initial inventory of forest resources stored in a GIS is an important step, changes occur
that need to be monitored and recorded. For example, silvicultural activities to manage timber
involve complex and specific interventions to control stand structure, stand density, species
composition, length of harvest rotation, and to maintain site quality. Other changes may result
from sudden, discrete events or disturbances, such as massive deforestation or pestilence that
initiate new development patterns in the affected areas.
Examples of changes that need to monitored include

 Change in forest cover

 examine processes relating to soil erosion, sediment transport, soil fertility changes and
land use changes
 Damage From Pollution and Pests:
Vegetation is sensitive to stress factors associated with changes in moisture, temperature,
as well as anthropogenic factors, such as air pollution, forest pests and disease. GIS
together with remote sensing offers the means to monitor the magnitudes and rates of
decline

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Suitability and Productivity Assessment
Another factor in resource assessment includes efforts to identify biophysical and climatic
factors suitable for the regeneration of tree species. This can be important for establishing tree
plantations, for afforestation programs, for re-establishing endemic species following severe
over-utilization and for timber harvesting. The information obtained from assessing the potential
productivity of a site can be used to manage it for optimal harvest.

Resource Management
Collecting forest inventory data and monitoring changes are critical to forest management
activities. Yet, a GIS can build on these activities by incorporating models to guide, for example,
timber harvesting, silviculture and fire management activities, or predict fuel wood and other
resource supplies. Other priorities, such as providing for wildlife habitat, ensuring recreation
opportunities and minimizing visual impacts of harvesting, are also growing in importance.

Examples of resource management activities include: timber production, habitat protection etc.

Fire Management
The effect of fire on forest resources is another important management concern. Management
activities include fire prevention, wildlife control, prescribed burning, and post-fire recovery
actions. The modeling capabilities of GIS have been quite effective in this context. Forest fire
managers have used GIS for fuel mapping, weather condition mapping, and fire danger rating
(Holder et al. 1990). Several examples illustrate a range of fire applications.

At Cuyamaca Rancho State Park in California, USA, GIS has been used to guide prescribed
burning.
Other Examples of Remote Sensing in Forestry Applications

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This is a color composite image of Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia using
Landsat TM bands 5,4 and 3. (A) appears dark green because this is a mature area of
forest with no cut, (B) appears bright pink because this is area that has been clear cut or
recently logged and (C) appears bright green because these are areas that have been clear
cut but have started regrowth.
Applications in Natural Hazards
Hazards include: earthquakes, landslides, floods, forest fires, oil spill

 Marine pollution
The problem of the marine pollution is probably one of the most worrying aspects of the
deterioration of the environment. This type of pollution is a major risk that would
seriously affect the Biosphere-Geosphere balance. Hydrocarbons are the most noted
pollutants and the Mediterranean Sea contain 18% of the world’s pollution.

Among the remote sensing technologies, SAR (Synthetic Aperture Radar) is very
promising because it can provide images both day and night, even when clouds are
present. The visual effect of an oil slick on a SAR image is a dark area. The presence of
oil reduces the water surface roughness and consequently also reduces the
electromagnetic backscatter.

 Seisms and earthquakes

Satellite data such as interferometric products is used to detect displacement field
resulting from a major earthquake by differential SAR intereferometry and to achieve

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 results comparable in magnitude to those obtained by conventional field survey
techniques.

 Forest fires
Every year about 30 000 hectares of forests are destroyed by fires in Algeria, fires also take a
heavy toll in lives and property and our major preoccupation is to reduce forest fires in the
country, thanks to inventory, prevention, management and follow-up. Prevention and early
warning systems constitute the only means to limit the cost of damage. In huge fires, options are
often limited to the bravery of the firemen attempting to fight the fire.

Applications on Pollution Assessment

Currently, there is an
environmental risk to water quality caused by various improper activities such as industrial dis
charges, human activities etc. Pollution is one of the most important consequences of human
civilization. Our environment is treated by different types of pollutions which are produced due
to numerous industrial and biological activities. Increasing impositions of mankind on natural
resources has made the investigation of the pollution sources and their effects essential.

One of the important pollutions is light pollution which is less known and has rarely been studied
Nightlight emissions that originate mainly from large urban areas are among the main elements
of environmental Pollution. Light pollution which is a problem that affects almost any urban
areas, is produced by a large number of lighting sources, which spill light into the sky and due to
the presence of dust and aerosols in (the atmosphere the light is scattered, brightening the sky. A
number of people have modeled light pollution in various ways.
Also Cinzano (2000) produced sky shining maps caused by artificial and human-made lights in
vast regions using images of DMSP satellite and different techniques of image processing
Chalkias et al. 2005) have modeled light pollution for the outskirts of urban areas by integrating
GIS and Remote) sensing techniques and produced visibility analysis maps.

Quiz: Identify other applications of GIS and RS in pollution mapping.

 Air pollution
 Water pollution
 Oil pollution

Agricultural Applications
RS has a significant role to play in agriculture at several scales from local to global. The most
important applications are probably those connected with precision or site specific farming,
which aims to direct the application of seed, fertiliser, pesticide, and water within fields in ways
that optimize farm returns and minimize chemical inputs and environmental hazards.

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RS data layers are used to model crop yields as well as modeling the risks for specific crop
varieties. Remotely sensed data permits the preparation of base, terrain evaluation, land use
classification and land degradation maps. Agriculture and associated vegetative phenomena are
dynamic; a correct appraisal of conditions at any time is essential for forecasting trends and
patterns in land cover, processes and yield/biomass.

Water Resources Applications

Assessing water quality, marine life, sea surface temperatures monitoring for climate change
mapping,

Mapping of water catchment areas

Flood damage assessment or mapping

Underground water mapping

Environmental Impact Assessment:

AABSyS is having experience in Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) studies to define

the status of environment (like air quality data, water quality data etc.). AABSyS caters to
the need of creating and disseminating of organised environmental data for various
developmental initiatives, AABSyS stores data in GIS format and makes it available to all
environmental impact assessment studies in a cost effective and timely manner.

Wildlife Ecology and National Parks

The main purpose of wildlife conservation is to maintain maximum plant and animal diversity
through genetic traits, ecological functions and bio-geochemical cycles, as well as maintaining
aesthetic values. This has been achieved to a certain extent through the creation of parks and
reserves in different parts of the world. Different criteria are used in the establishment of parks
and nature reserves. Ideally, they should comprise communities of plants and animals that that in
balance, and exhibit maximum diversity.

Unprecedented and increasing loss of native species and their habitats has been caused by
different human activities. GIS and RS is applied in the collection and analysis of wildlife
abundance and distribution data suitable for conservation planning and management.

Other applications include:

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 mapping wildlife density and distribution derived from ground or aerial survey
observations e.g wildebeest in the Mara ecosystem.

 Mapping wildlife resource requirements

Resources used by animals include those material goods required to fulfill their life cycle
such as food, drinking water, nesting sites, shelter etc.

http://www.academia.edu/2692182/Application_of_remote_sensing_and_geographic_inf
ormation_systems_in_wildlife_mapping_and_modelling

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