WFM 5103

Hydrogeology and Groundwater

Lectures 3-4
 WFM 5103
Hydrogeology and Groundwater
Subsurface environment
Water bearing properties of rocks and soils
Principles of groundwater movement
Recharge
Groundwater withdrawal
Groundwater Quality
Groundwater in Coastal zones
Hydrogeological mapping
Groundwater management
Conjunctive use
Groundwater Models
Groundwater development in Bangladesh
Groundwater Movement
RECAP Observation well
piezometer
Aquifer properties/parameters
Water transmitting parameter
Permeability or
Hydraulic Conductivity

kg kg
K= =
 

v
Mean pore velocity: vp =
ne
Pores, Porosity and Permeability
Pores: The spaces between particles within
geological material (rock or sediment)
occupied by water and/or air.

Porosity: is defined as the

ratio of the volume of voids
to the volume of aquifer
material. It refers to the
degree to which the aquifer
material possesses pores or
cavities which contain air or
water.

Permeability: The capacity of a porous rock, sediment, or soil to transmit

ground water. It is a measure of the inter-connectedness of a material's
pore spaces and the relative ease of fluid flow under unequal pressure.
 Perched Aquifers

An aquifer in which a ground water body is separated from the main ground water below
it by an impermeable layer (which is relatively small laterally) and an unsaturated zone.
Water moving downward through the unsaturated zone will be intercepted and
accumulate on top of the lens before it moves laterally to the edge of the lens and seeps
downward to the regional water table or forms a spring on the side of a hillslope.
Specific yield Specific retention
-Water that will drain under -Water that is retained as a film on rock surfaces and
the influence of gravity in very small openings. The physical forces that
control specific retention are the same forces
Vd
Sy = involved in the thickness and moisture content of
Vt capillary fringe Vr
Sr =
Vt
Groundwater withdrawal
exploration
Groundwater
Geologic methods
exploration
Geologic methods
Relation between K and grain-size distribution
(a) General relationship Water transmitting
K=
C d 2 g
k = Cd 2
Parameter….contd.


(b) Empirical formulas

(i) Hazen K = A (d10 ) 2 A = 1.0 for K in [cm/sec] and d10 in [mm]

−1.31 g
(ii) Krumbein and Monk k = 760(d g ) 2 e
 − 84 5 − 95
 g = 16 + n = log 2 (d n )
4 6.6
dg= geometric mean grain diameter [mm]; k in [mm];

2
(i) Kozeny-Carman k = n3 d m
(1 − n ) 2 180
Water transmitting
Parameter….contd.
Transmissivity
Water transmitting
T = Kb Parameter….contd.
Storage parameter
Unconfined aquifer
Specific yield
-Water that will drain
under the influence of
gravity

Vd
Sy =
Vt

Confined aquifer
Storage coefficient/storativity
-Water that is released or taken
into storage per unit surface area S = Ss b + S y Ss = g(n + )
of aquifer per unit change in head
 = bulk modulus of compression of matrix
 = bulk modulus of compression of water
 Cone of Depression
Head gradient
Decline in Convergent flow
Pumping From surrounding
WL in well into the well
aquifer to well
Cone of Depression
Unconfined aquifer
-Cone of depression expands very slowly (drainage through gravity)
-Increased drawdown in wells and in aquifer (dewatering of aquifer)

Confined aquifer
-Cone of depression expands very rapidly (why??)
-No dewatering takes place
Mutual interference of expanding cones around adjacent wells
occurs more rapidly in confined aquifers
 1. 1 Exploration of groundwater

Objective:
to locate aquifers capable of yielding water of suitable
quality, in economic quantities, for drinking, irrigation,
agricultural and industrial purposes, by employing, as
required, geological, geophysical, drilling and other
techniques.

Assessments of ground water resources range in scope and

complexity from simple, qualitative, and relatively inexpensive
approaches to rigorous, quantitative, and costly assessments.

Tradeoffs must be carefully considered among the competing

influences of the cost of an assessment, the scientific defensibility,
and the amount of acceptable uncertainty in meeting the objectives
of the water-resource decision maker.
 Groundwater exploration
Exploration of Groundwater
1.1.1 Surface exploration

- “non-invasive" ways to map the

subsurface.
-less costly than subsurface
investigations

1. Geologic methods
2. Remote Sensing
3. Surface Geophysical Methods
(a) Electric Resistivity Method
(b) Seismic Refraction Method
(c) Seismic Reflection Method
(d) Gravimetric Method
(e) Magnetic Method
(f) Electromagnetic Method
(g) Ground Penetrating Radar
and others
 Groundwater exploration
Exploration of Groundwater
1.1.2 Subsurface exploration

1. Test drilling
geologic log
drilling time log
Water level measurement
2. Geophysical logging/borehole
geophysics
Resistivity logging
Spontaneous potential logging
Radiation logging
Temperature logging
Caliper Logging
Fluid Conductivity logging
Fluid velocity logging
3. Tracer tests
and others
 Groundwater exploration
Exploration of Groundwater
1.1.1 Surface exploration 1.1.2 Subsurface exploration

- “non-invasive" ways to map the 1. Test drilling

subsurface. geologic log
-less costly than subsurface drilling time log
investigations Water level measurement
2. Geophysical logging/borehole
1. Geologic methods geophysics
2. Remote Sensing Resistivity logging
3. Surface Geophysical Methods Spontaneous potential logging
(a) Electric Resistivity Method Radiation logging
(b) Seismic Refraction Method Temperature logging
(c) Seismic Reflection Method Caliper Logging
(d) Gravimetric Method Fluid Conductivity logging
(e) Magnetic Method Fluid velocity logging
(f) Electromagnetic Method 3. Tracer tests
(g) Ground Penetrating Radar and others
and others
Methods Name of Organization
Surface methods 1. Geologic methods GSB, BWDB, DU, BADC,
IWM
2. Remote sensing SPARSSO, CEGIS
3. Surface Geo-physical methods
(a) Electric resistivity method GSB, DU
(b) Seismic refraction method GSB, DU
(c) Seismic reflection method DU
(d) Electromagnetic method GSB, DU
Subsurface methods 1. Test drilling GSB, BWDB, DPHE, WASA,
IWM, DU, BADC, BUET
2. Geophisical logging/borehole
geophysics
(a) Resistivity logging AEC
(b) SP logging AEC
(c) Gamma logging AEC, DU
(d) Temperature logging AEC
(e) Caliper logging AEC
(f) EM conductivity DU
3. Tracer tests BWDB
 Groundwater withdrawal
exploration
Groundwater
Geologic methods
exploration
1.1.1.1 Geologic Methods Geologic methods

- an important first step in any groundwater investigation

- involves collection, analysis and hydrogeologic interpretation of

existing geologic data/maps, topographic maps, aerial
photographs and other pertinent records.

- should be supplemented, when possible, by geologic field

reconnaissance and by evaluation of available hydrologic data
on stream flow and springs, well yields, groundwater recharge
and discharge, groundwater levels and quality.

- nature and thickness of overlying beds as well as the dip of water

bearing formations will enable estimates of drilling depths to be
made.
 Groundwater withdrawal
exploration
Relationship between Groundwater
Geologic methods
exploration
geology and groundwater Geologic methods

• The type of rock formation will suggest the magnitude of water yield
to be expected.

• it is the perviousness or permeability and not porosity which is

significant in water yielding capacity of rocks.

• Igneous rocks have a porosity of 1% and may yield all water while
some clays have a pososity as high as 50% but are practically
impervious.

• Porosity = f (grainsize, shape, grading, sorting, amount and

distribution of cementing materials)

• Permeability = f (interconnectedness, fissures, joints, bedding

planes, faults, shear zones and cleavages, vesicles )
 Groundwater exploration
alluvial aquifers : 90% of all developed Geologic methods
Aquifers are alluvial aquifers, consisting Relationship between
of unconsolidated alluvial deposits, geology and groundwater
chiefly gravels and sands.

Limestone aquifer varies in density, porosity and permeability depending on degree

of consolidation and development of permeable zones after deposition. Original rock
materials offer important aquifers.

Volcanic rock can form highly permeable aquifers. Basalts form a good source of
water; easily susceptible to weathering.

Sandstones are cemented forms of sands and gravels; yields are reduced by the
cements. Some may form good aquifers depending on shape and arrangement of
constituent particles and cementation and compaction.

Igneous and metamorphic rocks, in solid state, are relatively impermeable and
hence serve as poor aquifers. Under weathered conditions, however, the presence of
joints, fractures, cleavages and faults form good water bearing zones, and small wells
may be developed in these zones for domestic water supply.
Selection of site for a well
Factors to be considered are:

(i) Topography: Valley regions are more favorable than the slopes and
the top of the hillocks.

(ii) Climate (annual rainfall, sunlight intensity, max. temperature, humidity):

heavy to moderate rainfall -- more deep percolation – good aquifer.

Intense summer weather -- evaporates and depletes GW through direct
evaporation from shallow depths and
evapotranspiration through plants.
Selection of site for a well Groundwater exploration
Geologic methods

(iii) Vegetation: can flourish where GW is available at shallow

depths.

Phreatophytes, plants that draw the required water directly from the
zone of saturation indicate large storage of groundwater at shallow
Selection of site for a well Groundwater exploration
Geologic methods

(iii) Vegetation: can flourish where GW is available at shallow

depths.

Phreatophytes, plants that draw the required water directly from the
zone of saturation indicate large storage of groundwater at shallow
depths.

Xerophytes, plants that exist under arid conditions by absorbing the

soil moisture (intermediate or vadose water), indicate the scarcity of
groundwater at shallow depths.
Selection of site for a well Groundwater exploration
Geologic methods

(iii) Vegetation: can flourish where GW is available at shallow

depths.

Phreatophytes, plants that draw the required water directly from the
zone of saturation indicate large storage of groundwater at shallow
depths.

Xerophytes, plants that exist under arid conditions by absorbing the

soil moisture (intermediate or vadose water), indicate the scarcity of
groundwater at shallow depths.

Halophytes, plants with a high tolerance of soluble salts, and white

efflorescence of salt at ground surface indicate the presence of
shallow brackish or saline groundwater.
Selection of site for a well Groundwater exploration
Geologic methods

(iv) Geology of the area: thick soil or alluvium cover, highly

weathered, fractured, jointed or sheared and porous rocks indicate
good storage of groundwater, whereas massive igneous and
metamorphic rocks or impermeable shales indicate paucity of
groundwater.

(v) Porosity, permeability: highly porous, permeable zones of

dense rocks encourage storage of groundwater. Massive rocks do
not permit the water to sink.

(vi) Joints and faults in rocks: Wells sunk into rocks with
interconnected joints, fractures, fissures and cracks yield copious
supply of water.

(vii) Proximity of rivers: Streams and rivers serve as sources of

recharge and water is stored in the pervious layers.
 Groundwater exploration
1.1.1.2 Remote sensing Remote sensing

Source A physical quantity

(screen) (light/radiation)

Processor Sensor
signal
(records data (eyes)
and interprets
information)
 Groundwater exploration
Remote sensing
Remote sensing
- an increasingly valuable tool for understanding GW conditions.

-information on an object on the earth is acquired by remote registration/

sensing from aircraft or satellite at various wavelengths of the
electromagnetic energy reflected and emitted.

-difference in reflectance properties of objects produce varying signatures on

the photos or images, which can be interpreted for a variety of purposes of
which application of hydrogeology is one.

-stereoscopic airphotos (color, black and white, infrared), oblique air photos
and high resolution satellite imageries taken from GMS, APT, NOAA, AVHRR,
SPOT and Landsat, ERS-SAR, RADARSAT, open up new possibilities for the
assessment of groundwater resources.

- observable patterns, colors, and relief makes it possible to distinguish

differences in geology, soils, soil moisture, vegetation and land-use (hence
areas of groundwater recharge and discharge).
 Groundwater exploration
Remote sensing

RS applications
forest cover mapping and
monitoring;
land use and land cover
mapping;
 mapping of water
resources;
Others: agriculture;
fisheries; coastal zone;
marine environment.
 Identify data needs
Land cover Dense Cover Conifers

Medium Cover Conifers

Closed Scrub

Open Scrub

Grassland

Croplands

Rock / Bare soil

Stream beds / concrete

 Groundwater exploration
Remote sensing

Advantages of remote sensing technique in general:

- speed of operation
- survey of inaccessible areas
- possibility of repetitive coverage of changing landform, land use,
vegetal cover, water spread in reservoirs, soil salinity, water logged
areas, etc.
- permits mapping and preliminary evaluation at lesser cost.
“The remote sensing technique is only an additional tool in the
quest of groundwater and not a substitute for other methods. For a
meaningful interpretation, there should be adequate ground check
in the field”.
 Groundwater withdrawal
Groundwater exploration
1.1.1.3. Surface Geophysical Surface geophysical methods
Methods
- scientific measurement of physical properties and
parameters of the earth’s subsurface formations
and contained fluids by instruments located on the
surface for investigation of mineral deposits or
geologic structure.

-provide only indirect indication of groundwater

-success depends on how best the physical

parameters are interpreted in terms of
hydrogeological language.

- Accurate interpretation requires supplemental

data from subsurface investigations to substantiate
surface findings.
1.1.1.3 (a) Electric Resistivity Method Groundwater exploration
withdrawal
Surface geophysical
Groundwater exploration
methods
♦Electrical resistivity is the resistance Electric resistivity
Surface geophysical methods
of a volume of material to the flow of
electrical current.

♦ current is introduced into the

ground through a pair of current
electrodes

♦ resulting potential difference is

measured between another pair of
potential electrodes

♦ Apparent resistivity is then

calculated as:
V
 a = 2a
I
V is the measured Potential difference (in Volts)
and I is the current introduced (in Amperes).
1.1.1.3 (a) Electric Resistivity Method Groundwater exploration
Surface geophysical methods
Electric resistivity

Wenner arrangement

V
 a = 2a
I
Schlumber configuration

a =
(L / 2 )2 − (b / 2 )2 V
b I
 Groundwater exploration
• The measured potential difference is a Surface geophysical methods
weighted value over a subsurface region Electric resistivity
controlled by the shape of the region,
and yields an apparent resistivity over
an unspecified depth.

•Vertical electrical Sounding (VES)

Changing the spacing of electrodes
changes the depth of penetration of the
current. So it is possible to obtain field
curve of apparent resistivity vs depth.
For a single homogeneous, isotropic layer of
infinite thickness, resistivity curve will be a
straight line.
True/actual resistivity - if formation
is homogeneous and isotropic.
Apparent resistivity
if formation is anisotropic
consisting of two or more layers of
different materials.