What Is SWOT Analysis?

SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats) analysis is a framework

used to evaluate a company's competitive position and to develop strategic planning.
SWOT analysis assesses internal and external factors, as well as current and future
potential.

A SWOT analysis is designed to facilitate a realistic, fact-based, data-driven look at

the strengths and weaknesses of an organization, initiatives, or within its industry.
The organization needs to keep the analysis accurate by avoiding pre-conceived
beliefs or gray areas and instead focusing on real-life contexts. Companies should
use it as a guide and not necessarily as a prescription.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

SWOT analysis is a strategic planning technique that provides assessment tools.

Identifying core strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats leads to fact-

based analysis, fresh perspectives, and new ideas.

A SWOT analysis pulls information internal sources (strengths of weaknesses of the

specific company) as well as external forces that may have uncontrollable impacts
to decisions (opportunities and threats).

SWOT analysis works best when diverse groups or voices within an organization are
free to provide realistic data points rather than prescribed messaging.

Findings of a SWOT analysis are often synthesized to support a single objective or

decision that a company is facing.

Understanding SWOT Analysis

SWOT analysis is a technique for assessing the performance, competition, risk, and
potential of a business, as well as part of a business such as a product line or
division, an industry, or other entity.

Using internal and external data, the technique can guide businesses toward
strategies more likely to be successful, and away from those in which they have been,
or are likely to be, less successful. Independent SWOT analysts, investors, or
competitors can also guide them on whether a company, product line, or industry
might be strong or weak and why.
Components of SWOT Analysis

Every SWOT analysis will include the following four categories. Though the elements
and discoveries within these categories will vary from company to company, a SWOT
analysis is not complete without each of these elements:

Strengths

Strengths describe what an organization excels at and what separates it from the
competition: a strong brand, loyal customer base, a strong balance sheet, unique
technology, and so on. For example, a hedge fund may have developed a proprietary
trading strategy that returns market-beating results. It must then decide how to use
those results to attract new investors.

Weaknesses

Weaknesses stop an organization from performing at its optimum level. They are
areas where the business needs to improve to remain competitive: a weak brand,
higher-than-average turnover, high levels of debt, an inadequate supply chain, or lack
of capital.

Opportunities

Opportunities refer to favorable external factors that could give an organization a

competitive advantage. For example, if a country cuts tariffs, a car manufacturer can
export its cars into a new market, increasing sales and market share.

Threats

Threats refer to factors that have the potential to harm an organization. For example,
a drought is a threat to a wheat-producing company, as it may destroy or reduce the
crop yield. Other common threats include things like rising costs for materials,
increasing competition, tight labor supply. and so on.

SWOT Table

Analysts present a SWOT analysis as a square segmented into four quadrants, each
dedicated to an element of SWOT. This visual arrangement provides a quick overview
of the company’s position. Although all the points under a particular heading may not
be of equal importance, they all should represent key insights into the balance of
opportunities and threats, advantages and disadvantages, and so forth.

The SWOT table is often laid out with the internal factors on the top row and the
external factors on the bottom row. In addition, the items on the left side of the table
are more positive/favorable aspects, while the items on the right are more
concerning/negative elements.
How to Do a SWOT Analysis

A SWOT analysis can be broken into several steps with actionable items before and
after analyzing the four components. In general, a SWOT analysis will involve the
following steps.

Step 1: Determine Your Objective

A SWOT analysis can be broad, though more value will likely be generated if the
analysis is pointed directly at an objective. For example, the objective of a SWOT
analysis may focused only on whether or not to perform a new product rollout. With
an objective in mind, a company will have guidance on what they hope to achieve at
the end of the process. In this example, the SWOT analysis should help determine
whether or not the product should be introduced.

Step 2: Gather Resources

Every SWOT analysis will vary, and a company may need different data sets to
support pulling together different SWOT analysis tables. A company should begin by
understanding what information it has access to, what data limitations it faces, and
how reliable its external data sources are.

In addition to data, a company should understand the right combination of personnel

to have involved in the analysis. Some staff may be more connected with external
forces, while various staff within the manufacturing or sales departments may have a
better grasp of what is going on internally. Having a broad set of perspectives is also
more likely to yield diverse, value-adding contributions.

Step 3: Compile Ideas

For each of the four components of the SWOT analysis, the group of people assigned
to performing the analysis should begin listing ideas within each category. Examples
of questions to ask or consider for each group are in the table below.

Internal Factors

What occurs within the company serves as a great source of information for the
strengths and weaknesses categories of the SWOT analysis. Examples of internal
factors include financial and human resources, tangible and intangible (brand name)
assets, and operational efficiencies.
Potential questions to list internal factors are:

(Strength) What are we doing well?

(Strength) What is our strongest asset?

(Weakness) What are our detractors?

(Weakness) What are our lowest-performing product lines?

External Factors

What happens outside of the company is equally as important to the success of a

company as internal factors. External influences, such as monetary policies, market
changes, and access to suppliers, are categories to pull from to create a list of
opportunities and weaknesses.

Potential questions to list external factors are:

(Opportunity) What trends are evident in the marketplace?

(Opportunity) What demographics are we not targeting?

(Threat) How many competitors exist, and what is their market share?

(Threat) Are there new regulations that potentially could harm our operations or
products?

Strengths

1. What is our competitive advantage?

2. What resources do we have?

3. What products are performing well?

Weaknesses

1. Where can we improve?

2. What products are underperforming?

3. Where are we lacking resources?

Opportunities

1. What new technology can we use?

2. Can we expand our operations?

3. What new segments can we test?

Threats

1. What regulations are changing?

2. What are competitors doing?

3. How are consumer trends changing?

Companies may consider performing this step as a "white-boarding" or "sticky note"

session. The idea is there is no right or wrong answer; all participants should be
encouraged to share whatever thoughts they have. These ideas can later be
discarded; in the meantime, the goal should be to come up with as many items as
possible to invoke creativity and inspiration in others.

Step 4: Refine Findings

With the list of ideas within each category, it is now time to clean-up the ideas. By
refining the thoughts that everyone had, a company can focus on only the best ideas
or largest risks to the company. This stage may require substantial debate among
analysis participants, including bringing in upper management to help rank priorities.

Step 5: Develop the Strategy

Armed with the ranked list of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats, it is
time to convert the SWOT analysis into a strategic plan. Members of the analysis
team take the bulleted list of items within each category and create a synthesized
plan that provides guidance on the original objective.

For example, the company debating whether to release a new product may have
identified that it is the market leader for its existing product and there is the
opportunity to expand to new markets. However, increased material costs, strained
distribution lines, the need for additional staff, and unpredictable product demand
may outweigh the strengths and opportunities. The analysis team develops the
strategy to revisit the decision in six months in hopes of costs declining and market
demand becoming more transparent.
Benefits of SWOT Analysis

A SWOT analysis won't solve every major question a company has. However, there's
a number of benefits to a SWOT analysis that make strategic decision-making easier.

 A SWOT analysis makes complex problems more manageable. There may be

an overwhelming amount of data to analyze and relevant points to consider
when making a complex decision. In general, a SWOT analysis that has been
prepared by paring down all ideas and ranking bullets by importance will
aggregate a large, potentially overwhelming problem into a more digestible
report.

 A SWOT analysis requires external consider. Too often, a company may be

tempted to only consider internal factors when making decisions. However,
there are often items out of the company's control that may influence the
outcome of a business decision. A SWOT analysis covers both the internal
factors a company can manage and the external factors that may be more
difficult to control.

 A SWOT analysis can be applied to almost every business question. The

analysis can relate to an organization, team, or individual. It can also analyze
a full product line, changes to brand, geographical expansion, or an
acquisition. The SWOT analysis is a versatile tool that has many applications.

 A SWOT analysis leverages different data sources. A company will likely use
internal information for strengths and weaknesses. The company will also
need to gather external information relating to broad markets, competitors, or
macroeconomic forces for opportunities and threats. Instead of relying on a
single, potentially biased source, a good SWOT analysis compiles various
angles.

 A SWOT analysis may not be overly costly to prepare. Some SWOT reports do
not need to be overly technical; therefore, many different staff members can
contribute to its preparation without training or external consulting.
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A descriptive study of time management

models and theories

Nongmeikapam Jinalee1 and Dr. Amit Kumar Singh2

1
Ph.D Scholar, Dept. of Management, Mizoram University,
Mizoram, India
2
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Management, Mizoram University,
Mizoram, India
Abstract concentrate on highly important but not urgent
The importance of time management has been felt issues.
and empirical studies on it has been gaining Macan (1994) suggested that learning time
popularity in the decades. To ensure a systematic management behaviours lead to greater perception
management of time various models and theories of control over time. Macan’s (1994) process
have been designed by many researchers. Since the model of time management behaviour included
new generation is born in a digital era, digital three attributes: setting goals and priorities; the
media has taken major parts in one’s life and so mechanics of time management behaviour and a
time has been spent on such media which can act preference for organisation. Time management can
like a time wasting activity. The way people spend be considered as a cluster of skills that are
their leisure time affects their behaviour, growth significant to academic success and include
and life, proving the need to manage free time. The activities performed by students like advance
present study has been designed to bring out an planning, work prioritization, preparation for test
overview of existing time management models and and following schedules (Sansgiry et al., 2006).
theories. It has tried to draw the importance and According to Powell (2004) higher academic
practical implications of the models and theories performance was to be achieved by balancing time
under study. The study shows the need to include management and study techniques effectively. In
time management skills to reduce psychological general, time management has positive effect on
stress resulting from untimely completion of the academic success of students.
responsibilities and tasks. Students need to prioritize all their activities so that
Keywords Time management, model, theory, there will be more room for other important
overview, matrix, efficiency activities. Time management is one of the
techniques to facilitate better use of time. Doing
1: Introduction activities in an organised manner and setting
Time management is an ability to manage one’s priorities can help in accomplishing tasks
personal time along with working time. In this age successfully (Eid et al., 2015). To utilise time
of advanced science and technology, learning effectively, one must be able to predict how much
patterns of students have changed as they are born time is required for the activity to be performed
in the digital environment. It would not be wrong to (Kelly, 2002).
call them “Digital Natives” or “Gamer Generation”
(Hernandez- Linares et al., 2016). As a result of it, 2: Literature review
there is a need to change from traditional lecture- Modern concepts of management like time
based teaching to learner centred approaches. management has their origin in the Indian Vedanta
According to Covey (1999) time management in terms of self control. Self management and self
involves identifying tasks and recognising demands development have been highlighted in the Ancient
on time. People have the habit to look for Indian Scriptures. Three disciplines: Brahmacharya
effectiveness and consequences rather than the (Self- Control), Ahimsa (Non- Injury) and Satyam
methods and efficiency of time management. (Truthfulness) are the fundamental eternal values
Covey opined that the key to success is to for regulation of physical, mental and intellectual
layers of personality. When the three disciplines:

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Brahmacharya, Ahimsa and Satyam are followed, successful time management system should provide
one can effectively improve self- management. opportunity for analysis of actions, priorities,
Time management draws more values from experience and feelings. This will enhance
Brahmacharya: Self Control (Satija and Satija, coordination between individual actions and
2013). motivation for achieving goals (Panayotova et al.,
Different environments impose different demands 2015).
and determine how the concept of time is perceived Development in society meant that role of free time
(Nadkarni and Chen, 2014). The concept of time is becoming very important and leisure time plays
can be taken as a clock or systems. As a clock, time significant roles in the lives of children and
can be regarded as an instrument to measure adolescents. The way in which young people spend
moments or activities of a day. As a system, time their leisure time affects their behaviour, growth
can be regarded as cultural rules used to arrange set and life. Thus, it is necessary to take care of one’s
of experiences in significant ways (Lustig and free time (Gajewska & Piskrzynska, 2017).
Koester, 2006). Time system consists of three
types: technical, formal and informal. The technical 3: Significance and scope of the study
systems are precise and scientific measurement of Despite the importance of time management,
time. Formal time systems refer to the ways in relatively little scientific studies have been focused
which a cultural group describes and distribute on the way in which people manage their time and
units of time. Informal time systems refer to on the processes involved in managing time. The
making assumptions about how much time should last two decades have witnessed a growing
be used. It should not be wrong to say that time is a recognition of the importance of time in the field of
cultural variable and its usage may vary scientific research (Molaee et al., 2014). A
significantly across traditions because of comprehensive review of time management
behavioural differences in cultures of different literature (Classens et al., 2007) found three
nations (Brodowsky et al., 2008). dimensions of time management behaviour: time
On the basis of time management people can be assessment behaviour, planning behaviour and
divided into three groups. The first group takes monitoring behaviour. A fourth dimension called
time management necessary for achieving success, executive behaviour has been added by a
the second group takes time management as an subsequent research (Classens et al., 2009). Time
unnecessary intervention and the third group likes assessment behaviour consists of awareness,
to change something in life but lacks concentration analysis and estimation. Planning behaviour
and hard work. These three groups can be observed consists of goal setting, planning, prioritising and
among students. What to do, when to do and that to scheduling. Monitoring behaviours are evaluating,
do thinking allow students to perform necessary decision making and resetting. Executive behaviour
work qualitatively. Carrying out timing influences ongoing activities.
continuously for continuous optimization of life The study has covered only eight time management
and improvement of personal time management can model and theory. The research findings and
provide high quality development of future observations are subjected to a descriptive analysis
profession (Kirillov et al., 2015). of the eight models and theory discussed in the
Models and techniques of time management can be study.
categorised into four stages in general. The first
stage is concerned with what should be done. 4: Research design
Marking tasks and activities are included in the first
4.1: Statement of the problem
stage. In the second stage, schedules are attached to
As the significance of time management is gaining
particular tasks and activities putting the question,
popularity, it is necessary to study the nature and
when to do. How can a particular task be completed
contribution of the existing time management
falls in the third stage. Strategies for completion of
models. The study is an effort to bring out the
tasks and defined purposes are part of the third
practical importance of the existing models and
stage. Finally, the fourth stage is all about the
theories of time management.
emotions, sensations and moods of the individual.
Efforts are laid to achieve balance between
understanding and accepting the strategies and 4.2: Objective of the study
priorities. The fourth stage is not only directed to The objective of the study is:
tasks and activities but towards achieving balance To have an overview of the selected time
between reason and emotions. Planning and management models and theories
organisation of time are important factors for 4.3: Research methodology
The study undertaken is a descriptive study. It is a
achieving goals, completing tasks and maintaining documentation of the time management models and
balance between reasons and emotions. A theories covered in the study. It is based on secondary

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data only. Secondary data collected from journals, books, 3) It should be then tested for effectiveness and
e- resources etc. have been utilised for undergoing the implications of the reduced range/ holding
study. 4) It must be then referred to aspects of change
management and project management as
5: An overview of time management considered appropriate.
models and theories In simple way, the 80- 20 principle says that 20%
5.1: ABC Model of Time Management of activities will account to 80% of the results.
ABC model is based on three fundamental ideas Each task may take the same amount of time to
which can be broadly explained as under: accomplish, but doing one or two important tasks
a) Awareness will contribute five or ten times the value as any
Every second and moment can be an opportunity if one of the others.
one is aware of its significance. The activities to be Productive people always discipline themselves to
performed in a day can be grouped into four levels/ start on the most important task which is set before
quadrants as indicated below: them. They force themselves to complete the
important one first under any circumstance.
Particulars Urgent Not urgent
Important 1 2 Time Effects
Exam preparation Exercise
Not 3 4 20% Up to 80%
important Unimportant Watching TV, The most Achievement
phone calls Gaming important task
80% Only 20%
Fig 5.1: Four quadrants of ABC Model Secondary affairs Achievement

The first tasks that one has to do are the important Fig 5.2: Pareto Principle in Time Management
and urgent one. The second tasks to be done are the
important but not urgent. The third tasks to be done This principle allows maximum results in minimum
are the urgent but not important tasks. The fourth time. It offers the opportunity to increase personal
tasks to be done are not important and also not effectiveness.
urgent.
b) Believe 5.3: Covey’s Time Management Grid
Once a person is aware of time and its value and The Covey Time Management grid is an effective
importance for aim in life, one is half way down method of organising priorities. It consists of four
the road to success. Focussing and following the quadrants (Covey, 2013).
four quadrants will create a habit of doing things on
time and confidently. Particulars Urgent Not urgent
c) Continuation
Some tools or techniques are required to put Important Quadrant I Quadrant II
awareness and belief into real practice. Urgent and Not urgent but
Continuation of using time management tools and important important
techniques will bring success in personal and activities activities
professional life (Chowdhury, 2013). Not important Quadrant III Quadrant IV
Urgent and not Not urgent and
5.2: Pareto’s Principle- The 80- 20 Rule important important
The Pareto’s principle is named after the Italian Fig 5.3: Covey’s Time Management Grid
economist- sociologists Vilfredo Pareto (1848-
1923). The 80- 20 Rule can be used in many Source: Stephen Covey, 7 Habits of Highly
aspects of organisation and business management. Effective People
This theory offers a quick and easy way to
understand clearly what are important and what are Quadrant I signifies immediate and important
unnecessary (Reh, 2018). The 80- 20 Principle deadlines.
requires the following steps to be taken: Quadrant II is to plan long term strategies and
1) Identifying 20% that is considered vital, which development programmes.
would probably enable at least 80% of productivity, Quadrant III is for time pressured distractions.
performance, effectiveness etc. is required. They are not really important but some people want
2) One should retain this 20% and nothing else, them immediately.
unless it serves a crucial point

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Quadrant IV consists of those activities that yield not complying with them are immediate (Fowler,
little value. These activities are often used for 2012).
taking a break from pressured tasks. Based on these ideas, Eishenhower matrix has been
Many people find that most of their activities fall designed and it consists of four quadrants, which
under quadrants I and II. Quadrant II is often not are explained as under:
used but it is exceptionally important because one 1) Important and urgent
needs to work tactically and strategically at the Planning ahead and avoiding procrastination can
same time. The common outcome of using this grid help in avoiding last minute rush. If there are many
is to find ways for expanding the activities in urgent and important activities, one has to make a
quadrant II (Mueller, 2017). list of similar activities which can be done in
similar ways.
How to use the grid 2) Important but not urgent
The first and most obvious use of the grid is to take These activities can help us achieve professional
the current ‘to- do’ list and sorting all the activities and personal goals. One should make sure that
into the appropriate grid. One has to assess the there is enough time to accomplish such activities.
amount of time required to complete the lists and if 3) Not important but urgent
necessary, the activities can be reallocated. Such tasks prevent one from achieving goals. It is
The second approach of using the grid is a one generally associated with other people. Saying ‘no’
week assessment strategy. One has to make six politely and explaining why we cannot do it can
copies of the grid and to use one copy of the grid help us to stop others from bothering us.
each day of the week, listing all activities and time 4) Not important and not urgent
spent on the activities. At the end of the week, the These activities are distractions, so best way is to
five individual day data has to be combined onto avoid them.
one summary grid i.e., grid number 6 and the
percentage of time in each grid has to be calculated. 5.5: Parallel Programming Model
Finally evaluation has to be done to find out how Parallel Programming Model has been designed by
well time has been spent on the activities and Zohreh Molaee, Dr. Hasan Azadzadeh and Dr.
whether the workloads need to be reorganised or Fariborz Dortaj by combining cognitive,
not. metacognitive, physical, emotional, skills which
tries to manage all roles and tasks in a parallel way
5.4: Eishenhower Matrix at the same time. The logic behind the model is that
The Eishenhower Matrix is almost similar to the man is an integrated whole who cannot be
Covey’s Time Management Grid. The difference is successful in all areas, if he couldn’t be in peace
that according to Eishenhower Matrix quadrant IV with all the realms (Molaee et al, 2014). A person
has to be deleted as it is considered as a waste of who faces many conflicts or who is not satisfied
time but Covey has noted that the activities covered with oneself cannot be successful even though he
here are refreshment or recreational activities, has the potential to do so. This model is designed to
which are sometimes necessary to relieve pressures check the academic achievement of married
from hectic duties. women.
This theory explains that time management has
mostly been discussed in work areas, but it is
Urgent Not urgent equally important in other aspects of life. Time
management can be focussed on educational
Important 1 2 aspects, especially those who have multiple roles to
Do Decide play like the married women continuing their
Not important 3 4 studies.
Delegate Delete
Fig 5.4: Eishenhower Matrix 5.6: ALPEN Method
A= Activities Noting down assignments,
US former president D. Eishenhower in 1954 in a activities, appointments
speech classified his activities into two categories: L= Length Estimating the duration of
important activities and urgent activities. estimation activities to be performed
P= Planning ahead To plan buffer times
According to him important activities lead us to
E= Establishing To make decisions about which
achieve goals and urgent activities need immediate priorities activities to be done first
attention and are generally associated with N= Next Day To recheck
someone else’s goals. But people often concentrate Fig 5.6: ALPEN method
on urgent activities because the consequences of

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ALPEN method is one of the simple yet effective and classify ideas. A mind map can help in
time management techniques. It is a method to plan organising information, problem solving, decision
daily/weekly tasks by splitting complex task into making and in studies. Mind’s productivity can be
parts. To follow ALPEN method the following increased 3 to 5 times with the help of mind maps
steps are to be considered: (Panayotova et al., 2015). The model could be
1) A- Activities applied in analysis of problems from different
A list of activities, tasks or appointments for the aspects. A mind map has certain advantages as
day/week has to be prepared first. Related tasks can under:
be grouped together and coding can be done for i) Creative thinking is encouraged
similar tasks. As for instance, M for meeting, C for ii) Helps in generating more ideas
phone calls. It should be made sure that all iii) Large amount of information can be
activities are included in the list. Noting down all summarised easily
the tasks makes it easier to sort the tasks. iv) Areas/activities which rely on keywords and
2) L- Length estimation images are reflected in the presentation of the map
Duration for each task should be estimated and In addition to the direct uses, data retrieved from
effort should be made to give more time to mind maps can be used for other purposes.
important activities.
3) P- Planning ahead 5.8: Pickle Jar Theory
In general 60 percent of available time should be One must be quite familiar with the story of pickle
reserved for completing the planned tasks/ jar. It is simple but quite a good solution for better
activities. Remaining 40 percent of the time should time management. Like everything in life has a
be treated as a reserve for untold circumstances. purpose, everything in the pickle jar also has a
This 40 percent of the time reserved can be used for purpose for existence. The pickle jar is comparable
recreational activities. Sticking to 60/40 rule will to our life. Sand, pebble and rocks inside the jar
help one in getting rid of stress. If one’s average have their own meanings. The rocks represent the
day is predictable and usually there is less or no major important task that has serious consequences
emergency, one can plan time in 80/20 rule. if not accomplished on time. The pebbles represent
4) E- Establishing priorities the daily tasks with average importance. The sand
After the first three steps, the next step is to represents unimportant tasks like phone calls, e-
prioritise activities and delegate action. mails, social media notifications. The sand thus
Prioritisation allows one to focus on the most denotes distracting activities.
important tasks. If the jar is filled with sand first, there will be no
5) N- Next day space for the pebbles ad rocks. If the jar is filled
An important thing to keep in mind is keeping track with pebbles, there is some space for sand but no
of the progress made so far. One has to verify space for the rock. If the jar is filled with rocks
completed tasks and move any unfinished tasks to first, pebbles second and sand at last, there are
the top of the next time table if possible. At the end rooms for all the three. This denotes a simple
of the day, it should be checked if all the objectives lesson that if one fulfils the major tasks first, there
are fulfilled successfully or not and if the tasks are will be room to complete other tasks as well as get
completed within the estimated time frame or not. time for leisure (Mulder, 2017).
Knowing the results will improve prediction and
ability to plan ahead in future. 6: Discussion
When using the ALPEN method, all the five steps The theories and models under study have focussed
have to be kept in mind for building a positive habit on making list of activities to be performed and
of time management, which in turn can help reduce prioritisation of activities. The models are more or
stress and improve efficiency (Panayotova et al., less similar. The models and theories have
2015). highlighted the need to divide activities/ tasks into
important, urgent, not important and urgent,
5.7: Mind Map important but not urgent and neither urgent nor
The term ‘mind map’ was first introduced by important task. People have the habit to get
psychologist Tony Buzan but the use of diagrams indulged in neither important nor urgent activities.
that visually map information using branching and Time management theories and models have been
radial maps can be traced back to centuries. The developed to focus on important activities and to
introduction of the term ‘mind map’ began during a draw oneself away from those wasteful activities
1974 BBC TV series called ‘Use Your Head’ which are neither important nor urgent. When the
hosted by Buzan. principles and values incorporated in the time
Mind maps can be used for creative thinking. Mind management models and theories are understood,
maps can be used to generate, visualize, structure what becomes important is how much one puts

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147
Maslow's Hierarchy of
Needs
By Saul McLeod, published May 21, 2018

Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a motivational theory in psychology comprising

a five-tier model of human needs, often depicted as hierarchical levels within a
pyramid.

Needs lower down in the hierarchy must be satisfied before individuals can
attend to needs higher up. From the bottom of the hierarchy upwards, the
needs are: physiological, safety, love and belonging, esteem and self-
actualization.
Deficiency needs vs. growth needs
This five-stage model can be divided into deficiency needs and growth needs.
The first four levels are often referred to as deficiency needs (D-needs), and
the top level is known as growth or being needs (B-needs).

Deficiency needs arise due to deprivation and are said to motivate people
when they are unmet. Also, the motivation to fulfill such needs will become
stronger the longer the duration they are denied. For example, the longer a
person goes without food, the more hungry they will become.

Maslow (1943) initially stated that individuals must satisfy lower level deficit
needs before progressing on to meet higher level growth needs. However, he
later clarified that satisfaction of a needs is not an “all-or-none” phenomenon,
admitting that his earlier statements may have given “the false impression that
a need must be satisfied 100 percent before the next need emerges” (1987, p.
69).
When a deficit need has been 'more or less' satisfied it will go away, and our
activities become habitually directed towards meeting the next set of needs
that we have yet to satisfy. These then become our salient needs. However,
growth needs continue to be felt and may even become stronger once they
have been engaged.

Growth needs do not stem from a lack of something, but rather from a desire
to grow as a person. Once these growth needs have been reasonably satisfied,
one may be able to reach the highest level called self-actualization.

Every person is capable and has the desire to move up the hierarchy toward a
level of self-actualization. Unfortunately, progress is often disrupted by a
failure to meet lower level needs. Life experiences, including divorce and loss
of a job, may cause an individual to fluctuate between levels of the hierarchy.

Therefore, not everyone will move through the hierarchy in a uni-directional

manner but may move back and forth between the different types of needs.

The original hierarchy of needs five-

stage model includes:
Maslow (1943, 1954) stated that people are motivated to achieve certain needs
and that some needs take precedence over others.

Our most basic need is for physical survival, and this will be the first thing that
motivates our behavior. Once that level is fulfilled the next level up is what
motivates us, and so on.

The original hierarchy of needs five-stage model includes:

1. Physiological needs - these are biological requirements for
Human survival, e.g. air, food, drink, shelter, clothing, warmth, sex,
sleep.

If these needs are not satisfied the human body cannot function
optimally. Maslow considered physiological needs the most important
as all the other needs become secondary until these needs are met.

2. Safety needs - protection from elements, security, order, law,

stability, freedom from fear.

3. Love and belongingness needs - after physiological and safety

needs have been fulfilled, the third level of human needs is social and
involves feelings of belongingness. The need for interpersonal
relationships motivates behavior

Examples include friendship, intimacy, trust, and acceptance, receiving

and giving affection and love. Affiliating, being part of a group (family,
friends, work).

4. Esteem needs - which Maslow classified into two categories: (i)

esteem for oneself (dignity, achievement, mastery, independence) and
(ii) the desire for reputation or respect from others (e.g., status,
prestige).

Maslow indicated that the need for respect or reputation is most

important for children and adolescents and precedes real self-esteem or
dignity.

5. Self-actualization needs - realizing personal potential, self-

fulfillment, seeking personal growth and peak experiences. A desire “to
become everything one is capable of becoming” (Maslow, 1987, p. 64).
Maslow posited that human needs are arranged in a hierarchy:

"It is quite true that man lives by bread alone — when there is no bread.
But what happens to man’s desires when there is plenty of bread and
when his belly is chronically filled?

At once other (and “higher”) needs emerge and these, rather than
physiological hungers, dominate the organism. And when these in turn
are satisfied, again new (and still “higher”) needs emerge and so on. This
is what we mean by saying that the basic human needs are organized into
a hierarchy of relative prepotency" (Maslow, 1943, p. 375).

Maslow continued to refine his theory based on the concept of a hierarchy of

needs over several decades (Maslow, 1943, 1962, 1987).

Regarding the structure of his hierarchy, Maslow (1987) proposed that the
order in the hierarchy “is not nearly as rigid” (p. 68) as he may have implied in
his earlier description.
Maslow noted that the order of needs might be flexible based on external
circumstances or individual differences. For example, he notes that for some
individuals, the need for self-esteem is more important than the need for love.
For others, the need for creative fulfillment may supersede even the most basic
needs.

Maslow (1987) also pointed out that most behavior is multi-motivated and
noted that “any behavior tends to be determined by several or all of the basic
needs simultaneously rather than by only one of them” (p. 71).

Hierarchy of needs summary

(a) needs human beings are motivated by a hierarchy of needs.

(b) needs are organized in a hierarchy of prepotency in which more

basic needs must be more or less met (rather than all or none) prior to
higher needs.

(c) the order of needs is not rigid but instead may be flexible based on
external circumstances or individual differences.

(d) most behavior is multi-motivated, that is, simultaneously

determined by more than one basic need.

The expanded hierarchy of needs

It is important to note that Maslow's (1943, 1954) five-stage model has been
expanded to include cognitive and aesthetic needs (Maslow, 1970a) and later
transcendence needs (Maslow, 1970b).

Changes to the original five-stage model are highlighted and include a seven-
stage model and an eight-stage model; both developed during the 1960's and
1970s.
1. Biological and physiological needs - air, food, drink, shelter,
warmth, sex, sleep, etc.

2. Safety needs - protection from elements, security, order, law,

stability, etc.

3. Love and belongingness needs - friendship, intimacy, trust, and

acceptance, receiving and giving affection and love. Affiliating, being
part of a group (family, friends, work).

4. Esteem needs - which Maslow classified into two categories: (i)

esteem for oneself (dignity, achievement, mastery, independence) and
(ii) the desire for reputation or respect from others (e.g., status,
prestige).

5. Cognitive needs - knowledge and understanding, curiosity,

exploration, need for meaning and predictability.

6. Aesthetic needs - appreciation and search for beauty, balance, form,

etc.

7. Self-actualization needs - realizing personal potential, self-

fulfillment, seeking personal growth and peak experiences.

8. Transcendence needs - A person is motivated by values which

transcend beyond the personal self (e.g., mystical experiences and
certain experiences with nature, aesthetic experiences, sexual
experiences, service to others, the pursuit of science, religious faith,
etc.).
Self-actualization
Instead of focusing on psychopathology and what goes wrong with people,
Maslow (1943) formulated a more positive account of human behavior which
focused on what goes right. He was interested in human potential, and how we
fulfill that potential.

Psychologist Abraham Maslow (1943, 1954) stated that human motivation is

based on people seeking fulfillment and change through personal growth. Self-
actualized people are those who were fulfilled and doing all they were capable
of.
The growth of self-actualization (Maslow, 1962) refers to the need for personal
growth and discovery that is present throughout a person’s life. For Maslow, a
person is always 'becoming' and never remains static in these terms. In self-
actualization, a person comes to find a meaning to life that is important to
them.

As each individual is unique, the motivation for self-actualization leads people

in different directions (Kenrick et al., 2010). For some people self-
actualization can be achieved through creating works of art or literature, for
others through sport, in the classroom, or within a corporate setting.

Maslow (1962) believed self-actualization could be measured through the

concept of peak experiences. This occurs when a person experiences the world
totally for what it is, and there are feelings of euphoria, joy, and wonder.
It is important to note that self-actualization is a continual process of
becoming rather than a perfect state one reaches of a 'happy ever after'
(Hoffman, 1988).

Maslow offers the following description of self-actualization:

'It refers to the person’s desire for self-fulfillment, namely, to the

tendency for him to become actualized in what he is potentially.

The specific form that these needs will take will of course vary greatly
from person to person. In one individual it may take the form of the
desire to be an ideal mother, in another it may be expressed athletically,
and in still another it may be expressed in painting pictures or in
inventions' (Maslow, 1943, p. 382–383).
Characteristics of self-actualized
people
Although we are all, theoretically, capable of self-actualizing, most of us will
not do so, or only to a limited degree. Maslow (1970) estimated that only two
percent of people would reach the state of self-actualization.

He was especially interested in the characteristics of people whom he

considered to have achieved their potential as individuals.

By studying 18 people he considered to be self-actualized (including Abraham

Lincoln and Albert Einstein) Maslow (1970) identified 15 characteristics of a
self-actualized person.

Characteristics of self-actualizers:
1. They perceive reality efficiently and can tolerate uncertainty;
2. Accept themselves and others for what they are;
3. Spontaneous in thought and action;
4. Problem-centered (not self-centered);
5. Unusual sense of humor;
6. Able to look at life objectively;
7. Highly creative;
8. Resistant to enculturation, but not purposely unconventional;
9. Concerned for the welfare of humanity;
10. Capable of deep appreciation of basic life-experience;
11. Establish deep satisfying interpersonal relationships with a few people;
12. Peak experiences;
13. Need for privacy;
14. Democratic attitudes;
15. Strong moral/ethical standards.
Behavior leading to self-actualization:
(a) Experiencing life like a child, with full absorption and
concentration;
(b) Trying new things instead of sticking to safe paths;
(c) Listening to your own feelings in evaluating experiences instead of
the voice of tradition, authority or the majority;
(d) Avoiding pretense ('game playing') and being honest;
(e) Being prepared to be unpopular if your views do not coincide with
those of the majority;
(f) Taking responsibility and working hard;
(g) Trying to identify your defenses and having the courage to give
them up.

The characteristics of self-actualizers and the behaviors leading to self-

actualization are shown in the list above. Although people achieve self-
actualization in their own unique way, they tend to share certain
characteristics. However, self-actualization is a matter of degree, 'There are
no perfect human beings' (Maslow,1970a, p. 176).

It is not necessary to display all 15 characteristics to become self-actualized,

and not only self-actualized people will display them.

Maslow did not equate self-actualization with perfection. Self-actualization

merely involves achieving one's potential. Thus, someone can be silly,
wasteful, vain and impolite, and still self-actualize. Less than two percent of
the population achieve self-actualization.

Roger’s Theory of Self-Actualization

Educational applications
Maslow's (1962) hierarchy of needs theory has made a major contribution to
teaching and classroom management in schools. Rather than reducing
behavior to a response in the environment, Maslow (1970a) adopts a holistic
approach to education and learning.

Maslow looks at the complete physical, emotional, social, and intellectual

qualities of an individual and how they impact on learning.
Applications of Maslow's hierarchy theory to the work of the classroom
teacher are obvious. Before a student's cognitive needs can be met, they must
first fulfill their basic physiological needs.

For example, a tired and hungry student will find it difficult to focus on
learning. Students need to feel emotionally and physically safe and accepted
within the classroom to progress and reach their full potential.

Maslow suggests students must be shown that they are valued and respected
in the classroom, and the teacher should create a supportive environment.
Students with a low self-esteem will not progress academically at an optimum
rate until their self-esteem is strengthened.

Maslow (1971, p. 195) argued that a humanistic educational approach

would develop people who are “stronger, healthier, and would take their
own lives into their hands to a greater extent. With increased personal
responsibility for one’s personal life, and witha rational set of values to
guide one’s choosing, people would begin to actively change the society
in which they lived”.
Critical evaluation
The most significant limitation of Maslow's theory concerns his methodology.
Maslow formulated the characteristics of self-actualized individuals from
undertaking a qualitative method called biographical analysis.

He looked at the biographies and writings of 18 people he identified as being

self-actualized. From these sources, he developed a list of qualities that
seemed characteristic of this specific group of people, as opposed to humanity
in general.

From a scientific perspective, there are numerous problems with this

particular approach. First, it could be argued that biographical analysis as a
method is extremely subjective as it is based entirely on the opinion of the
researcher. Personal opinion is always prone to bias, which reduces
the validity of any data obtained. Therefore Maslow's operational definition of
self-actualization must not be blindly accepted as scientific fact.

Furthermore, Maslow's biographical analysis focused on a biased sample of

self-actualized individuals, prominently limited to highly educated white
males (such as Thomas Jefferson, Abraham Lincoln, Albert Einstein, William
James, Aldous Huxley, Beethoven).

Although Maslow (1970) did study self-actualized females, such as Eleanor

Roosevelt and Mother Teresa, they comprised a small proportion of
his sample. This makes it difficult to generalize his theory to females and
individuals from lower social classes or different ethnicity. Thus questioning
the population validity of Maslow's findings.

Furthermore, it is extremely difficult to empirically test Maslow's concept of

self-actualization in a way that causal relationships can be established.
Another criticism concerns Maslow's assumption that the lower needs must be
satisfied before a person can achieve their potential and self-actualize. This is
not always the case, and therefore Maslow's hierarchy of needs in some
aspects has been falsified.

Through examining cultures in which large numbers of people live in poverty

(such as India), it is clear that people are still capable of higher order needs
such as love and belongingness. However, this should not occur, as according
to Maslow, people who have difficulty achieving very basic physiological needs
(such as food, shelter, etc.) are not capable of meeting higher growth needs.

Also, many creative people, such as authors and artists (e.g., Rembrandt and
Van Gogh) lived in poverty throughout their lifetime, yet it could be argued
that they achieved self-actualization.

Psychologists now conceptualize motivation as a pluralistic behavior, whereby

needs can operate on many levels simultaneously. A person may be motivated
by higher growth needs at the same time as lower level deficiency needs.

Contemporary research by Tay and Diener (2011) has tested Maslow’s theory
by analyzing the data of 60,865 participants from 123 countries, representing
every major region of the world. The survey was conducted from 2005 to
2010.

Respondents answered questions about six needs that closely resemble

those in Maslow's model: basic needs (food, shelter); safety; social needs
(love, support); respect; mastery; and autonomy. They also rated their
well-being across three discrete measures: life evaluation (a person's
view of his or her life as a whole), positive feelings (day-to-day instances
of joy or pleasure), and negative feelings (everyday experiences of
sorrow, anger, or stress).
The results of the study support the view that universal human needs appear
to exist regardless of cultural differences. However, the ordering of the needs
within the hierarchy was not correct.

"Although the most basic needs might get the most attention when you
don't have them," Diener explains, "you don't need to fulfill them in
order to get benefits [from the others]." Even when we are hungry, for
instance, we can be happy with our friends. "They're like vitamins,"
Diener says about how the needs work independently. "We need them
all."

How to reference this article:

McLeod, S. A. (2018, May 21). Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Retrieved
from https://www.simplypsychology.org/maslow.html

Related Articles

Carl Rogers

Humanistic Approach
APA Style References
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Maslow. Los Angeles, CA: Jeremy P. Tarcher.

Kenrick, D. T., Neuberg, S. L., Griskevicius, V., Becker, D. V., & Schaller, M.
(2010). Goal-driven cognition and functional behavior: The
fundamental-motives framework. Current Directions in Psychological
Science, 19(1), 63-67.

Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review,

50(4), 370-96.

Maslow, A. H. (1954). Motivation and personality. New York: Harper and

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Maslow, A. H. (1962). Toward a psychology of being. Princeton: D. Van

Nostrand Company.

Maslow, A. H. (1970a). Motivation and personality. New York: Harper & Row.

Maslow, A. H. (1970b). Religions, values, and peak experiences. New York:

Penguin. (Original work published 1966)

Maslow, A. H. (1987). Motivation and personality (3rd ed.). Delhi, India:

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experiences. The Journal of Higher Education, 36(4), 235.
Major leadership theories.

While there are dozens of leadership theories and psychology, there are a few that
are more well-known. These more common leadership theories are important to
understand and recognize, especially if you currently are, or are studying to be
business leader in the future. Understanding psychological and social impacts of
effective leadership will help you determine the kind of leader you want to be.

--Behavioral theory: The behavioral leadership theory focuses on how leaders behave,
and assumes that these traits can be copied by other leaders. Sometimes called the
style theory, it suggests that leaders aren’t born successful, but can be created based
on learnable behavior. Behavioral theories of leadership focus heavily on the actions
of a leader—this theory suggests that the best predictor of leadership success is
viewing how a leader acts. Action rather than qualities are the focal points of
behavioral learning theory. Patterns of behavior are observed and categorized as
“styles of leadership” in this theory. Some of the styles of leadership include task-
oriented leaders, people-oriented leaders, country club leaders, status-quo leaders,
dictatorial leaders, and more. At the end of the day, the actions and actual behaviors
of a leader are what defines success in this theory.

The behavioral theory has many advantages, primarily that leaders can learn and
decide what actions they want to implement to become the kind of leader they want
to be. It allows leaders to be flexible and adapt based on their circumstances.
Another great benefit of this leadership style is that it suggests anyone is capable of
becoming a leader. Some disadvantages of the behavioral theory are that while it
allows flexibility, it doesn’t directly suggest how to behave in certain circumstances.
There are dozens of leadership styles that stem from the behavioral theory, but there
isn’t a right one for every circumstance.

A great example of the behavioral theory is looking at a task-oriented leader vs. a

people-oriented leader. If there’s a problem with a team, a task-oriented leader will
look at the process to see if something needs to be adjusted with the workflow. A
people-oriented leader will look at the individuals and go right to them, asking what
the issue is. Whatever behaviors you choose, the behavioral leadership theory helps
leaders focus on their actions and utilize their decisions to be a great leader.

Contingency theory: The contingency leadership theory, sometimes called situational

theory, focuses on the context of a leader. These theories look at the situational
effects of the success or failure or a leader. A leader’s effectiveness is directly
determined by the situational context. While a leader’s personality is a small factor in
their success, the most important factor is the context and situation of the leader.
This theory takes the specific leadership styles and suggests that good leaders can
adjust their leadership style situationally. It also suggests that it may be best to find
the right kind of leader for a specific situation. Types of contingency theories include
the Hershey and Blanchard’s Situational Theory, the Evans and House Path-Goal
Theory, and Fiedler’s Contingency Theory.

The contingency theory has great advantages, including that leaders are able to be
effective no matter their situational context. However, this theory does have criticism
suggesting that there isn’t enough detail that goes into the context of any situation.
Contingency theory focuses on the importance of a situation, but may not focus
enough on the psychology of the employees or the company itself. It also may not
focus enough on how leadership styles can change over time.

There are internal and external factors that impact a leader and their situation. The
type of company, the size of the team, and the innate leadership style of an individual
are internal factors. External factors may include the customer feelings and the
marketplace. All of these situations play a factor into the contingency theory.

--Great Man theory: The great man theory of leadership, sometimes called the trait
theory, suggests that good leaders are born. They have innate traits and skills that
make them great, and these are things that can’t be taught or learned. The trait
theory suggests that leaders deserve to be in their position because of their special
traits.

There is a great amount of criticism for the trait theory, mainly that leaders are either
born or not, that there isn’t work or effort that is needed to be put in so you can
become a leader. This suggests that social or psychological leaders are
predetermined and that leaders are unable to come from the shadows—they are
either chosen or not. There is also criticism that most of the traits associated with
this theory are inherently masculine, and don't match the real psychology of good
leaders.

People cite Abraham Lincoln, Alexander the Great, Queen Elizabeth I, and many
others as their examples of the great man theory. These social giants utilized their
skills to lead nations. High levels of ambition and determination are usually seen in
leaders that appear to bring this theory to life. Today, leaders that climb to the top
may view their traits and abilities as part of the “great man” theory. So it may appear
that leaders get to their position based on their inherit gifts.

Management theory: The management theory is sometimes called transactional

leadership, and focuses on supervision, organization, and group performance.
Transactional leadership is a system of rewards and punishments, and transactional
leadership is regularly used in business. When employees do something successful,
managers reward them. When they fail, they may get punished. Transactional
rewards and punishments are given based on the idea that people really only do
things for the reward. Their psychology doesn't allow human beings to do things out
of goodness, but rather out of the promise of a reward.

The management leadership style can be extremely effective. Positive reinforcement

is known for working wonders with employees, encouraging and motivating them to
succeed. But there is lots of criticism around leadership that is strictly transactional
as well. Consequences and punishments can decrease morale in an organization,
negatively impacting employees. It can also be seen as a lazy leadership
style—rewards and punishments are a relatively simple way to lead employees.

A common example of this management style is a leader that offers a cash bonus
for employees who meet a goal. Or a leader who makes employees do extra
paperwork if they miss a deadline.

--Participative theory: Participative leadership isn’t as common in the corporate

world. Sometimes called democratic leadership, this leadership theory suggests that
employees be directly involved in decision making in their organization. The leader
simply facilitates a conversation and then takes all the suggestions, and comes up
with the best possible action. In this theory, everyone is very involved with decisions
for the team and organization, with the leader simply helping direct the charge.

There are many advantages to this theory. Employees feel more engaged and
motivated when they are directly involved in decisions and outcomes for their
company. This theory is not without criticism however—some suggest that this type
of style makes leaders appear weak or unnecessary. It is also a criticism that leaders
in this theory don’t actually get the best outcomes, because they are too engaged in
what people want more than what the company needs.

Bill Gates is a well known example of participative theory. While this theory is still
hotly debated, there are many examples of companies that work to incorporate
employees more in the decision making process. In this theory, a leader may have a
meeting to ask employees how to solve a particular problem. They encourage
employees to be open and honest about their thoughts. They take all the suggestions,
and meet with other leaders to discuss them. Leaders then make a decision based
on the input from employees and their own decision making. Employees tend to
appreciate this style, though it can be less effective overall.

--Power theory: This theory looks at the way a leader utilizes their power and
influence to get things accomplished. French and Raven's Five Forms of Power is a
commonly known power theory of leadership. It looks at positional power and
personal power and how they impact leaders choices and outcomes.

This theory may appear to be highly effective—leaders with great power may seem
highly efficient and get things done quickly. However, most employees don’t
appreciate power leadership. They want a leader who doesn’t wield power over them,
but works with them and encourages them. Thus the greatest criticism of this theory
is that it doesn’t reach the end goal of inspiring and encouraging employees, but
rather makes them feel dominated.

The power theory can be seen in organizations where hierarchy and promotion is key
to success. Employees in power theory companies see that their only way to
influence change or impact the company is to gain power of their own. This can
result in low morale, political, and cliquey climates in the office.

Relationship theory: The relationship theory of leadership focuses on leaders who

are mainly concerned about their interactions with others. They are often mentors for
employees, scheduling time to talk to them and working to meet their needs. These
kinds of leaders are focused on making work enjoyable for as many people as
possible, and they want to foster a positive work environment. Studies show that this
kind of leadership behavior can be the most effective for many employees.
Relationship-oriented managers often get better results from their employees.

There are many advantages to this kind of leadership. Employees feel confident in
their leader and want to follow them. They are also inspired to be good leaders to
others. Mentorship provides great opportunities to foster growth in employees, and
encourages them to stay at the organization for a longer period of time. There are
some critics for this kind of leadership however, including thoughts that relationship
driven leaders may be unwilling to view employees who are causing problems at face
value, they can let relationships get in the way of work, and they can be guided to
favor people over productivity. However, most experts agree that relationship driven
leaders are actually more effective at the end of the day.

An example of relationship theory would be a manager who takes a newer employee

under her wing. She works to help this employee understand how they fit within the
organization, encourage them to be open about questions and problems, and create
a positive working relationship. This employee then is encouraged to work hard, point
out issues, and help solve problems for the company.

Leadership styles

Leadership styles refer to the approaches and behaviors that leaders use to guide
and influence their teams or organizations. Here are a few common leadership styles:

1. Autocratic: Leaders make decisions without consulting their team members, often
relying on their own judgment and authority.

2. Democratic: Leaders involve team members in the decision-making process,

seeking input and consensus before making decisions.

3. Laissez-faire: Leaders adopt a hands-off approach, allowing team members

significant freedom to make decisions and manage their own tasks.

4. Transformational: Leaders inspire and motivate their team members by setting a

compelling vision and empowering them to achieve it through coaching, support, and
personal development.

5. Transactional: Leaders focus on exchanges with team members, offering rewards

for meeting goals and enforcing consequences for failing to meet expectations.

6. Servant: Leaders prioritize the needs and development of their team members,
aiming to serve and support them in achieving their goals.

Each leadership style has its own strengths and weaknesses, and effective leaders
often adapt their style to fit the situation and the needs of their team.

Leadership stages

Leadership stages typically refer to the development and evolution of an individual's

leadership skills and abilities over time. While there are various models and
frameworks, one common way to conceptualize leadership stages is through the
following progression:

1. Novice: At this stage, individuals are new to leadership roles and may lack
experience. They are often focused on learning basic skills and understanding their
responsibilities.

2. Advanced Beginner: In this stage, individuals have gained some experience and are
starting to feel more comfortable in their leadership roles. They begin to develop a
deeper understanding of their strengths and weaknesses as leaders.

3. Competent: At this stage, individuals have acquired a solid foundation of

leadership skills and are able to effectively manage their teams or organizations.
They demonstrate confidence and competence in their abilities.

4. Proficient: Proficient leaders have honed their skills through experience and
reflection. They are adept at handling complex challenges and are able to inspire and
motivate others.

5. Expert: Expert leaders are highly skilled and experienced. They have a deep
understanding of leadership principles and are able to navigate even the most
difficult situations with ease. They often serve as mentors and role models for others.

These stages are not necessarily linear, and individuals may move back and forth
between them depending on their experiences and the challenges they face.
Additionally, not all individuals will progress through each stage, as leadership
development is influenced by a variety of factors, including personal characteristics,
experiences, and opportunities for growth.
Motivation theory seeks to understand why people behave in certain ways and what drives them
to achieve their goals. Some key theories include:

1. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: This theory suggests that people are motivated to fulfill basic
needs (physiological, safety) before progressing to higher-level needs (social, esteem, self-
actualization).

2. Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory: Herzberg proposed that job satisfaction and dissatisfaction
are influenced by different factors. Hygiene factors (such as salary and working conditions)
prevent dissatisfaction, while motivators (such as recognition and responsibility) promote
satisfaction.

3. Expectancy Theory: According to this theory, people are motivated to act in ways that they
believe will lead to desired outcomes. It considers three factors: expectancy (belief that effort
will lead to performance), instrumentality (belief that performance will lead to rewards), and
valence (value attached to the rewards).

4. Self-Determination Theory (SDT): SDT focuses on the intrinsic motivation that comes from
within individuals. It suggests that people have innate psychological needs for autonomy,
competence, and relatedness, and they are motivated when these needs are satisfied.

5. Goal-Setting Theory: This theory posits that setting specific and challenging goals leads to
higher performance when accompanied by feedback and commitment. It emphasizes the
importance of clear objectives in motivating individuals.

6. Equity Theory: Equity theory proposes that people are motivated when they perceive that they
are treated fairly in comparison to others. It considers inputs (effort, skills) and outcomes
(rewards, recognition) and seeks to maintain a balance between them.

These theories provide valuable insights into the factors that influence motivation and can help
leaders and organizations design effective strategies to enhance motivation and engagement
among their employees or members.

Negotiation skills are essential in various aspects of life, from business deals to personal
relationships. Here are some key skills that contribute to effective negotiation:

1. Communication: Being able to clearly express your needs, interests, and perspective while
also actively listening to the other party is crucial for successful negotiation.

2. Preparation: Thoroughly preparing for a negotiation involves understanding your objectives,

knowing your alternatives, researching the other party's interests and priorities, and anticipating
possible outcomes.
3. Flexibility: Being adaptable and open-minded during negotiations allows you to explore
different options and find creative solutions that satisfy both parties.

4. Emotional Intelligence: Being aware of your emotions and those of the other party can help
you manage conflicts and maintain a constructive dialogue. Empathy and self-control are key
components of emotional intelligence in negotiation.

5. Problem-Solving: Viewing negotiation as a collaborative problem-solving process rather than

a zero-sum game can lead to mutually beneficial outcomes. Identifying shared interests and
exploring win-win solutions is essential.

6. Assertiveness: Assertiveness involves advocating for your interests and standing firm on
important issues while still being respectful of the other party's perspective.

7. Patience and Persistence: Negotiations often require time and persistence to reach a
satisfactory agreement. Being patient and staying committed to the process can pay off in the
long run.

8. Negotiation Ethics: Maintaining honesty, integrity, and fairness throughout the negotiation
process builds trust and credibility, which are essential for long-term relationships.

By developing and honing these negotiation skills, individuals can navigate complex situations
more effectively and achieve outcomes that satisfy both parties involved.

Conflict management involves strategies and techniques for addressing and resolving conflicts
in a constructive manner. Here are some key principles and approaches to effective conflict
management:

1. Communication: Open and honest communication is essential for addressing conflicts.

Encouraging all parties to express their perspectives and concerns can help clarify
misunderstandings and identify common ground.

2. Active Listening: Listening attentively to the concerns and viewpoints of others without
interrupting or passing judgment demonstrates respect and can help de-escalate conflicts.

3. Empathy: Showing empathy and understanding towards the emotions and experiences of
others can facilitate empathy and create a more collaborative atmosphere for resolving
conflicts.
4. Problem-Solving: Instead of focusing on assigning blame or proving who is right or wrong,
conflict resolution should emphasize finding solutions to underlying issues that satisfy the
needs and interests of all parties involved.

5. Negotiation: Negotiation involves finding compromises and trade-offs that address the
interests and concerns of all parties. It requires flexibility, creativity, and a willingness to explore
alternative solutions.

6. Conflict Resolution Techniques: Various techniques, such as brainstorming, mediation,

arbitration, and consensus-building, can be employed depending on the nature and complexity
of the conflict.

7. Emotional Regulation: Managing emotions and maintaining a calm and respectful demeanor
during conflict situations can help prevent escalation and facilitate constructive dialogue.

8. Conflict Prevention: Proactively identifying and addressing potential sources of conflict

before they escalate can help minimize conflicts in the long run. This may involve clarifying
expectations, establishing clear communication channels, and fostering a culture of mutual
respect and collaboration.

By applying these principles and approaches, individuals and organizations can effectively
manage conflicts and promote positive relationships and cooperation among team members.
Anger management

Anger management theories encompass various psychological perspectives and

techniques aimed at understanding and effectively managing anger. Some key
theories and their applications include:

1. Cognitive-Behavioral Theory (CBT):

Theory: CBT posits that anger is often the result of distorted thoughts and beliefs
about oneself, others, and the world. By identifying and challenging these cognitive
distortions, individuals can learn to change their emotional and behavioral responses
to anger triggers.

Application: Therapists teach clients to recognize and reframe irrational thoughts

that contribute to anger. Techniques such as cognitive restructuring, problem-solving,
and assertiveness training are utilized to help clients develop more adaptive
responses to anger-provoking situations.

2. Mindfulness-Based Approaches:

Theory: Mindfulness theories suggest that anger arises from an inability to accept
and respond to present-moment experiences without judgment. By cultivating
mindful awareness, individuals can learn to observe their anger with detachment and
respond more skillfully.

Application: Mindfulness techniques, such as meditation, breathing exercises, and

body scans, are used to help individuals become more attuned to their thoughts,
emotions, and physical sensations associated with anger. Through regular practice,
individuals develop greater self-regulation and resilience in managing anger.

3. Psychodynamic Theory:

Theory: Psychodynamic theories view anger as a complex emotion rooted in

unconscious conflicts and past experiences. Anger may serve as a defense
mechanism to protect against underlying feelings of vulnerability, hurt, or fear.

Application: Therapists explore the underlying causes of anger through techniques

such as free association, dream analysis, and exploring early childhood experiences.
By gaining insight into the unconscious roots of anger, individuals can work through
unresolved issues and develop healthier ways of coping.
4. Social Learning Theory:

Theory: Social learning theory suggests that anger is learned through observation,
modeling, and reinforcement. Individuals may adopt aggressive or passive-
aggressive behaviors from role models or social environments.

Application: Interventions focus on teaching individuals alternative, non-violent

ways of expressing anger and resolving conflicts. Role-playing, social skills training,
and peer support groups are used to reinforce positive behaviors and promote
prosocial interactions.

5. Biofeedback and Relaxation Training:

Theory: These approaches focus on the physiological aspects of anger, such as

increased heart rate, muscle tension, and adrenaline release. By learning to regulate
these physiological responses, individuals can reduce the intensity and frequency of
anger.

Application: Biofeedback techniques, such as heart rate variability training and

electromyography, provide individuals with real-time feedback on their physiological
arousal levels. Relaxation techniques, such as deep breathing, progressive muscle
relaxation, and guided imagery, are taught to help individuals achieve a state of
calmness and reduce anger arousal.

Overall, the application of anger management theories involves a combination of

psychoeducation, skill-building, self-awareness, and therapeutic intervention tailored
to the individual's needs and circumstances. Effective anger management requires
commitment, practice, and ongoing support to cultivate healthier ways of expressing
and coping with anger.
What Is Cross-Cultural Communication

Cross-cultural communication is the communication between people who have cultural

differences due to nationality, age, working style, gender, ethnicity, race, etc. It can be verbal and
non-verbal and can include the use of words, gestures, eye contact, or body language when
interacting cross-culturally.

Applied to a business-oriented context, cross-cultural communication refers to how well people

from different cultures interact in a business environment. And how well they adapt their
communication style to their co-worker’s culture.

Why Is Cross-Cultural Communication Important?

Cross-cultural communication is important because it enables you to create a positive work

culture by bringing out the best from the cultural backgrounds of all team members. In a
multicultural environment, developing solid cross-cultural communication skills is vital.

Diversity is an asset and a core value that all companies should hold. According to data,
companies with racially and ethnically diverse leadership and executive teams have a 36%
higher likelihood of financially outperforming companies with little or no diversity.

Examining this in greater detail can unearth many opportunities that managers can harness to
increase a business’s growth potential.

For example, hiring employees across different age ranges can provide valuable insights into a
generation’s habits and consumer preferences. From an organizational point of view, this can
be extremely useful when considering the best ways to reach various target groups when
conducting marketing initiatives.

The better a company understands its target audience, the greater the success it will have.

This rule applies without exception, regardless of an organization’s activity range or industry.
Equally, the example and statement above remain applicable, whether related to age, gender,
socio-economic background, etc.

With diversity in the workplace also comes the call to develop better cross-cultural
communication skills. For more prosperous personal and business relationships we have to be
open and adaptable, nurturing constructive communication with people from all backgrounds.
Examples of Cross-Cultural Communication

Global brands, in particular, having large, worldwide spread offices and employees, face
potential miscommunication situations more often in both external and internal communication
processes.

A bulletproof multicultural marketing strategy based on proper research will likely skyrocket a
brand’s popularity in many markets.

Examples of cross-cultural communication in the workplace

Now, let’s showcase the importance of cross-cultural communication within internal situations
to prevent miscommunication.

Organizations employing a diverse team will clearly have a mixture of people with language
differences, which can lead to misunderstandings.

Even if these organizations require a high level of understanding of the chosen working
language, there still might be situations that could present challenges for non-native speakers
of that language.

Non-native speakers may have a harder time organizing their thoughts in their second language
as they might not be so fluent. In these cases, native speakers should show patience and
consideration toward their non-native speaking colleagues.

If not, interpersonal relationships and the whole company’s productivity suffers. This is exactly
why, to maximize profits, businesses should not neglect the importance of cross-cultural
communication in the workplace.

Obstacles to Effective Cross-Cultural Communication

Even though people communicate with each other constantly, this doesn’t necessarily mean
that all of us have mastered the art of communication. Especially in situations that involve cross
-cultural communication.

If we were to guess, we’d say that the most common obstacle against effective cross-cultural
communication is the language barrier. Even now, when technology offers so much help with
translation programs and expressive emojis.

Additionally, there are a couple of other factors to keep in mind when communicating.
As established by Laray Barna, a pioneer in the communication theory field, other stumbling
blocks in successful cross-cultural communication processes are:

 assumption of similarities

 nonverbal misinterpretations

 preconceptions and stereotypes

 tendency to evaluate

 high anxiety

Depending on the cultures that intersect and each individual’s experience with communicating
cross-culturally, some dialogues can be easier or harder to handle. However, where there’s a will,
there’s a way. By accepting cultural differences when communicating, it will become easier to
create effective interpersonal and business relationships.
 Impression Management: Erving Goffman Theory
Key Points

 Impression management refers to the goal-directed conscious or

unconscious attempt to influence the perceptions of other people about a
person, object, or event by regulating and controlling information in social
interaction.

 Generally, people undertake impression management to achieve goals that

require they have a desired public image. This activity is called self-
presentation.

 In sociology and social psychology, self-presentation is the conscious or

unconscious process through which people try to control the impressions
other people form of them.

 The goal is for one to present themselves the way in which they would like to
be thought of by the individual or group they are interacting with. This form of
management generally applies to the first impression.

 Erving Goffman popularized the concept of perception management in his

book, The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life, where he argues that
impression management not only influences how one is treated by other
people but is an essential part of social interaction.

Impression Management In Sociology

Impression management, also known as self-presentation, refers to the ways that

people attempt to control how they are perceived by others (Goffman, 1959).

By conveying particular impressions about their abilities, attitudes, motives, status,

emotional reactions, and other characteristics, people can influence others to
respond to them in desirable ways.

Impression management is a common way for people to influence one another in

order to obtain various goals.

While earlier theorists (e.g., Burke, 1950; Hart & Burk, 1972) offered perspectives on
the person as a performer, Goffman (1959) was the first to develop a specific theory
concerning self-presentation.

In his well-known work, Goffman created the foundation and the defining principles
of what is commonly referred to as impression management.
Social Interaction

Goffman viewed impression management not only as a means of influencing how

one is treated by other people but also as an essential part of social interaction.

He communicates this view through the conceit of theatre. Actors give different
performances in front of different audiences, and the actors and the audience
cooperate in negotiating and maintaining the definition of a situation.

To Goffman, the self was not a fixed thing that resides within individuals but a social
process. For social interactions to go smoothly, every interactant needs to project a
public identity that guides others’ behaviors (Goffman, 1959, 1963; Leary, 2001;
Tseelon, 1992).

Goffman defines that when people enter the presence of others, they communicate
information by verbal intentional methods and by non-verbal unintentional methods.

According to Goffman, individuals participate in social interactions through

performing a “line” or “a pattern of verbal and nonverbal acts by which he expresses
his view of the situation and through this his evaluation of the participants, especially
himself” (1967, p. 5).

Such lines are created and maintained by both the performer and the audience. By
enacting a line effectively, a person gains positive social value or “face.”

The verbal intentional methods allow us to establish who we are and what we wish to
communicate directly. We must use these methods for the majority of the actual
communication of data.

Goffman is mostly interested in the non-verbal clues given off which are less easily
manipulated. When these clues are manipulated the receiver generally still has the
upper hand in determining how realistic the clues that are given off are.

People use these clues to determine how to treat a person and if the intentional
verbal responses given off are actually honest. It is also known that most people give
off clues that help to represent them in a positive light, which tends to be
compensated for by the receiver.

Impression Management Techniques

 Suppressing emotions: Maintaining self-control (which we will identify with

such practices as speaking briefly and modestly).

 Conforming to Situational Norms: The performer follows agreed-upon rules

for behavior in the organization.

 Flattering Others: The performer compliments the perceiver. This tactic works
best when flattery is not extreme and when it involves a dimension important
 to the perceiver.

 Being Consistent: The performer’s beliefs and behaviors are consistent. There
is agreement between the performer’s verbal and nonverbal behaviors.

Self-Presentation Examples

Self-presentation can affect the emotional experience. For example, people can
become socially anxious when they are motivated to make a desired impression on
others but doubt that they can do so successfully (Leary, 2001).

In one paper on self-presentation and emotional experience, Schlenker and Leary

(1982) argue that, in contrast to the drive models of anxiety, the cognitive state of the
individual mediates both arousal and behavior.

The researchers examine the traditional inverted-U anxiety-performance curve

(popularly known as the Yerkes-Dodson law) in this light.

The researchers propose that people are interpersonally secure when they do not
have the goal of creating a particular impression on others.

They are not immediately concerned about others’ evaluative reactions in a social
setting where they are attempting to create a particular impression and believe that
they will be successful in doing so.

Meanwhile, people are anxious when they are uncertain about how to go about
creating a certain impression (such as when they do not know what sort of attributes
the other person is likely to be impressed with), think that they will not be able to
project the types of images that will produce preferred reactions from others.

Such people think that they will not be able to project the desired image strongly
enough or believe that some event will happen that will repudiate their self-
presentations, causing reputational damage (Schlenker and Leary, 1982).

Psychologists have also studied impression management in the context of mental

and physical health.

In one such study, Braginsky et al. (1969) showed that those hospitalized with
schizophrenia modify the severity of their “disordered” behavior depending on
whether making a more or less “disordered” impression would be most beneficial to
them (Leary, 2001).

Additional research on university students shows that people may exaggerate or

even fabricate reports of psychological distress when doing so for their social goals.
Hypochondria appears to have self-presentational features where people convey
impressions of illness and injury, when doing so helps to drive desired outcomes
such as eliciting support or avoiding responsibilities (Leary, 2001).

People can also engage in dangerous behaviors for self-presentation reasons such
as suntanning, unsafe sex, and fast driving. People may also refuse needed medical
treatment if seeking this medical treatment compromises public image (Leary et al.,
1994).
International Journal of Advanced Research in Engineering and Technology (IJARET)
Volume 13, Issue 1, January 2022, pp. 11-20, Article ID: IJARET_13_01_002
Available online at https://iaeme.com/Home/issue/IJARET?Volume=13&Issue=1
ISSN Print: 0976-6480 and ISSN Online: 0976-6499
DOI: https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/94NMF

© IAEME Publication Scopus Indexed

A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK OF STRESS

MANAGEMENT- CONTEMPORARY
APPROACHES, MODELS AND THEORIES
P. Bheemaiah1 and Dr. P. Venkataiah2
1
Research Scholar, Department of Business Management, Osmania University,
Hyderabad, India
2
Professor and Research Supervisor, Department of Business Management,
Osmania University, Hyderabad, India

ABSTRACT
A great deal of research has been conducted in the last few decades to study and
understand the dynamics of stress, its causes and its relationships with many other
variables like performance and satisfaction et. This paper attempts to provide a
conceptual framework of stress that includes major approaches and theories of stress
that provide a basis for understanding stress from various perspectives. A compilation
of inputs from various researchers regarding stress is also included and an attempt has
been made to highlight prominent structural frameworks defined over the years and
their usefulness for further empirical research. The most important results and basis for
new research are discussed
Key words: Cox's theory, GAS, Lazurus theory, Resource theories, Stress.
Cite this Article: P. Bheemaiah and P. Venkataiah, A Theoretical Framework of Stress
Management - Contemporary Approaches, Models and Theories, International Journal of
Advanced Research in Engineering and Technology (IJARET). 13(1), 2022, pp. 11-20.
https://iaeme.com/Home/issue/IJARET?Volume=13&Issue=1

1. INTRODUCTION
Stress is a universal phenomenon and references to it can be found as early as the 14th century.
However, the usage of the term ―stress‖ has undergone significant changes over the time.
From the last two decades, the term ―Stress‖ has come into wide use in behavioural studies,
originating in the physical sciences, the term means a force which, acting on a body, produces
strain or deformation. In physical, biological sciences and behavioral study, the concept of
stress meant an extreme condition, involving tension, some form of resistance to the straining
power or a discomfort or non acceptance towards a situation. Stress is a condition of strain on an
individual’s emotions, thought processes, and/or physical conditions that seem to threaten one’s
capability to cope with the situation. Stress is a threat to the quality of life and work life, and to the
physical and psychological well-being of individuals. Stress is a process in which environmental

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 A Theoretical Framework of Stress Management - Contemporary Approaches, Models and
Theories

events or personal factors pose a challenge to the physical or mental health of an individual and in
which the individual tries to face such challenge and saves himself from the danger created by
these conditions (Father Bulake, 1971). These events under certain situations generate stress
reactions that are characterized by fear and anxiety. Stress may be termed as pressure or it is the
tension that is created by pressure. Cannon (1929) was among the first who used the term stress.
He referred to both physiological and psychological mechanism of this term. In Life Sciences
Hans Selye first introduced the concept of stress in 1936. Stress may be defined as an internal
state, which can be caused by physical demands of the body, e.g., disease conditions, exercise
and the like or by environmental and social situations which are evaluated as potentially
harmful, uncontrollable or exceeding our resources for coping. Stressors that cause stress can be
physical, environmental or social in nature. Once persuaded by stressors, the internal stress state
consequently leads to various responses. Along with the physical responses, psychological
responses such as anxiety, hopelessness, depression, irritability, fear and a general feeling of not
being able to cope with the work can result from the stress situation. Stress is a big problem in
our society (Allen, 1983). What is stressful to one individual may be refreshing challenge to
another depending upon individual’s perception of the state of affairs as well as his own aptitude
to cope with that situation. Even though a situation is perceived as demand or threat, it may still
not activate a stress response if the individual thinks that he is able to cope with it effectively
either on his own or with the help of external resources or support from other people in his life.
The consequences of stress can be seen in enormous symptoms which vary according to
individuals, situations and severity of demand; these include physical health decline and a
conduction of depression. Stress has become a matter of concern and importance to both the
employers and employees. Stress includes the situations and experiences that are perceived as
threatening to the individuals. Major types, symptoms, associated factors of stress include
frustration, depression, conflict and pressure, which ultimately produce physiological and
psychological stress

2. STRESS – INTERPRETATIONS OF RESEARCHERS

The term stress in Engineering implies an inherent capacity to withstand stress. In Physics,
stress‟ is force, which acts on a body to produce strain. In Physiology, stress refers to the
changes in physiological function in response to the factors causing stress. In Psychology it
refers to a state of the organism resulting form serve interaction with the environment in
Psycho- Physiology, the term stress‟ is that stimulus which imposes detectable strain that
cannot be easily accommodated by the body and so presents itself as impaired health or
behavior. Different people have different views about it as stress can be experienced form a
variety of sources. The businessperson views stress as frustration or emotional tension; the air
traffic controller sees it as a problem of alertness and concentration; the biochemist thinks of it as
a purely chemical event. The concept of stress was first introduced in the life sciences by Hans
Selye in 1936. It is a concept borrowed from the natural sciences. Derived from the Latin work.
―Stringere‖, stress was popularly used in the seventeenth century to means hardship, strain,
adversity or affliction. It was used in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries to denote force,
pressure, strain or strong effort with reference to an object or person. In engineering and physics,
the term implies an external force or pressure exerted on something with the intention to distort
and being resisted by the person or object on which it is exerted.
The earliest and most imphential conceptualization of stress came from Seyle (1956). He
observed an identical series of bio chemical changes in a number of organisms adapting to a
variety of environmental conditions. He termed this series of changes of the ―General Adaptation
Syndrome‖. Pareek (1983) developed and standardized the Organizational Role Stress. Scale
(ORS Scale) to measure the above mentioned role stresses. He noted that until recently

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 P. Bheemaiah and P. Venkataiah

researches were done on three role stresses, namely, role ambiguity, role Overload and role
conflict. However, he found many other role stresses in organizations. The ORS scale is certainly
one of the best instruments available today for measuring a wide variety of role stresses. Khan
at. al. (1964) view stress as an environmental characteristic thought that affect people adversely.
Lazarus, (1966) made tremendous contribution to the study of Psychological stress he suggests a
more comprehensive definition of stress as a generic term as a whole area of problems that include
the stimuli producing stress reactions.
This concept referring to the field stress covers Physiological, Sociological, and Psychological
Stress. Mason (1975) defines stress as a state wherein expected functioning gets disrupted.
T.A Beehr and J.E Newman (1978) define job stress as ―a condition arising from the
interaction of people and their jobs and characterized by changes within people that force then to
deviate from the normal functioning.‖ Marshall and Cooper
(1979) point out the term stress to denote the following; an excessive environmental force; The
harm caused; the individual’s reaction in situations. Fireman (1979) views stress as a
Psychological response state of negative effect, characterized by a persistent and high level of
experienced anxiety of tension he further views stress as a condition of organic damage
resulting from strain. According to Beehr and Bhagat (1985) stress includes stressors and
strains. The term refers to the environmental stimulus and the term strain refers to individual’s
response which can be Physical, Psychological, or Behaivoural indicators of ill health/well
being of the individual. John M. Ivaneevich and Michael (1987) – According to
them the word stress has been compared with the word ―Sin‖, both are short; emotionally
charged words used to refer to something that is otherwise take many words to say. In the words
of Szilagyi an internal experience that creates a Psychological imbalance within an individual
and results from factors in the external environment, the organization and the individual (1990).
Stephen William (1990) in his book kittled ―Managing Pressures for Peak performance -
posture approaches to stress defines or start of the process of stress, which is the final outcome
or the possible response to pressures. According to him pressure becomes stress, and the process
by which pressure becomes stress is called stress process‖. According to
Dewe (1991) the concept stress, which dominates current research, is an extension of the
appraisal hypothesis, that stress represents a relationship between a stressor and an individual’s
reaction. The study conducted by James E. Driskel and Eduardo Salas (1991) investigated the
effects of stress on status and decision-making in groups. The hypothesis stated that stress
results in centralization of authority such that decision making in concentrated at higher level
in the group hierarchy. Randall and Elizebeth (1994) define occupational stress as the
interaction of the work conditions with the characterists of the worker, such that the demands
of work exceed the ability of the worker to cope with them:
Using network technology, Electronic Performance Monitoring (EPM) systems provide
managers with access to them employees computer terminals and telephone, allowing managers
to determine at any moment throughout the day, the pace at which employees are working, time
taken and so on. Thus the study by John R. Aiello, Karthryn, J. Kolla (1995), which examined
how productivity and stress are affected by EPM, showed that EPM is linked with increased stress
and therefore decreased productivity. The study of Anita and
Carolyn (1995) tested the effects of various demographic and socio-economic variables on
perceived stress among bank employees in both work and non-work environment and
established significant correlation between perceived stress in the work and non-work
environment among the same bank employees. Research Psychologist Sandi Mann of
University of Sal ford (1998) stated that employees who are under in creaming pressure to
appear enthusiastic, interested, cheerful, and friendly at all times in their work place are highly

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 A Theoretical Framework of Stress Management - Contemporary Approaches, Models and
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places. Jennifer Smith (1998) stated that work place bullying consisting of victimization,
pressure management, long hours, difficult duties, lack of support and unsought promotion
results in stress. She advocated that managers should be aware of change in atmosphere among
staff, hold agenda free meetings and conduct exit interviews to identify work place bullying.

3. APPROACHES TO STRESS
Welford (1973) introduced a specific form of approach to stress, based on stimulus in which he
defined stress in terms of demand. He suggested that human body will perform better in case of
balanced demand and a tranquility of mind is maintained identical to the physiological
homeostasis. If the demand is extremely high or extremely low, performance will be influenced.
According to Cox & Griffiths (1995), majority people are agreed on that there is no specific
definition of stress. Cox and Griffiths (1995) indicate that there are maximum three different
ideas to define the stress. These ideas are engineering approach, physiological approach and
psychological approach.
The engineering approach is an approach where stress is considered a feature of the
environment in terms of demands expected from an individual, stress as an independent variable
precedes to the negative health outcomes. Symonds states (1947, cited in Cox & Griffiths, 1995)
that ―stress is that which happens to the individual, not that which happens in him‖. Stress and
health outcomes are separate but interrelated to each other. Stress is actually a combination of
causes, not a combination of diseases. There are various causes of stress and stress leads to the
health problems.
The physiological approach is an approach where the stress is defined on the basis of
biological or physiological changes which come in an individual as a result of stress. Selye,
1930 (cited in Cox & Griffiths, 1995) was a leading supporter of this approach, and supposed that
negative physiological responses are occurred in an individual as a result of harmful stimuli of
environment. This happens in three levels: warn, fighting and tiredness.
Selye (1946) stated that stress is flexible in the short run in which one can keep safe himself
from threat and avoid danger but in the current era of modernity; the increasing demands are
causing continuous stress in individuals that lead to negative health outcomes. Selye named this
a ―Disease of Adaptation‖.
The third approach is the psychological approach by Cox and Griffiths (1995) where stress
is not considered only a reaction, but it’s an active state that happens to an individual as a result
of an interaction with the environment (Cox et al. 2000). Cox (1987) termed this as ―the stress
process‖ and approves a cognitive theory, which is related with the psychological changes that
result when a person is under stress.
Cox and Griffiths (1995) informs that the concepts of engineering and physiological
approaches are weakened, because these theories tell us that people respond to the threat slowly
and do not clarify the certain effects of emotional or situational factors on performance and
welfare. For instance there is the impact of noise on intellectual tasks in which noise type is an
important element for the performance instead the level of the noise. In addition, in
psychological approaches individual differences affect the stress process because of the
individualistic elements like personality, gender, dealing abilities etc. Why some people can deal
with stress easily while the others cannot, will be answered by these individualistic factors.
People can deal with stress according to their personalities or characteristics.

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 P. Bheemaiah and P. Venkataiah

4. MODELS OF STRESS
4.1. Systematic theory: Selye’s Theory of Stress
Hans Selye has been regarded as the founder of modern stress theory (Capel & Gurnsey, 1987).
One of the first attempts to explain the process of stress related illness was given in Selye (1976)
whereby the individual experiences three stages during the stress response. The stereotypical
response pattern, called the `General Adaptation Syndrome' (GAS), proceeds in three stages
shown in. Fig.1

Figure 1 General Adaptation Syndrome' (GAS), Selye (1976)

The three stages were referred to as GAS or the Generalized Adaptation Syndrome and are as
follows: 1. Alarm Reaction: In this first phase, resistance is lowered and is followed by a counter
shock whereby the individual’s defence mechanisms become more active. 2. Resistance Stage:
this is the stage of maximum adaptation and should ideally represent are turn to equilibrium for
the individual. If the stress continues and defence mechanisms do not work, the individual moves
to the third stage. 3. Exhaustion: – In this stage the adaptive mechanisms collapse. GAS is
essentially a defence mechanism of the human body, a means of coping with stimuli which
threaten its homeostasis or stability. Critics of Selye’s work indicate that it ignores the
psychological impact of stress on an individual and his/her ability to recognize stress and to act
in ways to change the situation or the impact of that stress (Cartwright & Cooper, 1997). Selye
is further criticized for ignoring the element of emotion in stress. Selye’s views also emphasize
the physiology of stress due to his use of animals in his research, neglecting the aspects unique
to humans, such as perception and interpretation of stressful experiences (Brannon & Feist,
1997).

4.2. Psychological Stress: The Lazarus Theory

Two concepts are central to any psychological stress theory: appraisal, i.e., individuals'
evaluation of the significance of what is happening for their well-being, and coping, i.e.,
individuals' efforts in thought and action to manage specific demands (Lazarus 1993).

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Lazarus„s research (in Brannon & Feist, 1997) revealed that the ability of people to think and
evaluate future events makes them more vulnerable in ways that animals are not. Thus the
effect that stress has on the individual is based on that individual’s feelings of vulnerability
and ability to cope. Lazarus recognized that individuals use three kinds of appraisal to analyze
situations namely: Primary appraisal, Secondary appraisal and Reappraisal.
Primary Appraisal concerns the first encounter with the stressful event. At this point, the
individual appraises the situation in respect of its effect on his/her well-being. The situation may
be viewed as positive or negative or unimportant. A stressful appraisal would indicate the
individual sees the situation as harmful or threatening. This type of interpretation is likely to
generate an emotion or what Lazarus refers to as ―harm‖ which results in anger, sadness or
disappointment. The interpretation of ―threat‖ is seen as the anticipation of harm and the
interpretation of ―challenge‖ as the individual’s confidence in overcoming the demands of the
situation. Within primary appraisal, three components are distinguished: goal relevance
describes the extent to which an encounter refers to issues about which the person cares. Goal
congruence defines the extent to which an episode proceeds in accordance with personal goals.
Type of ego- involvement designates aspects of personal commitment such as self- esteem,
moral values, ego-ideal, or ego-identity.
After the individual’s appraisal of the event, he /she forms an impression of his or her ability
to control or cope with the situation, be it ―harm‖ or ―threat‖ or ―challenge‖. This stage is
referred to as a secondary appraisal. Three secondary appraisal components are distinguished:
blame or credit results from an individual's appraisal of who is responsible for a certain event.
The third type of appraisal is reappraisal. This implies that the individual’s appraisals of the
situation may change as new information becomes available. Reappraisal does not always
reduce the stress; it can increase it since a previously non-threatening situation may be viewed
as threatening once more information has become available.
Since its first presentation as a comprehensive theory (Lazarus 1966), the Lazarus stress
theory has undergone several essential revisions (cf. Lazarus 1991, Lazarus and Folkman 1984,
Lazarus and Launier 1978). In the latest version (see Lazarus 1991), stress is regarded as a
relational concept, i.e., stress is not defined as a specific kind of external stimulation nor a specific
pattern of physiological, behavioral, or subjective reactions. Instead, stress is viewed as a
relationship (`transaction') between individuals and their environment.
`Psychological stress refers to a relationship with the environment that the person appraises
as significant for his or her well being and in which the demands tax or exceed available coping
resources' (Lazarus and Folkman 1986, p. 63). This definition points to two processes as central
mediators within the person–environment transaction: cognitive appraisal and coping.

4.3. Cox’ s Theory of Stress

According to Cox (1978, 1985) the individual becomes stressed when a discrepancy occurs
between the perceived level of the stressful demands and his/her perceived ability to respond to
and to cope with the demands. There is thus an imbalance between a perceived demand and a
perceived capacity to cope. Cox (1985) notes that: The classic stressful situation is one in which
the person’s resources are not well matched to the level of demand and where there are constraints
on coping and little social support. Stress, itself, is an individual psychological state. It is to do
with the person’s perception of the work environment and the emotional experience of it. Cox
(1978, 1985) maintains that perception plays an important role in recognizing stressors. The
individual’s ability to cope with environmental ―threats‖ or adverse events is also emphasized.
This view would suggest that if the individual can perceive environmental and psychological
demands made on him, he can learn (for example, through counselling as a form of intervention)

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 P. Bheemaiah and P. Venkataiah

to recognize which are the best resources to call upon when confronted with perceived stressful
demands. Cox (1985) emphasizes that the stress phases experienced by the individual involve a
complex interactive process with various levels of appraisal, emotion and response, with the
immediate response to a stressful situation being in the form of negative emotion, propelling the
individual into flight or fight action. Cox (1978, 1985) maintains that stress is an imbalance
between a perceived demand and a perceived capability, with the demands changing at various
levels of appraisal during the phases of the stress process. An appraisal of capability takes into
account external resources as well as internal capabilities. In using the ―capabilities‖ the
individuals makes an assessment of the social support available (external factors) and appraises
his or her internal strengths or limitations in order to deal with the stressor.

4.4. Resource Theories of Stress: A Bridge between Systemic and Cognitive

Viewpoints
Unlike approaches discussed so far, resource theories of stress are not primarily concerned with
factors that create stress, but with resources that preserve well being in the face of stressful
encounters. Several social and personal constructs have been proposed, such as social support
(Schwarzer and Leppin 1991), sense of coherence (Antonovsky 1979), hardiness (Kobasa 1979),
self-efficacy (Bandura 1977), or optimism (Scheier and Carver 1992). whereas self-efficacy and
optimism are single protective factors, hardiness and sense of coherence represent tripartite
approaches. Hardiness is an amalgam of three components: internal control, commitment, and a
sense of challenge as opposed to threat. Similarly, sense of coherence consists of believing that
the world is meaningful, predictable, and basically benevolent. Within the social support field,
several types have been investigated, such as instrumental, informational, appraisal, and
emotional support. The recently offered conservation of resources (COR) theory (Hobfoll 1989,
Hobfoll et al. 1996) assumes that stress occurs in any of three contexts: when people experience loss
of resources, when resources are threatened, or when people invest their resources without
subsequent gain. Four categories of resources are proposed: object resources (i.e., physical
objects such as home, clothing, or access to transportation), condition resources (e.g.,
employment, personal relationships), personal resources (e.g., skills or self-efficacy), and energy
resources (means that facilitate the attainment of other resources, for example, money, credit, or
knowledge).

4.5. Different Perspectives, Different Theories

Attempt is not made to cover all of the (numerous) theories relating to stress, but rather to
discuss a few major ones that have highlighted, different, albeit complementary, different
perspectives. Each of the theories discussed offers a different perspective for understanding the
transaction between the individual and the environment. Other theories have taken up the issues of
―process.‖ For instance, the theory of stress outlined by Shupe and McGrath (2000) describes ―a
dynamic, adaptive process theory‖ (Cooper) which, when focused at the individual level, suggests a
complex cycle connected by four processes: the appraisal process (interpreting events); the
choice process (the choice of a coping response); the performance process (the coping phase);
and the outcome process (the consequences for the individual; Shupe & McGrath, 2000). Shupe
and McGrath go on to outline the complexity of these interconnected process and the
implications this complexity has for researchers in terms of measurement and interpretation.
Similarly, Cummings and Cooper (2000) offer a ―cybernetic theory‖ of work stress. The emphasis
here is on time, information, and feedback. Warr (2007) explored the way in which work leaves us
feeling happy or unhappy. While acknowledging the definitional difficulties surrounding terms
like happiness and unhappiness, and the preference at times to use the term well-being, Warr
(Warr & Clapperton, 2010) suggests that happiness should be considered not just in terms of its
energising and tranquil forms, but also in terms of whether it is being used in a contextual

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(work) sense or even a facet (work component) sense. When exploring work and happiness,
Warr (2007) draws attention to the transaction between the person and the environment. When
considering the environment, Warr (Warr & Clapperton, 2010) identifies 12 sources of work
happiness, but recognizes that there is no correct number of work sources, as these will differ
across and within jobs, and will depend also on individual differences.
The role of individual differences also plays a part in the work–happiness equation. While
Warr (2007) and Warr and Clapperton (2010) point out the way different personality traits in fl
uence happiness, and how happiness also depends on the different sorts of comparisons
individuals make about themselves in relation to others, they also raise the issue of whether
individuals have a consistency in their levels of happiness—―a baseline‖ that they keep coming
back to ( Warr & Clapperton , p. 10). This brief overview cannot capture the level of analysis, the
scope of the research or the complexity that resides within Warr’s ( 2007 ) vitamin theory. The
―overall message‖ that fl ows from this approach, however, is that happiness–unhappiness comes
not just from the different work sources, but is also derived from within and that
―possible improvements must be sought for both directions‖ (Warr & Clapperton, 2010, p.
177).
Another approach is offered by Nelson and Simmons (2003, 2004) and Simmons and Nelson
(2007), who integrate into their holistic stress model the positive qualities of eustress and
propose that the appraisal of any encounter can produce positive or negative meanings. This
model ―focuses on the positive responses and their effects on performance and health‖ (Simmons &
Nelson, p. 40). Interestingly, these authors go on to point to their concept of―savouring the
positive‖ (p. 40), and how this adds a new perspective on how people cope. Similarly, when
individual differences are considered in terms of how they trigger positive beliefs, these authors
point to how such beliefs aid individuals, create positive appraisals, develop resources for
managing demanding encounters, and shift the focus towards those aspects of the work
environment that help create the context for positive opportunities. While arguing that it is now
time to include the positive as well as the negative into our theories of stress, these authors
suggest that studying work stress should be ―best thought of as a constellation of theories and
models that each addresses a meaningful process or phenomenon‖ ( Simmons & Nelson , p. 50).

5. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS

The different theories reflect a number of perspectives, but all offer a lens through which the
person–environment transaction can be explored. Each offers a dynamic view of the stress
process, emphasising the importance of the context within which the transaction between the
person and the environment takes place. Many of these theories draw attention not just to the
―contribution of the person as opposed to the environment, in creating organizational stress‖
(Wethington, 2000, p. 641), but also to the way in which the demands of an encounter are
appraised. If individuals are active participants in the stress process and if this ―activity,‖ as
seems generally agreed, is initiated through the process of appraisal, then perhaps by focusing on
these meanings that individuals give to demanding encounters will help us identify
an―organizing concept‖ for the future. Capturing the meaning individuals give to stressful
encounters cannot, of course, be separated from measurement. So, it is important for researchers
to continually evaluate whether current measurement practices allow these meanings to emerge,
expressed in a way that captures their explanatory richness. It is the appraisal process that has
the potential to provide a rich explanatory pathway, and one that enables us to begin the process
of working towards the role of discrete emotions and away from the troublesome concept of
stress fulfilling our moral responsibility to those who’s working lives we explore.

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 P. Bheemaiah and P. Venkataiah

REFERENCES
[1] Anbazhagan. A and Soundar Rajan. L.J, ― A conceptual Framework of Occupational stress and
coping strategies‖, International Journal of Business Economics & Management Research, Vol.3
(5), MAY (2013)

[2] Beehr and New man, ―Organisational Behaviour Issues for Managers and Systems analysis.‖
Working Paper No. 660. Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad, (New Edition) 1978.

[3] Beehr and Newman, Job stress, Employee Health and organizational effectiveness: A feet
analysis. Model and literature review, Personal Psychology 1978, p.p 665-700.

[4] Beehr T.A and J.E Newman,―Job Stress‖: Employment Health and Organizastional
effectiveness a faset analysis, model and Literature review‖ Personnel Psychology, 1978. Pp. 665-
669

[5] Cooper and Marshal Executive under pressure A psychological Study, Londoan McMilan Press,
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[6] Cox .T; ―The nature and measurement of work stress: theory and practice‖ in J R Wilson and E
N Corlett [eds] Evaluation Of Human Work 2nd edtn., London, Taylor and Francis; p:1156.

[7] Dewe, P.I. and Guest, D.E. ―Methods of coping with stress at work: A conceptual analysis and
Empirical study of Measurement issues‖, Journal of organizational Behaviour rev. edt 1991.

[8] Father Bulake; ―Stress : A Threat to the Quality of Life‖, 1971

[9] Fireman Psychological Model of Stress and its application to managerial unemployment – Human
reation 32 (4). 1979, pp. 323-345.

[10] Hans Salye, The stress of life New York Mc. Graw Hill book company, 1936.

[11] Hans Selye: The Stress of life reo.ed., New York Mc. Graw Hill Book Company, 1930.

[12] James E. Drisker and Eduardo Sales, ―Group Decision Making under stress‖ Journal of Applied
Psychology, 1991, Vol.76, No. 3, pp 473-478.

[13] Jennifer smith, organisiational Stress and Employee well being: New Perspective‖. Stress News.
Vol 10, No. 2, internet source, 1998.

[14] John M. Ivanecevich and Micheal – organisational behvaiour and management. Business
publication planoten, 1987, p.211.

[15] John R.Aiello and Kathryn J. Kolb ―Electronic Performance Monitoring and Social content:
Impact on productivity and Stress‖ journal of Applied Psychology, 1995, vol. 80, No.3 pp. 339–
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[16] Khan et al ―Organisational Stress: Studies in Role conflict and Role ambiguity ―New York:
Wiley, 1964.

[17] Lazarus Psychological Stress and the coping process, New York: MC. Graw Hill, 1966 &1971.

[18] Lazarus Psychological Stress and the coping process, New York: MC. Graw Hill, 1966.

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[19] Lazarus R.S. Psychological Stress and the coping process, New York: MC. Graw Hill, 1960 &
1971.

[20] Mason J.W. and historical view of stress field, Journal of Human stress 1975 March 6-12.

[21] MC Grath, J.E. ―stress and Behaviour in Organisaitons‖. In M.Dunnette (ed.) Handbook of
Industrial and Organisational Psychology Chicago: Rand Mc Nully, 1976.

[22] Pareek, U. Managing stress and Coping in D.M. postonjee, U. Pareek and R. Agrawal (Eds.,)
studies in stress and its Management, Delhi: Oxford and IBM, 1983.

[23] Pareek, U. (1983). Organizational Role Stress Scale. ORS Scale Booklet, Answer Sheet and
Manual. Ahmedabad: Navin Publications.

[24] Randall. K. Ross and Elizabeth M.Altm air ―Interventions in occupational Stress‖, Sage
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[25] Sandiman Psychophysiological parameters of emotional expression Rev.ed. Dissertation

abstracts International 33, 1998, 2356 – 2357.

[26] Stephen Williams ―Managing Pressure for Peak performance. The positive Approach to Stress‖,
Kogan Page Publishers, 1990.

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Employability Quotient

Employability Quotient, or EQ, is a measure of an individual’s ability to secure and

maintain employment. It is a combination of skills, knowledge, and personal
characteristics that make a person desirable to potential employers. Employability
Quotient can include both hard skills, such as technical expertise or proficiency in a
specific software program, as well as soft skills, such as communication and
problem-solving abilities. Some factors that may contribute to an individual’s EQ
include their education, work experience, and personal attributes, such as
adaptability, teamwork, and reliability. Employability Quotient is important because it
can affect an individual’s career prospects and earning potential. By improving their
EQ, individuals can increase their chances of finding and keeping a job.

Employability Quotient for Career(EQ4C)

The term “Employability Quotient” is a concept that has been developed by EQ4C in
2012 and now used by various organizations, educators, and researchers over time
to describe an individual’s ability to secure and maintain employment.

The concept of employability is not new and has been discussed in various contexts
for many years. In the past, employability has often been referred to as “job
readiness” or “career readiness,” and has been focused on specific skills or
knowledge that are necessary for a specific job or industry.

In more recent years, the concept of employability has expanded to include a broader
range of skills and personal characteristics that are valued by employers in a wide
range of industries.

Is it important to have Employability Quotient for Career?

having a high Employability Quotient is important for career success. In today’s

competitive job market, employers are looking for candidates who possess a
combination of technical skills and personal qualities that make them a valuable
asset to the organization.

Having a strong EQ can give you an advantage over other candidates by

demonstrating your ability to adapt to new situations, work well with others, and
solve problems effectively.

In addition to helping you secure a job, a high EQ can also help you advance in your
career. By continuously improving your skills and knowledge, and demonstrating your
value to your employer, you can increase your chances of being promoted or given
additional responsibilities.
A high Employability Quotient can give you a competitive edge in the job market and
can help you succeed in your career. It is important to focus on developing and
improving your EQ throughout your career, as it can have a significant impact on your
job prospects and earning potential.

Tools to measure Employability Quotient, or EQ

Organizations use number of tools and techniques to assess an individual’s

employability skills and attributes. These may include:

 Resumes and cover letters: These documents can provide information about
an individual’s education, work experience, and skills, which can help
employers assess their employability.

 Interviews: During an interview, an employer can ask questions and assess an

individual’s communication skills, problem-solving abilities, and other
qualities that may contribute to their employability.

 Assessments and tests: Some organizations may use assessments or tests

to measure an individual’s skills and aptitudes, such as aptitude tests or
personality tests.

 Referees and references: Employers may ask for references from previous
employers or colleagues to get an idea of an individual’s work habits and
qualities.

While these tools and techniques can provide insight into an individual’s
employability, they are not a precise measurement and are used in combination with
other factors, such as education and work experience, to assess an individual’s
overall employability.

Which skills are attributed to Employability Quotient?

There are many skills and attributes that can contribute to an individual’s
Employability Quotient. Here is the list of the most important skills and attributes that
are typically valued by employers:

 Communication skills: The ability to communicate clearly and effectively is

essential in any job. This includes verbal communication, as well as written
communication, such as email and report writing.
 Problem-solving skills: The ability to identify and solve problems is important
in any job, as it demonstrates an individual’s ability to think critically and find
solutions to challenges.

 Teamwork: The ability to work well with others is important in many jobs, as it
allows individuals to collaborate and achieve common goals.

 Adaptability: The ability to adapt to new situations and environments is

important in a rapidly changing job market.

 Leadership: The ability to lead and inspire others is valuable in many roles,
particularly in management and leadership positions.

 Time management: The ability to manage your time effectively and prioritize
tasks is important in any job.

 Interpersonal skills: The ability to build and maintain positive relationships

with coworkers, clients, and customers is essential in many jobs.

 Creativity: The ability to think outside the box and come up with new ideas
can be valuable in a variety of roles.

 Technical skills: Depending on the job, specific technical skills may be

required, such as proficiency in a specific software program or knowledge of
a particular industry.

 Attention to detail: The ability to pay attention to detail and accurately

complete tasks is important in many jobs.

 Initiative: The ability to take initiative and work independently is important in

many jobs.

 Strategic thinking: The ability to think strategically and plan for the long term
is valuable in leadership and management roles.

 Organizational skills: The ability to stay organized and manage multiple tasks
effectively is important in many jobs.

 Conflict resolution: The ability to resolve conflicts and mediate disputes is

valuable in a variety of roles.

 Negotiation skills: The ability to negotiate effectively is important in many

jobs, particularly in sales and business development roles.

 Persistence: The ability to persevere and continue working towards a goal,

even in the face of challenges, is important in many jobs.

 Flexibility: The ability to be flexible and adapt to changing circumstances is

important in a rapidly changing job market.
 Emotional intelligence: The ability to recognize and manage your own
emotions and those of others is valuable in many jobs, particularly in
leadership and customer-facing roles.

 Cultural awareness: The ability to understand and respect different cultures

and viewpoints is important in a globalized job market.

 Lifelong learning: The ability to continuously learn and adapt to new

knowledge and technologies is important in a rapidly changing job market.

 Customer service skills: The ability to provide excellent customer service and
build positive relationships with clients and customers is valuable in many
roles.

 Sales skills: The ability to sell products or services effectively can be valuable
in a variety of roles, particularly in sales and business development positions.

 Marketing skills: The ability to market products or services effectively can be

valuable in marketing and public relations roles.

 Financial skills: The ability to understand and manage financial information is

important in many roles, particularly in finance and accounting positions.

 Project management skills: The ability to plan and manage projects

effectively is important in many roles, particularly in project management
positions.

 Writing skills: The ability to write clearly and effectively is important in many
roles, particularly in writing-intensive roles such as journalism and marketing.

 Research skills: The ability to conduct research and analyze data is important
in many roles, particularly in research and analysis positions.

 Public speaking skills: The ability to speak confidently in front of large groups
is valuable in many roles, particularly in public speaking and teaching
positions.

 Computer skills: The ability to use computer programs and technology

effectively is important in many jobs.

 Data analysis skills: The ability to analyze and interpret data is important in
many roles, particularly in data analysis and research positions.

 Graphic design skills: The ability to design graphics and visual materials is
valuable in many roles, particularly in design and marketing positions.

 Social media skills: The ability to use social media platforms effectively is
 valuable in many roles, particularly in marketing and public relations positions.

 Event planning skills: The ability to plan and execute events is important in
event planning and management roles.

 Multilingual skills: The ability to speak multiple languages is valuable in many

roles, particularly in customer service and international business positions.

 Coaching skills: The ability to coach and mentor others is valuable in

coaching and leadership positions.

Role of Employability Quotient in own Business (Entrepreneurial Ventures)

If you own your own business, having a high Employability Quotient can be beneficial
in a number of ways.

First, having a strong EQ can help you attract and retain talented employees. By
demonstrating your own skills and personal qualities, such as adaptability, problem-
solving, and leadership, you can set a positive example for your employees and
create a culture that values continuous learning and development.

Second, a high EQ can help you build strong relationships with customers and clients.
By demonstrating your expertise and professionalism, you can establish trust and
credibility with your clients and build long-term partnerships that benefit your
business.

Overall, having a high Employability Quotient can help you run a successful business
by attracting and retaining talented employees, building strong relationships with
customers and clients, and setting a positive example for your team. It is important
to focus on continuously improving your EQ in order to stay competitive and drive the
success of your business.
GROWTH & ENVIRONMENT

When considering "growth and environment" together, it often involves understanding the
relationship between human development and the natural world. Here's how they intersect:

1. Economic Growth vs. Environmental Impact: Economic growth often comes at the expense
of environmental degradation, such as deforestation, pollution, and habitat destruction.
Balancing economic development with environmental conservation is crucial for sustainable
growth.

2. Population Growth and Resource Consumption: As the global population continues to grow,
there's increased pressure on natural resources like water, energy, and land. Sustainable
development aims to meet present needs without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs.

3. Urbanization and Environmental Sustainability: Rapid urbanization can lead to issues like air
and water pollution, loss of biodiversity, and increased carbon emissions. Planning cities with
green spaces, efficient transportation systems, and sustainable infrastructure can mitigate
these environmental impacts.

4. Human Health and Environmental Quality: The environment plays a significant role in human
health. Air and water pollution, exposure to toxins, and climate change-related events can all
impact public health. Promoting clean air and water, reducing exposure to pollutants, and
addressing climate change are essential for human well-being.

5. Education and Awareness: Increasing public awareness and education about environmental
issues can lead to positive changes in behavior and policy. Empowering individuals and
communities to take action to protect the environment is critical for long-term sustainability.

In summary, achieving sustainable growth involves recognizing the interconnectedness

between human development and the environment. By prioritizing environmental protection and
conservation alongside economic and social progress, we can create a more equitable and
sustainable future for both people and the planet.
Competitive spirit

Competitive spirit refers to a mindset or attitude characterized by a strong desire to succeed,

excel, or outperform others in various endeavors. Here are some key aspects of competitive
spirit:

1. Drive and Motivation: Competitive individuals are often highly driven and motivated to achieve
their goals. They set high standards for themselves and strive to continually improve and
surpass their own accomplishments.

2. Resilience and Determination: A competitive spirit is often accompanied by resilience and

determination in the face of challenges or setbacks. Rather than being discouraged by failure,
competitive individuals are motivated to learn from their experiences and persevere towards
their objectives.

3. Goal-Oriented Behavior: Competitive individuals typically have clear goals and objectives that
they work towards. They are focused on achieving specific outcomes and are willing to put in
the effort and dedication required to succeed.

4. Adaptability and Innovation: In competitive environments, individuals must be adaptable and

innovative in order to stay ahead of the competition. This may involve thinking creatively, being
willing to take calculated risks, and adapting to changing circumstances.

5. Sportsmanship and Fair Play: While competitiveness can drive individuals to excel, it's
important to maintain sportsmanship and fair play. Competitive spirit should be tempered with
integrity, respect for opponents, and adherence to rules and ethical standards.

Overall, competitive spirit can be a powerful motivator for personal and professional growth,
driving individuals to push their limits, achieve excellence, and reach their full potential. However,
it's essential to balance competitiveness with sportsmanship, collaboration, and respect for
others in order to foster positive and healthy competition.
Responsibility factor

The "responsibility factor" refers to the role and importance of taking responsibility for one's
actions, decisions, and obligations. Here are some key aspects of the responsibility factor:

1. Accountability: Taking responsibility means acknowledging the consequences of one's

actions and being answerable for them. It involves owning up to mistakes, admitting when
things go wrong, and being willing to make amends or take corrective action.

2. Reliability: Responsible individuals can be counted on to fulfill their commitments and

obligations. They follow through on their promises, meet deadlines, and honor their agreements,
which builds trust and credibility with others.

3. Self-Discipline: Responsibility often requires self-discipline and self-control. It involves making

choices and decisions that align with one's values, goals, and commitments, even when faced
with temptations or distractions.

4. Problem-Solving: Responsible individuals take initiative to identify and address problems or

challenges proactively. Instead of avoiding or blaming others for difficulties, they seek solutions
and take action to resolve issues effectively.

5. Ethical Behavior: Responsibility encompasses acting ethically and with integrity in all aspects
of life. It involves treating others with fairness, honesty, and respect, and adhering to moral
principles and values even when it's difficult or unpopular.

6. Contributing to Society: Responsible individuals recognize their role within their communities
and society at large. They contribute positively to their communities, participate in civic
activities, and strive to make a meaningful difference in the world.

Overall, the responsibility factor is essential for personal growth, success, and well-being. By
taking responsibility for their actions and choices, individuals can cultivate trust, build positive
relationships, and contribute to a more ethical and sustainable society.
Used with well-defined and explicit Return On Investment success in corporations
worldwide, Six Thinking Hats is a simple, effective parallel thinking process that
helps people be more productive, focused, and mindfully involved. A powerful tool
set, which once learned can be applied immediately!

You and your team members can learn how to separate thinking into six clear
functions and roles. Each thinking role is identified with a colored symbolic “thinking
hat.” By mentally wearing and switching “hats,” you can easily focus or redirect
thoughts, the conversation, or the meeting.

White hat : The White Hat calls for information known or needed. “The facts, just the
facts.”

Yellow hat: The Yellow Hat symbolizes brightness and optimism. Under this hat you
explore the positives and probe for value and benefit.

Black hat: Risks, difficulties, Problems – The risk management Hat, probably the
most powerful Hat; a problem however if overused; spot difficulties where things
might go wrong, why something may not work, inherently an action hat with the
intent to point out issues of risk with intent to overcome them.

Red hat: The Red Hat signifies feelings, hunches and intuition. When using this hat
you can express emotions and feelings and share fears, likes, dislikes, loves, and
hates.

Green hat: The Green Hat focuses on creativity; the possibilities, alternatives, and
new ideas. It’s an opportunity to express new concepts and new perceptions.

Blue hat: The Blue Hat is used to manage the thinking process. It’s the control
mechanism that ensures the Six Thinking Hats® guidelines are observed.

Using Six Thinking Hats®, you and your team will learn how to use a disciplined
process which will…

 Maximize productive collaboration and minimize counterproductive

interaction/behavior

 Consider issues, problems, decisions, and opportunities systematically

 Use Parallel Thinking as a group or team to generate more, better ideas and
solutions

 Make meetings much shorter and more productive

 Reduce conflict among team members or meeting participants

  Stimulate innovation by generating more and better ideas quickly

 Create dynamic, results oriented meetings that make people want to

participate

 Go beyond the obvious to discover effective alternate solutions

 Spot opportunities where others see only problems

 Think clearly and objectively

 View problems from new and unusual angles

 Make thorough evaluations

 See all sides of a situation

 Keep egos and “turf protection” in check

 Achieve significant and meaningful results in a less time

Significant Applications for the Parallel Thinking Process of Six Thinking Hats

 Leadership Development

 Team Productivity, Alignment and Communication

 Creative and innovative thinking

 Meeting leadership and decision making

 Product and Process Improvement, and Project Management

 Critical, Analytical Thinking and Problem-Solving

 Organizational Change/Performance

 Wherever High Performance Thinking and Action is needed