Proofs

Proofs
A mathematical system consists of axioms, definitions

and undefined terms.
An axiom is assumed true.
Definitions are used to create new concepts in terms
of existing ones.
Undefined terms are only defined implicitly defined by
the axioms.
Within a mathematical system, we can derive
theorems.
A theorem is a proposition that has been proved true.
A lemma is a special kind of theorem that is not
usually interesting.
A corollary is a theorem that follows quickly from
another theorem.
Euclidian geometry is an example of mathematical
system.
Example of an axiom in this system:

Given two distinct points, there is exactly one line that
contains them.
The terms points and line are undefined terms that

are implicitly defined by the axiom.
Example of a definition:
Two angles are supplementary if the sum of their

measure is 180°.
If two sides of a triangle are equal, then the angles
opposite them are equal.
A corollary is:
“If a triangle is equilateral, then it is equiangular.”
Theorems are often of the form:
Theorem 1:
for all x1, x2,…, xn, if p(x1, x2,…, xn) then q(x1, x2,…, xn)
This universally quantified statement is true provided

that the conditional statement:
if p(x1, x2,…, xn) then q(x1, x2,…, xn)
is true for all x1, x2,…, xn.
Direct proof:
To prove that Theorem 1 is true, we assume that:

1. x1, x2,…, xn are arbitrary members of the domain
of discourse.
2. We also assume that p(x1, x2,…, xn) is true
3. then , using p(x1, x2,…, xn) as well as other
axioms, definitions and previously derived
theorems, we show directly that q(x1, x2,…, xn) is
true
We will give a direct proof for the following statement:
For all real numbers d, d1, d2, and x

If d = min {d1, d2 } and x ≤ d then x ≤ d1and x ≤ d2
Proof:
We will assume that d, d1, d2 and x are arbitrary real

numbers.
We will assume that
{d = min {d1, d2 } and x ≤ d }is true and then prove that
: x ≤ d1 and x ≤ d2
From the definition of a minimum, it follows that :

d ≤ d1
and
d ≤ d2
From x ≤ d and d ≤ d1, we derive that x ≤ d1
From x ≤ d and d ≤ d2, we derive that x ≤ d2,

Therefore, x ≤ d1 and x ≤ d2
Indirect Proof:
Since the implication pÆ q is equivalent to its

contrapositive ¬qÆ¬p , the implication pÆ q can be
shown by proving its contrapositive ¬qÆ¬p is true.
Prove that
For all real number x and y, if x+y ≥ 2, then either x≥ 1
or y ≥ 1.
Proof:
Suppose that:
We assume the conclusion is false:
either x≥ 1 or y ≥ 1 is false
So, its negation : ¬ (either x≥ 1 or y ≥ 1) is True,
And should conclude that the hypothesis is false

: x+y ≥ 2 is false
¬ (either x≥ 1 or y ≥ 1) is True ⇔ x <1 and y< 1.

Note that negating or results in and.
x <1 and y<1
We add each corresponding member of the inequality
and we get:
x+y < 1+1 =2 ⇔ x + y < 2
At this point, we have derived ¬p
where p : x+y ≥ 2.
Thus we conclude that the statement:
For all real number x and y, if x+y ≥ 2,
then either x≥ 1 or y ≥ 1 is true.
This special case of proof is called a proof by

contrapositive.
Deductive reasoning:
The process of drawing a conclusion from a sequence

of propositions is called deductive reasoning.
For example:
1. The bug is either in module 17 or in module 81.
2. The bug is a numerical error
3. Module 81 has no numerical error.
If these statements are true, it is reasonable to

conclude that
The bug is in module 17.
The given propositions are called hypotheses, and the

proposition that follows from the hypotheses is called
conclusion
Valid argument:
Any argument of the form
If p1 and p2 and …pn then q can be written as a
sequence of propositions:
p1
p2
.
.
pn
∴q
The propositions p1 p2 …pn are called the premises
or the hypotheses and q is called the conclusion.
The argument is valid provided that:
if p1 and p2 … and pn are all true, then q must also be
true .Otherwise, the argument is invalid or a fallacy.
Determine whether
pÆq
p
∴q
is valid
Proof :
Suppose that p Æ q and p is true. Then q must be
true, otherwise p Æq would be false.
Therefore, the argument is valid.
Rules of inference for propositions:
For a proof as a whole to be valid, each step of the

proof has to draw intermediary conclusions that are
valid.
To make sure that the intermediary conclusions are
valid, each conclusion has to be deduced using some
of the rules of inference listed below:
Rule of inference Name

pÆ q Modus Ponens
p
∴q
pÆ q Modus Tollens
¬q
∴ ¬p
p Addition
∴p∨q
p∧q Simplification
∴p
p Conjunction
q
∴p∧q
pÆq Hypothetical syllogism

qÆr
_________
∴pÆr
p∨q Disjunctive syllogism
¬p
∴q
Which rule of inference is used in the following

argument:
If the computer has 32 Meg of RAM, then it can run

“SoundBlaster”, if it can run “SoundBlaster” then the
sonics will be impressive.
Therefore, if the computer has 32 Meg then the
sonics will be impressive.
P : “The computer has 32 meg of RAM”
Q : “The computer can run “SoundBlaster””
R : “The sonics will be impressive”
The arguments can be represented as:

PÆQ
QÆR
∴PÆ R
This argument uses the hypothetical syllogism rule,
so it is true.
Let’s have the following argument:

if I study hard, then I get A’s
I study hard.
Let p: “I study hard”, q: I get A’s
If I study hard then I get A’s
I study hard
_______________________________
∴ I get A’s
p Æ q
p
_________
∴q
This argument uses the modus ponens, therefore it is

valid.
Let’s have the argument:
If I study hard, then I get A’s,

I do not get A’s, therefore I do not study hard.
p Æ q
¬q
_________
∴ ¬p
This argument uses the modus tollens, therefore it is

valid.

I study hard, therefore I study hard or I will get rich
p
_________
∴p ∨ q
This argument uses the addition rule of inference,

therefore it is valid.
I study hard and I get A’s, therefore I study hard
p∧q
________
∴p
This argument uses the simplification rule of

inference, therefore it is valid

I study hard, I have A’s, therefore I study hard and I
have A’s
p
q
______
∴p∧q
This argument uses the conjunction rule of inference
therefore it is valid
I study hard or I get A’s, I do not get A’s, therefore I

study hard
p∨q
¬q
----------
∴p
This argument uses the disjunctive syllogism rule of

inference therefore it is valid
Rules of Inference for Quantified Statements:
There are 4 rules of inference for quantified

statements:
Let x be a universally quantified variable in the
domain of discourse D, such that p(x) is true,
∀ x∈ D, p(x) is true
Rule of Inference Name
∀ x∈ D P(x) Universal instantiation
-------------------
∴ P(d) if d ∈ D
P(d) for any d ∈ D Universal generalization
--------------------------
∀ x∈ D P(x)
Existential instantiation
∃ x∈ D P(x)
-------------------
∴ P(d) for some d ∈ D
P(d) for some d ∈ D Existential generalization
--------------------------
∃ x∈ D P(x)
Everyone who is taking CS124 wants an A.
Let’s D be the domain of all students taking CS124

P(x) : x wants an A
∀ x∈ D P(x)
John ∈ D, therefore, P(john) is true. (universal
instantiation)
P(d) for any d in D , for any student d in CS124,

P(d)= “d wants an A” is true,
------------------------------------------------------------------------
∀ x∈ D P(x)
Some students taking CS124 love proofs
Let’s D be the domain of all students taking CS124

Let Q denote the proposition: x loves proofs
We can re-write this as :
∃ x∈ D Q(x)
--------------------
This means that we can find at least one student d in
CS124 for which Q(d) is true.
Conversely, if we can find at least one student d in

CS124 for which Q(d) is true, then ∃ x∈ D Q(x) is true.
Combining propositional and quantified statement

inferences:
Let’s have:
1- everyone loves either MS-DOS or UNIX.
2- Lynn does not love MS-DOS.
Show that the conclusion “Lynn loves UNIX” follows
from the hypotheses
Let p(x) denote the propositional function: “x loves

MS-DOS”
Let q(x) denote the propositional function: “x loves
UNIX”
The first hypothesis can be re-written as:

∀ x p(x) ∨ q(x)
By universal instantiation, we have:
p(Lynn) ∨ q(Lynn)
The second hypothesis is ¬ p(Lynn)
p(Lynn) ∨ q(Lynn)
¬ p(Lynn)
-----------------------------
q (Lynn) by disjunctive syllogism.
Therefore, the conclusion follows from the
hypotheses.
Quantifiers and Logical Operators
1. ∀ x [p(x) ∧ q(x) ] ⇔ [∀ x p(x) ∧ ∀ x q(x) ]

2. ∀ x [p(x) ∨ q(x) ] ⇔ [∀ x p(x) ∨ ∀ x q(x) ]
3. ∃ x [p (x) ∧ q(x) ] ⇔ [∃ x p(x) ∧ ∃ x q(x) ]
4. ∃ x [p (x) ∨ q(x) ] ⇔ [∃ x p(x) ∨ ∃ x q(x) ]

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Proofs

A mathematical system consists of axioms, definitions

Example of an axiom in this system:

The terms points and line are undefined terms that

Two angles are supplementary if the sum of their

Theorems are often of the form:

This universally quantified statement is true provided

To prove that Theorem 1 is true, we assume that:

For all real numbers d, d1, d2, and x

We will assume that d, d1, d2 and x are arbitrary real

From the definition of a minimum, it follows that :

From x ≤ d and d ≤ d1, we derive that x ≤ d1

From x ≤ d and d ≤ d2, we derive that x ≤ d2,

Since the implication pÆ q is equivalent to its

So, its negation : ¬ (either x≥ 1 or y ≥ 1) is True,

 And should conclude that the hypothesis is false

¬ (either x≥ 1 or y ≥ 1) is True ⇔ x <1 and y< 1.

This special case of proof is called a proof by

The process of drawing a conclusion from a sequence

If these statements are true, it is reasonable to

The given propositions are called hypotheses, and the

Rules of inference for propositions:

For a proof as a whole to be valid, each step of the

Rule of inference Name

pÆq Hypothetical syllogism

Which rule of inference is used in the following

If the computer has 32 Meg of RAM, then it can run

The arguments can be represented as:

Let’s have the following argument:

This argument uses the modus ponens, therefore it is

Let’s have the argument:

If I study hard, then I get A’s,

This argument uses the modus tollens, therefore it is

Let’s have the argument:

This argument uses the addition rule of inference,

Let’s have the argument:

I study hard and I get A’s, therefore I study hard

This argument uses the simplification rule of

Let’s have the argument:

Let’s have the argument:

I study hard or I get A’s, I do not get A’s, therefore I

This argument uses the disjunctive syllogism rule of

Rules of Inference for Quantified Statements:

There are 4 rules of inference for quantified

Everyone who is taking CS124 wants an A.

Let’s D be the domain of all students taking CS124

P(d) for any d in D , for any student d in CS124,

Some students taking CS124 love proofs

Let’s D be the domain of all students taking CS124

Conversely, if we can find at least one student d in

Combining propositional and quantified statement

Let p(x) denote the propositional function: “x loves

The first hypothesis can be re-written as:

Quantifiers and Logical Operators

1. ∀ x [p(x) ∧ q(x) ] ⇔ [∀ x p(x) ∧ ∀ x q(x) ]

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And should conclude that the hypothesis is false