Lab Manual - Anatomy and Physiology

Laboratory Manual for
Anatomy & Physiology

S E V E N T H E D I T I O N
Elaine N. Marieb, R.N., Ph.D.

Holyoke Community College
Lori A. Smith, Ph.D.

American River College
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The Author and Publisher believe that the lab experiments described in this publication, when conducted
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the described experiments are accompanied by some degree of risk, including human error, the failure or
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arising from such risks in connection with any of the experiments contained in this manual. If students
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always ask their instructor for help before proceeding.
www.pearson.com ISBN-10: 0-13-516802-3

ISBN-13: 978-0-13-516802-8
Contents iii
Contents
THE HUMAN BODY: ORIENTATION 3 Examining Muscle Tissue Under the
Microscope 47
4 Examining Nervous Tissue Under the
1 The Language of Anatomy 1 Microscope 49
1 Locating Body Landmarks 1 5 Constructing a Concept Map of the Tissues 50
2 Practicing Using Correct Anatomical Review Sheet 51
Terminology 3
3 Observing Sectioned Specimens 4
4 Locating Abdominopelvic Surface Regions 6 6 The Integumentary System 55
1 Locating Structures on a Skin Model 56
Review Sheet 7
2 Visualizing Changes in Skin Color Due to
Continuous External Pressure 57
2 Organ Systems Overview 9 3 Viewing Two Types of Pressure Receptors
1 Studying the Organ Systems of the Microscopically 58
Body and Their Functions 9 4 Determining the Two-Point Threshold 58
Dissection Rat Dissection and/or Observation 9 5 Testing Tactile Localization 58
2 Observing External Structures 11 6 Demonstrating Adaptation of Touch
3 Examining the Mouth (Oral Cavity) 11 Receptors 59
4 Opening the Ventral Body Cavity 11 7 Plotting the Distribution of Sweat Glands 59
5 Examining the Ventral Body Cavity 12 8 Examining a Skin Slide 61
6 Examining the Human Torso Model 15 9 Identifying Nail Structures 62
Review Sheet 17 Review Sheet 63
THE CELL THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

3 The Cell—Anatomy and Division 19 7 Overview of the Skeleton 67
1 Identifying Parts of a Cell 19 1 Examining and Classifying Bones 70
2 Identifying Components of a Plasma 2 Examining a Long Bone 70
Membrane 20
3 Comparing the Relative Contributions of Bone
3 Locating Organelles 21 Salts and Collagen Fibers in Bone Matrix 71
4 Examining the Cell Model 21 4 Examining the Effects of Heat and Nitric Acid on
5 Observing Differences and Similarities in Cell Bones 71
Structure 22 5 Examining the Microscopic Structure of Compact
6 Identifying the Mitotic Stages 24 Bone 72
7 Creating Mitotic Figures 24 Review Sheet 75
Review Sheet 25
8 The Axial Skeleton 79
4 Cell Membrane Transport 1 Identifying the Bones of the Adult Skull 79
Mechanisms 29 2 Palpating Skull Markings 83
1 Observing Diffusion of Dye Through Agar Gel 30 3 Examining Spinal Curvatures 85
2 Observing Diffusion Through Nonliving 4 Palpating the Spinous Processes 86
Membranes 31 5 Examining Vertebral Structure 87
3 Investigating Diffusion Through Living 6 Examining the Relationship Between Ribs and
Membranes 33 Vertebrae 88
4 Observing the Process of Filtration 33 Review Sheet 89
Review Sheet 35
BASIC TISSUES AND THE SKIN

9 The Appendicular Skeleton 95
1 Examining and Identifying Bones of the
Appendicular Skeleton 95
5 Classification of Tissues 37 2 Palpating the Surface Anatomy of the Pectoral
Girdle and the Upper Limb 98
1 Examining Epithelial Tissue Under the
Microscope 42 3 Palpating the Surface Anatomy of the Pelvic
2 Examining Connective Tissue Under the Girdle 99
Microscope 42 4 Comparing Male and Female Pelves 101
iii
iv Contents
5 Palpating the Surface Anatomy of the Lower 3 Tracing the Pathway of Cerebrospinal Fluid in the
Limb 104 Brain 168
6 Constructing a Skeleton 104 4 Identifying and Testing the Cranial Nerves 171
Review Sheet 105 Dissection The Sheep Brain 171
Review Sheet 175
10 Joints and Body Movements 109
1 Identifying Fibrous Joints 109 15 Spinal Cord and Spinal Nerves 181
2 Identifying Cartilaginous Joints 109 1 Identifying Structures of the Spinal Cord 181
3 Examining Synovial Joint Structure 110 Dissection Spinal Cord 182
4 Demonstrating the Importance of Friction- 2 Identifying the Major Nerve Plexuses and
Reducing Structures 112 Peripheral Nerves 186
5 Identifying Types of Synovial Joints 112 Review Sheet 187
6 Demonstrating Movements of Synovial
Joints 113
7 Demonstrating Uniaxial, Biaxial, and Multiaxial
16 Human Reflex Physiology 189
1 Initiating Stretch Reflexes 190
Movements 116
2 Initiating the Plantar Reflex 191
Review Sheet 117
3 Initiating the Corneal Reflex 192
4 Initiating the Gag Reflex 192
THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM 5 Initiating Pupillary Reflexes 192
Review Sheet 193
11 Microscopic Anatomy and Organization
of Skeletal Muscle 121
1 Examining Skeletal Muscle Cell Anatomy 123
17 The Special Senses 195
1 Identifying Accessory Eye Structures 197
2 Observing Muscle Fiber Contraction 123 2 Identifying Internal Structures of the Eye 198
3 Observing the Structure of a Skeletal Muscle 124 Dissection The Cow (Sheep) Eye 199
4 Studying the Structure of a Neuromuscular 3 Demonstrating the Blind Spot 200
Junction 126
4 Determining Near Point of Vision 201
Review Sheet 127
5 Testing Visual Acuity 201
6 Testing for Astigmatism 202
12 Gross Anatomy of the Muscular
7 Testing for Color Blindness 202
System 131
8 Demonstrating Reflex Activity of Intrinsic and
1 Identifying Head and Neck Muscles 131 Extrinsic Eye Muscles 202
2 Identifying Muscles of the Trunk 136 9 Identifying Structures of the Ear 203
3 Demonstrating Operation of Trunk Muscles 136 10 Examining the Ear with an Otoscope
4 Identifying Muscles of the Upper Limb 138 (Optional) 204
5 Identifying Muscles of the Hip and Lower 11 Examining the Microscopic Structure of the
Limb 140 Cochlea 205
6 Palpating Muscles of the Hip and Lower Limb 142 12 Conducting Laboratory Tests of Hearing 205
7 Making a Muscle Painting 142 13 Conducting Laboratory Tests on Equilibrium 208
Review Sheet 145 14 Identification of Papillae on the Tongue 210
15 Stimulating Taste Buds 211
REGULATORY SYSTEMS: NEURAL 16 Examining the Combined Effects of Smell, Texture,
and Temperature on Taste 211
AND ENDOCRINE Review Sheet 213
13 Neuron Anatomy and Physiology 151

18 Functional Anatomy of the Endocrine
1 Identifying Parts of a Neuron 153
Glands 221
2 Examining the Microscopic Structure of a
1 Examining the Microscopic Structure of the
Nerve 157
Thyroid Gland 223
Review Sheet 159
2 Palpating the Thyroid Gland 223
3 Examining the Microscopic Structure of the
14 Gross Anatomy of the Brain and Cranial Pancreas to Identify Alpha and Beta Cells 225
Nerves 163 4 Observing the Effects of Hyperinsulinism 225
1 Identifying External Brain Structures 163 5 Identifying the Endocrine Organs 226
2 Identifying Internal Brain Structures 167 Review Sheet 227
Contents v
THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM 4 Examining Prepared Slides of Trachea and Lung

Tissue 296
Review Sheet 297
19 Blood 231
1 Determining the Physical Characteristics of
Plasma 232 24 Respiratory System Physiology 301
2 Examining the Formed Elements of Blood 1 Operating the Model Lung 301
Microscopically 232 2 Measuring Respiratory Volumes 303
3 Determining the Hematocrit 234 3 Visualizing Respiratory Variations 305
4 Determining Hemoglobin Concentration 235 Review Sheet 307
5 Determining Coagulation Time 237
6 Typing for ABO and Rh Blood Groups 238 OTHER MAJOR SYSTEMS
Review Sheet 241
25 Functional Anatomy of the Digestive
20 Anatomy of the Heart 245 System 311
1 Using the Heart Model to Study Heart 1 Observing the Histological Structure of the
Anatomy 248 Alimentary Canal Wall 314
2 Tracing the Path of Blood Through the Heart 249 2 Identifying Alimentary Canal Organs 314
3 Examining Cardiac Muscle Cells 250 3 Examining the Villus Model 317
Dissection The Sheep Heart 250 4 Identifying Types of Teeth 318
Review Sheet 253 5 Studying Internal Tooth Anatomy 319
6 Locating the Salivary Glands 320
21 Anatomy of Blood Vessels 257 7 Examining the Histology of Salivary Gland
Tissue 320
1 Examining the Microscopic Structure of Arteries
and Veins 259 8 Locating the Liver, Pancreas, and Associated
2 Locating Arteries on an Anatomical Chart or Structures 320
Model 264 9 Examining the Histology of the Liver 320
3 Identifying the Systemic Veins 267 10 Assessing Protein Digestion by Trypsin 322
4 Identifying Vessels of the Pulmonary 11 Demonstrating the Action of Bile on Fats 323
Circulation 267 12 Observing Movements and Sounds of
5 Tracing the Hepatic Portal Circulation 269 Digestion 323
6 Tracing the Arterial Supply of the Brain 269 13 Viewing Segmental and Peristaltic
Review Sheet 271 Movements 324
Review Sheet 325
22 Human Cardiovascular Physiology—
Blood Pressure and Pulse 26 Functional Anatomy of the Urinary
Determinations 277 System 331
1 Auscultating Heart Sounds 279 1 Identifying Urinary System Organs 331
2 Palpating Superficial Pulse Points 280 Dissection Gross Internal Anatomy of the Pig or
Sheep Kidney 333
3 Taking an Apical Pulse 280
2 Studying Nephron Structure 334
4 Using a Sphygmomanometer to Measure Arterial
Blood Pressure Indirectly 281 3 Analyzing Urine Samples 337
5 Observing the Effect of Various Factors on Blood Review Sheet 339
Pressure and Heart Rate 282
6 Examining the Effect of Local Chemical and
Physical Factors on Skin Color 284
27 Anatomy of the Reproductive
System 343
Review Sheet 287 1 Identifying Male Reproductive Organs 343
2 Viewing Sperm Microscopically 345
THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 3 Identifying Female Reproductive Organs 346
4 Conducting a Microscopic Study of the Ovary 349
23 Anatomy of the Respiratory Review Sheet 351
System 291
1 Identifying the Upper Respiratory System Histology Atlas 355
Organs 291 Appendix A: The Microscope 365
2 Identifying the Lower Respiratory System
Organs 294 Credits 373
3 Demonstrating Lung Inflation in a Sheep Pluck 296 Index 375
Preface
S
tudents in two-semester allied health–related programs activity and review sheet questions, and information on labo-
typically encounter a fast-paced anatomy and physiol- ratory supply houses.
ogy course that leaves little time for leisurely learning.
These students are intently focused on achieving their goals, For information on creating a custom version of this man-
which requires a course that includes a brief, hands-on labora- ual, visit www.pearsonhighered.com/collections/, or contact
tory experience to flesh-out and clarify the lecture sessions. your Pearson representative for details.
This challenge is what provided the impetus for developing
this concise laboratory manual.
New to the Seventh Edition:
Basic Pedagogical Approach Highlights
The Seventh Edition offers a variety of experiments to give • Dozens of new, full-color illustrations, and photos
the instructor the flexibility to choose which will best supple- replace many black and white line drawings to help students
ment what is being taught in lecture. This manual is a stand- differentiate among structures and more easily interpret dia-
alone resource that can complement any textbook. Because grams.
each experiment is preceded by pertinent background in- • New Clinical Application Questions have been added
formation, students will not find it necessary to carry their to the Exercise Review Sheets to challenge students to apply
textbooks to the lab. lab concepts and critical thinking skills to real-world clinical
Although length and content have been rigorously con- scenarios.
trolled, the 27 exercises in this manual still provide fairly
complete coverage of the routine topics of human anatomy
• Improved Interior design incorporates more saturated
colors in headings and exercise tabs to improve readability.
and physiology.
For instructors who wish their students to have experi- • Content and illustration updates have been made
ence using a microscope, this manual also includes a com- throughout the Seventh Edition. Please contact your Pearson
plete exercise on its use and care (see Appendix A). representative for more details.
Pedagogy and Special Features Also Available

1. The art and photo program includes tissue tables with • The Anatomy & Physiology Coloring Workbook, Twelfth
photomicrographs, realistic muscle art, and large illustrations Edition by Elaine Marieb and Simone Brito. (0-13-445936-9)
that highlight and differentiate important structures and help
students recognize important relationships between struc-
• The Anatomy Coloring Book, Fourth Edition by Wynn
Kapit and Lawrence Elson. (0-321-83201-9)
ture and function. Photographs supplement the art to show
isolated organ specimens for dissection and observation. • The Physiology Coloring Book, Second Edition by Wynn
Kapit, Robert Macey, and Esmail Meisami. (0-321-03663-8)
2. Each exercise is preceded by a list of materials needed for
conducting the laboratory, followed by learning outcomes, • MasteringA&PTM for Anatomy & Physiology, Seventh
summaries of key concepts, step-by-step instructions, and Edition is highly recommended. Mastering is the most effec-
efficient tear-out review sheets that can be used for pre-lab or tive and widely used online homework, tutorial, and assess-
post-lab review. ment system for the sciences. To learn more, ask your Pearson
3. Body structures are studied from simple to complex. representative for details or a demo.
Histology lessons will be expedited by slides set up by the
instructor at demonstration areas for student viewing, so stu-
dents do not have to spend time trying to find the “right” sec- Acknowledgments
tion. These, along with physiology experiments (written to be
conducted in limited time periods and with inexpensive, widely Many thanks to the Pearson Education product team: Lauren
available equipment and supplies) allow ample opportunity for Harp, Senior Acquisitions Editor and Wendy Mears, Marketing
student observation, manipulation, and experimentation. Manager. Kudos as usual to Mangelli Productions and to
David Novak, our production supervisor for this project.
4. All exercises involving body fluids (blood, saliva, As always, we invite users of this edition to send us their
etc.) incorporate current Centers for Disease Control and comments and suggestions for subsequent editions.
Prevention guidelines for handling body fluids. A safety icon
alerts students to observe special precautions. Elaine N. Marieb and Lori A. Smith
5. An Instructor’s Guide is available to instructors upon Pearson Education, Anatomy and Physiology
request (0-13-520203-5). This Guide contains answers to 50 California Street, San Francisco, CA 94111
vi
EXERCISE
1
The Language
of Anatomy
Materials Learning Outcomes

● Human torso model (dissectible) □ Describe the anatomical position verbally or by demonstrating it.
● Human skeleton □ Demonstrate proficiency in using terms describing body
● Scalpel landmarks, directions, planes, and surfaces.
● Demonstration area:
□ Name the body cavities, and indicate important organs in each
Station 1: Sectioned and labeled kidneys
(three separate kidneys uncut or cut so cavity.
that (a) entire, (b) transverse, and
(c) median sectional views are visible)
Station 2: Gelatin-spaghetti molds
M
ost of us are naturally curious about our bodies. This curiosity is apparent
even in infants, who are fascinated with their own waving hands or their
mother’s nose. Unlike the infant, however, an anatomy student must
learn to identify body structures formally.
This exercise presents some of the most important anatomical terms you will
be using to describe the body and introduces you to gross anatomy, the study of
body structures you can see with your naked eye.
Anatomical Position
When anatomists or doctors refer to specific areas of the human body, they do so
relative to a standard position called the anatomical position. In the anatomical
position, the human body is erect, with head and toes pointed forward and arms
hanging at the sides with palms facing forward (Figure 1.1a).
□ Assume the anatomical position. Notice that it is not particularly comfortable
because you must hold your hands unnaturally forward.
Surface Anatomy
The body is divided into two main regions, the axial and appendicular regions.
The axial region includes the head, neck, and trunk; it runs along the vertical
axis of the body. The appendicular region includes the limbs, which are also
called the appendages or extremities. The body is also divided up into smaller
regions within those two main divisions. Several of these are described on the
following pages.
Activity 1
Locating Body Landmarks
Anterior Body Landmarks
Identify and use anatomical terms to correctly label the following regions
in Figure 1.1a:
Abdominal: Anterior body trunk region inferior to the ribs

Acromial: Point of the shoulder
Antebrachial: Forearm
Text continues on next page. ➔

1
2 Exercise 1
Thorax
Abdomen
Back (Dorsum)
(a) Anterior/Ventral (b) Posterior/Dorsal
Figure 1.1 Surface anatomy.
Antecubital: Anterior surface of the elbow Mammary: Breast

Axillary: Armpit Manus: Hand
Brachial: Arm Nasal: Nose
Buccal: Cheek Oral: Mouth
Carpal: Wrist Orbital: Bony eye socket (orbit)
Cervical: Neck Patellar: Kneecap
Coxal: Hip Pelvic: Pelvis
Crural: Leg (lower portion of the lower limb) Pollex: Thumb
Digital: Fingers or toes Pubic: Genital
Femoral: Thigh Sternal: Breastbone
Fibular: Side of the leg Tarsal: Ankle
Hallux: Great toe Thoracic: Chest
Inguinal: Groin Umbilical: Navel
The Language of Anatomy 3
Posterior Body Landmarks Lumbar: Lower back
Identify and appropriately label the following body sur- Occipital: Back of the head
face regions in Figure 1.1b: Olecranal: Back of the elbow
Brachial: Arm (upper portion of the upper limb) Otic: Ear
Calcaneal: Heel of the foot Popliteal: Back of the knee
Cephalic: Head Sacral: Posterior region between the hip bones
Cervical: Neck Scapular: Shoulder blade
Femoral: Thigh 1
Sural: Calf
Fibular: Side of the leg
Vertebral: Spine
Gluteal: Buttocks
Body Orientation and Direction

Study the terms below, referring to Figure 1.2 as a visual aid. midline (which is the spine in humans). Lateral structures are
farther away from the midline.
Superior/inferior (above/below): These terms refer to the
location of a structure along the long axis of the body. For The terms described above assume the person is in the
example, the nose is superior to the mouth. anatomical position. The next four pairs of terms are more ab-
Anterior/posterior (front/back): In humans, the most an- solute. They do not relate to a particular body position, and they
terior structures are those that are most forward—the face, have the same meaning in humans and four-legged animals.
chest, and abdomen. Posterior structures are those toward the Cephalad/caudal (toward the head/toward the tail): In hu-
backside of the body. mans, these terms are used interchangeably with superior and
Medial/lateral (toward the midline/away from the midline inferior. But in four-legged animals, they are synonyms of
or median plane): Medial structures are closer to the body anterior and posterior, respectively.
Ventral/dorsal (belly side/backside): In humans, the terms
ventral and dorsal are used interchangeably with the terms
Superior anterior and posterior, but in four-legged animals, ven-
(cephalad) tral and dorsal are synonymous with inferior and superior,
respectively.
Proximal/distal (nearer the trunk or attached end/farther
from the trunk or point of attachment): These terms locate
various areas along the body limbs or an elongated organ,
such as the intestine. For example, the fingers are distal to
the elbow; the knee is proximal to the toes. Note: The terms
Posterior Anterior proximal and distal would not be used to describe the rela-
(dorsal) (ventral) tionship of two structures in the torso.
Superficial/deep (toward or at the body surface/away from
the body surface or more internal): For example, the skin is
superficial to the skeletal muscles.
Proximal
Activity 2
Practicing Using Correct
Anatomical Terminology
Use a human torso model, a skeleton, or your own body to
specify the relationship between the following structures.
1. The wrist is _______________ to the hand.
Inferior 2. The trachea (windpipe) is _______________ to the spine.
Distal
(caudal)
3. The brain is _______________ to the spinal cord.
4. The kidneys are _______________ to the liver.
Figure 1.2 Anatomical terminology describing body 5. The nose is _______________ to the cheekbones.
orientation and direction in a human. 6. The chest is _______________ to the abdomen.
4 Exercise 1
(a) Median (midsagittal) plane (b) Frontal (coronal) plane (c) Transverse plane
Figure 1.3 Planes of the body.
Body Planes and Sections

The body is three-dimensional. So, in order to observe its inter- 4. Draw the appearance of each of these spaghetti
nal parts, it helps to make use of a section, or cut made along an sections below, and verify the accuracy of your section
imaginary surface or line called a plane. A section is named for identifications with your instructor.
the plane along which it is cut. There are three planes of space
(Figure 1.3), or sections, that lie at right angles to one another.
Sagittal plane: A plane that runs lengthwise or longitudi-
nally down the length of the body, dividing it into right and
left parts, is a sagittal plane. If it divides the body into equal
Transverse section Median section
parts, right down the median plane of the body, it is called a
median, or midsagittal, plane.
Frontal (coronal) plane: A longitudinal plane that divides
the body (or an organ) into anterior and posterior parts. Longitudinal Transverse
Transverse plane: A plane that runs horizontally, dividing sections sections
the body into superior and inferior parts. These sections are
also commonly called cross sections.
A sagittal or frontal section of any nonspherical object,
be it a banana or a body organ, provides quite a different view
from a transverse section (Figure 1.4).
Activity 3
(a)
Observing Sectioned Specimens
1. Go to the demonstration area, and observe the entire
(uncut) and transversely and longitudinally cut kidneys
at station 1.
2. After completing step 1, obtain a gelatin-spaghetti mold
and a scalpel and bring them to your laboratory bench.
3. Cut through the gelatin-spaghetti mold along any (b)
plane, and examine the cut surfaces. You should see
spaghetti strands that have been cut transversely (XS)
and longitudinally (a median section). Figure 1.4 Comparison of longitudinal and transverse
sections. Sections of (a) a banana and (b) the small intestine.
The Language of Anatomy 5
Body Cavities
The axial region of the body has two main cavities (Figure 1.5). cavity, the area that houses the stomach, intestines, liver, and
other organs, and an inferior pelvic cavity, which is partially
Dorsal Body Cavity enclosed by the bony pelvis and contains the reproductive
organs, bladder, and rectum.
The dorsal body cavity consists of the cranial and spinal cavi-
ties. The cranial cavity, within the rigid skull, contains the
brain. The spinal cavity, which runs within the bony verte- Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions
bral column, protects the spinal cord. The abdominopelvic cavity is quite large and contains many 1
organs, so it is helpful to divide it up into smaller areas for
Ventral Body Cavity study. The medical scheme divides the abdominal surface
(and the abdominopelvic cavity deep to it) into four approxi-
Like the dorsal cavity, the ventral body cavity is subdivided. mately equal regions called quadrants, named according to
The superior thoracic cavity is separated from the rest of their relative position—that is, right upper quadrant, right
the ventral cavity by the muscular diaphragm. The heart and lower quadrant, left upper quadrant, and left lower quadrant
lungs, which are located in the thoracic cavity, are protected (Figure 1.6). Note: These directions refer to the patient’s
by the bony rib cage. The thoracic cavity is further subdivided left and right—not yours!
into the lateral pleural cavities, each of which surrounds a Another scheme, commonly used by anatomists, di-
lung, and the medial mediastinum. The mediastinum con- vides the abdominal surface and abdominopelvic cavity into
tains the pericardial cavity, which encloses the heart, and nine separate regions by four planes (Figure 1.7a). Read
it also surrounds the remaining thoracic organs (esophagus, through the descriptions of these nine regions below and lo-
trachea, and others). cate them in the figure. Notice the organs they contain (refer
The cavity inferior to the diaphragm is the abdomino- to Figure 1.7b).
pelvic cavity. Although there is no further physical sepa-
ration of this part of the ventral cavity, some describe the Umbilical region: The centermost region, which includes the
abdominopelvic cavity in terms of a superior abdominal umbilicus (navel, or “belly button”).
Cranial
Cranial cavity cavity
(contains brain)
Vertebral
cavity
Pleural
Dorsal Thoracic cavity
body cavity
cavity Mediastinum
(contains
heart and
lungs) Pericardial
cavity
Vertebral cavity
(contains spinal Diaphragm Ventral body
cord) cavity
(thoracic and
Abdominal cavity abdominopelvic
(contains digestive Abdomino- cavities)
organs) pelvic
cavity
Pelvic cavity
(contains urinary
Dorsal body cavity bladder, reproductive
Ventral body cavity organs, and rectum)
(a) Lateral view (b) Anterior view
Figure 1.5 Body cavities.

6 Exercise 1
Epigastric region: Immediately superior to the umbilical

region; overlies most of the stomach.
Pubic (hypogastric) region: Immediately inferior to the
umbilical region; encompasses the pubic area.
Inguinal, or iliac, regions: Lateral to the hypogastric region
and overlying the superior parts of the hip bones.
Lateral (lumbar) regions: Between the ribs and the flaring
portions of the hip bones; lateral to the umbilical region.
1 Hypochondriac regions: Flanking the epigastric region lat-
erally and overlying the lower ribs.
Right upper Left upper
quadrant quadrant
Activity 4 (RUQ) (LUQ)
Locating Abdominopelvic Surface Regions

Locate the regions of the abdominopelvic surface on a Right lower Left lower
torso model and on yourself before continuing. quadrant quadrant
(RLQ) (LLQ)
Figure 1.6 Abdominopelvic quadrants. Superficial

organs shown in each quadrant.
Liver Diaphragm
Right Left
hypochondriac Epigastric hypochondriac Spleen
region region region Gallbladder Stomach
Ascending colon of Transverse colon

Right Left of large intestine
Umbilical large intestine
lateral (lumbar) lateral (lumbar)
region region region Small intestine Descending colon
of large intestine
Cecum Initial part of
Right inguinal Pubic Left inguinal
(iliac) (hypogastric) (iliac) sigmoid colon
Appendix
region region region
Urinary bladder
(a) (b)
Figure 1.7 Abdominopelvic regions. Nine regions defined by four planes. (a) The
superior horizontal plane is just inferior to the ribs; the inferior horizontal plane is
at the superior aspect of the hip bones. The vertical planes are just medial to the
nipples. (b) Superficial organs are shown in each region.
EXERCISE
1 REVIEW SHEET
The Language of Anatomy
Name _______________________________________________________ Lab Time/Date ___________________________________
Surface Anatomy
1. Match each of the following descriptions with a key term, and write the term in front of the description.
Key: acromial cervical patellar scapular

brachial crural popliteal vertebral
carpal digital
1. lower portion of the lower limb 6. anterior aspect of knee
2. referring to the fingers 7. referring to the arm
3. posterior aspect of the knee 8. your backbone, or spine
4. shoulder blade 9. point of the shoulder
5. wrist area 10. referring to the neck
Body Orientation, Direction, Planes, and Sections

2. Several incomplete statements are listed below. Correctly complete each statement by choosing the appropriate
anatomical term from the key. Write the key terms on the correspondingly numbered blanks below. Some terms may
be used more than once.
Key: anterior inferior posterior superior

distal lateral proximal transverse
frontal medial sagittal
In the anatomical position, the umbilicus and knees are on the 1 body surface; the calves and shoulder blades
are on the 2 body surface; and the soles of the feet are the most 3 part of the body. The ears are 4 and 4 to
the shoulders and 5 to the nose. The breastbone is 6 to the vertebral column (spine) and 7 to the shoulders. The
elbow is 8 to the shoulder but 9 to the fingers. The thoracic cavity is 10 to the abdominopelvic cavity and 11 to
the spinal cavity. In humans, the ventral surface can also be called the 12 surface; however, in quadruped animals,
the ventral surface is the 13 surface.
If an incision cuts the brain into superior and inferior parts, the section is a 14 section; but if the brain is cut so
that anterior and posterior portions result, the section is a 15 section. You are told to cut a dissection animal along
two planes so that the lungs are observable in both sections. The body plane that would not meet these criteria is 16 .
1. 6. 12.
2. 7. 13.
3. 8. 14.
4. 9. 15.
10. 16.
5. 11.
7
8 Review Sheet 1
3. A nurse informs you that she is about to give you a shot in the lateral femoral region. What portion of your body
should you uncover?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
4. Correctly identify each of the body planes by inserting the appropriate term for each on the answer line below the
drawing.
(a) (b) (c)
Body Cavities
5. Which body cavity would have to be opened for the following types of surgery? (Insert the key term in the same-
numbered blank.)
Key: abdominopelvic cranial spinal thoracic
1. surgery to remove a cancerous lung lobe 1. ________________________________________________
2. gastric bypass surgery to reduce the size of the stomach 2. ________________________________________________
3. surgery to remove a ruptured spinal disk 3. ________________________________________________
4. removal of a brain tumor 4. ________________________________________________
6. + Name the body region that blood is usually drawn from. ___________________________________________________
7. + A patient has been diagnosed with appendicitis. Use anatomical terminology to describe the location of the
person’s pain. Assume that the pain is referred to the surface of the body above the organ.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
8. + Which body cavity would be opened to perform a hysterectomy? ___________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
EXERCISE
2 Organ Systems Overview

● Freshly killed or predissected rat □ Identify several organs of the various organ systems on a
(if available) dissected rat.
● Probes
□ Identify several organs on a dissectible human torso model,
● Forceps
and, given a list of organs, assign each to the correct organ
● Scissors
system.
● Dissecting pins or twine
● Dissecting trays
● Disposable gloves
Human torso model (dissectible)
T
●
he building block of life is the cell. Cells fall into four different groups ac-
cording to their structures and functions. These categories correspond to the
four primary tissue types: epithelial, muscular, nervous, and connective. An
organ is a structure composed of two or more tissue types that performs a specific
function for the body.
An organ system is a group of organs that act together to perform a particu-
lar body function. For example, digestive system organs work together to break
down foods moving through the digestive system and absorb the end products
into the bloodstream to provide nutrients for all the body’s cells.
An important concept in your study of anatomy and physiology is homeosta-
sis, which can be defined as a state of body equilibrium or a stable internal envi-
ronment of the body. Keep this concept in mind as you study the organ systems
listed in Table 2.1 and begin to think about how each of these important systems
works to maintain homeostasis in the human body.
Activity 1
Studying the Organ Systems of the Body and Their Functions
In all, there are 11 organ systems (Table 2.1). Read through this summary
before beginning the rat dissection.
DISSECTION
Rat Dissection and/or Observation

Many of the external and internal structures of the rat are quite similar in
structure and function to those of the human, so a study of the gross anat-
omy of the rat should help you understand your own anatomy.
The following instructions complement and direct your dissection and
observation of a rat. In addition, you can easily adapt the general instructions
for observing external structures to observing a human cadaver, if cadavers
are available.
Note that four organ systems—integumentary, skeletal, muscular, and
nervous—will not be studied at this time, because they require microscopic
study or more detailed dissection.
9
10 Exercise 2
Table 2.1 Overview of Organ Systems of the Body
Organ system Major component organs Function
Integumentary Skin, nails, and hair; cutaneous • Protects deeper organs from injury due to bumps, chemicals, bacteria,
sense organs and glands and dehydration (drying out)
• Excretes salts and urea
• Helps regulate body temperature
Skeletal Bones, cartilages, tendons, • Supports and protects internal organs
2 ligaments, and joints • Provides levers for muscular action
• Stores minerals (calcium and others)
• Cavities provide a site for blood cell formation
Muscular Muscles attached to the skeleton • Skeletal muscles contract, or shorten; in doing so, they move bones to
allow motion (running, walking, etc.), grasping and manipulating the
environment, and facial expression
• Generates heat
Nervous Brain, spinal cord, nerves, and • Allows body to detect changes in its internal and external environment
sensory receptors and to respond to such information by activating appropriate muscles or
glands
• Helps maintain short-term homeostasis of the body by rapidly
transmitting electrical signals
Endocrine Pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, • Promotes growth and development; produces chemical “messengers”
adrenal, and pineal glands; ovaries, (hormones) that travel in the blood to exert their effect(s) on various
testes, and pancreas target organs of the body
• Plays a role in regulating long-term homeostasis
Cardiovascular Heart and blood vessels • Carries blood containing oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, wastes, ions,
hormones, and other substances to and from the cells where exchanges
are made; pumping action of the heart propels blood through the blood
vessels
• Protects body with blood clots, antibodies, and other protein molecules
in the blood
Lymphatic Lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, • Picks up fluid leaked from the blood vessels and returns it to the blood
spleen, and thymus • Cleanses blood of pathogens and other debris
• Houses cells (lymphocytes and others) that act in the immune response
to protect the body from foreign substances (antigens)
Respiratory Nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, • Keeps the blood continuously supplied with oxygen while removing
trachea, bronchi, and lungs carbon dioxide
• Contributes to the acid-base balance of the blood via its carbonic acid/
bicarbonate buffer system
Digestive Oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, • Breaks down ingested foods to tiny particles, which can be absorbed into
stomach, small and large intestines, the blood for delivery to the body’s cells
and accessory structures (teeth, • Undigested residue leaves the body as feces
salivary glands, liver, gallbladder,
and pancreas)
Urinary Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, • Filters the blood and then rids the body of nitrogen-containing wastes
and urethra (urea, uric acid, and ammonia) that result from the breakdown of
proteins and nucleic acids by the body’s cells.
• Maintains water, electrolyte, and acid-base balance of blood
Reproductive Male: testes, scrotum, penis, and • Produces gametes called sperm for producing offspring
duct system, which carries sperm to
the body exterior
Female: ovaries, uterine tubes, • Produces gametes called eggs; the female uterus houses a developing
uterus, and vagina fetus until birth
Organ Systems Overview 11
Activity 2 Activity 3
Observing External Structures Examining the Mouth (Oral Cavity)
1. If your instructor has provided a predissected rat, go Examine the structures of the mouth or oral cavity, the
to the demonstration area to make your observations. most superior part of the digestive system. Identify the
Alternatively, if you and/or members of your group teeth and tongue. Observe the hard palate (the part sup-
will be dissecting the specimen, obtain a preserved or ported by bone) and the soft palate (immediately poste-
freshly killed rat (one for every two to four students), a rior to the hard palate and with no bony support). Notice
dissecting tray, dissecting pins, scissors, forceps, and that the posterior end of the oral cavity leads into the
2
disposable gloves. Bring these items to your laboratory throat, or pharynx, a passageway used by both the di-
bench. gestive and respiratory systems.
2. Don the gloves before beginning your obser-

! vations. This precaution is particularly important
when you are handling freshly killed animals, which may Activity 4
harbor internal parasites.
3. Observe the major divisions of the animal’s body— Opening the Ventral Body Cavity
head, trunk, and extremities. Compare these divisions to 1. Pin the animal to the wax of the dissecting tray by
those of humans. placing its dorsal side down and securing its extremities
to wax (Figure 2.1a).

Figure 2.1 Rat dissection: Securing for
dissection and the initial incision.
(a) Securing the rat to the dissection
tray with dissecting pins. (b) Using
scissors to make the incision on the
median line of the abdominal region.
(c) Completed incision from the pelvic
region to the lower jaw. (d) Reflecting
(folding back) the skin to expose the
underlying muscles.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
12 Exercise 2
2. Lift the abdominal skin with a forceps, and cut

through it with the scissors (Figure 2.1b). Close the
scissor blades and insert them under the cut skin.
Moving in a cephalad direction, open and close the
blades to loosen the skin from the underlying connective
tissue and muscle. Once you have completed this skin-
freeing procedure, cut the skin along the body midline,
from the pubic region to the lower jaw (Figure 2.1c).
Make a lateral cut about halfway down the ventral
2 surface of each limb. Complete the job of freeing the
skin with the scissor tips, and pin the flaps to the
tray (Figure 2.1d). The underlying tissue that is now
exposed is the skeletal musculature of the body wall
and limbs. It allows voluntary body movement. Notice
that the muscles are packaged in sheets of pearly white
connective tissue (fascia), which protect the muscles
and bind them together.
3. Carefully cut through the muscles of the abdominal
wall in the pubic region, avoiding the underlying or-
gans. Remember, to dissect means “to separate.” Now,
hold and lift the muscle layer with a forceps and cut
through the muscle layer from the pubic region to the
bottom of the rib cage. Make two lateral cuts through
Figure 2.2 Rat dissection: Opening the ventral body
the rib cage (Figure 2.2). You should easily see a thin
cavity. Making lateral cuts at the base of the rib cage.
membrane attached to the inferior boundary of the
rib cage: this is the diaphragm, which separates the
thoracic and abdominal cavities. Cut the diaphragm through the rib cage to view the contents of the thoracic
away to loosen the rib cage. You can now carefully cut cavity.
Activity 5
Examining the Ventral Body Cavity
1. Examine the structures of the thoracic cavity, starting Diaphragm: A thin muscular membrane attached to the
with the most superficial structures and working deeper. inferior boundary of the rib cage.
As you work, refer to the figure that shows the superficial
thoracic organs (Figure 2.3). Follow the esophagus through the diaphragm to its junc-
tion with the stomach.
Thymus: An irregular mass of glandular tissue overlying
the heart. Stomach: A curved organ important in food digestion
and temporary food storage.
With a probe, push the thymus to the side to view the heart. 2. Examine the superficial structures of the abdom-
Heart: Medial oval structure that lies between the lungs. inopelvic cavity. Lift the greater omentum, an apronlike
membrane fold that covers the abdominal organs.
Lungs: Lateral to the heart on either side. Continuing from the stomach, trace the rest of the
Now observe the throat region to identify the trachea. digestive tract (Figure 2.3b).
Trachea: Tubelike “windpipe” running medially down the Small intestine: A long coiled tube connected to the
throat; part of the respiratory system. stomach and ending just before the saclike cecum.
Large intestine: A large muscular tube coiled within the
Follow the trachea into the thoracic cavity. Notice where
abdomen.
it divides into two branches—these are the bronchi.
Follow the course of the large intestine, which begins at
Bronchi: Two passageways that plunge laterally into the
the saclike cecum, frames the small intestine, and ends
tissue of the two lungs.
at the rectum. Notice that it is partially covered by the
To expose the esophagus, push the trachea to one side. urinary bladder.
Esophagus: A food chute; the part of the digestive sys- Rectum: Terminal part of the large intestine; continuous
tem that transports food from the pharynx (throat) to the with the anal canal.
stomach.
Trachea
Thymus
Heart
Lung
Diaphragm
Liver
(a) Thoracic cavity
Liver
Stomach
Spleen
Small intestine
Large intestine
Urinary bladder
(b) Abdominal cavity
Figure 2.3 Rat dissection: Superficial organs of the thoracic and abdominal cavities.

14 Exercise 2
Inferior vena cava Descending aorta
Adrenal gland
Kidney
2 Ureter Ureter
Urinary bladder
Seminal gland
Prostate
Bulbo-urethral gland
Ductus (vas) deferens Penis
Testis
Rectum
Scrotum
Anus
(a) Male
Adrenal gland
Kidney
Descending aorta
Ureter
Ovary
Uterine horns
Uterus
Urinary bladder
Vagina
Urethral opening
8CIKPCNQTKƂEG
Anus
(b) Female
Figure 2.4 Rat dissection: Deeper organs of the abdominopelvic cavity.

Anus: The opening of the digestive tract (anal canal) to 4. In the midline of the body cavity lying between the
the exterior. kidneys are the two principal abdominal blood vessels.
Now lift the small intestine with the forceps to view the Inferior vena cava: The large vein that returns blood to
mesentery. the heart from the lower regions of the body.
Mesentery: A delicate membrane; suspends the small Descending aorta: Deep to the inferior vena cava; the
intestine in the abdominal cavity. Notice that it is heavily largest artery of the body; carries blood away from the
invested with blood vessels. heart.
Locate the remaining abdominal structures. 5. You will perform only a cursory examination of re-
productive organs. First determine whether the animal 2
Pancreas: A diffuse gland; rests posterior to and between is a male or female. Observe the ventral body surface
the first portion of the small intestine and the stomach. beneath the tail. If a saclike scrotum and a single body
You will need to lift the stomach to view the pancreas. opening are visible, the animal is a male. If three body
Spleen: A dark red organ curving around the left lateral openings are present, it is a female. (See Figure 2.4.)
side of the stomach; an organ of the lymphatic system.
Male Rat
Liver: Large and brownish red; the most superior organ in
the abdominal cavity, directly inferior to the diaphragm. Make a shallow incision into the scrotum. Loosen and lift
out the oval testis. Pull very gently on the testis to iden-
3. To locate the deeper structures of the abdominopelvic tify the slender ductus deferens, or sperm duct, which
cavity, move the stomach and the intestines to one side carries sperm from the testis superiorly into the abdomi-
with the probe. Refer to Figure 2.4 as you work. nal cavity and joins with the urethra. The urethra runs
Examine the posterior wall of the abdominal cavity to through the penis of the male and carries both urine and
locate the two kidneys. sperm out of the body. Identify the penis, extending from
the bladder to the ventral body wall. You may see other
Kidneys: Bean-shaped organs; secured to the posterior glands of the male reproductive system (Figure 2.4a), but
wall of the body trunk. you don’t need to identify them at this time.
Adrenal glands: Small glands that sit on the top of each
Female Rat
kidney; considered part of the endocrine system.
Inspect the pelvic cavity to identify the Y-shaped uterus
Carefully strip away part of the membrane covering a lying against the dorsal body wall and beneath the blad-
kidney with forceps. Attempt to follow the course of one der (Figure 2.4b). Follow one of the uterine horns supe-
of the ureters to the bladder. riorly to identify an ovary, a small oval structure at the
end of the uterine horn. (The rat uterus is quite different
Ureter: Tube running from the indented region of a kid-
from the uterus of a human female, which is a single-
ney to the urinary bladder (see also Figure 2.4b).
chambered organ about the size and shape of a pear.)
Urinary bladder: The sac in the pelvis that serves as a The inferior undivided part of the rat uterus is continu-
reservoir for urine. ous with the vagina, which leads to the body exterior.
Identify the vaginal orifice (external vaginal opening).
Activity 6
Examining the Human Torso Model
1. Examine a human torso model to identify the organs 2. Before continuing, identify each organ with a leader
listed below. If a torso model is not available, refer to line in Figure 2.5.
Figure 2.5 for part of this exercise. You’ll need to re- 3. Assign all of the structures listed above to one of the
move some organs on the model to see deeper organs. following organ system categories.
Dorsal body cavity: Brain, spinal cord
Digestive:
Thoracic cavity: Heart, lungs, bronchi, trachea, esopha-
gus, diaphragm, thyroid gland
Abdominopelvic cavity: Liver, gall bladder, stomach,
pancreas, spleen, small intestine, large intestine, rec-
tum, kidneys, ureters, bladder, adrenal gland, uterus, Urinary:
descending aorta, inferior vena cava

16 Exercise 2
Cardiovascular:
Endocrine:
Reproductive:
Respiratory:
2
Lymphatic:
Nervous:
Figure 2.5 Human torso model.

EXERCISE
2 REVIEW SHEET
Organ Systems Overview
1. Using the key, indicate which body system matches each of the following descriptions.
Key: cardiovascular integumentary nervous skeletal

digestive lymphatic reproductive urinary
endocrine muscular respiratory
1. rids the body of nitrogen-containing wastes
2. is affected by removal of the adrenal gland
3. protects and supports body organs; provides a framework for muscular action
4. includes arteries and veins
5. composed of glands that secrete hormones
6. external body covering
7. houses cells involved in the body’s immune response
8. breaks down ingested food into its absorbable units
9. loads oxygen into the blood
10. uses blood as a transport vehicle
11. generates body heat and provides for movement of the body as a whole
12. key organs include the brain and spinal cord
and 13. necessary for conception and childbearing
14. is damaged when you fall and scrape your knee
2. Using the above key, choose the organ system to which each of the following sets of organs or body structures
belongs:
1. lymph nodes, spleen, lymphatic vessels 4. trachea, bronchi, lungs
2. bones, cartilages, ligaments 5. uterus, ovaries, vagina
3. thyroid, pancreas, pituitary gland 6. arteries, veins, heart
17
18 Review Sheet 2
3. Name the cells that are produced by the testes and ovaries. ____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
4. List the four primary tissue types. ____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
5. Explain why an artery is an organ. ____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
6. Name the two main organ systems that communicate within the body to maintain homeostasis. Briefly explain their
different control mechanisms. ________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
7. Explain the role that the skeletal system plays in facilitating cardiovascular system function. _____________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
8. + Untreated diabetes mellitus can lead to a condition in which the blood is more acidic than normal. Name two
organ systems that play the largest role in compensating for acid-base imbalances.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
9. + The mother of a child scheduled to receive a thymectomy (removal of the thymus gland) asks you whether
there will be any side effects from the removal of the gland. Which two organ systems would you mention in your
explanation? ________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
10. + Individuals with asplenia are missing their spleen or have a spleen that doesn’t function well. It is recommended
that these patients talk to their doctor about vaccines that are indicated for their health condition. Explain how this
recommendation correlates to their chronic health condition. ___________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
EXERCISE
3 The Cell—Anatomy and Division

● Three-dimensional model of the □ Name, identify, and list the major function(s) of the various cell
“composite” animal cell or chart of cell structures.
anatomy
□ Compare and contrast specialized cells to the generalized cells.
● Chenille sticks (pipe cleaners) and chalk
● Three-dimensional models of mitotic □ Define interphase, mitosis, and cytokinesis, and identify and
stages describe the stages of mitosis.
Station 1: Compound microscopes set
up and focused on slides of four tissue
T
samples for student observation (simple
squamous epithelium [AgNO3 stain], he cell is the structural and functional unit of all living things. Differences in
teased smooth muscle, human blood cell size, shape, and internal makeup of the cells of the human body reflect their
smear, and sperm)
specific roles in the body. Still, cells do have many common features and
Station 2: Compound microscopes set up functions. For example, all cells maintain their boundaries, metabolize and digest
and focused with pointers on whitefish
nutrients, dispose of wastes, grow and reproduce, move, and respond to a stimulus.
blastula cells exhibiting the major phases
of mitosis (prophase, metaphase,
Most of these functions are considered in detail in later exercises. This exercise
anaphase, and telophase) begins by describing the structural similarities typical of the “composite,” or “gen-
eralized,” cell and then considers the function of cell reproduction (cell division).
Anatomy of the Composite Cell

All cells have three major regions: nucleus, plasma membrane, and cytoplasm.
The nucleus is typically a round or oval structure near the center of the cell. It
is surrounded by cytoplasm, which in turn is enclosed by the plasma membrane.
Within the cytoplasm, even smaller cell structures—organelles—have been iden-
tified. Figure 3.1 is a diagram of the internal structure of the composite cell.
Nucleus
The nucleus is often described as the control center of the cell and is necessary
for cell reproduction. The nucleus is the site of the genes, or genetic material—
DNA—and when the cell is not dividing, that genetic material is in a threadlike
form called chromatin. When a cell is dividing to form daughter cells, the chro-
matin coils and condenses to form rodlike bodies called chromosomes—much
in the way a stretched spring becomes shorter and thicker when it is released.
The nucleus also contains one or more small round bodies, called nucleoli.
The nucleoli are assembly sites for ribosomes that are particularly abundant in
the cytoplasm.
The nucleus is bound by a double-layered porous membrane, the nuclear
envelope. The nuclear envelope is similar to other cellular membranes, but is dis-
tinguished by its large nuclear pores, which permit large molecules like protein
and RNA molecules to pass easily.
Activity 1
Identifying Parts of a Cell
Locate the nuclear envelope, chromatin, nucleoli, and nuclear pores in
Figure 3.1.
19
20 Exercise 3
Nucleus
Chromatin Nuclear envelope
Nucleolus
Nuclear pore
Plasma
Smooth endoplasmic membrane
reticulum
3
Cytosol
Mitochondrion
Lysosome
Centrioles
Rough
Centrosome endoplasmic
matrix reticulum
Ribosomes
Golgi apparatus
Microvilli
Secretion being released

from cell by exocytosis
Microfilament
Microtubule
Cytoskeletal Peroxisome
Intermediate
elements
filaments
Figure 3.1 Structure of the generalized cell.
Plasma Membrane Activity 2

The plasma membrane separates cell contents from the
surrounding environment. Essentially, the membrane has a Identifying Components of a Plasma Membrane
double-layered lipid structure that the protein molecules (some Identify the phospholipid and protein portions of the
with attached carbohydrate groups) float in (Figure 3.2). Oc- plasma membrane in Figure 3.2. Also locate the carbohy-
casional cholesterol molecules dispersed in the fluid phospho- drate side chains and cholesterol molecules. Identify the
lipid bilayer help to stabilize it. microvilli in the figure of the generalized cell (Figure 3.1).
Besides protecting the cell, the plasma membrane de-
termines which substances may enter or leave the cell and in
what quantity. In some cells the membrane has microvilli, Cytoplasm and Organelles
tiny fingerlike projections that greatly increase the surface The cytoplasm is the cell contents outside the nucleus and is the
area of the cell. major site of most activities carried out by the cell. Suspended
The Cell—Anatomy and Division 21
The cell cytoplasm contains various other substances

and structures, including stored foods (glycogen granules and
lipid droplets), pigment granules, crystals of various types,
water vacuoles, and ingested foreign materials. But these are
Carbohydrate
not part of the active metabolic machinery of the cell and are
therefore called inclusions.
Activity 3
Locating Organelles 3
Read about the organelles and their structure and func-
tion in Table 3.1, and then be sure you can locate the
organelles in the figure depicting the generalized cell
(Figure 3.1).
Proteins
Phospholipid Cholesterol
bilayer Filament of
cytoskeleton Activity 4
Cell Interior
Examining the Cell Model
Once you have located all of the structures in the figure
Figure 3.2 Structure of the plasma membrane.
of the generalized cell (Figure 3.1), examine the cell
model (or cell chart) to repeat and reinforce your identi-
in the cytosol, the fluid part of the cytoplasm, are tiny structures fications. Try not to look at the figure as you make your
called organelles (literally, “small organs”). The organelles identifications.
(Table 3.1) are the metabolic machinery of the cell, organized
to carry out specific activities for the cell as a whole.
Table 3.1 Cytoplasmic Organelles
Organelle Location and function
Ribosomes Tiny spherical bodies consisting of RNA and protein; actual sites of protein synthesis; seen
floating free or attached to a membranous structure (the rough ER) in the cytoplasm
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Membranous system of tubules that extends throughout the cytoplasm; two varieties: (1) rough
ER—studded with ribosomes (tubules of the rough ER provide an area for proteins made on the
ribosomes to be transported to other cell areas) and (2) smooth ER—a site of steroid and lipid
synthesis, lipid metabolism, and drug detoxification (no protein synthesis–related function)
Golgi apparatus Stack of flattened sacs with swollen ends and associated small vesicles; found close to the
nucleus; plays a role in packaging proteins or other substances that will be exported from the cell
or incorporated into the plasma membrane and in packaging lysosomal enzymes
Lysosomes Various-sized membranous sacs containing digestive enzymes including acid hydrolases; digest
worn-out cell organelles and foreign substances that enter the cell; if ruptured, they have the
capacity to totally destroy the cell and are for this reason referred to as “suicide sacs”
Peroxisomes Small lysosome-like membranous sacs containing oxidase enzymes that detoxify alcohol, free
radicals, and other harmful chemicals
Mitochondria Generally rod-shaped bodies with a double-membrane wall; inner membrane is shaped into
folds, or cristae; contain enzymes that oxidize foodstuffs to produce cellular energy (ATP); often
referred to as “powerhouses of the cell”
Centrioles Paired, cylindrical bodies that lie at right angles to each other close to the nucleus; direct the
formation of the mitotic spindle during cell division; form the bases of cilia and flagella
Cytoskeletal elements: microtubules, Form an internal scaffolding called the cytoskeleton; provide cellular support; function in
intermediate filaments, and intracellular transport; microtubules form the internal structure of the centrioles and help
microfilaments determine cell shape; intermediate filaments, which are stable elements made up of a variety of
proteins, resist mechanical forces acting on cells; microfilaments are formed largely of actin, a
contractile protein, and are thus important in cell mobility, particularly in muscle cells
22 Exercise 3
Activity 5
Observing Differences and Similarities
in Cell Structure
1. Go to station 1 of the demonstration area, and exam-
ine the slides of simple squamous epithelium, sperm,
human blood, and teased smooth muscle cells.
2. Observe each slide under the microscope carefully, Which cells have visible projections?
3 noting similarities and differences in the four kinds of
cells. Notice the cell shape and position of the nucleus
in each case. When you look at the human blood smear,
direct your attention to the red blood cells, the pink-
How do these projections relate to the function of these
stained cells that are most numerous. Sketch your
cells?
observations in the circles below.
3. How do these four cell types differ in shape?
Do any of these cells lack a plasma membrane?
A nucleus?
Were you able to observe any of the organelles in these

cells?
Why or why not?

How might cell shape affect cell function?
Simple squamous Human red

epithelium blood cells
Sperm cells Teased smooth

muscle cells
The Cell—Anatomy and Division 23
Cell Division: Mitosis and Cytokinesis

The cell cycle is the series of changes that a cell goes through the chromosomes are obviously double-stranded structures
from the time it is formed until it reproduces. It includes two (each strand is a sister chromatid) connected by a buttonlike
stages—interphase, the longer period when the DNA and body called a centromere. The centrioles separate from one
centrioles duplicate and the cell grows and carries out its another and direct the assembly of a system of microtubules
usual activities (Figure 3.3a), and cell division, when the called the mitotic spindle. The spindle acts as a scaffold-
cell reproduces itself by dividing (Figure 3.3b–f). ing the chromosomes attach to and are moved along during
Cell division in human cells consists of a series of events later mitotic stages. Meanwhile, the nuclear envelope and the
collectively called mitosis and cytokinesis. Mitosis is nuclear nucleolus break down and disappear. 3
division; cytokinesis is the division of the cytoplasm, which Metaphase (Figure 3.3d): In this brief stage, the chromosomes
begins after mitosis is nearly complete. Although mitosis is align along the metaphase plate, or the equator of the spindle.
usually accompanied by cytokinesis, sometimes the cyto-
plasm does not divide. This results in cells that are binucleate Anaphase (Figure 3.3e): During anaphase, the centromeres
or multinucleate. This is relatively common in the human split, and the chromatids now become chromosomes in their
liver and during embryonic development of skeletal muscle own right. The chromosomes separate from one another and
cells. move slowly toward opposite ends of the cell with their
The products of mitosis are two daughter nuclei that are “arms” dangling behind them. Anaphase is complete when
genetically identical to the mother nucleus. The function of poleward movement ceases.
mitotic cell division in the body is to increase the number of Telophase (Figure 3.3f): Similar to prophase in reverse.
cells for growth and repair. The chromosomes uncoil and resume the chromatin form,
the spindle breaks down and disappears, a nuclear envelope
Prophase (Figure 3.3b and c): As nuclear division begins,
forms around each chromatin mass, and nucleoli appear in the
the chromatin threads coil and shorten to form densely stain-
daughter nuclei. Mitosis is now ended.
ing, short, barlike chromosomes. By the middle of prophase,
(a) Interphase (b) Early Prophase (c) Late Prophase
Centrosomes (each Plasma Early mitotic Spindle pole Nonkinetochore microtubule

has 2 centrioles) membrane spindle Fragments
of nuclear
Aster envelope
Nucleolus Chromatin Centromere

Chromosome
Nuclear consisting of two Kinetochore Kinetochore
envelope sister chromatids microtubule
Figure 3.3 The interphase cell and the events of cell division. The cells shown are
from an early embryo of a whitefish. Photomicrographs are above; corresponding
diagrams are below. (Figure continues on page 24.)
24 Exercise 3
(d) Metaphase (e) Anaphase (f) Telophase Cytokinesis
Nuclear Nucleolus forming Contractile

Spindle envelope ring at
forming cleavage
furrow
Metaphase Daughter
plate chromosomes
Figure 3.3 (continued) The events of cell division.
Cytokinesis typically begins during late anaphase and con-

tinues through and beyond telophase (Figure 3.3f). In ani- Examine the slides carefully, identifying the four
mal cells, a cleavage furrow begins to form and eventually mitotic phases and the process of cytokinesis. Compare
pinches the cells apart. Once formed, the daughter cells grow your observations with the figure that illustrates these
and carry out the normal spectrum of metabolic processes processes (Figure 3.3).
until it is their turn to divide.
Identifying the Mitotic Stages Creating Mitotic Figures
1. Use the three-dimensional models of dividing cells to 1. Obtain a packet of chenille sticks and a piece of chalk
identify each of the mitotic phases illustrated in Figure 3.3. from the supply area, and bring them to your bench.
2. Go to station 2 of the demonstration area, where 2. Using the chalk, draw three representations of mitotic
slides of whitefish blastulas are set up for your micro- spindles on the bench top.Then bend the chenille sticks as
scopic study of mitosis. The cells of each blastula (a necessary to create the typical appearance and location
stage of embryonic development consisting of a hollow of chromosomes in (1) prophase, (2) metaphase, (3) ana-
ball of cells) are at approximately the same mitotic stage, phase, and (4) telophase by placing them on your spindle
so it is necessary to observe more than one blastula to drawings.
view all the mitotic stages. You can think of a blastula 3. Have your instructor check your mitotic figures before
as a soccer ball in which each of the multisided leather cleaning up your bench top.
pieces making up the ball’s surface represents an em-
bryonic cell.
EXERCISE
3 REVIEW SHEET
The Cell—Anatomy and Division
Anatomy of the Composite Cell

1. Define the following:
organelle:
cell:
2. Identify the following cell structures:
1. external boundary of cell; regulates flow of materials into and out of the cell
2. contains digestive enzymes of many varieties; “suicide sac” of the cell
3. scattered throughout the cell; major site of ATP synthesis
4. slender extensions of the plasma membrane that increase its surface area
5. stored glycogen granules, crystals, pigments; present in some cell types
6. membranous system consisting of flattened sacs and vesicles; packages pro-

teins for export
7. control center of the cell; necessary for cell division and cell life
8. rod-shaped bodies that direct the formation of the mitotic spindle
9. dense, darkly staining nuclear body; packaging site for ribosomes
10. contractile elements of the cytoskeleton
11. membranous system that has “rough” and “smooth” varieties
12. attached to membrane systems or scattered in the cytoplasm; synthesize proteins
13. threadlike structures in the nucleus; contain genetic material (DNA)
14. site of free radical detoxification
25
26 Review Sheet 3
3. Label the cell structures using the leader lines provided.
Differences and Similarities in Cell Structure

4. For each of the following cell types, list (a) one important structural characteristic you observed in the laboratory and
(b) the function that the structure complements or ensures.
squamous epithelium a.
b.
sperm a.
b.
smooth muscle a.
b.
red blood cells a.
b.
Review Sheet 3 27
Cell Division: Mitosis and Cytokinesis

5. Identify the four phases of mitosis shown in the following photomicrographs, and select the events from the key that
correctly identify each phase. On the appropriate answer line, write the letters that correspond to these events.
Key:
a. Chromatin coils and condenses, forming chromosomes.

b. The chromosomes (chromatids) are V-shaped.
c. The nuclear envelope re-forms.
d. Chromosomes stop moving toward the poles.
e. Chromosomes line up in the center of the cell.
f. The nuclear envelope fragments.
g. The mitotic spindle begins to form.
1. Phase: _______________________ 2. Phase: _______________________
Events: ______________________ Events: ______________________
3. Phase: _______________________ 4. Phase: _______________________
Events: ______________________ Events: ______________________
6. What is the function of mitotic cell division? ___________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
7. Describe the events that occur during interphase.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
28 Review Sheet 3
8. Complete or respond to the following statements: 1. ________________________________________________

Division of the 1 is referred to as mitosis. 2. ________________________________________________
Cytokinesis is division of the 2 . The major struc-
tural difference between chromatin and chromosomes 3. ________________________________________________
is that the latter are 3 . Chromosomes attach to the 4. ________________________________________________
spindle fibers by undivided structures called 4 . If
a cell undergoes mitosis but not cytokinesis, the prod- 5. ________________________________________________
uct is 5 . The structure that acts as a scaffolding
for chromosomal attachment and movement is called 6. ________________________________________________
the 6 . 7 is the period of cell life when the cell 7. ________________________________________________
is not involved in division. Three cell populations in
the body that do not routinely undergo cell division 8. ________________________________________________
are 8 , 9 , and 10 .
9. ________________________________________________
10. ________________________________________________
9. + Plasma cells are key to the immune response because they secrete antibodies. Given that antibodies are made
of protein, which membrane-enclosed cell organelle would you expect the plasma cells to have in abundance?
Why?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
10. + Name which organelle you would expect to play the largest role in decomposition of the human body. Why?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
11. + Some antifungal medications work by blocking DNA synthesis in the fungal cell. Describe where in the cell
cycle such a medication would halt the fungal cell and the consequences of this early termination of the cycle.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
EXERCISE
4 Cell Membrane Transport Mechanisms

Diffusion Experiment 1: □ Describe processes that move substances across the plasma
● Forceps membrane and indicate the driving force for each.
● Petri dishes (2) containing 12 ml of 1.5%
□ Determine which way substances will move passively
agar-agar through a selectively permeable membrane (given appropriate
● 3.5% methylene blue solution
information on concentration differences).
(approximately 0.1 M)
● 1.6% potassium permanganate solution
(approximately 0.1 M)
● Millimeter-ruled graph paper
T
● Medicine dropper
he plasma membrane is selective about what passes through it. It allows
Diffusion Experiment 2: nutrients to enter the cell but keeps out undesirable substances. At the same
● Four dialysis sacs time, the plasma membrane keeps valuable cell proteins and other sub-
● 15-ml graduated cylinders stances within the cell, and allows excreta, or wastes, to pass to the exterior. This
● Four beakers (250 ml) property is known as selective, or differential, permeability. Transport through
● Distilled water
the plasma membrane occurs in two basic ways. In active processes, the cell
● 40% glucose solution
provides energy (ATP) to power the transport process. In the other, passive pro-
● Fine twine or dialysis tubing clamps
cesses, the transport process is driven by particle concentration or pressure dif-
ferences. In this exercise, we will observe several examples of passive processes.
● 10% NaCl solution
● 40% sucrose solution
● Laboratory balance Passive Processes

● Hot plate and large beaker for water bath
● Benedict’s solution in dropper bottle

The two important types of passive membrane transport are diffusion and filtra-
● Four test tubes in racks, test tube holder
tion. Diffusion is an important means of transport for every cell in the body.
● Wax marker
By contrast, filtration usually occurs only across capillary walls. Here we will
consider diffusion only.
● Small syringes (without needles)
● Silver nitrate (AgNO ) in dropper bottle

3 Diffusion
● Lugol’s iodine solution in dropper bottle
● Demonstration area: Three microscopes

Recall that all molecules possess kinetic energy and are in constant motion.
As molecules move about randomly, they collide and ricochet off one another,
with blood cells suspended in:
changing direction with each collision. In general, the smaller the particle, the
1. Physiological saline
more kinetic energy it has and the faster it moves.
2. 1.5% saline When a concentration gradient (difference in concentration) exists, the
3. Distilled water net effect of this random molecular movement is that the molecules eventually
Filtration: become evenly distributed throughout the environment, that is, the process called
● Flask diffusion occurs. Hence, diffusion is the movement of molecules from a region
● Filter paper, funnel of their higher concentration to a region of their lower concentration. Its driving
● Solution containing a mixture of uncooked force is the kinetic energy of the molecules themselves.
starch, powdered charcoal, and copper In general, molecules diffuse passively through the plasma membrane if
sulfate (CuSO4) they are small enough to pass through its pores or if they can dissolve in the lipid
● Lugol’s iodine solution in dropper bottle portion of the membrane as CO2 and O2 can. The unassisted diffusion of solutes
(particles dissolved in water) through a semipermeable membrane is called
simple diffusion. The diffusion of water through a semipermeable membrane is
called osmosis.
In general, molecules in a warm environment diffuse more quickly than
those that are cooler; light molecules move more quickly than heavy ones; and
diffusion through a nondense medium (such as water) occurs faster than diffusion
through a denser or more viscous substance (such as agar gel). The next activity
examines these relationships in the diffusion of two dyes.
(Text continues on page 33.)
29
30 Exercise 4
Activity 1
Observing Diffusion of Dye Through Agar Gel
1. Obtain a Petri dish containing agar gel, millimeter-
ruled graph paper, dropper bottles of methylene blue
(molecular weight 5 320 g/mole) and potassium perman-
ganate (molecular weight 5 158 g/mole) stain, and a med-
icine dropper. Bring these items to your bench.
4 2. Place the Petri dish on the graph paper.
3. Create a well in the center of each section using the
medicine dropper (Figure 4.1a). To do this, squeeze
the bulb of the medicine dropper, and push the tip of
the dropper down into the agar. Release the bulb as
you slowly pull the dropper out of the agar. This should (a)
remove an agar plug, leaving a well in the agar that
extends all the way down to the bottom of the Petri dish.
4. Carefully fill one well with the methylene blue solution
and the other with potassium permanganate solution
(Figure 4.1b).
Record the time: .
5. At 15-minute intervals, measure the distance the dye

has diffused from each solution source by measuring the
diameter of the dye using the graph paper. Continue
these observations for 1 hour, and record the results in
the Activity 1 chart.
(b)
Calculate the rate of diffusion of the potassium perman-
ganate molecules in millimeters per minute (mm/min),
and record.
Figure 4.1 Setup for comparing the diffusion rates of
molecules of methylene blue and potassium permanga-
_______________ mm/min nate through an agar gel.
Calculate the rate of diffusion of the methylene blue mol-

ecules in mm/min, and record.
Which dye diffused more rapidly?
_______________ mm/min
What is the relationship between molecular weight and
rate of molecular movement (diffusion)?
Activity 1: Diffusion of Dye Through Agar Gel
Diameter of Diameter of
methylene blue potassium Why did the dye molecules move?
(mm) at room permanganate (mm)
Time (min) temperature at room temperature
15 What would be the effect of heating on the rate of diffusion
30 of the dyes?
45 In molecular terms, what is the basis of this effect?
60
Cell Membrane Transport Mechanisms 31
Activity 2
Observing Diffusion Through
Nonliving Membranes
This experiment provides information on the diffusion of 3. After an hour, boil a beaker of water on the hot plate.
water and solutes through semipermeable membranes, Obtain the supplies you will need to determine your
which may be applied to the study of membrane trans- experimental results: dropper bottles of Benedict’s
port in living cells. solution, silver nitrate solution, and Lugol’s iodine, a test
Dialysis sacs are selectively permeable membranes tube rack, four test tubes, and a test tube holder. 4
with pores of a particular size. The selectivity of living 4. Quickly and gently blot sac 1 dry and weigh it. (Note:
membranes depends on more than just pore size, but us- Do not squeeze the sac during the blotting process.)
ing the dialysis sacs will allow you to examine selectivity
due to this factor. Weight of sac 1: g
1. Obtain four dialysis sacs, a small syringe, a gradu-
ated cylinder, a wax marker, fine twine or dialysis tubing Has there been any change in weight?
clamps, and four beakers (250 ml). Number the beakers
1 to 4 with the wax marker, and fill beakers 1, 3, and 4 Conclusions:
halfway with distilled water. To beaker 2, add 40% glu-
cose solution (Figure 4.2).
2. Prepare the dialysis sacs one at a time. Using the
syringe, half fill each with 10 ml of the specified liquid: 40%
glucose solution for sacs 1 and 2; 10% NaCl for sac 3; and
sucrose solution for sac 4 (see Figure 4.2). Press out the air, Place 5 drops of Benedict’s solution in each of two test
fold over the open end of the sac, and tie it securely with tubes. Put 2 ml of the fluid from beaker 1 into one test
fine twine or clamp it (Figure 4.2). Before proceeding to the tube and 2 ml of the sac fluid into the other. Mark the
next sac, rinse it under the tap and quickly and carefully tubes for identification, and then place them in the beaker
blot the sac dry by rolling it on a paper towel. Weigh it with containing boiling water. Boil test tubes for 2 minutes
a laboratory balance. Record the weight, and then drop then cool them slowly. (See Table 4.1 to interpret test
the sac into the corresponding beaker. Be sure the sac is results.)
completely covered by the beaker solution, adding more Text continues on next page. ➔
solution if necessary.
• Sac 1: 40% glucose solution. Weight: g
• Sac 2: 40% glucose solution. Weight: g
• Sac 3: 10% NaCl solution. Weight: g
• Sac 4: 40% sucrose solution. Weight: g
Allow sacs to remain undisturbed in the beakers for 1

hour. (Use this time to continue with other experiments.)
Distilled water 40% glucose Distilled water Distilled water
40% glucose 40% glucose 10% NaCl 40% sucrose
Beaker 1 Beaker 2 Beaker 3 Beaker 4
Figure 4.2 Setup for observing diffusion through nonliving membranes.

32 Exercise 4
Conclusions:
Table 4.1 Reagent Testing Solutions
Testing solution Positive result 7. Blot gently and weigh sac 4: g
Benedict’s solution A green, yellow, or rusty red Was there any change in weight?
color indicates the presence of
glucose
Take a 1-ml sample of beaker 4 solution, and put the test
Silver nitrate A white precipitate or cloudiness tube in boiling water in a hot water bath. Add 5 drops of
indicates the presence of salt Benedict’s solution to the tube, and boil for 5 minutes.
4 Benedict’s solution detects the presence of glucose, a
Lugol’s iodine A blue-black color indicates the hydrolysis product of sucrose. (See Table 4.1 to interpret
presence of starch
test results.)
Was glucose still present in the sac? Did sucrose diffuse from the sac into the bath water?
Was glucose present in the beaker? _____________ Explain your conclusion. _____________
Conclusions:
8. In which of the test situations did net osmosis occur?
5. Blot gently and weigh sac 2: g

In which of the test situations did net simple diffusion
Was there any change in weight? occur?
With 40% glucose in the sac and 40% glucose in the beaker,
would you expect to see any net movements of water
(osmosis) or of glucose molecules (simple diffusion)? What conclusions can you make about the relative size of
glucose, sucrose, NaCl, and water molecules?
__________________ Why or why not? __________________
6. Blot gently and weigh sac 3: g
Was there any change in weight?
Conclusions:
With what cell structure can the dialysis sac be compared?
Take a 3-ml sample of beaker 3 solution, and put it in a
clean test tube. Add a drop of silver nitrate. (See Table 4.1
to interpret test results.)
Results:
Cell Membrane Transport Mechanisms 33
Activity 3 Filtration
Filtration is a passive process by which water and solutes are
Investigating Diffusion Through Living forced through a membrane by hydrostatic (fluid) pressure.
Membranes For example, fluids and solutes filter out of the capillaries
in the kidneys and into the kidney tubules because the blood
To examine permeability properties of cell membranes, pressure in the capillaries is greater than the fluid pressure in
conduct the following microscopic study. the tubules. Filtration is not selective. The amount of filtrate
Isotonic solution (physiological saline)—the solution (fluids and solutes) formed depends almost entirely on the
surrounding the red blood cell has the same concentra- pressure gradient (difference in pressure on the two sides of
tion of solutes as the fluid inside the red blood cell. the membrane) and on the size of the membrane pores. 4
Hypertonic solution—the solution surrounding the red
blood cell has a higher concentration of solutes than the Activity 4
fluid inside the red blood cell.
Hypotonic solution—the solution surrounding the red Observing the Process of Filtration
blood cell has a lower concentration of solutes than the 1. Obtain the following equipment: a funnel; a piece
fluid inside the red blood cell. of filter paper; a flask; a solution containing uncooked
1. Go to the demonstration area, where three red blood starch, powdered charcoal, and copper sulfate; and a
cell suspensions have been prepared for microscopic dropper bottle of Lugol’s iodine.
observation. In slide 1, the red blood cells are suspended 2. Fold the filter paper in half twice, open it into a cone,
in physiological saline; in slide 2, they are bathed in 1.5 and place it in a funnel (Figure 4.3). Set the funnel on
percent saline (NaCl); and in slide 3, the cells are sus- the flask. Shake the starch solution, and fill the funnel
pended in distilled water. The following definitions will with it to just below the top of the filter paper. When the
help you to draw some conclusions about variations in steady stream of filtrate changes to countable filtrate
the shape of the red blood cells. drops, count the number of drops formed in 10 seconds,
and record the count.
Normal shape of a red blood cell—a biconcave disc.
Crenation—occurs when a red blood cell loses water drops
and shrinks.
Lysis—occurs when a red blood cell takes in so much When the funnel is half empty, again count the number
additional fluid that it bursts. of drops formed in 10 seconds. Record the count.
2. View slide 1 to see whether any changes in the normal drops

disclike shape of the red blood cells have occurred.
3. After all the fluid has passed through the filter, check
Observation: the filtrate and paper to see which materials were
retained by the paper. Note: If the filtrate is blue, the
3. Observe slide 2. What has happened to the red blood copper sulfate passed. Check both the paper and filtrate
cells in this preparation? for black particles to see whether the charcoal passed.
Finally, add Lugol’s iodine to a 2-ml filtrate sample in a
test tube. (See Table 4.1 to interpret test results.)
A solution of 1.5 percent saline is hypertonic to red blood Funnel

cells. On the basis of what you know about the effect of 2CRGTƂNVGT
such solutions on living cells, explain your observation.
Flask
4. Observe slide 3. What has happened to the cells in this

preparation?
Explain.
Figure 4.3 Setup for observing the process of filtration.

34 Exercise 4
Passed:
Retained:
What does the filter paper represent? What characteristic of the three solutes determined
whether or not they passed through the filter paper?
During which counting interval was the filtration rate
greatest?
4
Explain:
EXERCISE
4
REVIEW SHEET
Cell Membrane Transport Mechanisms
Choose all answers that apply to items 1 and 2, and place their letters on the response blanks.
1. The movement of molecules .
a. reflects the kinetic energy of molecules c. is ordered and predictable

b. reflects the potential energy of molecules d. is random and erratic
2. Speed of molecular movement .
a. is higher in larger molecules d. decreases with increasing temperature

b. is lower in larger molecules e. reflects kinetic energy
c. increases with increasing temperature
3. Summarize below the results of Activity 2, Observing Diffusion Through Nonliving Membranes.
Sac 1: 40% glucose suspended in distilled water
Did glucose diffuse out of the sac? ____________ Did the sac weight change? ________________________________
Explanation: __________________________________________________________________________________________
Sac 2: 40% glucose suspended in 40% glucose
Was there net movement of glucose into or out of the sac?
Explanation:
Did the sac weight change?
Explanation:
Sac 3: 10% NaCl suspended in distilled water
Was there net movement of NaCl out of the sac?
Direction of net osmosis:
Sac 4: 40% sucrose suspended in distilled water
Was there net movement of sucrose out of the sac?
Explanation:
Direction of net osmosis:
35
36 Review Sheet 4
4. What single characteristic of the semipermeable membranes used in the laboratory determines the substances that
can pass through them? _____________________________________________________________________________________
In addition to this characteristic, what other factors influence the passage of substances through living membranes?
5. A semipermeable sac filled with a solution containing 4% NaCl, 9% glucose, and 10% albumin is suspended in a solu-
tion with the following composition: 10% NaCl, 10% glucose, and 40% albumin. Assume that the sac is permeable to
all substances except albumin. State whether each of the following will (a) move into the sac, (b) move out of the sac,
or (c) not move.
glucose albumin
water NaCl
6. The diagrams below represent three microscope fields containing red blood cells.
Which field contains a hypertonic solution? The cells in this field are said to be .
Which field contains an isotonic bathing solution? Which field contains a hypotonic solution?
What is happening to the cells in this field?
(a) (b) (c)
7. What is the driving force for filtration? ________________________________________________________________________
How does knowing this help you to explain why the filtration process examined in the lab slowed down with time?
8. Define diffusion: ____________________________________________________________________________________________
9. + Drinking too much plain water in a short period of time can result in water intoxication. As a result, blood plasma
will become hypotonic. What effect do you think this would have on cells, and why? _____________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
10. + Receptor-mediated endocytosis is used to remove low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) from circulating in the blood.
Explain the effect that defective LDL receptors would have on a patient’s cholesterol levels and overall risk for heart
disease. (Hint: LDLs are the “bad cholesterol.”)
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
EXERCISE
5 Classification of Tissues

● Demonstration area with four microscope □ Name the four primary tissue types in the human body, and
stations set up: state a general function of each.
Station 1: Prepared slides of simple
□ Name the major subcategories of the primary tissue types,
squamous, simple cuboidal, simple
columnar, stratified squamous and identify the tissues of each subcategory microscopically or
(nonkeratinized), pseudostratified ciliated in an appropriate image.
columnar, and transitional epithelia
□ State the locations of the various tissues in the body.
Station 2: Prepared slides of adipose,
areolar, reticular, and dense regular □ List the general function and structural characteristics of each
(tendon) connective tissue; of hyaline of the tissues studied.
cartilage; and of bone (cross section)
Station 3: Prepared slides of skeletal,
cardiac, and smooth muscle (longitudinal
sections)
C
Station 4: Prepared slide of nervous tissue ells are the building blocks of life. In humans and other multicellular organ-
(spinal cord smear) isms, cells depend on one another and cooperate to maintain homeostasis
in the body.
With a few exceptions, even the most complex animal starts out as a single
cell, the fertilized egg, which divides almost endlessly. The resulting trillions of
cells then specialize for a particular function. Some become supportive bone,
others skin cells, and so on. Thus a division of labor exists, with certain groups of
cells highly specialized to perform functions that benefit the organism as a whole.
Groups of cells that are similar in structure and function are called tissues.
The four primary tissue types—epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous—
have distinct structures, patterns, and functions.
To perform specific body functions, the tissues are organized into organs
such as the heart, kidneys, and lungs. Most organs contain several representatives
of the primary tissues, and the arrangement of these tissues determines the or-
gan’s structure and function. The main objective of this exercise is to familiarize
you with the major similarities and dissimilarities of the primary tissues. In this
exercise, we will focus chiefly on epithelial tissues and some types of connective
tissue. Muscle tissue, nervous tissue, and bone (a connective tissue), are covered
in greater depth in other exercises.
Epithelial Tissue
Epithelial tissues, or epithelia, cover surfaces. For example, epithelia cover the
external body surface (as the epidermis), line its cavities, and generally mark
off our “insides” from our outsides. Because glands of the body almost always
develop from epithelial membranes, glands too are classed as epithelia.
Epithelial functions include protection, absorption, filtration, excretion, se-
cretion, and sometimes sensory reception. For example, the epithelium covering
the body protects against bacterial invasion and chemical damage; that lining the
respiratory tract is ciliated to sweep dust and other foreign particles away from the
lungs. Secretion is a specialty of the glands, and taste receptors are epithelial cells.
Epithelia generally exhibit these characteristics:
• Specialized contacts. Cells fit closely together to form membranes, or sheets
of cells, and are bound together by specialized junctions.
• Polarity. The membranes always have one exposed surface or free edge, called
the apical surface. Typically, that surface is significantly different from the basal
surface.
37
38 Exercise 5
• Supported by connective tissue. The cells are attached On the basis of layers, epithelia are classified as follows:
to and supported by an adhesive basement membrane, a
material secreted collectively by the epithelial cells and the
• Simple epithelia consist of one layer of cells attached to
the basement membrane.
connective tissue cells that lie next to each other.
• Avascular but innervated. Epithelial tissues have no blood • Stratified epithelia consist of two or more layers of cells;
only the deepest layer rests on the basement membrane.
supply of their own (are avascular), but depend on diffusion
of nutrients from the underlying connective tissue. They are Based on cell shape, epithelia are classified according to these
supplied by nerves. categories:
• Regeneration. If well nourished, epithelial cells can easily • Squamous (scalelike)
regenerate themselves. This is an important characteristic be-
cause many epithelia are subjected to a good deal of abrasion • Cuboidal (cubelike)
and other types of trauma. • Columnar (column-shaped)
The covering and lining epithelia are classified according to two The terms denoting shape and arrangement of the epithelial
criteria—number of cell layers and cell shape (Figure 5.1). cells are combined to describe the epithelium fully. Stratified
epithelia are named according to the cells at the apical sur-
Apical surface
face of the epithelial sheet, not those resting on the basement
membrane.
There are also two less easily categorized types of epithelia:
5
• Pseudostratified epithelium is actually a simple colum-
nar epithelium (one layer of cells with all cells attached to the
basement membrane), but its cells extend varied distances
from the basement membrane so it gives the false appearance
of being stratified. This epithelium is often ciliated.
Apical surface
• Transitional epithelium is a rather peculiar stratified
squamous epithelium formed of rounded, or “plump,” cells
with the ability to slide over one another to allow the organ to
be stretched. Transitional epithelium is found only in urinary
Basal surface Basal surface
system organs. The superficial cells are flattened (like true
Simple Stratified
squamous cells) when the organ is full and rounded when the
(a) organ is empty.
The most common types of epithelia, their characteristic
locations in the body, and their functions are described in
Figure 5.2.
Squamous Cuboidal Columnar

(b)
Figure 5.1 Classification of epithelia. (a) Classification

based on number of cell layers. (b) Classification based
on cell shape.
Classification of Tissues 39
(a) Simple squamous epithelium
Description: Single layer of flattened cells

with disc-shaped central nuclei and sparse
cytoplasm; the simplest of the epithelia.
Air sacs of
lung tissue
Nuclei
of squamous
epithelial
Function: Allows materials to pass by cells
diffusion and filtration in sites where protection
is not important; secretes lubricating
substances in serosae.
Location: Kidney glomeruli; air sacs of lungs;

lining of heart, blood vessels, and lymphatic
vessels; lining of ventral body cavity (serosae).
5
Photomicrograph: Simple squamous epithelium

forming part of the alveolar (air sac) walls (140 :).
(b) Simple cuboidal epithelium
Description: Single layer of cubelike cells

with large, spherical central nuclei.
Simple
cuboidal
epithelial
cells
Lumen
Function: Secretion and absorption.
Basement
membrane
Location: Kidney tubules; ducts and secretory
portions of small glands; ovary surface.
Connective
tissue
Photomicrograph: Simple cuboidal epithelium

in kidney tubules (430 :).
Figure 5.2 Epithelial tissues. Simple epithelia (a and b).

(Figure continues on page 40.)
40 Exercise 5
(c) Simple columnar epithelium
Description: Single layer of tall cells with

round to oval nuclei; some cells bear cilia;
layer may contain mucus-secreting
unicellular glands (goblet cells). Goblet cells
Mucus
secretion
Function: Absorption; secretion of mucus,
enzymes, and other substances; ciliated type
propels mucus (or reproductive cells) by
ciliary action.
Location: Nonciliated type lines most of
the digestive tract (stomach to rectum),
Microvilli
gallbladder, and excretory ducts of some
(brush border)
glands; ciliated variety lines small bronchi,
5 uterine tubes, and some regions of the uterus.
Photomicrograph: Simple columnar epithelium containing

goblet cells from the small intestine (640:).
(d) Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
Description: Single layer of cells of differing

heights, some not reaching the free surface,
but all touching the basement membrane;
nuclei seen at different levels; may contain
mucus-secreting goblet cells and bear cilia.
Mucus of
goblet cell
Cilia
Function: Secrete substances, particularly

mucus; propulsion of mucus by ciliary action. Pseudo-
stratified
Location: Nonciliated type in male’s epithelial
sperm-carrying ducts and ducts of large layer
glands; ciliated variety lines the trachea, most
of the upper respiratory tract.
Basement
membrane
Trachea Photomicrograph: Pseudostratified ciliated
columnar epithelium lining the human trachea (530 :).
Figure 5.2 (continued) Epithelial tissues. Simple epithelia (c and d).

(See also Plate 1 of the Histology Atlas to view simple columnar epithelium.)
(e) Stratified squamous epithelium
Description: Thick membrane composed of

several cell layers; basal cells are cuboidal or
columnar and metabolically active; cells at the
apical surface are flattened (squamous); in the
keratinized type, the surface cells are full of
keratin and dead; basal cells are active in
mitosis and produce the cells of the more
superficial layers.
Stratified
squamous
epithelium
Function: Protects underlying tissues in

areas subjected to abrasion.
Location: Nonkeratinized type forms the Nuclei
moist linings of the esophagus, mouth, and
vagina; keratinized variety forms the Basement
membrane 5
epidermis of the skin, a dry membrane.
Connective
tissue
Photomicrograph: Stratified squamous epithelium

lining the esophagus (285 :).
(f) Transitional epithelium
Description: Resembles both stratified

squamous and stratified cuboidal; basal cells
cuboidal or columnar; surface cells dome
shaped or squamouslike, depending on
degree of organ stretch.
Transitional
epithelium
Function: Stretches readily and permits
stored urine to distend urinary organ.
Location: Lines the ureters, urinary bladder,

and part of the urethra.
Basement
membrane
Connective
tissue
Photomicrograph: Transitional epithelium lining the urinary
bladder, relaxed state (360 :); note the bulbous, or rounded,
appearance of the cells at the surface; these cells flatten and
become elongated when the bladder is filled with urine.
Figure 5.2 (continued) Epithelial tissues. Stratified epithelia (e and f).

42 Exercise 5
Activity 1
Examining Epithelial Tissue Under the
Microscope
Go to station 1 of the demonstration area to examine move substances along the cell surface), microvilli
slides of simple squamous, simple cuboidal, simple (which increase the surface area for absorption), and gob-
columnar, stratified squamous (nonkeratinized), pseu- let cells (which secrete lubricating mucus). Compare your
dostratified ciliated columnar, and transitional epithelia. observations with the photomicrographs (Figure 5.2).
Observe each carefully, and notice how the epithelial cells While working, check the questions in the laboratory
fit closely together to form intact sheets of cells, a neces- Review Sheet section for this exercise (beginning on
sity for a tissue that forms linings or covering membranes. page 51). A number of the questions there refer to some
Scan each epithelial type for modifications for specific of the observations you are asked to make during your
functions, such as cilia (motile cell projections that help to microscopic study.
Connective Tissue
5 Connective tissue is found in all parts of the body. It is the Connective tissues are composed of many types of cells,
most abundant and widely distributed of the tissue types. and there is a great deal of nonliving material between the
There are four main types of connective tissue: connective cells. The nonliving material between the cells—the extra-
tissue proper, cartilage, bone, and blood. All of these derive cellular matrix—distinguishes connective tissue from all
from an embryonic tissue called mesenchyme. Connective other tissues. The matrix, secreted by the cells, is primarily
tissue proper has two subclasses: loose connective tissues responsible for the strength associated with connective tissue,
(areolar, adipose, and reticular) and dense connective tissues but its firmness and relative amount vary.
(dense regular, dense irregular, and elastic). The matrix has two components—ground substance and
The connective tissues perform a variety of functions, fibers. The ground substance is chiefly glycoproteins and
but primarily they protect, support, and bind together other large polysaccharide molecules. Depending on its makeup, the
tissues of the body. For example, bones are composed of ground substance may be liquid, gel-like, or very hard. When
connective tissue (bone or osseous tissue), and they protect the matrix is firm, as in cartilage and bone, the connective tis-
and support other body tissues and organs. Ligaments and sue cells reside in cavities in the matrix called lacunae. The
tendons (dense regular connective tissue) bind the bones fibers, which provide support, include collagen (white) fibers,
together or bind skeletal muscles to bones. Connective tissue elastic (yellow) fibers, and reticular (fine collagen) fibers.
also serves a vital function in the repair of all body tissues: Figure 5.3 lists the general characteristics, location, and
many wounds are repaired by connective tissue in the form function of some of the connective tissues found in the body.
of scar tissue. Blood, considered in detail in Exercise 19, is not covered here.
Activity 2
Examining Connective Tissue Under
the Microscope
Go to station 2 at the demonstration area to examine While examining the areolar connective tissue, a soft
prepared slides of adipose, areolar, reticular, and dense “packing tissue,” notice how much empty space (areol =
regular connective tissue; of fibrocartilage, hyaline carti- small empty space) there appears to be, and distinguish
lage, and elastic cartilage; and of osseous connective tis- the collagen fibers from the thin, coiled elastic fibers.
sue (bone). Compare your observations with Figure 5.3. In adipose (fat) tissue, locate a hollow-appearing
Distinguish the living cells from the matrix, and pay cell in which the nucleus is pushed to one side by the
particular attention to the appearance of the matrix. For large, fat-filled vacuole that appears to be a large empty
example, notice how the matrix of the dense regular space. Also notice how little matrix there is in adipose
connective tissues making up tendons is packed with tissue. Distinguish the living cells from the matrix in the
collagen fibers, and notice that the fibers are all running dense connective tissues, bone, and hyaline cartilage
in the same direction. preparations.
(a) Connective tissue proper: loose connective tissue, areolar
Description: Gel-like matrix with all three fiber

types; cells: fibroblasts, macrophages, mast
cells, and some white blood cells.
Elastic
fibers
Function: Wraps and cushions organs; its
macrophages phagocytize bacteria; plays
important role in inflammation; holds and
conveys tissue fluid.
Ground
substance
Location: Widely distributed under epithelia
of body, e.g., forms lamina propria of mucous Fibroblast
membranes; packages organs; surrounds nuclei
capillaries.
Collagen
fibers
5
Epithelium
Lamina Photomicrograph: Areolar connective tissue from the lamina

propria propria of a mucous membrane (340:).
(b) Connective tissue proper: loose connective tissue, adipose
Description: Matrix as in areolar, but very

sparse; closely packed adipocytes, or fat cells,
have nucleus pushed to the side by large fat
droplet.
Function: Provides reserve food fuel; Nucleus of

insulates against heat loss; supports and adipose
protects organs. (fat) cell
Location: Under skin in subcutaneous tissue;

around kidneys and eyeballs; within abdomen;
in breasts.
Adipose Vacuole
tissue containing
fat droplet
Photomicrograph: Adipose tissue from the subcutaneous

Mammary layer under the skin (350:).
glands
Figure 5.3 Connective tissues. Loose connective tissues: areolar (a) and adipose (b).
(Figure continues on page 44.)
44 Exercise 5
(c) Connective tissue proper: loose connective tissue, reticular
Description: Network of reticular fibers in a

typical loose ground substance; reticular cells
lie on the network.
Function: Fibers form a soft internal skeleton

(stroma) that supports other cell types,
including white blood cells, mast cells, and
macrophages.
White blood cell

(lymphocyte)
Location: Lymphoid organs (lymph nodes,
bone marrow, and spleen).
Reticular
fibers
5
Spleen
Photomicrograph: Dark-staining network of reticular connective

tissue fibers forming the internal skeleton of the spleen (350 :).
(d) Connective tissue proper: dense regular connective tissue
Description: Primarily parallel collagen fibers;

a few elastic fibers; major cell type is the
fibroblast.
Function: Attaches muscles to bones or to

muscles; attaches bones to bones; withstands Collagen
great tensile stress when pulling force is fibers
applied in one direction.
Location: Tendons, most Nuclei of

ligaments, aponeuroses. fibroblasts
Shoulder
joint
Ligament
Photomicrograph: Dense regular connective tissue from a

tendon (430 :).
Tendon
Figure 5.3 (continued) Connective tissues. Loose connective tissue: reticular (c).
Dense regular connective tissue (d).
(e) Cartilage: hyaline
Description: Amorphous but firm matrix;

collagen fibers form an imperceptible network;
chondroblasts produce the matrix and when
mature (chondrocytes) lie in lacunae.
Chondrocyte
Function: Supports and reinforces; serves as
in lacuna
resilient cushion; resists compressive stress.
Location: Forms most of the embryonic

skeleton; covers the ends of long bones in
joint cavities; forms costal cartilages of the
ribs; cartilages of the nose, trachea, and
larynx. Matrix
Costal
cartilages Photomicrograph: Hyaline cartilage from a costal cartilage
of a rib (470:).
(f) Cartilage: fibrocartilage
Description: Matrix similar to but less firm

than that in hyaline cartilage; thick collagen
fibers predominate.
Function: Tensile strength with the ability to

absorb compressive shock.
Location: Intervertebral discs; pubic

symphysis; discs of knee joint.
Chondrocytes
in lacunae
Intervertebral
discs
Collagen
fiber
Photomicrograph: Fibrocartilage of an intervertebral

disc (125:). Special staining produced the blue color.
Figure 5.3 (continued) Hyaline cartilage (e) and fibrocartilage (f). (Figure continues on page 46.)
46 Exercise 5
(g) Cartilage: elastic
Description: Similar to hyaline cartilage, but

more elastic fibers in matrix.
Function: Maintains the shape of a structure

while allowing great flexibility. Chondrocyte
in lacuna
Location: Supports the external ear Matrix

(auricle); epiglottis.
Photomicrograph: Elastic cartilage from the human ear auricle;

forms the flexible skeleton of the ear (800 :).
(h) Bone (osseous tissue)
Description: Hard, calcified matrix containing

many collagen fibers; osteocytes lie in
lacunae. Very well vascularized.
Central
Function: Bone supports and protects canal
(by enclosing); provides levers for the muscles
to act on; stores calcium and other minerals Osteocytes
and fat; marrow inside bones is the site for in the
blood cell formation (hematopoiesis). lacunae
Lamella
Location: Bones
Photomicrograph: Cross-sectional view of bone (125 :).
Figure 5.3 (continued) Connective tissues. Elastic cartilage (g) and

bone (osseous tissue) (h).
Muscle Tissue
Muscle tissue is specialized to contract in order to produce Smooth muscle is found mainly in the walls of hollow
movement of some body parts. As you might expect, muscle organs (digestive and urinary tract organs, uterus, blood ves-
cells are elongated to provide a long axis for contraction. sels). Typically two layers run at right angles to each other,
The three basic types of muscle tissue are described briefly so the muscle can constrict or dilate the lumen (cavity) of an
here. organ and also propel substances along existing pathways. No
Skeletal muscle, the flesh of the body, is attached to striations are visible, and the uninucleate smooth muscle cells
the skeleton. It is under voluntary control (consciously con- are spindle-shaped.
trolled), and as it contracts it moves the limbs and other
external body parts. The cells of skeletal muscles are long,
cylindrical, nonbranching, and multinucleate (several nuclei Activity 3
per cell); they have obvious striations (stripes).
Cardiac muscle is found only in the heart. As it con- Examining Muscle Tissue Under
tracts, the heart acts as a pump, propelling the blood into the the Microscope
blood vessels. Like skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle has stria- Go to station 3 of the demonstration area to examine
tions, but cardiac cells are branching cells with one nucleus prepared slides of skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle.
(or occasionally two) that fit together at junctions called Notice their similarities and dissimilarities in your obser-
intercalated discs, which allow cardiac muscle to act as vations and in the illustrations (Figure 5.4). (See also
a unit. Cardiac muscle is under involuntary control, which Plates 2 and 3 in the Histology Atlas.) 5
means that we cannot voluntarily or consciously control the
operation of the heart.
(a) Skeletal muscle
Description: Long, cylindrical, multinucleate

cells; obvious striations.
Part of
muscle
Function: Voluntary movement; locomotion; fiber (cell)
manipulation of the environment; facial
expression; voluntary control.
Nuclei
Location: In skeletal muscles attached to

bones or occasionally to skin.
Striations
Photomicrograph: Skeletal muscle (approx. 440:).

Notice the obvious banding pattern and the
fact that these large cells are multinucleate.
Figure 5.4 Muscle tissues. Skeletal muscle (a) (Figure continues on page 48.)
48 Exercise 5
(b) Cardiac muscle
Description: Branching, striated, generally

uninucleate cells that interdigitate at
specialized junctions called intercalated discs.
Nucleus
Intercalated
discs
Function: As it contracts, cardiac muscle
propels blood into the circulation; involuntary
control.
Striations
Location: The walls of the heart.
Photomicrograph: Cardiac muscle (775:);

notice the striations, branching of cells, and
the intercalated discs.
(c) Smooth muscle
Description: Spindle-shaped cells with

central nuclei; no striations; cells arranged
closely to form sheets.
Function: Propels substances (foodstuffs, Nuclei

urine) or a baby along internal passageways;
involuntary control.
Location: Mostly in the walls of hollow

organs.
Smooth
muscle
cell
Photomicrograph: Sheet of smooth muscle (720:).
Figure 5.4 (continued) Muscle tissues. Cardiac muscle (b)

and smooth muscle (c).
Nervous Tissue
Nervous tissue is composed of two major cell populations.
Neuroglia are special supporting cells that protect, support, Activity 4
and insulate the more delicate neurons. The neurons are
highly specialized to receive stimuli and to conduct impulses Examining Nervous Tissue Under the
to all parts of the body. They are the cells that are most often Microscope
associated with nervous system functioning. Go to station 4 at the demonstration area, and examine
The structure of neurons is markedly different from that a prepared slide of a spinal cord smear. Locate a neuron
of all other body cells. They all have a nucleus-containing and compare it to Figure 5.5 and Plate 5 of the Histol-
cell body, and their cytoplasm is drawn out into long exten- ogy Atlas. Keep the light on the microscope dim—this
sions (cell processes)—sometimes as long as 3 feet (about will help you see the cellular extensions of the neurons.
1 m). This allows a single neuron to conduct an impulse
over relatively long distances. For more detail about the
anatomy of the different classes of neurons and neuroglia,
see Exercise 13.
Nervous tissue 5
Description: Neurons are branching

cells; cell processes that may be quite
long extend from the nucleus-containing
cell body; also contributing to nervous Nuclei of
tissue are nonexcitable supporting cells. supporting
cells
Cell body
Neuron processes
Axon Dendrites
Cell body
of a neuron
Function: Neurons transmit electrical

signals from sensory receptors and to
effectors (muscles and glands). Supporting
cells support and protect neurons. Neuron
Location: Brain, spinal processes
cord, and nerves.
Photomicrograph: Neurons (350 :).
Figure 5.5 Nervous tissue.

50 Exercise 5
Activity 5
Constructing a Concept Map of the Tissues
Using Figure 5.6 as a guide and the following steps, b. will separate the tissues in a logical manner. (Figure
prepare your own concept map that separates the tissues 5.6 provides an example of a concept map separating
based on what you observe in the photomicrographs in out simple squamous epithelium.)
this exercise (Figures 5.2, 5.3, 5.4, and 5.5). Your instruc-
tor will give you a list of the tissue types to include. 3. A helpful first question is “Is there a free edge?” This
question separates epithelial tissue from connective,
1. Read the sections on epithelial, connective, muscle, muscle, and nervous tissue.
and nervous tissues. Carefully review the characteristics
of the assigned tissues. 4. A branch of the concept map is complete when only a
single tissue type is alone at the end of a branch.
2. Prepare a series of questions based on features
observed through the microscope that 5. When your concept map is complete, use it to help
identify tissue types on prepared slides.
a. will have only two possible answers, yes or no.
Is there a free edge?
5
Yes No
Is there a single Is there a large amount

layer of cells? of extracellular matrix?
Yes
#TGVJGEGNNUƃCV
(squamous)?
Yes
Simple squamous
epithelium
Figure 5.6 A concept map separating tissues based on observable characteristics.

A map of simple squamous epithelium has been completed as an example. The map
should continue until each tissue type is alone at the end of a branch.
EXERCISE
5
REVIEW SHEET
Classification of Tissues
Tissue Structure and Function: General Review

1. Define tissue: _______________________________________________________________________________________________
2. Use the key to identify the major tissue types described below.
Key: connective epithelial muscle nervous
1. lines body cavities and covers the body’s external surface
2. pumps blood, flushes urine out of the body, allows one to swing a bat
3. transmits electrical signals
4. anchors and packages body organs
5. cells may absorb, protect, or form a filtering membrane
6. forms nerves and the brain
7. major function is to contract
8. the most widespread tissue in the body
Epithelial Tissue
3. How are epithelial tissues classified? _________________________________________________________________________
4. How is the function of an epithelium reflected in its arrangement? ______________________________________________
5. Using the key, choose the type of epithelial tissue that best fits each description.
Key: pseudostratified ciliated columnar simple cuboidal stratified squamous
simple columnar simple squamous transitional
1. best suited for areas subject to friction
2. most suited for rapid diffusion
3. tubules of the kidney
4. lines much of the respiratory tract
5. stretches
6. lines the small and large intestines

51
52 Review Sheet 5
Connective Tissue
6. How are the functions of connective tissue reflected in its structure? ____________________________________________
7. Using the key, choose the best response to identify each connective tissue described below.
Key: adipose connective tissue dense regular connective tissue hyaline cartilage
areolar connective tissue reticular connective tissue osseous tissue
1. attaches bones to bones and muscles to bones
2. provides levers for your muscles to act on
3. composes basement membranes; a soft packaging tissue with a jellylike matrix
4. forms the larynx and the costal cartilages of the ribs
5. fibers form a network that supports other cells
6. insulates against heat loss; provides reserve fuel
Muscle Tissue
8. The terms and phrases in the key relate to the muscle tissues. For each of the three muscle tissues, select the terms
or phrases that characterize it, and write the corresponding letter of each term on the answer line.
Key: a. striated e. voluntary i. attached to bones

b. branching cells f. involuntary j. intercalated discs
c. spindle-shaped cells g. one nucleus k. in wall of bladder and stomach
d. cylindrical cells h. many nuclei l. forms heart walls
Skeletal muscle: Cardiac muscle: Smooth muscle:
Nervous Tissue
9. In what ways are nerve cells similar to other cells? _____________________________________________________________
How are they different?
How does the special structure of a neuron relate to its function?
10. + When cardiac muscle tissue dies in adults, it is replaced with scar tissue composed of dense connective tissue.
Explain how the function of the scar tissue would differ from the function the cardiac muscle tissue. ______________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
11. + Smoking impairs cilia because the toxins paralyze and can destroy the cilia. Based on this loss of function, explain
which types of infections smokers would be more susceptible to. _______________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Review Sheet 5 53
For Review
12. Write the name of each tissue type in illustrations (a) through (l), and identify all structures provided with leader lines.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e) (f)
54 Review Sheet 5
(g) (h)
(i) (j)
(k) (l)
EXERCISE
6 The Integumentary System

● Skin model (three-dimensional, if available) □ List several important functions of the integumentary system.
● Small metric ruler □ During observation of a model, diagram, or slide, recognize
● Calipers or esthesiometer and name the following skin structures: epidermal and dermal
● Four coins (nickels or quarters) layers, hair follicles and hairs, sebaceous and sweat glands.
● Fine felt-tipped markers (2 different colors)
□ Describe the distribution and function of eccrine and apocrine
● Sheet of 20# bond paper ruled to mark off
cm2 areas sweat glands and sebaceous glands.
● Scissors □ Identify the major regions of a hair and hair follicle.
● Povidone-iodine swabs, or Lugol’s iodine
□ Identify the major regions of nails.
and cotton swabs
● Adhesive tape
● Small clear glass plates (5×5 inches or
larger)
T
Station 1: Compound microscope set up he integumentary system includes the skin and its accessory organs. The
to demonstrate human skin showing hair skin does much more than just cover the body exterior. Architecturally,
follicles (about 20×) the skin is a wonder. It is tough yet pliable, a characteristic that enables it to
Station 2: Prepared slide of skin; pointer withstand constant insult from outside agents.
on a tactile corpuscle The skin has several functions, most concerned with protection. It insulates and
Station 3: Prepared slide of skin; pointer cushions the underlying body tissues and protects the entire body from mechanical
on a lamellar corpuscle damage, chemical damage, thermal damage, and bacterial invasion. The hardened
uppermost layer of the skin prevents water loss from the body surface.
The skin has other functions, as well. The skin:
• Acts as a mini-excretory system; urea, salts, and water are lost when we sweat.
• Performs important metabolic duties, such as producing proteins important to
our immunity.
• Is the site where vitamin D is synthesized for the body. Vitamin D plays a role
in calcium absorption in the digestive system.
• Contains the cutaneous sense organs that allow us to sense and enjoy the
external environment.
• Plays an important role in regulating heat loss from the body surface.
Basic Structure of the Skin

The skin has two distinct regions—the superficial epidermis composed of epi-
thelium and an underlying connective tissue dermis. These layers are firmly
“cemented” together along a wavy basement membrane. But friction, such as the
rubbing of a poorly fitting shoe, may cause them to separate, resulting in a blis-
ter. Immediately deep to the dermis is the subcutaneous layer, or hypodermis,
which is not considered part of the skin. A description of the main skin areas and
structures follows.
55
56 Exercise 6
Activity 1
Locating Structures on a Skin Model
As you read, locate the following structures on a skin
model and on Figuree 6.1.
Hair shaft
Dermal papillae
Epidermis
Papillary
dermis
Sweat pore
Dermis Appendages of skin

Reticular
6 dermis r 'EETKPGUYGCVINCPF
r #TTGEVQTRKNKOWUENG
r 5GDCEGQWU QKN INCPF
r *CKTHQNNKENG
r *CKTTQQV
Subcutaneous layer
(hypodermis not
part of skin)
Nervous structures
r 5GPUQT[PGTXGHKDGTYKVJ &GTOCNXCUEWNCTRNGZWU
HTGGPGTXGGPFKPIU
r6CEVKNGEQTRWUENG #FKRQUGVKUUWG
r .COGNNCTEQTRWUENG
r *CKTHQNNKENGTGEGRVQT
(root hair plexus) Figure 6.1 Skin structure. (a) Three-dimensional view
(a) of the skin and underlying tissue. Tactile corpuscles
are not common in hairy skin but are included here for
illustrative purposes. (b) Photomicrograph of thick
skin (753).
Epidermis
Epidermis
r Stratum
corneum Structurally, the avascular epidermis is a keratinized stratified
squamous epithelium consisting of four distinct cell types and
r Stratum four or five distinct layers.
lucidum
Cells of the Epidermis
r Stratum
granulosum • Keratinocytes (literally, keratin cells): The most abun-
dant epidermal cells. They function to produce keratin, a
tough fibrous protein that gives the epidermis durability and
r Stratum protective capabilities.
spinosum
Far less numerous are the following types of epidermal cells:
r Stratum • Melanocytes: Spidery black cells that produce the red-
basale dish yellow to brownish black pigments collectively called
melanin. Melanin provides a protective pigment umbrella
that shields the nuclei of deeper epidermal layers from the
Dermis damaging effects of ultraviolet radiation in sunlight.
• Dendritic cells: Also called Langerhans cells, these cells
arise from the bone marrow and migrate to the epidermis.
(b) They ingest foreign substances and play a key role in activat-
ing the immune response.
The Integumentary System 57
• Tactile epithelial cells: When combined with sensory are important in the body’s defense), and other cell types are
nerve endings, these cells form sensitive touch receptors found throughout the dermis.
located at the epidermal-dermal junction.
Dermal Blood Supply
Layers of the Epidermis The rich dermal blood supply allows the skin to play a role in
From deep to superficial, the layers of the epidermis of thick regulating body temperature. When body temperature is high,
skin are the stratum basale, stratum spinosum, stratum granu- the capillary network of the dermis becomes engorged with
losum, stratum lucidum, and stratum corneum (Figure 6.1b). the heated blood. Thus body heat is allowed to radiate from
This order of the epidermal layers represents the progression the skin surface. If the environment is cool and body heat
that skin cells take as they age, from the young epidermal must be conserved, the dermal blood vessels constrict so that
cells in the stratum basale to the dead cells in the stratum blood bypasses the dermis temporarily.
corneum. This represents a journey that takes approximately
25–45 days. The layers of the epidermis are summarized in
Table 6.1. Activity 2
Dermis Visualizing Changes in Skin Color Due
The connective tissue proper making up the bulk of the der- to Continuous External Pressure
mis has two principal regions—the papillary and reticular Go to the supply area, and obtain a small glass plate. Press
areas. the heel of your hand firmly against the plate for a few
seconds, and then observe and record the color of your 6
• Papillary dermis: composed of areolar connective tissue. skin in the compressed area by looking through the glass.
It is very uneven and has fingerlike projections from its su-
perior surface, called dermal papillae, which attach it to the Color of compressed skin:
epidermis above. In the palms of the hands and soles of the
feet, the papillae produce the fingerprints, unique patterns of What is the reason for this color change?
loops and ridges in the epidermis. Capillaries in the papillary
layer furnish nutrients for the epidermis and allow heat to ra-
diate to the skin surface. The pain and touch receptors (tactile
corpuscles in hairless skin) are also found here. What would happen if the pressure were continued for
• Reticular dermis: the deepest skin layer. It contains blood
vessels, sweat and sebaceous glands, and pressure receptors an extended period in this area?
(lamellar corpuscles).
Collagenic and elastic fibers are found throughout the
dermis. The collagenic fibers make the dermis tough and
attract and hold water, thus keeping the skin hydrated. The
elastic fibers give skin its exceptional elasticity in youth. Dermal Cutaneous Receptors
Fibroblasts, adipose cells, various types of phagocytes (which The dermis also has a rich nerve supply. Many of the nerve
endings bear specialized receptor organs that respond to pain,
pressure, or temperature extremes, and transmit messages to
Table 6.1 Layers of the Epidermis (from superficial to deep)
Epidermal layer Description

Stratum corneum The outermost layer consisting of 20–30 layers of dead, scalelike keratinocytes. They are constantly being
(horny layer) exfoliated and replaced by the division of the deeper cells.
Stratum lucidum (clear layer) Present only in thick skin. A very thin transparent band of flattened, dead keratinocytes with indistinct
boundaries.
Stratum granulosum A thin layer named for the abundant granules its cells contain. These granules are (1) lamellar granules,
(granular layer) which contain a waterproofing glycolipid that is secreted into the extracellular space; and (2) keratohyaline
granules, which help to form keratin in the more superficial layers. At the upper border of this layer, the
cells are beginning to die.
Stratum spinosum (spiny Several layers of cells that contain thick, weblike bundles of intermediate filaments made of a pre-keratin
layer) protein. The cells in this layer appear spiky because when the tissue is prepared, the cells shrink, but their
desmosomes hold tight to adjacent cells. Cells in this layer and the basal layer are the only ones to receive
adequate nourishment from diffusion of nutrients from the dermis.
Stratum basale (basal layer) A single row of cells immediately above the dermis. Its cells are constantly undergoing mitosis to form
new cells, hence its alternate name, stratum germinativum. Some 10–25% of the cells in this layer are
melanocytes, which thread their processes through this and adjacent layers of keratinocytes. Occasional
tactile epithelial cells are also present in this layer.
58 Exercise 6
the central nervous system for interpretation. These receptors

include free nerve endings (pain and temperature receptors), Activity 4: Determining Two-Point Threshold
lamellar corpuscles, tactile corpuscles, and hair follicle recep-
tors (Figure 6.1a; see also Plates 11–13 in the Histology Atlas). Two-point threshold
Body area tested (millimeters)
Face
Activity 3
Back of hand
Viewing Two Types of Pressure Receptors Palm of hand
Microscopically
Fingertips
Go to the demonstration area where two types of der-
mal pressure receptors—tactile corpuscles and lamellar Lips
corpuscles—have been set up for viewing under the mi- Back of neck
croscope. At station 2, examine the tactile corpuscle, which
responds to touch or light pressure. Notice that its connec- Anterior forearm
tive tissue capsule is located in a dermal papilla. (Compare
your observations to Plate 11 in the Histology Atlas.)
Next, at station 3, view the much larger lamellar cor-
puscle, which responds to deep pressure as indicated by Activity 5
6 its location much deeper in the dermis. What vegetable
does its structure remind you of? (Compare your obser- Testing Tactile Localization
vations to Plate 13 in the Histology Atlas.) Tactile localization is the ability to determine which por-
tion of the skin has been touched. The receptive field of
the body periphery has a corresponding “touch” field in
There are several simple experiments you can conduct to
the brain. Some body areas are well represented with
investigate the location and physiology of cutaneous receptors.
touch receptors, and tactile stimuli can be localized with
In each of the following activities, work in pairs, with one per-
great accuracy, but density of touch receptors in other
son as the subject and the other as the experimenter. After you
body areas allows only crude discrimination.
have completed an experiment, switch roles and go through the
procedures again so that all class members obtain individual 1. The subject keeps eyes closed during the testing. The
results. Keep an accurate account of each test that you perform. experimenter touches the palm of the subject’s hand
with a pointed black felt-tipped marker. The subject then
tries to touch the exact point with his or her own marker,
Activity 4 which should be a different color. Measure the error of
localization in millimeters.
Determining the Two-Point Threshold
2. Repeat the test in the same spot twice more, record-
The density of the touch receptors varies significantly in ing the error of localization for each test. Average the
different areas of the body. In general, areas that have results of the three determinations and record it in the
the greatest density of tactile receptors have a height- Activity 5 chart.
ened ability to “feel.” These areas correspond to areas
that receive the greatest motor innervation; thus, they Activity 5: Testing Tactile Localization
are also typically areas of fine motor control. Let’s check
it out. Average error of
1. Using calipers or an esthesiometer and a metric ruler, Body area tested localization (millimeters)
test the ability of the subject to differentiate two distinct Palm of hand
sensations when the skin is touched simultaneously at
Fingertip
two points. Beginning with the face, start with the caliper
arms completely together. Gradually increase the distance Ventral forearm
between the points, testing the subject’s skin after each
Back of hand
adjustment. Continue with this testing procedure until
the subject reports that two points of contact can be felt. Back of neck
This measurement, the smallest distance at which two
points of contact can be felt, is the two-point threshold.
Does the ability to localize the stimulus improve the
2. Repeat this procedure on the back and palm of the
second time?
hand, fingertips, lips, back of the neck, and anterior
forearm. Record your results in the Activity 4 chart.
_______________ The third time? _______________ Explain.
3. Which area has the smallest two-point threshold?
3. Repeat the above procedure on a fingertip, the ventral how long the sensation persists for the subject. Duration
forearm, the back of a hand, and the back of the neck. of the sensation:
Record the averaged results in the chart above.
4. Which area has the smallest error of localization (is _______________ sec
most sensitive to touch)?
2. Repeat the test, placing the coin at a different forearm
location. How long does the sensation persist at the
second location?
5. Which body area tested has the smallest receptive
field? _______________ sec
3. After the awareness of the sensation has been lost at

the second site, stack three more coins atop the first one.
Does the pressure sensation return? _______________

Activity 6
If so, for how long is the subject aware of the pressure
Demonstrating Adaptation of Touch Receptors in this instance?
In many cases, when a stimulus is applied for a prolonged
period, the rate of receptor response slows and conscious _______________ sec 6
awareness of the stimulus declines or is lost until some type
of stimulus change occurs. This phenomenon is referred to Are the same receptors being stimulated when the four
as adaptation. The touch receptors adapt particularly rap- coins, rather than the one coin, are used?
idly, which is highly desirable. Who, for instance, would
want to be continually aware of the pressure of clothing on _______________ Explain. _______________
their skin? The simple experiment conducted next allows
you to investigate the phenomenon of adaptation.
1. The subject keeps eyes closed. Place a coin on the
anterior surface of the subject’s forearm, and determine
Accessory Organs of the Skin

The accessory organs of the skin—hair, nails, and cutaneous The sweat glands are controlled by the nervous sys-
glands—all derive from the epidermis, but they reside in the tem and are an important part of the body’s heat-regulating
dermis. They originate from the stratum basale and extend apparatus. They secrete perspiration when the external tem-
into the dermis. perature or body temperature is high. When sweat evaporates,
it carries excess body heat with it.
Cutaneous Glands
The cutaneous glands fall primarily into two categories: the
sebaceous glands and the sweat glands (Figure 6.1). The se-
Activity 7
baceous (oil) glands are found nearly all over the skin, except Plotting the Distribution of Sweat Glands
for the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet. Their ducts
usually empty into a hair follicle, but some open directly onto 1. For this simple experiment you will need two squares
the skin surface. of bond paper (each 1 cm 3 1 cm), adhesive tape, and
The product of the sebaceous glands, called sebum, is a a povidone-iodine swab or Lugol’s iodine and a cotton-
mixture of oily substances and fragmented cells that acts as tipped swab. (The bond paper has been preruled in cm2—
a natural lubricant that keeps the skin soft and moist. Black- just cut along the lines to obtain the required squares.)
heads are accumulations of dried sebum and bacteria. Acne is 2. Using the iodine solution, paint an area of the medial
due to active infection of the sebaceous glands. aspect of your left palm (avoid the crease lines) and a
Epithelial openings, called pores, are the outlets for the region of your left forearm. Allow the iodine solution to
sweat (sudoriferous) glands. Sweat, or sudoriferous, glands dry thoroughly. In each case, make sure that the painted
are exocrine glands and are widely distributed in the skin. There area is slightly larger than the paper squares to be used.
are two types of sweat glands. The eccrine sweat glands, which 3. Mark one piece of ruled bond paper with an “H” (for
are distributed all over the body, produce a clear secretion, con- hand) and the other “A” (for arm). Have your lab partner
sisting primarily of water, salts (mostly NaCl), and urea. The securely tape the appropriate square of bond paper over
apocrine sweat glands, found chiefly in the axillary and genital each iodine-painted area, and leave them in place for
areas, secrete the basic components of eccrine sweat glands plus
proteins and fat-rich substances that is an excellent source of Text continues on next page. ➔
nutrients for the bacteria typically found on the skin.
60 Exercise 6
20 minutes. (If it is very warm in the laboratory, you can 5. Which skin area tested has the most sweat glands?
obtain good results within 5 minutes.) While waiting to
determine the results, continue with the sections on hair
and nails.
4. After 20 minutes, remove the paper squares, and
count the number of blue-black dots on each square. The
appearance of a blue-black dot on the paper indicates an
active sweat gland. (The iodine in the pore dissolves in
the sweat and reacts with the starch in the bond paper to
produce the blue-black color.) Thus you have produced
“sweat maps” for the two skin areas.
Hair
Hairs are found over the entire body surface, except for the
palms of the hands, the soles of the feet, parts of the external
genitalia, the nipples, and the lips. A hair, enclosed in a hair
follicle, is also an epithelial structure (Figure 6.2). The part
of the hair enclosed within the follicle is called the hair root;
6 Figure 6.2 Structure of a hair and hair follicle. Hair follicle wall
(a) Longitudinal section of a hair within its r Peripheral
follicle. (b) Cross section of a hair. (c) Enlarged connective tissue
longitudinal view of the expanded hair bulb (fibrous) sheath
in the follicle showing the matrix, the r Glassy membrane
region of actively dividing epithelial cells
r External epithelial
that produces the hair. root sheath
r Internal epithelial
root sheath
Hair root
r Cuticle
r Cortex
Hair shaft r Medulla
(b)
Arrector
pili muscle
Sebaceous
gland
Hair follicle wall
Hair root
r Peripheral
Hair bulb connective tissue
(fibrous) sheath
r Glassy membrane
(a)
r External epithelial
root sheath
r Internal epithelial
root sheath
Hair root
r Cuticle
r Cortex
r Medulla
Hair matrix
Hair papilla
Melanocyte
Subcutaneous
adipose tissue
(c)
Hair follicle Sebaceous gland Epidermis

follicles. Compare your tissue slide to the view shown in
Dermis Figure 6.3, and identify as many of the other structures
depicted in Figure 6.1 as you can.
How is this stratified squamous epithelium different
from that found in the esophagus?
How does this difference relate to the functions of these

two similar epithelia?
Nails
Nails, the hornlike derivatives of the epidermis, are transpar- 6
ent and nearly colorless, but they appear pink because of the
blood supply in the underlying dermis. The exception to this
is the proximal region of the thickened nail matrix, which
appears as a white crescent called the lunule (Figure 6.4).
Figure 6.3 Photomicrograph of skin (403). When someone is cyanotic because of a lack of oxygen in the
blood, the nail beds take on a blue cast.
the portion projecting from the skin is the hair shaft. The
hair is formed by mitosis of the germinal epithelial cells at the Lateral Lunule
base of the follicle, the hair bulb. As the daughter cells are nail fold
pushed away from the growing region, they become keratin-
ized and die; thus the bulk of the hair shaft, like the bulk of
the epidermis, is dead material.
A hair (Figure 6.2b) consists of a central medulla sur-
rounded first by the cortex and then by a protective cuticle.
The hair follicle is formed from both epidermal and
dermal cells (Figure 6.2c). Its external and internal epithelial
root sheaths are enclosed in a thickened basement membrane,
the glassy membrane, and by a peripheral connective tissue
(or fibrous) sheath, which is essentially dermal tissue. The
(a)
hair papilla is a small nipple of dermal tissue that protrudes
into the hair bulb and provides nutrition to the growing hair. Free edge Nail Eponychium Root of nail
A layer of actively dividing epithelial cells called the hair of nail plate (cuticle)
matrix is located on top of the hair papilla. If you look care- Proximal Nail
nail fold matrix
fully at the structure of the hair follicle (Figure 6.3), you
will see that it generally is in a slanted position. Small bands
of smooth muscle cells—arrector pili—connect each hair
follicle to the dermis. When these muscles contract (during
cold or fright), the hair follicle is pulled upright, dimpling the
skin surface with “goose bumps.”
Microscopic Structure of the Skin
Activity 8
Hyponychium Nail bed Phalanx (bone of fingertip)
Examining a Skin Slide (b)
Go to station 1 of the demonstration area to view a
prepared slide of human skin. Study it carefully under Figure 6.4 Structure of a nail. (a) Surface view of the
the microscope. Identify hair shafts, hair roots, and hair distal part of a finger. (b) Sagittal section of the fingertip.
62 Exercise 6
Nails consist of a free edge, a nail plate (visible attached

portion), and a nail root (embedded in the skin and adhering Activity 9
to an epithelial nail bed). The borders of the nail are over-
lapped by skin folds called nail folds. The thick proximal nail Identifying Nail Structures
fold is the eponychium, commonly called the cuticle. The
Identify the nail structures shown in Figure 6.4 on your-
region beneath the free edge of the nail is the hyponychium.
self or your lab partner.
The germinal cells in the nail matrix, the thickened proximal
part of the nail bed, are responsible for nail growth. As new
cells are produced by the matrix, they become heavily kera-
tinized and die.
6
EXERCISE
6 REVIEW SHEET
The Integumentary System
Name Lab Time/Date ___________________________________
Basic Structure of the Skin

1. Complete the following statements by writing the appropriate word or phrase on the blank line:
1. The superficial region of the skin is the_____________________, composed of ________________________
_________________________ _________________________ (3 words) tissue.
2. The deeper region tissue is the __________________________, composed of connective tissue.
3. The most numerous cell of the epidermis is the ________________________________.
4. The two primary layers of the dermis are the __________________________ dermis, composed of areolar connective
tissue, and the _______________________________ dermis, composed of dense irregular connective tissue.
2. Four protective functions of the skin are:
a. __________________________________________ c. __________________________________________
b. __________________________________________ d. __________________________________________
3. Using the key, choose all responses that apply to the following descriptions.
Key: a. stratum basale d. stratum lucidum g. reticular dermis

b. stratum corneum e. stratum spinosum
c. stratum granulosum f. papillary dermis
1. layer of translucent cells in thick skin containing dead keratinocytes
2. two layers containing dead cells
3. dermal layer responsible for fingerprints
4. epidermal layer exhibiting the most rapid cell division
5. layer including scalelike dead cells, full of keratin, that constantly slough off
6. layer named for the numerous granules present
7. location of melanocytes and tactile epithelial cells
8. area where weblike pre-keratin filaments first appear
9. deep layer of the dermis
10. layer that secretes a glycolipid that prevents water loss from the skin
63
64 Review Sheet 6
4. Label the integumentary structures and areas indicated in the diagram.
5. Label the layers of the epidermis in thick skin. Then, complete the statements that follow.
a. Glands that respond to rising androgen levels are the _______________________ glands.
b. ___________________ ___________________ are epidermal cells that play a role in the immune response.
c. Tactile corpuscles are located in the ____________________________________ ____________________________________.
d. ___________________________ corpuscles are located deep in the dermis.
6. What substance is manufactured in the skin and plays a role in calcium absorption elsewhere in the body?
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
7. What did the two-point discrimination test demonstrate? ________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Review Sheet 6 65
8. Two questions regarding general sensation are posed below. Answer each by placing your response in the appropri-
ately numbered blanks to the right.
1–2. Which two body areas tested were most sensitive to touch? 1–2.
3–4. Which two body areas tested were the least sensitive to touch? 3–4.
9. Define adaptation of sensory receptors: _______________________________________________________________________
10. Why is it advantageous to have pain receptors that are sensitive to all vigorous stimuli, whether heat, cold, or pressure?
Pain receptors do not adapt. Why is this important?
Accessory Organs of the Skin

11. Using the key, respond to the following descriptions. (Some responses may be used more than once.)
Key: arrector pili hair follicle sweat gland—apocrine

cutaneous receptor nail sweat gland—eccrine
hair sebaceous gland
1. acne is an infection of this structure
2. structure that houses a hair
3. more numerous variety of sweat gland that is activated by rise in temperature
4. sheath formed of both epithelial and connective tissues
5. type of sweat gland that produces a secretion containing proteins and fats in addition to
water and salts
6. smooth muscle connecting the hair follicle to the skin
7. primarily dead/keratinized cells (two responses)
8. specialized nerve ending that responds to environmental stimuli
9. produces a secretion that contains cell fragments
10. “sports” a lunule and a cuticle
12. How does the skin help to regulate body temperature? (Describe two different mechanisms.) _____________________
66 Review Sheet 6
Plotting the Distribution of Sweat Glands

13. With what substance in the bond paper does the iodine painted on the skin react? _______________________________
14. Which skin area—the forearm or palm of hand—has more sweat glands? _______________________________________
Which other body areas would, if tested, prove to have a high density of sweat glands?
15. Which organ system controls the activity of the eccrine sweat glands? __________________________________________
16. + Vitiligo is a disorder in which the pigmentation of the skin is uneven, resulting in white patches. Recent research
suggests that vitiligo might be an autoimmune disorder. Which cell would you expect to be most affected, and why?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
17. + Keratinase is an enzyme produced by dermatophytes. Which organs in the body would these pathogenic fungi
tend to proliferate in, and why? ______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
EXERCISE
7 Overview of the Skeleton

● Disarticulated bones (identified by name □ List three functions of the skeletal system.
or number) that demonstrate easily
□ Identify several surface bone markings and functions.
recognizable examples of the four bone
classifications (long, short, flat, and □ Identify the four main groups of bones based on shape.
irregular)
□ Identify the major anatomical areas of a longitudinally cut
● Long bone sawed longitudinally (beef
bone from a slaughterhouse, if possible, long bone.
or prepared laboratory specimen) □ Contrast the roles of inorganic salts and organic matrix
● Disposable gloves in providing flexibility and hardness to bone.
● Long bone soaked in 10% hydrochloric
acid (or vinegar) until flexible □ Identify the major parts of an osteon.
● Long bone baked at 250°F for more than
2 hours
● Three-dimensional model of microscopic
T
structure of compact bone
● Articulated skeleton he skeleton is constructed of two of the most supportive tissues found in
● Leather belt or strap, china cups (old), the human body—cartilage and bone. In embryos, the skeleton is composed
several large reference-type books mainly of hyaline cartilage, but in adults, most of the cartilage is replaced
● Demonstration area: Microscope set to by more rigid bone.
view a cross section of ground bone at Besides supporting the body as an internal framework and protecting many
low power; pointer on central canal of its soft organs, the skeleton provides a system of levers the skeletal muscles
use to move the body. In addition, the bones store lipids and many minerals (the
most important is calcium). Finally, bones provide a site for blood cell formation
in their red marrow.
The skeleton is made up of bones that are connected at joints, or articulations.
The skeleton is subdivided into two divisions: the axial skeleton (those bones
that form the body’s longitudinal axis) and the appendicular skeleton (bones of
the girdles and limbs) (Figure 7.1).
Before beginning your study of the skeleton, imagine for a moment that your
bones have turned to putty. What if you were running when this transformation
took place? Now imagine your bones forming a continuous metal framework
inside your body. What problems could you foresee with this arrangement? These
images should help you understand how well the skeletal system provides support
and protection while making movement possible.
Bone Markings
Bone surfaces are not featureless and smooth. They have an array of bumps,
holes, and ridges called bone markings. Bone markings fall into two main cat-
egories: projections, or processes that grow out from the bone and serve as sites of
muscle attachment or help form joints; and depressions or cavities, indentations
or openings in the bone that serve as passageways for nerves and blood vessels
(Table 7.1).
Classification of Bones
The 206 bones of the adult skeleton are composed of two basic kinds of osseous
tissue that differ in texture. Compact bone is dense and made up of organi-
zational units called osteons. Spongy bone is composed of small trabeculae
(columns) of bone and lots of open space.
Bones may be classified further on the basis of their gross anatomy into four
main groups: long, short, flat, and irregular bones.
67
68 Exercise 7
Cranium
Skull
Facial bones
Bones of
pectoral
Clavicle girdle
Thoracic cage Scapula

(ribs, sternum,
and thoracic
Sternum Upper
vertebrae)
limb
Rib
Humerus
Vertebra
Vertebral
column Radius
Ilium Ulna Bones
7 of
pelvic
Carpals girdle
Ischium
Pubis
Phalanges
Metacarpals
Femur
Patella
Lower
limb
Tibia
Fibula
Tarsals
Metatarsals
Phalanges
(a) Anterior view (b) Posterior view
Figure 7.1 The human skeleton. The bones of the axial skeleton are colored green
to distinguish them from the bones of the appendicular skeleton.
• Long bones, such as the femur (Figure 7.1), and bones of • Flat bones are generally thin, with a layer of spongy bone
the fingers are much longer than they are wide and generally sandwiched between two waferlike layers of compact bone.
consist of a shaft with heads at either end. Long bones are Bones of the cranium are flat bones.
mostly compact bone. • Irregular bones, such as the vertebrae, are bones that do
• Short bones are typically cube-shaped, and they contain not fall into one of the preceding categories (see Figure 7.1
more spongy bone than compact bone. For example, the and Table 7.1).
tarsals and carpals are short bones (Figure 7.1).
Overview of the Skeleton 69
Table 7.1 Bone Markings
Name of Bone Marking Description Illustrations
Projections That Are Sites of Muscle and Ligament Attachment

Tuberosity Large rounded projection;
Iliac
may be roughened crest
Crest Narrow ridge of bone; Trochanter Intertrochanteric
usually prominent line
Trochanter Very large, blunt, irregularly

shaped process (the only Ischial
examples are on the femur) spine
Line Narrow ridge of bone; less

Hip Ischial
prominent than a crest bone tuberosity Adductor
Tubercle Small rounded projection tubercle
or process Femur
of Medial
Epicondyle Raised area on or above Vertebra thigh epicondyle
a condyle 7
Condyle
Spine Sharp, slender, often Facet
pointed projection Spinous
process
Process Any bony prominence
Projections That Help to Form Joints

Head Bony expansion carried Head
on a narrow neck
Condyle
Facet Smooth, nearly flat
Facets
articular surface Ramus
Condyle Rounded articular projection Rib

Mandible
Ramus Armlike bar of bone
Depressions and Openings

For Passage of Blood Vessels and Nerves
Groove Furrow
Fissure Narrow, slitlike opening

Inferior
Meatus
Foramen Round or oval opening orbital
Sinus fissure
through a bone
Fossa Foramen
Notch Indentation at the edge
of a structure Notch
Groove
Skull
Others
Meatus Canal-like passageway
Sinus Cavity within a bone,

filled with air and lined
with mucous membrane
Fossa Shallow, basinlike

depression in a bone, often
serving as an articular
surface
70 Exercise 7
Activity 1
Examining and Classifying Bones
Examine the isolated bones on display. See if you can Activity 1: Classifying Bones
find specific examples of the bone markings described in
Table 7.1. Then classify each of the bones into one of the Long Short Flat Irregular
four anatomical groups by recording its name or number
in the Activity 1 chart. Verify your identifications with
your instructor before leaving the laboratory.
Gross Anatomy of the Typical Long Bone
Activity 2
7 Examining a Long Bone Articular
cartilage
Compact bone
Proximal
epiphysis
Spongy bone
Epiphyseal
line
Periosteum Endosteum
Compact bone
Medullary
cavity (lined
by endosteum) (b)
Diaphysis Yellow
bone marrow
Compact bone
Periosteum
Nutrient
foramen
Perforating
fibers
Nutrient
artery
Distal
epiphysis
(a) (c)
Figure 7.2 The structure of a long bone (humerus of the arm). (a) Anterior view with
longitudinal section cut away at the proximal end. (b) Pie-shaped, three-dimensional
view of spongy bone and compact bone of the epiphysis. (c) Cross section of the
diaphysis. Note that the external surface of the diaphysis is covered by a periosteum,
but the articular surface of the epiphysis is covered with hyaline cartilage.
1. Obtain a long bone that has been sawed lengthwise. 4. If the animal was still young and growing, you will be able
Note: If the bone supplied is a fresh beef bone, put to see the epiphyseal plate, a thin area of hyaline cartilage
! on disposable gloves before beginning your obser- that provides for growth in bone length. When long bone
vations. If a cleaned dry bone is provided, you do not need growth ends, these areas are replaced with bone. Their
to take any special precautions. barely discernible remnants are called epiphyseal lines.
Identify the shaft, or diaphysis (Figure 7.2). Observe its 5. In an adult animal, the medullary cavity, the central
smooth surface composed of compact bone. If you are cavity of the shaft, is essentially a storage region for
using a fresh specimen, look for its periosteum, a fibrous adipose tissue, or yellow bone marrow. In the infant, red
membrane composed of dense irregular connective tissue bone marrow, involved in forming blood cells, is found in
that covers the bone surface. Notice that many fibers of these central marrow cavities. In adult bones, red bone
the periosteum penetrate into the bone. These fibers are marrow is seen in the spaces of the spongy bone at the
called perforating fibers. epiphyses and the spongy bone within flat bones.
2. Now inspect the epiphysis, the end of the long bone. 6. If you are examining a fresh bone, look carefully to see
Notice that it is composed of a thin layer of compact bone whether you can distinguish the delicate endosteum lining
enclosing spongy bone. the medullary cavity.
3. Identify the articular cartilage, which covers the ! 7. If you have been working with a fresh bone speci-
men, return it to the appropriate area and properly
epiphyseal surface in place of the periosteum. Because
it is composed of glassy hyaline cartilage, it provides a dispose of your gloves, as designated by your instructor.
smooth surface to prevent friction at joint surfaces. Wash your hands before continuing to the microscope study. 7
Chemical Composition of Bone

Although it is relatively light, bone is one of the hardest ponents. The organic portion of the matrix is made up largely
materials in the body, and it has a remarkable ability to re- of collagen fibers, whereas the inorganic part is primarily
sist tension and shear forces that continually act on it. The calcium salts. Thus, nature has given us an extremely strong,
intracellular material in bone is typically called the bony exceptionally simple (almost crude), and flexible supporting
matrix and is composed of both organic and inorganic com- system without sacrificing mobility.
Activity 3
Comparing the Relative Contributions of Bone Salts and Collagen Fibers in Bone Matrix
Go to the supply area and obtain a china cup, a leather belt Which article—the cup or the belt—demonstrates the
or strap, and two or three large reference books. Carefully compression strength provided by bone salts?
stack the books on the china cup to determine whether such
a fragile-looking object can support the heavy books.
What happens? Which item better illustrates the tensile strength (ability to
resist stretch) provided by collagen fibers in bone?
Next, yank and pull on the leather belt (strap) a few times
to see if you can break it.
What happens?
Activity 4
Examining the Effects of Heat and Nitric Acid on Bones
Now, let’s use another experimental approach to examine whereas acid dissolves the minerals. Do the treated bones
a bone’s functional makeup. Obtain a bone sample that has still have the shape of untreated specimens?
been soaked in hydrochloric acid (or vinegar) and one that
has been baked. Heating removes the organic part of bone,
72 Exercise 7
Gently apply pressure to each bone sample. What hap- The bone treated with acid?
pens to the heated bone?
Microscopic Structure of Compact Bone

As you have seen, spongy bone has a spiky, open-work appear- surface. However, compact bone is riddled with passageways
ance due to the arrangement of the trabeculae that compose carrying blood vessels and nerves that provide the living bone
it, and compact bone appears dense and homogeneous on the cells with needed substances and a way to eliminate wastes.
Activity 5
7 Examining the Microscopic Structure
of Compact Bone
1. Go to the demonstration area to examine a prepared 2. The superficial lamellae that run parallel to the
slide of ground bone under low power. Focus on a central bone’s surface and do not comprise osteons are called
(Haversian) canal (one is indicated by the microscope circumferential lamellae. Note: These structures may not
pointer). Use Figure 7.3 as a guide. The central canal be visible on your individual slide. Refer to Figure 7.2a for
runs parallel to the long axis of the bone and carries blood an accurate representation.
vessels and nerves through the bony matrix. Identify 3. Also notice the perforating (Volkmann’s) canals
the lacunae (chambers) where the osteocytes (mature (Figure 7.3). These canals run at right angles to the shaft
bone cells) are found in living bone. These are arranged and connect the blood and nerve supply of the medullary
in concentric circles (lamellae) around the central canal. cavity to the central canals.
A central canal and all the lamellae surrounding it are
referred to as an osteon or Haversian system. Also identify 4. If a model of bone histology is available, identify the
canaliculi, tiny canals running from a central canal to same structures on the model.
the lacunae of the first lamella and then from lamella to
lamella. The canaliculi connect all the living cells of the
osteon to the nutrient supply.
Compact bone Spongy bone
Central Perforating
canal canal
Endosteum lining
Osteon bony canals and
covering trabeculae
7
Circumferential
lamellae
(a)
Perforating fibers
Lamellae Periosteal blood vessel

Periosteum
Nerve
Vein
Lamellae
Artery
Central
Canaliculus canal
Osteocyte Lacunae
in a lacuna
(b) (c) Interstitial Central Lacuna (with
lamellae canal osteocyte)
Figure 7.3 Microscopic structure of compact bone. (a) Diagram of a pie-shaped

segment of compact bone. (b) Higher-magnification view of a portion of one
osteon. Note the position of osteocytes in lacunae. (c) Light photomicrograph
of a cross-sectional view of an osteon (3203).
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EXERCISE
7 REVIEW SHEET
Overview of the Skeleton
Bone Markings
1. Match the terms in column B with the appropriate description in column A:
Column A Column B
1. sharp, slender process condyle
2. small rounded projection foramen
3. large rounded projection fossa
4. structure supported on neck head
5. armlike projection meatus
6. rounded, convex projection ramus
7. canal-like structure sinus
8. opening through a bone spine
9. shallow depression trochanter
10. air-filled cavity tubercle
11. large, irregularly shaped projection tuberosity
Classification of Bones
2. The four major anatomical classifications of bones are long, short, flat, and irregular. Which category has the least
amount of spongy bone relative to its total volume? ___________________________________________________________
3. Classify each of the bones in the chart below as either long, short, flat, or irregular by placing a check mark in the
appropriate column. Also use a check mark to indicate whether the bone is a part of the axial or the appendicular
skeleton. Use Figure 7.1 as a guide.
Axial Appendicular
Long Short Flat Irregular skeleton skeleton
Sternum
Radius
Calcaneus (tarsal bone)
Parietal bone (cranial bone)
Phalanx (single bone of a digit)
Vertebra
75
76 Review Sheet 7
Gross Anatomy of the Typical Long Bone

4. Use the terms below to identify the structures marked by leader lines and brackets in the diagrams (some terms are
used more than once). After labeling the diagrams, use the listed terms to characterize the statements following the
diagrams.
Key: articular cartilage epiphyseal line periosteum

compact bone epiphysis spongy bone
diaphysis medullary cavity yellow bone marrow
endosteum nutrient artery
1. made almost entirely of compact 4. end portion of a long bone

bone
5. contains yellow bone marrow in
2. site of blood cell formation adult bones
3. fibrous membrane that covers 6. growth plate remnant

the bone
5. What differences between compact and spongy bone can be seen with the naked eye? __________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Review Sheet 7 77
Chemical Composition of Bone

6. What is the function of the organic matrix in bone? ____________________________________________________________
7. Name the important organic bone components. _______________________________________________________________
8. Calcium salts form the bulk of the inorganic material in bone. What is the function of the calcium salts?
9. Which is responsible for bone structure? (circle the appropriate response)
inorganic portion (bone salts) organic portion both contribute
Microscopic Structure of Compact Bone

10. On the photomicrograph of bone below, identify all structures listed in the key to the left.
Key: canaliculi
central canal
lacuna
lamella
11. + The pain in the leg that is referred to as “shin splints” is often caused by microtears in the periosteum and
perforating fibers. These tears lead to inflammation of the periosteum. Considering the type of tissue found in the
periosteum, which cells do you think would be most involved in the repair process?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
12. + In a child with rickets, the bones are not properly calcified. Which treated bone in Activity 4 most closely resem-
bles the bones of a child with rickets? Why? ___________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
EXERCISE
8 The Axial Skeleton

● Intact skull and Beauchene skull □ Identify the bones of the axial skeleton either by examining
● X-ray images of individuals with scoliosis, disarticulated bones or by pointing them out on an articulated
lordosis, and kyphosis (if available) skeleton, and name the important markings on each.
● Articulated skeleton, articulated vertebral
□ Discuss the importance of the intervertebral discs and spinal
column
● Isolated cervical, thoracic, and lumbar
curvatures.
vertebrae; sacrum; and coccyx □ Distinguish the different types of vertebrae.
T
he axial skeleton (the green portion of Figure 7.1 on page 68) can be divided
into three parts: the skull, the vertebral column, and the thoracic cage.
The Skull
The skull is composed of two sets of bones—the cranial bones and the facial
bones. All but one of the bones of the skull are joined by interlocking joints called
sutures. Only the mandible, or lower jawbone, is attached to the rest of the skull
by a freely movable joint. Be sure to observe how many cranial and facial bones
contribute to the orbit (eye socket).
Activity 1
Identifying the Bones of the Adult Skull
The bones of the skull (Figures 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, and 8.4) are described in
Tables 8.1 and 8.2 on pages 80–82. As you read through this material,
identify each bone on a skull.
Note: Important bone markings are listed in the tables for the bones on
which they appear, and each bone name is colored to correspond to the
bone color in the figures.
The Cranium
Eight large flat bones construct the cranium, which encloses and protects the
brain. With the exception of two paired bones (the parietals and the temporals),
all are single bones.
Major Sutures
• Sagittal suture: Occurs where the left and right parietal bones meet superiorly.
• Coronal suture: Located where the parietal bones articulate with the frontal
bone anteriorly.
• Squamous suture: Occurs where a parietal bone and temporal bone meet on
the lateral aspect of the skull.
• Lambdoid suture: Occurs where the parietal bones meet the occipital bone
posteriorly.
79
80 Exercise 8
Coronal suture Frontal bone

Sphenoid bone
Parietal bone (greater wing)
Ethmoid bone
Temporal bone
Lacrimal bone
Lambdoid Lacrimal fossa

suture
Squamous
suture
Nasal bone
Occipital
bone
Zygomatic Zygomatic bone
process
Occipitomastoid Maxilla
suture
External acoustic
meatus
8 Mastoid process Alveolar processes
Styloid process
Condylar process
Mandible
Mandibular notch Mental foramen
Figure 8.1 External Mandibular ramus
anatomy of the right
lateral aspect of the skull. Mandibular angle Coronoid process
Table 8.1A The Axial Skeleton: Cranial Bones and Important Bone Markings
Cranial bone Important markings Description

Frontal (1) N/A Forms the forehead, superior part of the orbit, and the floor of the anterior
Figures 8.1, 8.2, and 8.4 cranial fossa.
Supraorbital foramen (notch) Opening above each orbit allowing blood vessels and nerves to pass.
Parietal (2) N/A Form the superior and lateral aspects of the skull.
Figures 8.1 and 8.2
Temporal (2) N/A Form the inferolateral aspects of the skull and contribute to the middle
Figures 8.1, 8.2, cranial fossa; each has squamous, tympanic, and petrous parts.
and 8.3 Zygomatic process A bridgelike projection that articulates with the zygomatic bone to form the
zygomatic arch.
Mandibular fossa Located on the inferior surface of the zygomatic process; receives the
condylar process of the mandible to form the temporomandibular joint.
External acoustic meatus Canal leading to the middle ear and eardrum.
Styloid process Needlelike projection that serves as an attachment point for ligaments and
muscles of the neck.
Jugular foramen Located where the petrous part of the temporal bone joins the occipital
bone. Forms an opening through which the internal jugular vein and cranial
nerves IX, X, and XI pass.
Carotid canal Opening through which the internal carotid artery passes into the cranial cavity.
Mastoid process Located posterior to the external acoustic meatus; serves as an attachment
point for neck muscles.
Occipital (1) N/A Forms the posterior aspect and most of the base of the skull.
Figures 8.1, 8.2, Foramen magnum Large opening in the base of the bone, which allows the spinal cord to join
and 8.3 with the brain stem.
Occipital condyles Rounded projections lateral to the foramen magnum that articulate with the
first cervical vertebra (atlas).
The number in parentheses ( ) following the bone name indicates the total number of such bones in the body.
The Axial Skeleton 81
Cribriform plate
Ethmoid
Crista galli Frontal bone
bone
Anterior cranial fossa
Cribriform foramina
Lesser wing
Sphenoid Optic canal
Greater wing
Foramen rotundum
Hypophyseal fossa Foramen ovale
of sella turcica
Foramen lacerum
Foramen spinosum
Middle cranial Hypoglossal canal
fossa
Temporal bone
(petrous part)
Internal acoustic
meatus
Jugular foramen
Posterior
cranial fossa 8
Parietal bone
Occipital bone
Foramen magnum
Figure 8.2 Internal anatomy of the inferior portion of the skull, calvaria removed.
Table 8.1B The Axial Skeleton: Cranial Bones and Important Bone Markings
Cranial bone Important markings Description

Sphenoid bone (1) N/A Bat-shaped bone that is described as the keystone bone of the cranium
Figures 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, because it articulates with all other cranial bones.
and 8.4 Greater wings Project laterally from the sphenoid body, forming parts of the middle
cranial fossa and the orbits.
Pterygoid processes Project inferiorly from the greater wings; attachment site for chewing
muscles (pterygoid muscles).
Superior orbital fissures Slits in the orbits providing passage of cranial nerves that control eye
movements (III, IV, VI, and the ophthalmic division of V).
Sella turcica “Turkish saddle” located on the superior surface of the body; the seat of
the saddle, called the hypophyseal fossa, holds the pituitary gland.
Lesser wings Form part of the floor of the anterior cranial fossa and part of the orbit.
Optic canals Openings in the base of the lesser wings; cranial nerve II (optic nerve)
passes through to serve the eye.
Foramen ovale Openings located posterior to the sella turcica; a branch of cranial nerve V
(mandibular division) passes through.
Ethmoid (1) N/A Contributes to the anterior cranial fossa; forms part of the nasal septum
Figures 8.1, 8.2, and the nasal cavity; contributes to the medial wall of the orbit.
and 8.4 Crista galli “Rooster’s comb”; a superior projection that attaches to the dura mater,
helping to secure the brain within the skull.
Cribriform foramina Tiny holes in the cribriform plates that allow for the passage of filaments
of cranial nerve I (olfactory nerve).
Perpendicular plate Inferior projection that forms the superior portion of the nasal septum.
Superior and middle nasal Act as turbinates to improve airflow through the nasal cavity.
conchae
82 Exercise 8
Maxilla Incisive fossa

(palatine process) Intermaxillary suture
Hard
Median palatine suture
palate Palatine bone
(horizontal plate) Infraorbital foramen
Maxilla
Zygomatic bone
Sphenoid bone
(greater wing)
Temporal bone
(zygomatic process)
Foramen ovale
Vomer Foramen spinosum

Foramen lacerum
Mandibular
Carotid canal
fossa
External acoustic meatus
Styloid process
Stylomastoid
Mastoid process foramen
Jugular foramen
Temporal bone
8 (petrous part)
Occipital condyle
Basilar part of the
occipital bone
Inferior nuchal line
Parietal bone Superior nuchal line

External occipital crest Occipital bone
External occipital Foramen magnum
protuberance
Figure 8.3 Inferior view of the skull, mandible removed.
Table 8.2 The Axial Skeleton: Facial Bones and Important Bone Markings (Figures 8.1, 8.3, and 8.4)
Facial bone Important markings Description

Nasal (2) N/A Small rectangular bones forming the bridge of the nose.
Lacrimal (2) N/A Each forms part of the medial orbit in between the maxilla and ethmoid bone.
Lacrimal fossa Houses the lacrimal sac, which helps to drain tears from the nasal cavity.
Zygomatic (2) N/A Commonly called the cheekbones; each forms part of the lateral orbit.
Inferior nasal concha (2) N/A Inferior turbinate; each forms part of the lateral walls of the nasal cavities;
improves the airflow through the nasal cavity.
Palatine (2) N/A Forms the posterior hard palate, part of the nasal cavity, and part of the orbit.
Vomer (1) N/A Thin, blade-shaped bone that forms the inferior nasal septum.
Maxilla (2) N/A Keystone bones because they articulate with all facial bones except the mandible;
form the upper jaw and parts of the palate, orbits, and nasal cavity.
Palatine process Forms the anterior hard palate; meet anteriorly in the intermaxillary suture.
Alveolar process Inferior margin of the maxilla; contains sockets in which the teeth lie.
Mandible (1) N/A The lower jawbone, which articulates with the temporal bone to form the only
freely movable joints in the skull (the temporomandibular joint).
Condylar processes Articulate with the mandibular fossae of the temporal bones.
Coronoid processes “Crown-shaped” portion of the ramus for muscle attachment.
Mandibular notches Separate the condylar process and the coronoid process.
Body Horizontal portion that forms the chin.
Ramus Vertical extension of the body.
Alveolar process Superior margin of the mandible; contains sockets in which the teeth lie.
Frontal bone
Parietal bone Glabella
Frontonasal suture
Squamous part
of frontal bone
Supraorbital foramen
Nasal bone (notch)
Supraorbital margin
Sphenoid bone Superior orbital
(greater wing) fissure
Temporal bone
Optic canal
Ethmoid bone
Inferior orbital
Lacrimal bone fissure
Zygomatic bone
Middle nasal concha
Infraorbital foramen Ethmoid 8
Perpendicular plate bone
Maxilla
Inferior nasal concha
Vomer
Mandible
Alveolar processes
Mental
foramen
Mandibular Figure 8.4 Anterior view of the skull.

symphysis
Facial Bones Hyoid Bone

The facial bones form the base for the muscles of the face, The hyoid bone is not really considered or counted as a skull
which allow us to show our feelings to the world and to chew bone. Located in the throat above the larynx (Figure 8.5), it
our food. Of the 14 bones composing the face, 12 are paired. is the point of attachment for many tongue and neck muscles.
Only the mandible and vomer are single bones. The hyoid bone is horseshoe-shaped with a body and two
pairs of horns, or cornua.
Paranasal Sinuses
Five skull bones—the frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid, and paired
maxillary bones—contain mucus-lined, air-filled cavities called
paranasal sinuses (Figure 8.6). These paranasal sinuses lighten
facial bones and may act as resonance chambers for speech. The
maxillary sinus is the largest of the sinuses found in the skull.
Activity 2
Greater horn Palpating Skull Markings
Lesser horn Palpate the following areas on yourself. Place a check
mark in the boxes as you locate the skull markings.
□ Zygomatic bone and arch. Run your hand anteriorly
Body from your ear toward your eye and feel the zygomatic
arch at the high point of your cheek.
□ Mastoid process (the rough area behind your ear).
Figure 8.5 Hyoid bone.
84 Exercise 8
□ Temporomandibular joint. Place your finger directly The Vertebral Column

in front of the external auditory meatus, and open and
close your jaws to feel this joint in action. The vertebral column, also called the spine, extends from
□ Greater wing of sphenoid. Find the indented area
the skull to the pelvis. It forms the body’s major axial support,
and it surrounds and protects the delicate spinal cord.
posterior to the orbit and superior to the zygomatic arch.
The vertebral column consists of 24 single bones called
□ Mandibular angle (most inferior and posterior aspect vertebrae and two bones that are formed of fused vertebrae
of your lower jaw). (the sacrum and coccyx) that are connected in such a way as
□ Nasal bones. Run your index finger and thumb along to provide a flexible curved structure (Figure 8.7). Of the 24
opposite sides of the bridge of your nose until they “slip” single vertebrae, the 7 bones of the neck are called cervical
medially at the inferior end of the nasal bones. vertebrae; the next 12 are thoracic vertebrae; and the 5 sup-
porting the lower back are lumbar vertebrae. Remembering
C1
Frontal
sinus
2
Ethmoidal
air cells 3
Cervical curvature (concave)
(sinus) 4 7 vertebrae, C1 – C7
8 Sphenoidal 5
C7 (vertebra
sinus 6
prominens)
Maxillary 7
sinus T1
Spinous
2 process
3 Transverse
processes
4
5
Thoracic curvature
6
(convex)
7 12 vertebrae,
T1 – T12
8
9 Intervertebral
(a)
discs
10
11 Intervertebral
foramen
12
Frontal L1
sinus
Ethmoidal 2
air cells Lumbar curvature
(sinus) 3 (concave)
Sphenoidal 5 vertebrae, L1 – L5
sinus 4
Maxillary
sinus 5
Sacral curvature
(convex)
Sacrum
5 fused vertebrae
Coccyx
4 fused vertebrae
Anterior view Right lateral view

(b)
Figure 8.7 The vertebral column. Notice the curvatures
Figure 8.6 Paranasal sinuses. (a) Anterior “see-through” in the lateral view. (Convex and concave refer to the curva-
view. (b) As seen in a medial view of the head. ture of the posterior aspect of the vertebral column.)
common mealtimes for breakfast, lunch, and dinner (7 a.m.,

What might happen to the spinal nerves in areas of
12 noon, and 5 p.m.) may help you to remember the number
malpositioned, or “slipped,” discs?
of bones in each region.
The individual vertebrae are separated by pads of fibro-
cartilage, intervertebral discs, that absorb shocks while pro-
viding the spine flexibility. Each disc has two major regions:
a central gelatinous region that behaves like a rubber ball and Structure of a Typical Vertebra
an outer ring of tough collagen fibers that stabilizes the disc. Although they differ in size and specific features, all verte-
As a person ages, the water content of the discs decreases and brae have some common features (Figure 8.9).
the discs become thinner and less compressible.
The discs and the S-shaped or springlike construction of Body: Rounded central weight-bearing portion of the verte-
the vertebral column help prevent shock to the head during bra; faces anteriorly in the human vertebral column.
walking and running and make the body trunk flexible. Vertebral arch: Composed of two pedicles and two laminae.
Vertebral foramen: Opening enclosed by the body and ver-
tebral arch through which the spinal cord passes.
Activity 3
Transverse processes: Two lateral projections from the ver-
Examining Spinal Curvatures tebral arch.
1. Observe the normal curves of the vertebral column Spinous process: Single posterior projection formed at the
in your laboratory specimen, and compare it to the fig- junction of the two laminae.
ure of the vertebral column (Figure 8.7). Then examine Superior and inferior articular processes: Paired projec- 8
the figure depicting three abnormal spinal curvatures— tions lateral to the vertebral foramen that enable adjacent
scoliosis, kyphosis, and lordosis (Figure 8.8). These vertebrae to articulate with one another.
abnormalities may result from disease or poor posture.
Also examine X-ray images showing these same condi-
Figures 8.10 and 8.11 show how specific vertebrae differ;
tions in a living person, if they are available.
refer to them as you read the following sections.
2. Next, using an articulated vertebral column (or an Cervical Vertebrae
articulated skeleton), examine the freedom of movement
The seven cervical vertebrae (C1 through C7) form the neck
between two lumbar vertebrae separated by an
portion of the vertebral column (Figure 8.10a). The first two
intervertebral disc.
cervical vertebrae (atlas and axis) are modified to perform spe-
When the disc is properly positioned, are the spinal cord cial functions. The atlas (C1) lacks a body, and its lateral pro-
or peripheral nerves impaired in any way? cesses contain large depressions on their superior surfaces that
receive the occipital condyles of the skull. This joint enables
you to nod “yes.” The axis (C2) acts as a pivot for rotation of
Remove the disc, and put the two vertebrae back together. the atlas (and skull) above. Its large vertical process, the dens
What happens to the nerve? acts as the pivot point. The joint between C1 and C2 allows you
to rotate your head from side to side to indicate “no.”
Posterior
5RKPQWU
RTQEGUU
6TCPUXGTUG
RTQEGUU
5WRGTKQT
Vertebral
CTVKEWNCT
arch
HCEGV
r.COKPC CPF
RTQEGUU
r|2GFKENG
8GTVGDTCN
HQTCOGP
Body
Anterior
Scoliosis Kyphosis Lordosis

Figure 8.9 A typical vertebra, superior view. Inferior
Figure 8.8 Abnormal spinal curvatures. articulating surfaces not shown.
86 Exercise 8
C1 Superior View Right Lateral View

C2
Superior articular
process and facet Spinous
process Spinous Superior Body
Inferior process articular
articular Vertebral process
process foramen
Inferior Transverse
articular process
Transverse Transverse process
(a) Cervical foramen Body process and facet
Spinous process
Transverse Superior articular Superior costal
process process and facet facet (for head
Vertebral of rib)
8 foramen Transverse
process Body
Transverse
Transverse costal facet
costal facet (for tubercle
(for tubercle of rib)
of rib)
Superior
articular Inferior Inferior costal
Superior process notch facet (for head
costal facet and facet of rib)
(for head of rib)
Spinous
(b) Thoracic Body process
Spinous process
Transverse
Vertebral Transverse Superior process
foramen process articular
process Body
Inferior notch
Superior
articular Inferior articular
Spinous process and
process
Body process facet
(c) Lumbar and facet
Figure 8.10 Regional characteristics of vertebrae.
The more typical cervical vertebrae (C3 through C7) are

the smallest, lightest vertebrae. The vertebral foramen is Activity 4
triangular and the spinous process is short and often bifid, or
split, into two branches. Transverse processes of the cervi- Palpating the Spinous Processes
cal vertebrae contain foramina through which the vertebral Run your fingers inferiorly along the midline of the back
arteries pass superiorly to the brain. Any time you see these of your neck to feel the spinous processes of the cervical
foramina in a vertebra, you can be sure that it is a cervical vertebrae. The spine of C7 is especially prominent, which
vertebra. is why this vertebra is sometimes called the vertebra
prominens.
Thoracic Vertebrae The Sacrum

The 12 thoracic vertebrae (T1 through T12) have a larger body The sacrum (Figure 8.11), formed from the fusion of five
than the cervical vertebrae (Figure 8.10b). The body is some- vertebrae, is the posterior border of the pelvis. Superiorly it
what heart shaped, with two small articulating surfaces, or articulates with L5, and inferiorly it connects with the coccyx.
costal facets, on each side (one superior, the other inferior) that The median sacral crest is a remnant of the spinous pro-
articulate with the heads of the corresponding ribs. The verte- cesses of the fused vertebrae. The winglike alae articulate lat-
bral foramen is oval or round, and the spinous process is long, erally with the hip bones, forming the sacroiliac joints (see the
with a sharp downward hook. These vertebrae form the tho- auricular surface in Figure 8.11). The anterior and posterior
racic part of the spine and the posterior aspect of the thoracic sacral foramina are additional evidence that the sacrum is
cage. They are the only vertebrae that articulate with the ribs. formed of separate fused vertebrae and serve as passageways
for blood vessels and nerves. The vertebral canal continues
Lumbar Vertebrae inside the sacrum as the sacral canal and terminates near the
The five lumbar vertebrae (L1 through L5) have massive coccyx in the sacral hiatus. The sacral promontory is an
blocklike bodies and short, thick, hatchet-shaped spinous pro- important anatomical landmark for obstetricians.
cesses extending directly backward (Figure 8.10c). Because
the lumbar region is subjected to the most stress, these are The Coccyx
also the sturdiest of the vertebrae. The coccyx (see Figure 8.11) results from the fusion of
three to five small, irregularly shaped vertebrae. Literally
the human tailbone, it is a remnant of the tail that other
Activity 5 vertebrates have. 8
Examining Vertebral Structure

Obtain examples of each type of vertebra and examine
them carefully, comparing them to the figures (Figures 8.10
and 8.11) and to each other.
Sacral promontory Facet of

Sacral Body superior articular
canal process
Ala
Body of Auricular
first surface
sacral
vertebra
Lateral
sacral
Median crest
sacral
Transverse ridges crest
(sites of vertebral Anterior
fusion) sacral Posterior
foramina sacral
Apex foramina
Sacral
hiatus
Coccyx Coccyx
Figure 8.11 Sacrum and coccyx.

88 Exercise 8
The Thoracic Cage

The thoracic cage is composed of the sternum, ribs, and of the thoracic vertebrae. They then curve downward and
thoracic vertebrae (Figure 8.12). It forms a protective cone- toward the anterior body surface. The first seven pairs, called
shaped enclosure around the organs of the thoracic cavity, the true ribs, attach directly to the sternum by their “own”
including the heart and lungs. costal cartilages. The next five pairs are called false ribs. Of
these, rib pairs 8–10 have indirect cartilage attachments to the
The Sternum sternum. The last two pairs, also called floating ribs, have no
The sternum (breastbone), a typical flat bone, is a result of sternal attachment.
the fusion of three bones. From superior to inferior, these
are the manubrium, body, and xiphoid process. The sternum Activity 6
is attached to the first seven pairs of ribs. The manubrium
looks like the knot of a tie; it articulates with the clavicle (col- Examining the Relationship Between Ribs
larbone) laterally. The body forms most of the sternum. The
xiphoid process, at the inferior end of the sternum, lies at the
and Vertebrae
level of the fifth intercostal space. First, take a deep breath to expand your chest. Notice
how your ribs seem to move outward and how your
The Ribs sternum rises. Then examine an articulated skeleton
to observe the relationship between the ribs and the
8 Twelve pairs of ribs form the walls of the thoracic cage (see
vertebrae.
Figure 8.12). All ribs articulate posteriorly with the vertebral
column at two locations, the body and transverse processes
Jugular notch
Clavicular notch
Manubrium
Sternal angle
Body
Sternum
Xiphisternal
True joint
ribs
(1–7) Xiphoid
process
False
ribs
(8–12)
Intercostal
spaces
L1
Floating Vertebra Costal cartilage
ribs (11, 12) Costal margin
Figure 8.12 The thoracic cage, anterior view. (Costal cartilages are shown in
light blue.)
EXERCISE
8 REVIEW SHEET
The Axial Skeleton
The Skull
1. The skull is one of the major components of the axial skeleton. Name the other two.
_________________________________________________ and ________________________________________________________
What structures does each of these component areas protect?
2. Define suture: _______________________________________________________________________________________________
3. With one exception, the skull bones are joined by sutures. Name the exception. _________________________________
4. What are the four major sutures of the skull, and what bones do they connect?
5. Name the eight bones that form the cranium. (Remember to include left and right.)
6. Give two possible functions of the sinuses. ____________________________________________________________________
7. What is the bony orbit? ______________________________________________________________________________________
8. Why can the sphenoid bone be called the keystone bone of the cranium? _______________________________________
89
90 Review Sheet 8
9. Match the bone names in column B with the descriptions in column A. (Some responses may be used more than
once.)
Column A Column B
1. bone forming anterior cranium ethmoid
2. cheekbone frontal
3. form the superior and lateral cranium hyoid
4. bony skeleton of nose lacrimal
5. posterior hard palate mandible
6. bone pair united by the sagittal suture maxilla
7. site of jugular foramen and carotid canal nasal
8. contains a “saddle” that houses the pituitary gland occipital
9. allows tears to drain palatine
10. forms most of hard palate parietal
11. superior and middle nasal conchae are part of this bone sphenoid
12. site of external acoustic meatus temporal
13. has greater and lesser wings vomer
14. its “holey” plate allows olfactory fibers to pass zygomatic
15. facial bone that contains a paranasal sinus
, , and 16. three cranial bones containing

paranasal sinuses
17. its oval-shaped protrusions articulate with the atlas
18. forms the chin
19. not really a skull bone
20. spinal cord passes through a large foramen in this bone
21. inferior part of nasal septum
, 22. contain sockets bearing teeth

Review Sheet 8 91
10. Using choices from the numbered key to the right, identify all bones and bone markings provided with various
leader lines in the two following photographs. A colored dot at the end of a leader line indicates a bone. Leader lines
without a colored dot indicate bone markings. Note that vomer, sphenoid bone, and zygomatic bone will each be
labeled twice.
Key: 1. alvelolar processes
2. carotid canal
3. ethmoid bone (perpendicular plate)
4. external occipital protuberance
5. foramen lacerum
6. foramen magnum
7. foramen ovale
8. frontal bone
9. glabella
10. incisive fossa
11. inferior nasal concha
12. inferior orbital fissure
13. infraorbital foramen
14. jugular foramen
15. lacrimal bone
16. mandible
17. mandibular fossa
18. mandibular symphysis
19. mastoid process
20. maxilla
21. mental foramen
22. nasal bone

23. occipital bone
24. occipital condyle
25. palatine bone
26. palatine process of maxilla
27. parietal bone
28. sphenoid bone
29. styloid process
30. stylomastoid foramen
31. superior orbital fissure
32. supraorbital foramen
33. temporal bone
34. vomer
35. zygomatic bone
36. zygomatic process

92 Review Sheet 8
The Vertebral Column

11. Using the key terms, correctly identify the vertebral areas in the diagram.
Key:
body
lamina
pedicle
spinous process
superior articular facet
transverse process
vertebral arch
vertebral foramen
12. The distinguishing characteristics of the vertebrae that make up the vertebral column are noted below. Correctly
identify each described structure or region by choosing a response from the key.
Key: atlas coccyx sacrum

axis lumbar vertebra thoracic vertebra
cervical vertebra—typical
1. vertebra type with bifid (forked) spinous process
2. its dens acts as a pivot point
3. bears facets for articulation with ribs; forms part of thoracic cage
4. forms a joint with the hip bone
5. massive vertebra; weight supporting
6. “tail bone”; fused vertebrae
7. articulates with the occipital condyles
8. five components; unfused
9. twelve components; unfused
10. type of vertebra where each transverse process has a foramen

Review Sheet 8 93
13. Identify as specifically as possible each of the vertebrae types shown in the diagrams below. Also identify and label
the following markings as required for each type of vertebra: transverse processes, spinous process, body, superior
articular processes, vertebral foramen, and superior costal facet.
14. What kind of tissue makes up the intervertebral discs? _________________________________________________________
15. What is a herniated disc? ____________________________________________________________________________________
What problems might it cause? _______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
16. Use the key to label the structures on the thoracic region of the vertebral column.
Key: a. intervertebral discs

b. intervertebral foramina
c. spinous prosesses
d. thoracic vertebrae
e. transverse processes
94 Review Sheet 8
The Thoracic Cage

17. The major components of the thorax (excluding the vertebral column) are the and
the .
18. What is the general shape of the thoracic cage? _______________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
19. Using the letters of the terms at the right, identify the regions and landmarks of the thoracic cage.
a. body
b. clavicular notch
c. costal cartilage
d. false ribs
e. floating ribs
f. jugular notch
g. manubrium
h. sternal angle
i. sternum
j. true ribs
k. xiphisternal joint
l. xiphoid process
L1
Vertebra
20. + As we age, we often become shorter. Explain why this might occur. ________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
21. + The xiphoid process is often missing from the sternum in bone collections. Hypothesize why it might be
missing. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
EXERCISE
9 The Appendicular Skeleton

● Articulated skeletons □ Identify the bones of the pectoral and pelvic girdles and their
● Disarticulated skeletons (complete) attached limbs.
● Articulated pelves (male and female for □ Compare and contrast the relative functions and stability of the
comparative study)
two girdles.
● X-ray images of bones of the appendicular
skeleton □ Differentiate between a male and a female pelvis.
□ Arrange unmarked, disarticulated bones in proper relative

position to form a skeleton.
T
he appendicular skeleton (see Figure 7.1 on page 68) is composed of the 126
bones of the appendages and the pectoral and pelvic girdles, which attach
the limbs to the axial skeleton. Although, the upper and lower limbs differ
in their functions and mobility, they have the same basic plan. Each limb is com-
posed of three major segments connected by freely movable joints.
Activity 1
Examining and Identifying Bones of the Appendicular Skeleton
Examine each of the bones described in this exercise, and identify charac-
teristic bone markings of each (see Tables 9.1–9.5). The markings help you
to determine whether a bone is the right or left member of its pair. This is
very important because before completing this laboratory exercise, you will
be constructing your own skeleton. When corresponding X-ray images are
available, compare the actual bone specimen to its X-ray image.
Bones of the Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb

The Pectoral (Shoulder) Girdle
The paired pectoral, or shoulder, girdles (Figures 9.1 and 9.2 and Table 9.1)
each consist of two bones—a clavicle and a scapula. The shoulder girdles anchor
the upper limbs to the axial skeleton and provide attachment points for many
trunk and neck muscles.
The shoulder girdle is exceptionally light and allows the upper limb a degree
of mobility that is not present elsewhere in the body. This flexibility comes at a
price. The humerus is very susceptible to dislocation, and fracture of the clavicle
affects mobility of the entire upper limb. This is because the clavicle acts as a
brace to hold the scapula and humerus away from the thoracic cage.
The Arm
The arm (Figure 9.3, page 98, and Table 9.2) consists of a single bone—the
humerus, a typical long bone. Immediately inferior to the head is a slight con-
striction, the anatomical neck. Further down the humerus is the surgical neck,
so named because it is the most frequently fractured part of the humerus. Proxi-
mally its head fits into the shallow glenoid cavity of the scapula.
95
96 Exercise 9
Clavicle
Acromio- Acromial Sternal Sternoclavicular

clavicular (lateral) end (medial) end joint
joint
Manubrium
Acromion of sternum
of scapula
Coracoid
process
Scapula
Humerus
Figure 9.1 Bones of the right pectoral (shoulder) girdle. Pectoral girdle is
articulated to show the relationship of the girdle to the bones of the thorax
and arm; the scapula is darker.
Acromion Suprascapular notch Superior border

Suprascapular notch Coracoid process Acromion
Coracoid
process Superior
angle
Glenoid
cavity
Supraspinous
fossa
Glenoid
Subscapular cavity
Spine of
fossa at lateral
scapula
angle
Infraspinous
fossa
Lateral (axillary) border
Medial Lateral (axillary)

(vertebral) border border
Inferior angle
Figure 9.2 Right scapula.

The Appendicular Skeleton 97
Table 9.1 The Appendicular Skeleton: The Pectoral (Shoulder) Girdle (Figures 9.1 and 9.2)
Bone Important markings Description

Clavicle (“collarbone”) Acromial (lateral) end Flattened lateral end that articulates with the acromion of the scapula to form
the acromioclavicular (AC) joint
Sternal (medial) end Oval or triangular medial end that articulates with the sternum to form the
lateral walls of the jugular notch (see Figure 8.12, p. 88)
Scapula (“shoulder blade”) Superior border Short, sharp border located superiorly
Medial (vertebral) border Thin, long border that runs roughly parallel to the vertebral column
Lateral (axillary) border Thick border that is closest to the armpit and ends superiorly with the glenoid cavity
Glenoid cavity A shallow socket that articulates with the head of the humerus
Spine A ridge of bone on the posterior surface that is easily felt through the skin
Acromion The lateral end of the spine of the scapula that articulates with the clavicle to
form the AC joint
Coracoid process Projects above the glenoid cavity as a hooklike process; helps attach the biceps
brachii muscle
Suprascapular notch Small notch located medial to the coracoid process that allows for the passage
of blood vessels and a nerve 9
Subscapular fossa A large shallow depression that forms the anterior surface of the scapula
Supraspinous fossa A depression located superior to the spine of the scapula
Infraspinous fossa A broad depression located inferior to the spine of the scapula
Table 9.2 The Appendicular Skeleton: The Upper Limb (Figure 9.3)
Humerus Greater tubercle Large lateral prominence; site of the attachment of rotator cuff muscles
(only bone of the arm) Lesser tubercle Small medial prominence; site of attachment of rotator cuff muscles
Intertubercular sulcus A groove separating the greater and lesser tubercles; the tendon of the biceps
brachii lies in this groove
Deltoid tuberosity A roughened area about midway down the shaft of the lateral humerus; site of
attachment of the deltoid muscle
Radial fossa Small lateral depression; receives the head of the radius when the forearm is flexed
Coronoid fossa Small medial anterior depression; receives the coronoid process of the ulna when
the forearm is flexed
Capitulum A rounded lateral condyle that articulates with the radius
Trochlea A flared medial condyle that articulates with the ulna
Lateral epicondyle Small condyle proximal to the capitulum
Medial epicondyle Rough condyle proximal to the trochlea
Olecranon fossa Large distal posterior depression that accommodates the olecranon of the ulna
Radius Head Proximal end of the radius that forms part of the proximal radioulnar joint and
(lateral bone of articulates with the capitulum of the humerus
the forearm in the Radial tuberosity Medial prominence just below the head of the radius; site of attachment of the
anatomical position) biceps brachii
Radial styloid process Distal prominence; site of attachment for ligaments that travel to the wrist
Ulna Olecranon Prominent process on the posterior proximal ulna; articulates with the olecranon
(medial bone of fossa of the humerus when the forearm is extended
the forearm in the Trochlear notch Deep notch that separates the olecranon and the coronoid process; articulates with
anatomical position) the trochlea of the humerus
Coronoid process Shaped like a point on a crown; articulates with the trochlea of the humerus
Head Slim distal end of the ulna; forms part of the distal radioulnar joint
Ulnar styloid process Distal pointed projection; located medial to the head of the ulna
98 Exercise 9
Greater Radial Olecranon

Head of Greater
tubercle notch of
humerus tubercle the ulna
Lesser Head Trochlear
tubercle notch
Anatomical Neck
neck
Inter- Coronoid
Surgical Radial
tubercular process
neck tuberosity
sulcus Proximal
radioulnar
joint
Interosseous
Radial groove membrane
Deltoid Deltoid
tuberosity tuberosity
Ulna
Medial Radius
supracondylar
ridge
Ulnar notch
Lateral Coronoid
supracondylar fossa
ridge Head
Olecranon of ulna
Radial
fossa fossa
Ulnar
Lateral Medial styloid
epicondyle epicondyle process
Lateral
Capitulum epicondyle Radial styloid Distal
Trochlea process radioulnar
joint
(c) Anterior view
Figure 9.3 Bones of the right arm and forearm. (a) Humerus, anterior view.
(b) Humerus, posterior view. (c) Anterior view of bones of the forearm, the radius
and the ulna.
The Forearm with the carpals of the wrist; their heads articulate with the
phalanges of the fingers distally.
Two bones, the radius and the ulna, form the skeleton of the Like the bones of the palm, the fingers are numbered from
forearm (see Figure 9.3c and Table 9.2). When the body is I to V, beginning from the thumb side of the hand. The 14
in the anatomical position, the radius is lateral, the ulna is bones of the fingers, or digits of each hand, are miniature long
medial, and the radius and ulna are parallel. bones, called phalanges (singular: phalanx) as noted above.
Each finger has three phalanges (proximal, middle, and distal)
The Hand except the thumb, which has only two (proximal and distal).
The skeleton of the hand (Figure 9.4) includes three groups
of bones: the carpals (wrist bones), metacarpals (bones of the
palm), and phalanges (bones of the fingers). Activity 2
The carpus, or wrist, is the proximal portion of the hand. The
eight bones composing the carpus, the carpals, are arranged in Palpating the Surface Anatomy of the Pectoral
two irregular rows of four bones each. These bones are illustrated Girdle and the Upper Limb
in Figure 9.4. In the proximal row (lateral to medial) are the
Identify the following bone markings on the skin surface
scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum, and pisiform. In the distal row (lateral
of the upper limb. You will probably want to observe
to medial) are the trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, and hamate.
and palpate these bone markings on your lab partner,
The metacarpals, numbered I to V from the thumb side
particularly because many can be seen only from the
of the hand, radiate out from the wrist like spokes to form
the palm of the hand. The bases of the metacarpals articulate
□ Radial styloid process: Find this projection at the

distal end of the radius (lateral aspect). It is most easily
Phalanges located by moving the hand medially at the wrist. Next,
r Distal move your fingers just medially onto the anterior wrist.
r Middle Press firmly, and then let up slightly on the pressure.
r Proximal □ Metacarpophalangeal joints (knuckles): Clench your
fist, and find the first set of flexed-joint protrusions be-
yond the wrist—these are your metacarpophalangeal
joints, which form the knuckles.
Metacarpals Bones of the Pelvic Girdle and

r I–V IV III II Sesamoid
V bones Lower Limb
Carpals I
r Hamate Carpals The Pelvic (Hip) Girdle
r Capitate r Trapezium
r Pisiform r Trapezoid As with the bones of the pectoral girdle and upper limb, pay
r Scaphoid
particular attention to bone markings needed to identify right 9
r Triquetrum
and left bones.
r Lunate
The pelvic girdle, or hip girdle (Figures 9.5 and 9.6
and Table 9.3), is formed by the two hip bones (also called
Ulna Radius the ossa coxae, or coxal bones). The two hip bones together
with the sacrum and coccyx form the pelvis, or bony pelvis.
Unlike the bones of the shoulder girdle, those of the pelvic
Figure 9.4 Bones of the right hand, anterior view. girdle are heavy and massive, and they attach securely to the
axial skeleton. The sockets for the heads of the femurs (thigh
bones) are deep and heavily reinforced by ligaments, ensuring
a stable, strong limb attachment. Here, security and the ability
posterior aspect. Place a check mark in the boxes as you to bear weight are more important than mobility and flexibility.
locate the bone markings. Each hip bone is a result of the fusion of three bones—
□ Clavicle: Palpate the clavicle along its entire length the ilium, ischium, and pubis.
from sternum to shoulder. Where the clavicle joins the
The rami of the pubic bone anteriorly and the ischium
sternum, identify the rigid sternoclavicular joint.
posteriorly forms a bar of bone enclosing the obturator
foramen, through which blood vessels and nerves run from
□ Acromioclavicular (AC) joint: At the high point of the the pelvic cavity into the thigh. The two pubic bones meet
shoulder, find the junction point between the clavicle anteriorly at a joint called the pubic symphysis.
and the acromion of the scapula. The ilium, ischium, and pubis unite at the deep hemi-
□ Spine of the scapula: Extend your arm at the shoulder spherical socket called the acetabulum (literally, “vinegar
so that your scapula moves posteriorly. As you do this, cup”), which receives the head of the thigh bone.
the spine of your scapula will be seen as a winglike pro-
trusion on your posterior thorax.
Activity 3
□ Medial and lateral epicondyles of the humerus: Feel
the medial projection (epicondyle) at the distal end of the Palpating the Surface Anatomy
humerus. The ulnar nerve, which runs behind the medial
of the Pelvic Girdle
epicondyle, is responsible for the tingling, painful sensa-
tion felt when you hit your “funny bone.” Now run your Locate and palpate the following bone markings on
hand to the lateral side of the humerus at the same level. yourself and/or your lab partner. Place a check mark in
This is the lateral epicondyle of the humerus. the boxes as you locate the bone markings.
□ Olecranon of the ulna: Work your elbow—flexing and □ Iliac crest: Rest your hands on your hips—they will be
extending—as you palpate its posterior aspect to feel the overlying the iliac crests.
olecranon of the ulna moving in and out of the olecranon □ Anterior superior iliac spine: Trace the crest anteriorly
fossa on the backside of the humerus. to the anterior superior iliac spine. This bone marking
□ Ulnar styloid process: With the hand in the anatomi- is easily felt in almost everyone and is clearly visible
cal position, feel out this small projection on the medial through the skin of very slim people.
aspect at the distal end of the ulna.
100 Exercise 9
Base of sacrum
Iliac crest
Sacroiliac
joint
Iliac fossa Anterior
superior iliac
spine
Sacral
llium promontory
Hip bone Anterior

(coxal bone inferior iliac
Sacrum spine
or os coxae)
Ischial spine
Pubis Coccyx Pelvic brim
Acetabulum
Pubic tubercle
9 Ischium Pubic crest
Pubic symphysis
Pubic arch
Figure 9.5 Bones of the pelvic girdle.
Ilium
Anterior gluteal Ala
line
Posterior Iliac crest

gluteal line
Anterior
superior
Posterior iliac spine
superior Inferior
iIiac spine gluteal line
Anterior inferior
Posterior inferior iliac spine
iliac spine
Acetabulum
Greater sciatic
notch
Ischial body Superior pubic
ramus
Ischial spine
Pubic body
Lesser sciatic
notch Pubis
Ischium
Ischial
tuberosity
Obturator Inferior pubic
Ischial ramus foramen ramus
Figure 9.6 Right hip bone.

Table 9.3 The Appendicular Skeleton: The Pelvic (Hip) Girdle (Figures 9.5 and 9.6)
Ilium Iliac crest Thick superior margin of bone

Anterior superior iliac spine The blunt anterior end of the iliac crest
Posterior superior iliac spine The sharp posterior end of the iliac crest
Greater sciatic notch Deep notch located inferior to the posterior inferior iliac spine; allows
the sciatic nerve to enter the thigh
Auricular surface Rough medial surface that articulates with the auricular surface of the
sacrum, forming the sacroiliac joint
Ischium (“sit-down” bone) Ischial tuberosity Rough projection that receives the weight of our body when we are sitting
Ischial spine Located superior to the ischial tuberosity and projects medially into the
pelvic cavity
Lesser sciatic notch A small notch located inferior to the ischial spine
Pubis Superior pubic ramus Superior extension of the body of the pubis
Inferior pubic ramus Inferior extension of the body of the pubis; articulates with the ischium
9
Comparison of the Male and Female Pelves The Thigh

Although bones of males are usually larger and heavier, the The femur, or thigh bone (Figure 9.7a and b and
male and female skeletons are very similar. The outstand- Table 9.5A), is the only bone of the thigh. It is the heaviest,
ing exception to this generalization is pelvic structure. The strongest bone in the body. Its ball-like head articulates with
female pelvis is modified for childbearing. Generally speak- the hip bone via the deep, secure socket of the acetabulum.
ing, the female pelvis is wider, shallower, lighter, and rounder The patella, or kneecap, is a triangular sesamoid bone
than that of the male. The major differences between the male enclosed in the quadriceps tendon that secures the anterior
and female pelves are summarized in Table 9.4. thigh to the tibia.
The pelvic brim is a continuous oval ridge of bone that
runs along the pubic symphysis, pubic crests, arcuate lines, The Leg
sacral alae, and sacral promontory. The false pelvis is that
portion superior to the pelvic brim; it is bounded by the ilia Two bones, the tibia and the fibula, form the skeleton of the
laterally and the sacrum and lumbar vertebrae posteriorly leg (Figure 9.7c and Table 9.5B, page 104). The tibia, or
(Figure 9.5). The false pelvis supports the abdominal viscera, shinbone, is the larger, medial, weight-bearing bone of the leg.
but it does not restrict childbirth in any way. The true pelvis The fibula, which lies parallel to the tibia, takes no part
is the region inferior to the pelvic brim that is almost entirely in forming the knee joint. Its proximal head articulates with
surrounded by bone. Its posterior boundary is the sacrum. The the lateral condyle of the tibia.
ilia, ischia, and pubic bones define the limits of the true pelvis
laterally and anteriorly. The Foot
The dimensions of the true pelvis, particularly its inlet The bones of the foot include the 7 tarsal bones forming the
and outlet, are critical if delivery of a baby is to be uncom- ankle; 5 metatarsals, which form the instep; and 14 pha-
plicated, and they are carefully measured by the obstetrician. langes, which form the toes (Figure 9.8, page 104). Body
The pelvic inlet is the opening delineated by the pelvic brim. weight is concentrated on the two largest tarsals—the calca-
The pelvic outlet is the inferior margin of the true pelvis. It is neus (heel bone) and the talus, which lies between the tibia
bounded anteriorly by the pubic bones, laterally by the ischia, and the calcaneus. The metatarsals are numbered I through
and posteriorly by the sacrum and coccyx. Because both the V, medial to lateral. Like the fingers of the hand, each toe has
coccyx and the ischial spines protrude into the outlet open- three phalanges except the great toe, which has two.
ing, a sharply angled coccyx or large, sharp ischial spines can
dramatically narrow the outlet. The largest dimension of the
outlet is the anterior-posterior diameter.
Activity 4
Comparing Male and Female Pelves
Examine Table 9.4 and, if possible, both a male and a
female pelvis. Pay particular attention to differences in
the relative size and shape of the inlet, ischial spines, and
sacrum, and to the angle of the pubic arch.
102 Exercise 9
Table 9.4 Comparison of the Male and Female Pelves
Characteristic Female Male

General structure and Tilted forward; adapted for childbearing; true pelvis Tilted less far forward; adapted for support of a
functional modifications defines the birth canal; cavity of the true pelvis is male’s heavier build and stronger muscles; cavity
broad, shallow, and has a greater capacity of the true pelvis is narrow and deep
Bone thickness Bones lighter, thinner, and smoother Bones heavier and thicker, and markings are more
prominent
Acetabula Smaller; farther apart Larger; closer together
Pubic arch Broader (80° to 90°); more rounded Angle is more acute (50° to 60°)
Anterior view
9 Pelvic brim
Pubic arch
Sacrum Wider; shorter; sacral curvature is accentuated Narrow; longer; sacral promontory
projects anteriorly
Coccyx More movable; projects inferiorly Less movable; projects anteriorly
Greater sciatic notch Wide and shallow Narrow and deep
Left lateral view
Pelvic inlet Wider; oval from side to side Narrow; basically heart shaped
Pelvic outlet Wider; ischial spines shorter, farther apart and Narrower; ischial spines longer, sharper, and point
everted more medially
Posteroinferior view
Pelvic
outlet
Intercondylar Medial
eminence condyle
Neck Fovea
capitis Greater Lateral
trochanter condyle
Head
Head
Superior
Inter- tibiofibular Tibial
Lesser trochanter trochanteric joint tuberosity
crest
Intertrochanteric
line
Gluteal tuberosity
Interosseous
membrane
Linea aspera Anterior

border
9
Fibula Tibia
Medial and Lateral

lateral supra- condyle
condylar lines
Intercondylar fossa Lateral

epicondyle
Lateral Medial condyle

condyle
Lateral Adductor tubercle
epicondyle
Inferior
tibiofibular
Medial joint
epicondyle Medial
Patellar Lateral malleolus
surface malleolus Articular
surface
(a) Anterior view (b) Posterior view (c) Anterior view
Figure 9.7 Bones of the right thigh and leg. (a) Femur (thigh bone), anterior view.
(b) Femur, posterior view. (c) Tibia and fibula of the leg, anterior view.
Table 9.5A The Appendicular Skeleton: The Lower Limb (Figure 9.7)

Femur (thigh bone) Neck Weakest part of the femur, the usual fracture site of a “broken hip”
Greater trochanter Large lateral projection; serves as a site for muscle attachment on the
proximal femur
Lesser trochanter Large posteromedial projection; serves as a site for muscle attachment
Intertrochanteric crest Prominent ridge of bone that connects the two trochanters posteriorly
Gluteal tuberosity Thin ridge of bone located posteriorly; serves as a site for muscle
attachment on the proximal femur
Medial and lateral condyles Distal “wheel shaped” projections that articulate with the tibia; each
condyle has a corresponding epicondyle
Intercondylar fossa Deep depression located between the condyles
104 Exercise 9
Table 9.5B The Appendicular Skeleton: The Lower Limb (Figure 9.7)

Tibia (shin bone, medial bone Lateral condyle Slightly concave surface that articulates with the lateral condyle of the
of the leg) femur; the inferior region of this condyle articulates with the fibula to
form the superior tibiofibular joint
Medial condyle Slightly concave surface that articulates with the medial condyle of the
femur
Intercondylar eminence Irregular projection located between the two condyles
Tibial tuberosity Roughened anterior surface; site of patellar ligament attachment
Anterior border Sharp ridge of bone easily palpated because it is close to the surface
Medial malleolus Forms the medial bulge of the ankle
Fibula (lateral bone of the leg) Head Proximal end of the fibula that articulates with the tibia to form the
superior tibiofibular joint
Lateral malleolus Forms the lateral bulge of the ankle and articulates with the talus
9
□ Patella and tibial tuberosity: Feel your kneecap (patella),
and palpate the ligaments attached to its borders. Follow the
inferior ligament to the tibial tuberosity where it attaches.
Phalanges
Distal □ Medial and lateral condyles of the femur and tibia:
Middle As you move from the patella inferiorly on the medial
Proximal (and then the lateral) knee surface, you will feel first the
femoral and then the tibial condyle.
I II III IV □ Medial malleolus: Feel the medial protrusion of your
V Metatarsals ankle, the medial malleolus of the distal tibia.
Medial
cuneiform □ Lateral malleolus: Feel the bulge of the lateral aspect
Intermediate of your ankle, the lateral malleolus of the fibula.
Lateral
cuneiform cuneiform □ Calcaneus: Attempt to follow the extent of your calca-
Navicular Cuboid neus, or heel bone.
Tarsals
Talus
Activity 6
Calcaneus Constructing a Skeleton
1. When you finish examining yourself and the disar-
ticulated bones of the appendicular skeleton, work with
your lab partner to arrange the disarticulated bones on
Figure 9.8 Bones of the right foot, superior view. the laboratory bench in their proper relative positions to
form an entire skeleton.
Activity 5 2. When you believe that you have accomplished this
task correctly, ask the instructor to check your arrange-
Palpating the Surface Anatomy ment. If it is not correct, go to the articulated skeleton
and check your bone arrangements. Also review the
of the Lower Limb
tables to help you make the necessary changes.
Locate and palpate the following bone markings on
yourself and/or your lab partner. Place a check mark in
the boxes as you locate the bone markings.
□ Greater trochanter of the femur: It is the most lateral
point of the proximal femur, and it typically lies 6–8
inches below the iliac crest.
EXERCISE
9
REVIEW SHEET
The Appendicular Skeleton
Bones of the Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb

1. Using items from the list at the right, identify the anatomical landmarks and regions of the scapula.
Key:
a. acromion
b. coracoid process
(fossa)
c. glenoid cavity
(cavity)
d. inferior angle
e. infraspinous fossa
f. lateral border
(fossa)
g. medial border
h. spine
i. superior angle
j. superior border
k. supraspinous fossa
2. Match the terms in the key with the appropriate leader lines on the photograph
of the humerus. Key:
a. capitulum
b. coronoid fossa
c. deltoid tuberosity
d. greater tubercle
e. head
f. intertubercular sulcus
g. lateral epicondyle
h. lesser tubercle
i. medial epicondyle
j. radial fossa
k. surgical neck
l. trochlea
105
106 Review Sheet 9
3. Match the terms in the key with the appropriate leader lines on the photographs of the posterior view of the radius
on the left and the lateral view of the ulna on the right.
Key:
a. coronoid process
b. head of the radius
c. head of the ulna
d. neck of the radius
e. olecranon
f. radial notch of the ulna
g. radial styloid process
h. radial tuberosity
i. trochlear notch
j. ulnar notch of the radius
k. ulnar styloid process
4. What is the total number of phalanges in the hand?
5. What is the total number of carpals in the wrist?
Bones of the Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb

6. Compare the pectoral and pelvic girdles by choosing appropriate descriptive terms from the key.
Key: a. flexibility most important d. insecure axial and limb attachments

b. massive e. secure axial and limb attachments
c. lightweight f. weight-bearing most important
Pectoral: , , Pelvic: ,
7. Distinguish between the true pelvis and the false pelvis. ________________________________________________________
Review Sheet 9 107
8. Match the terms in the key with the appropriate leader lines on the photograph of the lateral view of the hip bone.
Key:
a. acetabulum
b. anterior inferior iliac spine
c. anterior superior iliac spine
d. greater sciatic notch
e. iliac crest
f. inferior pubic ramus
g. ischial ramus
h. ischial spine
i. ischial tuberosity
j. lesser sciatic notch
k. obturator foramen
l. posterior inferior iliac spine
m. posterior superior iliac spine
n. superior pubic ramus
9. + FOOSH is an acronym that stands for Fall on Outstretched Hand. Discuss possible fractures and dislocations that
might occur with an injury of this type.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
10. + Describe some of the features of the female pelvis that provide for compatibility with vaginal birth. ___________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
108 Review Sheet 9
11. Match the terms in the key with the appropriate leader lines on the photograph of the anterior view of the femur.
Key:
a. adductor tubercle
b. fovea capitis
c. greater trochanter
d. head
e. intertrochanteric line
f. lateral condyle
g. lateral epicondyle
h. lesser trochanter
i. medial condyle
j. medial epicondyle
k. neck
l. patellar surface
12. Match the terms in the key with the appropriate leader lines on the photograph of the anterior view of the tibia.
Key:
a. anterior border
b. lateral condyle
c. medial condyle
d. medial malleolus
e. tibial tuberosity
EXERCISE
10
Joints and Body Movements

● Articulated skeleton □ Name the three structural categories of joints, and compare
● Skull their structure and mobility.
● Diarthrotic beef joint (fresh or preserved), □ Identify the types of synovial joints.
preferably a knee joint sectioned sagittally
● Disposable gloves □ Define origin and insertion of muscles.
● Water balloons and clamps □ Demonstrate or identify the various body movements.
● Anatomical chart of joint types (if available)
● X-ray images of normal and arthritic joints
(if available)
N
early every bone in the body is connected to, or forms a joint with, at least
one other bone. Joints, or articulations, perform two functions for the
body. They (1) hold bones together and (2) allow the rigid skeleton some
flexibility so that gross body movements can occur.
Classification of Joints
Joints are classified by structure or by function. The structural classification is
based on what separates the articulating bones—fibers, cartilage, or a joint cavity.
Structurally, there are fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial joints.
The functional classification focuses on the amount of movement the joint
allows. On this basis, there are synarthroses, or immovable joints; amphiar-
throses, or slightly movable joints; and diarthroses, or freely movable joints.
Freely movable joints predominate in the limbs, whereas immovable and slightly
movable joints are largely restricted to the axial skeleton.
The structural and functional classifications of joints are summarized in
Table 10.1. A sample of the types of joints appears in Figure 10.1.
Activity 1
Identifying Fibrous Joints
Examine a human skull. Notice that adjacent bone surfaces do not actually
touch but are separated by a wavy seam of fibrous connective tissue. Also
examine a skeleton, an anatomical chart of joint types, and Table 10.1 for
examples of fibrous joints.
Activity 2
Identifying Cartilaginous Joints
Identify the cartilaginous joints on a human skeleton and on an anatomical
chart of joint types.
109
110 Exercise 10
Table 10.1 Summary of Joint Classification (Figure 10.1)

Functional
Structural class Structural characteristics Structural types Examples classification
Fibrous Adjoining bones connected Suture (short fibers) Squamous suture between Synarthrosis (immovable)
by dense fibrous connective the parietal and temporal
tissue; no joint cavity bones
Syndesmosis (longer Between the tibia and Amphiarthrosis (slightly
fibers) fibula movable)
Gomphosis (periodontal Tooth in a bony socket Synarthrosis (immovable)
ligament) (Figure 25.9, page 319)
Cartilaginous Adjoining bones united by Synchondrosis (hyaline Between the costal Synarthrosis (immovable)
cartilage; no joint cavity cartilage) cartilage of rib 1 and
the sternum and the
epiphyseal plate in
growing long bones
Symphysis Intervertebral discs Amphiarthrosis (slightly
(fibrocartilage) between adjacent movable and immovable)
vertebrae and the anterior
10
connection between the
pubic bones
Synovial Adjoining bones covered in Plane joint Between the carpals of Diarthrosis (freely
articular cartilage; separated by the wrist movable)
a joint cavity and enclosed in Hinge joint Elbow joint
an articular capsule lined with
a synovial membrane Pivot joint Proximal radioulnar joint
Condylar joint Between the metacarpals
and the proximal phalanx
Saddle joint Between the trapezium
(carpal) and metatarsal I
Ball-and-socket joint Shoulder joint
Synovial Joints
In synovial joints, the articulating bone ends are separated by • Synovial fluid: A viscous fluid, the consistency of egg
a joint cavity containing synovial fluid (see Figure 10.1f–h). whites, located in the joint cavity and articular cartilage. This
All synovial joints are diarthroses, or freely movable fluid acts as a lubricant, reducing friction.
joints. Their mobility varies, however; some can move in
only one plane, and others can move in several directions Synovial joints may also be reinforced with ligaments
(multiaxial movement). Most joints in the body are synovial and may contain bursae or tendon sheaths that reduce
joints. the friction where muscles, tendons, or ligaments cross
All synovial joints have the following structural charac- the bone.
teristics (Figure 10.2):
• Joint (articular) cavity: A space between the articulating Activity 3
bones that contains a small amount of synovial fluid.
Examining Synovial Joint Structure
• Articular cartilage: Hyaline cartilage that covers the sur- Examine a beef joint to identify the general structural
faces of the bones forming the joint.
features of diarthrotic joints.
• Articular capsule: Two layers that enclose the joint If the joint is freshly obtained from the slaughter-
cavity. The tough external layer is the fibrous layer com-
house, put on disposable gloves before beginning your
posed of dense irregular connective tissue. The inner layer
observations.
is the synovial membrane composed of loose connective
tissue.
Joints and Body Movements 111
Dense
fibrous
connective
tissue
(d) Suture
Sternum
First rib d Scapula
Hyaline
Hyaline cartilage
cartilage
Humerus
a f
(a) Synchondrosis (f) Multiaxial synovial joint

10
b g
Humerus
Body of vertebra
h
Hyaline
cartilage
c
Fibrocartilaginous
intervertebral
disc Ulna
Radius
(b) Symphyses (g) Uniaxial synovial joint
Ulna Radius
Lunate
Hyaline
Pubis Triquetrum cartilage
e
Fibrocartilage
Scaphoid
(c) Symphysis Tibia (h) Biaxial synovial joint
Fibula
Dense
regular
connective
tissue
(e) Syndesmosis
Figure 10.1 Types of joints. Joints to the left of the skeleton are cartilaginous
joints; joints above and below the skeleton are fibrous joints; joints to the right of
the skeleton are synovial joints. (a) Joint between costal cartilage of rib 1 and the
sternum. (b) Intervertebral discs of fibrocartilage connecting adjacent vertebrae.
(c) Fibrocartilaginous pubic symphysis connecting the pubic bones anteriorly.
(d) Dense fibrous connective tissue connecting interlocking skull bones. (e) Ligament
of dense regular connective tissue connecting the inferior ends of the tibia and
fibula. (f) Shoulder joint. (g) Elbow joint. (h) Wrist joint.
112 Exercise 10
Acromion
of scapula back and forth over one another. Assess the amount of
friction generated.
Subacromial Joint cavity
bursa containing 3. Unclamp the balloon, and add more water. The goal is
synovial to get just enough water in the balloon so that your fists
Fibrous layer of fluid
articular capsule cannot come into contact with one another but remain
separated by a thin water layer when pressure is applied
to the balloon.
Articular
4. Once again, perform the same movements to assess
cartilage
Tendon the amount of friction generated.
sheath How does the presence of a cavity containing fluid
Synovial
membrane influence the amount of friction generated?
Tendon of Fibrous What anatomical structure(s) does the water-containing
long head layer balloon mimic?
of biceps
brachii muscle Humerus
What anatomical structures might be represented by

10 your fists?
Figure 10.2 Major structural features of the shoulder
joint, a synovial joint.
Activity 5
Activity 4 Identifying Types of Synovial Joints
Demonstrating the Importance Synovial joints are divided into the following subcat-
egories on the basis of the movements they allow. As
of Friction-Reducing Structures you read through the description of each joint type in
1. Obtain a small water balloon and clamp. Partially fill Table 10.2, manipulate the joints identified as examples
the balloon with water (it should still be flaccid), and on yourself and on an articulated skeleton to observe its
clamp it closed. possible movements. Range of motion allowed by syno-
2. Position the balloon atop one of your fists and press vial joints varies from uniaxial movement (movement
down on its top surface with the other fist. Push on the in one plane) to biaxial movement (movement in two
balloon until your two fists touch, and move your fists planes) to multiaxial movement (movement in or around
all three planes of space and axes).
Table 10.2 Types of Synovial Joints
Synovial joint Description of articulating surfaces Movement Examples

Plane Flat or slightly curved bones Nonaxial: gliding Intertarsal, intercarpal joints
Hinge A rounded or cylindrical bone fits into a Uniaxial: flexion and extension Elbow, interphalangeal joints
concave surface on the other bone
Pivot A rounded bone fits into a sleeve (a concave Uniaxial: rotation Proximal radioulnar,
bone plus a ligament) atlantoaxial joints
Condylar An oval condyle fits into an oval depression on Biaxial: flexion, extension, Metacarpophalangeal (knuckle)
the other bone adduction, and abduction and radiocarpal joints
Saddle Articulating surfaces are saddle shaped; one Biaxial: flexion, extension, Carpometacarpal joint of the
surface is concave, the other surface is convex adduction, and abduction thumb
Ball-and-socket The ball-shaped head of one bone fits into the Multiaxial: flexion, extension, Shoulder, hip joints
cuplike depression of the other bone adduction, abduction, and rotation
reduces the distance between the two bones. Flexion

is typical of hinge joints (bending the knee or elbow),
but it is also common at ball-and-socket joints (bending
forward at the hip).
Extension (Figure 10.4a–c): A movement that increases
the angle of a joint and the distance between two
Muscle contracting bones. Extension is the opposite of flexion. If extension
is greater than 180 degrees (for example, bending the
trunk or head backward), it is termed hyperextension
Origin
(Figure 10.4a).
Abduction (Figure 10.4d): Movement of a limb away
from the midline of the body, along the frontal plane, or
the fanning movement of fingers or toes when they are
Brachialis
spread apart.
Adduction (Figure 10.4d): Movement of a limb toward
the midline of the body. Adduction is the opposite of
abduction.
Rotation (Figure 10.4e): Movement of a bone around
its longitudinal axis. Rotation, a common movement of 10
ball-and-socket joints, also describes the movement of
Tendon the atlas around the dens of the axis.
Circumduction (Figure 10.4d): A combination of flexion,
Insertion
extension, abduction, and adduction commonly ob-
served in ball-and-socket joints like the shoulder. The
limb as a whole outlines a cone.
Figure 10.3 Muscle attachments (origin and insertion). Pronation (Figure 10.4f): Movement of the palm of the
When a skeletal muscle contracts, its insertion is pulled hand from an anterior or upward-facing position to a
toward its origin. posterior or downward-facing position. The distal end
of the radius rotates over the ulna so that the two bones
form an X.
Movements Allowed by Synovial Joints Supination (Figure 10.4f): Movement of the palm from a
Every muscle of the body is attached to bone (or other con- posterior position to an anterior position (the anatomical
nective tissue structures) by at least two points—the origin position). Supination is the opposite of pronation. Dur-
is the stationary, immovable, or less movable bone, and ing supination, the radius and ulna are parallel.
the insertion is the movable bone. Body movement occurs The last four terms refer to movements of the foot:
when muscles contract across diarthrotic synovial joints
(Figure 10.3). When the muscle contracts and its fibers Dorsiflexion (Figure 10.4g): A movement of the ankle
shorten, the insertion moves toward the origin. The type of joint in a dorsal direction (standing on one’s heels).
movement depends on the construction of the joint (uniaxial, Plantar flexion (Figure 10.4g): A movement of the ankle
biaxial, or multiaxial) and on the position of the muscle joint in which the foot is flexed downward (standing on
relative to the joint. The most common types of body move- one’s toes or pointing the toes).
ments are described in the following activity and illustrated
in Figure 10.4. Inversion (Figure 10.4h): A movement that results in the
medial turning of the sole of the foot.
Eversion (Figure 10.4h): A movement that results in the
Activity 6 lateral turning of the sole of the foot; the opposite of
inversion.
Demonstrating Movements of Synovial Joints
Attempt to demonstrate each movement on a skel-
eton or on yourself as you read through the following
material:
Flexion (Figure 10.4a–c): A movement, generally in the

sagittal plane, that decreases the angle of the joint and
114 Exercise 10
Extension
Extension
Hyperextension
Flexion
Hyperextension Flexion
(a) Flexion, extension, and hyperextension of the neck (b) Flexion, extension, and hyperextension of
the vertebral column
10
Flexion
Hyperextension
Extension
Flexion
Extension
(c) Flexion and extension at the shoulder and knee, and hyperextension of the shoulder
Figure 10.4 Movements occurring at synovial joints of the body.

Rotation
Abduction
Lateral
rotation
Adduction Circumduction
Medial
rotation
10
(d) Abduction, adduction, and circumduction of the upper (e) Rotation of the head and lower limb
limb at the shoulder
Dorsiflexion
Pronation Supination
(radius rotates (radius and ulna
over ulna) are parallel)
Plantar flexion
P
S
(f) Supination (S) and pronation (P) of the forearm (g) Dorsiflexion and plantar flexion of the foot
Inversion Eversion
Figure 10.4 (continued) (h) Inversion and eversion of the foot

116 Exercise 10
Activity 7
Demonstrating Uniaxial, Biaxial,
and Multiaxial Movements
Using the information in the previous activity, perform the
following demonstrations and complete the Activity 7
charts.
1. Demonstrate movement at two joints that are uniaxial.
Activity 7: Uniaxial Joints
Name of joint Movement allowed
2. Demonstrate movement at two joints that are biaxial.

10
Activity 7: Biaxial Joints
Name of Joint Movement allowed Movement allowed
3. Demonstrate movement at two joints that are multiaxial.
Activity 7: Multiaxial Joints
Name of joint Movement allowed Movement allowed Movement allowed
Joint Disorders
Most of us don’t think about our joints until something goes Advancing years also take their toll on joints. Weight-
wrong with them. Joint pains and malfunctions have a variety bearing joints in particular eventually begin to degenerate.
of causes. For example, a hard blow to the knee can cause a Adhesions (fibrous bands) may form between the surfaces
painful bursitis, known as “water on the knee,” due to damage where bones join, and excess bone tissue (spurs) may grow
to the patellar bursa. Tearing a ligament may result in a pain- along the joint edges.
ful condition that persists over a long period because these □ If possible, compare an X-ray image of an arthritic joint
poorly vascularized structures heal so slowly. Similarly, the to one of a normal joint.
fibrocartilage of the knee joint that forms the meniscus can
tear and require surgical repair.
EXERCISE
10 REVIEW SHEET
Joints and Body Movements
Types of Joints
1. Use the key terms to identify the joint types described below.
Key: cartilaginous fibrous synovial
1. include shoulder, elbow, and wrist joints
2. includes joints between the vertebral bodies and the pubic symphysis
3. sutures are memorable examples
4. found in the epiphyseal plate
5. found in a gomphosis
6. have a fibrous articular capsule lined with a synovial membrane surrounding a joint cavity
7. all are freely movable or diarthrotic
8. bone regions are united by dense regular connective tissue
2. Match the joint subcategories in column B with their descriptions in column A, and place an asterisk (*) beside all
choices that are examples of synovial joints.
Column A Column B
1. joint between most skull bones ball-and-socket
2. joint between the axis and atlas condyloid
3. hip joint gliding
4. joint between forearm bones and wrist hinge
5. elbow pivot
6. interphalangeal joints saddle
7. intercarpal joints suture
8. joint between the skull and vertebral column symphysis
9. joints between proximal phalanges and metacarpal bones syndesmosis
117
118 Review Sheet 10
3. What characteristics do all joints have in common? ____________________________________________________________
4. Label the diagram of a typical synovial joint using the terms provided in the key and the appropriate leader lines.
Key: a. articular capsule

b. articular cartilage
c. fibrous layer
d. joint cavity
e. ligament
f. periosteum
g. synovial membrane
5. Which joint, the hip or the knee, is more stable? _______________________________________________________________
Name two important factors that contribute to the stability of the hip joint.
and
Review Sheet 10 119
Movements Allowed by Synovial Joints

6. Label the origin and insertion points on the diagram below,
and complete the following statement:
During muscle contraction, the
moves toward the . Muscle contracting
Brachialis
Tendon
7. Complete the descriptions below the diagrams by inserting the type of movement in each answer blank.
(a) at the elbow (b) of the upper limb (c) at the knee
(d) of the foot (e) of the foot (f) of the forearm

120 Review Sheet 10
Joint Disorders
8. What structural joint changes are common in older people? ____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
9. + A physician diagnoses you with “olecranon bursitis.” Predict the location and cause of the swelling that you are
experiencing. _______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
10. + The menisci in the knee joint can be torn for a variety of reasons. Considering the structure of the menisci, would
you expect these tears to heal on their own? ___________________________________________________________________
Why or why not? ____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
EXERCISE
11
Microscopic Anatomy and
Organization of Skeletal Muscle

● Three-dimensional model of skeletal □ Describe the microscopic structure of skeletal muscle, and
muscle fibers (if available) explain the role of myofibrils and myofilaments.
● Glass teasing needles or forceps
□ Describe gross muscle structure, and indicate the names of its
● Glass microscope slides
connective tissue coverings.
● Petri dishes
● ATP muscle kits (glycerinated rabbit psoas □ Describe the structure and function of the neuromuscular
muscle;* ATP and salt solutions obtainable junction.
from Carolina Biological Supply)
□ List the criteria used in naming muscles.
● Millimeter ruler
● Dissecting microscope □ Define terms used to describe muscle actions in the body.
● Three-dimensional model of skeletal
muscle showing neuromuscular junction
(if available)
● Demonstration area: Histologic slides of
T
skeletal muscle (longitudinal and cross- he bulk of the body’s muscle is called skeletal muscle because it is attached
sectional views) and skeletal muscle to the skeleton. Skeletal muscle influences body shape, and it allows you
showing neuromuscular junctions set up to smile and frown, move around, and manipulate the environment. The
for student viewing remaining muscle tissue of the body consists of smooth muscle, which forms the
* Note to the Instructor: At the beginning of walls of hollow organs, and cardiac muscle, which forms the walls of the heart.
the lab, the muscle bundle should be removed Each of the three muscle types has a structure and function uniquely suited
from the test tube and cut into ~ 5-cm lengths. to its function in the body. However, the term muscular system applies specifi-
Both the cut muscle segments and the en- cally to skeletal muscle, and our objective here is to investigate the structure and
tubed glycerol should be put into a petri dish. function of skeletal muscle.
One muscle segment is sufficient for each
group of four students making observations. The Cells of Skeletal Muscle
Skeletal muscle is composed of relatively large cylindrical cells called muscle
fibers. Some range up to 25 or 30 cm (10–12 in.) in length and can be seen with
the naked eye.
Skeletal muscle cells (Figure 11.1a and b) are multinucleate. The multiple
oval nuclei can be seen just beneath the plasma membrane (called the sarco-
lemma in these cells). The nuclei are pushed aside by longitudinally arranged
myofibrils, which nearly fill the cell interior (Figure 11.1c). Alternating light (I)
and dark (A) bands along the length of the perfectly aligned myofibrils give the
muscle fiber as a whole its striped appearance.
The myofibrils are made up of even smaller threadlike structures called
myofilaments (Figure 11.1c–e). The myofilaments are composed largely of
two varieties of contractile proteins—actin and myosin—which slide past each
other during muscle activity to bring about shortening or contraction. The precise
arrangement of the myofilaments within the myofibrils is responsible for the
banding pattern in skeletal muscle. The actual contractile units of muscle, called
sarcomeres, extend from the middle of one I band (its Z disc, or Z line) to the
middle of the next, along the length of the myofibrils. (See Figure 11.1c–e.)
121
122 Exercise 11
(a) Photomicrograph of Nuclei

portions of two isolated
muscle fibers (700:).
Notice the obvious striations Dark A band
(alternating dark and light
bands). Light I band
Muscle fiber
(b) Diagram of part of a

muscle fiber showing
the myofibrils. One Sarcolemma
myofibril extends from
the cut end of the fiber.
Mitochondrion
Myofibril
Dark A band Light I band Nucleus

Thin (actin)
filament Z disc H zone Z disc
11 (c) Small part of one

myofibril enlarged to
show the myofilaments
responsible for the
banding pattern. Each
sarcomere (contractile
unit) extends from one Z
disc to the next.
Thick (myosin) I band A band I band M line
filament Sarcomere
Z disc M line Z disc
(d) Enlargement of one Thin (actin)

sarcomere (sectioned filament
lengthwise). Notice the Elastic (titin)
myosin heads on the filaments
thick filaments.
Thick
(myosin)
filament
(e) Cross-sectional view

of a sarcomere cut Myosin
through in different filament
locations. Actin
filament
I band H zone M line Outer edge of A band

thin filaments thick filaments thick filaments linked thick and thin
only only by accessory proteins filaments overlap
Figure 11.1 Microscopic anatomy of a skeletal muscle fiber.

Microscopic Anatomy and Organization of Skeletal Muscle 123
Activity 1
Examining Skeletal Muscle Cell Anatomy
1. Look at the three-dimensional model of skeletal mus-
cle cells, paying attention to the relative shape and size
of the cells. Identify the nuclei, myofibrils, and light and Muscle
ƂDGTU
dark bands. longitudinal
2. Now go to the demonstration area and view profes- view
sionally prepared skeletal muscle (longitudinal section)
under the microscope. Identify nuclei and A and I bands.
Compare your observations with Figure 11.2 and Plate Nuclei of
2 in the Histology Atlas. muscle
ƂDGTU
Muscle
ƂDGTU
ETQUU
sectional
view
Figure 11.2 Muscle fibers, longitudinal and transverse

views. (See also Plate 2 in the Histology Atlas.)
Muscle Fiber Activity 11
The contraction of skeletal muscle fibers can be considered the muscle cell due to sliding of the myofilaments inside it.
in terms of three important events—excitation of the fibers However, this is not the end of the story—for contraction to
by an action potential traveling along their length, release of occur, the proper ions must be present, and cellular energy
calcium ions from the sarcoplasmic reticulum into the sarco- (ATP) must be readily available. Let’s take a look.
plasm (in response to the action potential), and shortening of
Activity 2
Observing Muscle Fiber Contraction
In this simple observational experiment, you will have the 2. Using the fine glass needles or forceps, tease the
opportunity to reinforce your understanding of muscle muscle segment to separate its fibers. The objective is to
fiber anatomy and to watch fibers contracting (or not con- isolate single muscle cells or fibers for observation. Be
tracting) in response to the presence of certain chemicals patient and work carefully so that you don’t tear the fibers.
(ATP, and potassium and magnesium ions). 3. Transfer three or four fibers (the thinnest strands
1. Obtain the following materials from the supply area: you have obtained) to a second clean microscope slide
two glass teasing needles or forceps, three glass micro- with a glass needle. Using the needle or forceps as a
scope slides, millimeter ruler, dropper vials containing prod, position the fibers so that they are parallel to one
the following solutions: (a) 0.25% ATP in triply distilled another and as straight as possible. Place this slide under
water; (b) 0.25% ATP plus 0.05 M KCl plus 0.001 M MgCl2 a dissecting microscope, and measure the length of each
in distilled water; and (c) 0.05 M KCl plus 0.001 M MgCl2 in fiber by holding a millimeter ruler next to it or by resting
distilled water; a petri dish; and a small portion of a previ- the microscope slide on the millimeter ruler. Record the
ously cut muscle bundle segment. While you are at the fiber lengths on the Activity 2 chart.
supply area, place the muscle fibers in the petri dish, and 4. Flood the fibers (still situated under the dissecting
pour a small amount of glycerol (the fluid in the supply pe- microscope) with several drops of the solution containing
tri dish) over your muscle fibers. Also obtain a dissection ATP, potassium ions, and magnesium ions. Watch how the
microscope and bring it to your laboratory bench. fibers react to the solution. After 30 seconds (or slightly
124 Exercise 11
longer), remeasure each fiber and record the observed initial ending
2 5 net change (mm)
lengths on the chart. Also, check the fibers to see whether length (mm) length (mm)
any width changes have occurred. Calculate the percentage then:
of contraction by using the following simple formula, and
net change (mm)
record this information on the Activity 2 chart. 3 100 5 ________% contraction
initial length (mm)
Activity 2: Muscle Fiber Contraction

Salts and ATP muscle fiber 1 ATP only muscle fiber 2 Salts only muscle fiber 3
Initial length (mm)
Ending length (mm)
% contraction
5. Repeat steps 3 and 4 twice more, using clean slides What percentage of contraction did you observe when the
and fresh muscle fibers. First use the solution of ATP in muscle fibers were flooded with a solution containing K+
distilled water (no salts). Then, use the solution containing and Mg2+ but lacking ATP?
only salts (no ATP) for the third series.
What percentage of contraction did you observe when

ATP was applied in the absence of potassium and mag- What conclusions can you draw about the importance of
nesium ions? ATP and of potassium and magnesium ions to the ability
of muscle fibers to contract?
11
Organization of Skeletal Muscle Cells into Muscles

Muscle fibers, which are soft and fragile, are bundled together In addition to supporting and binding the muscle fibers,
with connective tissue to form skeletal muscles (Figure 11.3). and providing strength to the muscle as a whole, the connec-
Each muscle fiber is enclosed in a delicate connective tissue tive tissue wrappings provide a route for the entry and exit of
sheath called endomysium. Several sheathed muscle fibers nerves and blood vessels that serve the muscle fibers.
are wrapped by a collagenic membrane called perimysium,
forming a muscle fiber bundle called a fascicle. A large num-
ber of fascicles are bound together by a substantially coarser Activity 3
“overcoat” of dense irregular connective tissue called an epi-
mysium, which encloses the entire muscle. All three sheaths Observing the Structure of a Skeletal Muscle
blend into strong cordlike tendons or sheetlike aponeuroses, Go to the appropriate microscope at the demonstration
which attach muscles to each other or indirectly to bones. A area and examine a slide showing a cross section of a
muscle’s more movable attachment is called its insertion, skeletal muscle. Identify the muscle fibers, endomysium,
whereas its fixed (or immovable) attachment is the origin (see perimysium, and epimysium, if visible (refer to Figure 11.3).
Exercise 10).
The Neuromuscular Junction

Skeletal muscle cells are always stimulated by motor neu- Thus a single neuron may stimulate many muscle fibers.
rons via nerve impulses. The junction between a nerve fiber Together, a neuron and all the muscle fibers it stimulates
(axon) and a muscle fiber is called a neuromuscular junction make up the functional structure called the motor unit
(Figure 11.4). (Figure 11.5).
Each motor axon breaks up into many branches called The neuron and muscle fiber membranes, close as they
axon terminals as it nears the muscle, and each branch are, do not actually touch. They are separated by a small fluid-
forms a neuromuscular junction with a single muscle fiber. filled gap called the synaptic cleft (see Figure 11.4).
Microscopic Anatomy and Organization of Skeletal Muscle 125
Epimysium
Perimysium
Bone Epimysium Endomysium
Muscle fiber
Tendon within a
fascicle
(b)
Blood
vessel
Perimysium wrapping a fascicle
Endomysium
(between individual muscle fibers)
Muscle fiber
Myofibril
Fascicle
Perimysium 11
(a)
Figure 11.3 Connective tissue coverings of skeletal muscle.
Within the axon terminals are mitochondria and vesicles ACh rapidly diffuses across the synaptic cleft and combines
containing a neurotransmitter chemical called acetylcholine with the receptors on the sarcolemma. When receptors bind
(ACh). When an action potential reaches the axon termi- ACh, the permeability of the sarcolemma changes briefly. Ion
nal, voltage-gated Ca2+ channels open. Ca2+ enters the axon channels open for a short time, depolarizing the sarcolemma,
terminal and causes ACh to be released by exocytosis. The and subsequent contraction of the muscle fiber occurs.
Branching
axon to
motor unit
Ca2+
Synaptic vesicle
Ca2+ containing ACh
Axon
Sarcolemma Mitochondrion terminals
at neuro-
Axon terminal of Synaptic muscular
motor neuron cleft junctions
Fusing Muscle
synaptic ƂDGTU
vesicles
ACh
Sarcoplasm ACh Junctional folds

of muscle fiber receptors of sarcolemma
Figure 11.4 The neuromuscular junction. Figure 11.5 A portion of a motor unit.
126 Exercise 11
Activity 4
Studying the Structure of a
Neuromuscular Junction
1. If possible, examine a three-dimensional model of skel- Identify the axon branches extending like a leash to the
etal muscle fibers that illustrates the neuromuscular junc- muscle fibers. Follow one of the axons to its terminal
tion. Identify the structures just described. branch to identify the oval-shaped axon terminal. Com-
2. Go to the demonstration area to examine a slide of pare your observations to Figure 11.5 and Plate 4 in the
skeletal muscle stained to show a portion of a motor unit. Histology Atlas).
Classification of Skeletal Muscles

Naming Skeletal Muscles and clavicle (cleido), and it inserts on the mastoid pro-
cess of the temporal bone.
Remembering the names of the skeletal muscles is a monu-
mental task, but certain clues help. Muscles are named on the • Muscle shape: For example, the deltoid muscle is roughly
basis of the following criteria: triangular (deltoid = triangle), and the trapezius muscle
resembles a trapezoid.
• Direction of muscle fibers: Some muscles are named
• Muscle action: For example, all the adductor muscles of
relative to some imaginary line, usually the midline of
the anterior thigh bring about its adduction.
the body or the longitudinal axis of a limb bone. For
example, the rectus abdominis is the straight muscle of
the abdomen. The terms rectus, transverse, and oblique
Types of Muscles
indicate that the muscle fibers run with, at right angles, or Most often, body movements involve the coordinated action
obliquely (respectively) to the imaginary line. of several muscles acting together. Muscles that are primarily
responsible for producing a particular movement are called
• Muscle size: When size is the criterion, terms such as
prime movers, or agonists.
maximus (largest), minimus (smallest), longus (long),
11 Muscles that oppose or reverse a movement are called
and brevis (short) are often used—as in gluteus maximus
antagonists. When a prime mover is active, the fibers of the
and gluteus minimus.
antagonist are stretched and relaxed.
• Muscle location: Some muscles are named for the bone Synergists aid the action of prime movers by reducing
with which they are associated. For example, the tempo- undesirable or unnecessary movement. For example, you can
ralis muscle overlies the temporal bone. make a fist without bending at the wrist only because syner-
• Number of origins: When the term biceps, triceps, or gist muscles stabilize the wrist joint.
quadriceps forms part of a muscle name, you can assume Fixators, or fixation muscles, are specialized synergists.
that the muscle has two, three, or four origins (respectively). They immobilize the origin of a prime mover so that all the
For example, the biceps muscle of the arm has two origins. tension is exerted at the insertion. Muscles that help maintain
posture and those that “fix” the scapula during arm move-
• Location of attachments: For example, the sternoclei- ments are fixators.
domastoid muscle has its origin on the sternum (sterno)
EXERCISE
11 REVIEW SHEET
Microscopic Anatomy and Organization
of Skeletal Muscle
Skeletal Muscle Cells and Their Packaging into Muscles

1. From deep to superficial, name the three types of connective tissue sheaths of a skeletal muscle.
a. b. c.
Why are the connective tissue wrappings of skeletal muscle important? (Give at least three reasons.)
2. On the following figure, label the endomysium, epimysium, a fascicle, a muscle fiber, a myofibril, perimysium, and
the tendon.
(sheath)
(sheath)
(sheath)
127
128 Review Sheet 11
3. The drawing and photomicrograph below show a relaxed sarcomere. Using the terms from the key, identify each struc-
ture indicated by a leader line or bracket. The number 2 in parentheses indicates that the structure will be labeled twice.
Key: a. actin filament
b. A band
c. H zone
d. I band (2)
e. M line
f. myosin filament
g. Z disc (2)
4. Relative to your observations of muscle fiber contraction pages 123–124:
a. What percentage of contraction did you observe with the solution containing ATP, K+, and Mg2+? %
2+ +
With just ATP? % With just Mg and K ? %
b. Explain your observations.
The Neuromuscular Junction

5. For skeletal muscle fibers to contract, they must be excited by motor neurons. However, the electrical impulse cannot
pass directly from a neuron to the skeletal muscle fibers to excite them. Just what does pass from the neuron to the
muscle fibers, and what effect does it produce?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
6. Why is it that the electrical impulse cannot pass from neuron to muscle fiber?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Review Sheet 11 129
Classification of Skeletal Muscles

7. For each of the criteria below, list at least two muscles that are named for the given criterion.
1. Muscle location:
2. Muscle shape:
3. Muscle size:
4. Direction of muscle fibers:
5. Number of origins:
6. Location of attachments:
7. Muscle action:
8. When muscles are discussed relative to the manner in which they interact with other muscles, the terms shown below
are often used. Define each term.
Antagonist:
Fixator:
Prime mover (agonist):
Synergist:
9. + Necrotizing fasciitis is a serious bacterial infection. Necrosis is death of tissues in the body. Considering the
organization of the connective tissue sheaths of skeletal muscle, explain how this infection could spread rapidly
throughout the body.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
10. + The bacterium Clostridium botulinum secretes botulinum toxin, a neurotoxin. The toxin blocks the release of
acetylcholine from the axon terminal of a motor neuron. Explain how the toxin binding would change the normal
sequence of events at the neuromuscular junction.

EXERCISE
12
Gross Anatomy of the Muscular
System

● Human torso model or large anatomical □ Name and locate the major muscles of the head and neck, and
chart showing human musculature state their actions.
● Tubes of body (or face) paint
□ Name and locate the major muscles of the trunk.
● 1-inch wide artist’s bristle brushes
□ Name and locate the major muscles of the upper limb.
□ Name and locate the major muscles of the hip and lower limb.
Identification of Human Muscles

Muscles of the Head and Neck
The muscles of the head serve many functions. For instance, the muscles of facial
expression differ from most skeletal muscles because they insert into the skin
or other muscles rather than into bone. As a result, they move the facial skin,
allowing the face to show a wide range of emotions. Other head muscles are the
muscles of mastication, which are active during chewing, and the six extrinsic eye
muscles located within the orbit, which aim the eye. Orbital muscles are studied
in Exercise 17.
Neck muscles primarily move the head and shoulder girdle.
Activity 1
Identifying Head and Neck Muscles
On the next several pages you’ll find summary figures illustrating the
superficial muscles of the body (Figures 12.1 and 12.2) and a table and
figure describing the head and neck muscles (Table 12.1 on page 134 and
Figure 12.3 on page 135).
While reading the table and identifying the head and neck muscles in
the figures, try to visualize what happens when the muscle contracts. Then,
use a torso model or an anatomical chart to again identify as many of these
muscles as possible. Also carry out the following palpation on yourself:
□ To demonstrate the temporalis, clench your teeth. The masseter can also
be palpated now at the angle of the jaw.
Muscles of the Trunk

The trunk musculature includes muscles that move the vertebral column; anterior
thorax muscles that move the ribs, head, and arms; and abdominal muscles that
help move the vertebral column and, even more important, form the “natural
girdle,” or the major portion of the abdominal body wall.
131
132 Exercise 12
Facial
Epicranius, frontal belly
Head
Orbicularis oculi
Temporalis
Zygomaticus
Masseter Orbicularis oris
Neck
Platysma
Shoulder
Sternohyoid
Trapezius Sternocleidomastoid
Thorax
Deltoid Pectoralis minor
Pectoralis major
Arm Serratus anterior
Triceps brachii
Intercostals
Biceps brachii
Brachialis
Abdomen
Forearm Rectus abdominis
Pronator teres External oblique
Brachioradialis
Internal oblique
Flexor carpi radialis
Transversus abdominis
Palmaris longus
Pelvis/thigh Thigh
Iliopsoas
Tensor fascia
12 Pectineus lata
Sartorius
Adductor longus
Thigh
Gracilis
Rectus femoris
Vastus lateralis
Vastus medialis
Leg
Fibularis longus
Leg
Extensor digitorum longus
Gastrocnemius
Tibialis anterior
Soleus
Figure 12.1 Anterior view of superficial muscles of the body. The abdominal surface has
been partially dissected on the left side of the body to show somewhat deeper muscles.
Gross Anatomy of the Muscular System 133
Neck
Epicranius, occipital belly
Sternocleidomastoid
Trapezius
Shoulder
Deltoid
Infraspinatus
Arm
Teres major
Triceps brachii
Brachialis Rhomboid major

Forearm
Brachioradialis Latissimus dorsi
Extensor carpi radialis
longus
Flexor carpi ulnaris External oblique
Extensor carpi ulnaris
Hip
Extensor digitorum
Gluteus medius
Gluteus maximus
12
Thigh
Iliotibial tract
Adductor magnus
Hamstrings:
Biceps femoris
Semitendinosus
Semimembranosus
Leg
Gastrocnemius
Soleus
Fibularis longus
Calcaneal
tendon
Figure 12.2 Posterior view of superficial muscles of the body.

134 Exercise 12
Table 12.1 Major Muscles of Human Head and Neck (see Figure 12.3)
Muscle Comments Origin Insertion Action
Muscles of Facial Expression

Epicranius—frontal Two-part muscle consisting of Frontal belly: Frontal belly: skin of With aponeurosis fixed, frontal
and occipital bellies frontal and occipital bellies that epicranial eyebrows and root belly raises eyebrows; occipital
cover dome of skull aponeurosis of nose belly pulls scalp posteriorly
Occipital belly: Occipital belly:
occipital and epicranial
temporal bones aponeurosis
Orbicularis oculi Sphincter muscle of eyelids Frontal and Tissue of eyelids Closes eye, produces blinking and
maxillary bones squinting
Zygomaticus Extends diagonally from corner Zygomatic bone Skin and muscle at Raises lateral corners of mouth
of mouth to cheekbone corner of mouth upward (smiling muscle)
Orbicularis oris Encircles mouth; sphincter Maxilla and Muscle and skin at Closes mouth; purses and protrudes
muscle of lips with fibers that mandible; fibers angles of mouth lips (kissing muscle)
run in many different directions blended with fibers
of other muscles
associated with
lips
Muscles of Mastication
Masseter Extends across jawbone Zygomatic process Mandible Closes jaw and elevates mandible
and arch
Temporalis Fan-shaped muscle over Temporal bone Mandible Closes jaw and elevates mandible
temporal bone
Buccinator Principal muscle of cheek; Maxilla and Orbicularis oris Compresses cheek (as in
runs horizontally, deep to the mandible near whistling); holds food between
masseter molars teeth during chewing
12
Neck
Platysma Thin, sheetlike superficial Fascia of chest Lower margin Tenses skin of neck; depresses
neck muscle, plays role in (over pectoral of mandible and mandible; pulls lower lip back and
facial expression muscles) and muscle at corner of down (produces downward sag of
deltoid mouth the mouth)
Sternocleidomastoid Two-headed muscle located Sternum and Mastoid process of Simultaneous contraction of both
deep to platysma on clavicle temporal bone muscles of pair causes flexion of
anterolateral surface of neck neck forward; acting independently,
rotate head toward opposite
shoulder
Epicranial
aponeurosis
Frontal Epicranius
belly
Corrugator supercilii
Occipital
belly
Orbicularis oculi
Levator labii
superioris Temporalis
Zygomaticus
minor and major
Buccinator Masseter
Risorius
Sternocleidomastoid
Orbicularis oris
Mentalis Trapezius
Depressor
labii inferioris Splenius
capitis
Depressor anguli oris
Platysma
12
(a)
Epicranial
aponeurosis
Frontal belly
of epicranius
Occipital belly
of epicranius
Temporalis
Orbicularis
oculi Masseter
Zygomaticus
Sternocleidomastoid
Orbicularis oris
Platysma
(b)
Figure 12.3 Muscles of the scalp, face, and neck; left lateral view. (a) Superficial
muscles. (b) Photo of superficial structures of head and neck.
136 Exercise 12
Table 12.2 Anterior Muscles of Trunk and Upper Limb (see Figure 12.4)
Thorax and Shoulder, Superficial
Pectoralis major Large fan-shaped muscle Clavicle, sternum, and Fibers insert by short Prime mover of arm
covering upper portion of cartilage of first 6 ribs tendon into greater flexion; adducts, medially
chest tubercle of humerus rotates arm
Deltoid Fleshy triangular muscle Lateral third of clavicle; Deltoid tuberosity of Acting as a whole, prime
forming shoulder muscle acromion and spine of humerus mover of arm abduction;
mass scapula when only specific fibers are
active, can act as a synergist
in flexion, extension, and
rotation of arm
Abdominal Wall
Rectus abdominis Medial superficial muscle, Pubis Xiphoid process and costal Flexes vertebral column;
extends from pubis to rib cartilages of ribs 5–7 increases abdominal
cage; segmented pressure
External oblique Most superficial lateral Anterior surface of lower Iliac crest See rectus abdominis,
muscle; fibers run eight ribs above; also aids muscles of
downward and medially back to rotate and laterally
flex the trunk
Internal oblique Fibers run at right angles Iliac crest Costal cartilages of lower As for external oblique
to those of external oblique, three ribs
which it underlies
Transversus Deepest muscle of Iliac crest and cartilages Pubis Compresses abdominal
abdominis abdominal wall; fibers of lower five or six ribs contents
run horizontally
Arm/Forearm
12 Biceps brachii Two-headed muscle of Coracoid process of Radial tuberosity Flexes and supinates
anterior arm scapula forearm
Brachialis (see Immediately deep to the Anterior surface of distal Coronoid process of ulna Flexor of forearm
Figure 12.1) biceps brachii humerus
Brachioradialis (see Superficial muscle of Distal humerus Base of radial styloid Synergist in forearm
Figure 12.1) lateral forearm process flexion
Pronator teres (see Anterior forearm Medial epicondyle of Midshaft of radius Pronates forearm
Figure 12.1) humerus and coronoid
process of ulna
Flexor carpi radialis Superficial; runs diagonally Medial epicondyle of Second and third Powerful flexor and
(see Figure 12.1) across forearm humerus metacarpals abductor of the hand
Flexor carpi ulnaris Superficial; medial to Medial epicondyle of Fifth metacarpal and Flexes and adducts hand
(see Figure 12.2) flexor carpi radialis humerus and posterior ulna carpals
Flexor digitorum Deeper muscle; overlain Medial epicondyle of Middle phalanges of Flexes hand and middle
superficialis (not by muscles named above; humerus, ulna, and radius second through fifth phalanges of second
illustrated) visible at distal end of fingers through fifth fingers
forearm
Identifying Muscles of the Trunk Demonstrating Operation of Trunk Muscles
Identify the trunk muscles (described in Tables 12.2 Now work with a partner to demonstrate the operation
and 12.3 and shown in Figures 12.4 and 12.5). Iden- of the following muscles. One of you can demonstrate
tify the muscles in the figures as you read the tabular the movement (the following steps are addressed to this
descriptions, and then identify them on the torso or partner). The other can supply resistance and palpate the
laboratory chart. muscle being tested.
Sternocleidomastoid
Trapezius
Clavicle
Linea alba
Deltoid Pectoralis major
Sternum Serratus anterior
Pectoralis
major
Tendinous intersection
Transversus abdominis
Biceps brachii Rectus abdominis
Internal oblique
Brachialis External oblique
Aponeurosis
of the external
oblique
Inguinal ligament
Brachioradialis
(incomplete)
(a) (b)
12
Figure 12.4 Muscles of the anterior neck, shoulder, trunk, and arm. (a) Muscles of
the right thorax and arm. (b) Muscles of the abdomen. Portions of the superficial
muscles of the right side of the abdomen are cut away to reveal the deeper muscles.
The muscles that cross the shoulder joint to insert on

1. Fully abduct the arm and extend at the elbow. Now the humerus and move the arm are primarily trunk muscles
adduct the arm against resistance. You are using the that originate on the axial skeleton or shoulder girdle. These
latissimus dorsi and pectoralis major muscles. muscles are included with the trunk muscles.
2. To observe the action of the deltoid, abduct your arm The second group of muscles forms the musculature of
against resistance. Now attempt to elevate your shoulder the humerus and crosses the elbow joint. They flex and extend
against resistance; you are contracting the upper portion the forearm.
of the trapezius. The third group forms the musculature of the forearm.
Most of these muscles cross the wrist to insert on the digits
3. The pectoralis major is used when you press your
and produce movements of the hand and fingers. The origins,
hands together at chest level.
insertions, and actions of these last two groups of muscles are
summarized in Tables 12.2 and 12.3 and are shown in Figures
12.1, 12.2, 12.4, and 12.5.
Muscles of the Upper Limb
The muscles that move the upper limb fall into three groups:
those that move the arm, those causing movement of the fore-
arm, and those moving the hand and fingers.
138 Exercise 12
Table 12.3 Posterior Muscles of Human Neck, Trunk, and Upper Limb (see Figure 12.5)

Muscles of the Neck, Shoulder, and Thorax
Trapezius Most superficial muscle of Occipital bone and Acromion and spinous Extends head; retracts
posterior neck and thorax; broad all cervical and process of scapula; (adducts) scapula and
origin and insertion thoracic vertebrae clavicle stabilizes it
Latissimus dorsi Broad flat muscle of lower Lower three to four Proximal humerus Prime mover of arm
back (lumbar region); extensive ribs, inferior spine, extension; adducts and
superficial origins and iliac crest medially rotates arm;
brings arm down in power
stroke, as in striking a
blow
Erector spinae A long three-part muscle Iliac crest; lumbar, Ribs and thoracic and All act to extend the
composed of iliocostalis (lateral), thoracic, and cervical vertebrae vertebral column;
longissimus, and spinalis (medial) cervical vertebrae; longissimus also extends
muscle columns; extends from and/or ribs, the head
pelvis to head depending on
specific part
Deltoid (see Table 12.2)
Arm/Forearm Muscles
Triceps brachii (see Large fleshy muscle of posterior Glenoid cavity of Olecranon of ulna Powerful forearm
Figures 12.1 and 12.2) humerus; three-headed origin scapula, posterior extensor; antagonist
humerus of biceps brachii
Extensor carpi radialis Superficial; parallels Lateral humerus Second metacarpal Extends and abducts hand
longus (see Figure 12.2) brachioradialis on lateral forearm
Extensor digitorum (see Superficial; between extensor Lateral epicondyle Distal phalanges of Prime mover of finger
Figure 12.2) carpi ulnaris and extensor carpi of humerus second through fifth extension; extends hand;
12 radialis fingers can flare (adduct) fingers
Extensor carpi ulnaris Superficial; medial posterior Lateral epicondyle Fifth metacarpal Extends and adducts hand
(see Figure 12.2) forearm of humerus
Activity 4 □ Acutely flex at the elbow and then try to extend it

against resistance to demonstrate the action of your tri-
Identifying Muscles of the Upper Limb ceps brachii.
First study the tables and figures, and then see whether □ Strongly flex at the wrist and make a fist. Palpate
you can identify these muscles on a torso model or ana- your contracting wrist flexor muscles (which originate
tomical chart. Complete this portion of the exercise by from the medial epicondyle of the humerus) and their
palpating upper limb muscles, as outlined next. As you insertion tendons, which can be easily felt at the anterior
palpate each muscle, place a check mark in the box. aspect of the wrist.
□ To observe the biceps brachii in action, attempt to flex □ Flare your fingers to identify the tendons of the exten-
your forearm (hand supinated) against resistance. sor digitorum muscle on the back of your hand.
Levator scapulae
Trapezius Supraspinatus
Clavicle
Deltoid
Spine of scapula
Rhomboid Infraspinatus
minor
Teres minor
Rhomboid
major Teres major
Humerus
Latissimus
dorsi
(a)
12
C7
T1
Iliocostalis
Longissimus Erector
spinae
Spinalis
External
oblique
(b)
Figure 12.5 Muscles of the posterior neck, trunk, and arm. (a) Superficial muscles.
(b) The erector spinae muscles, deep muscles of the back.
140 Exercise 12
Table 12.4 Anteromedial Muscles of the Hip and Lower Limb (see Figure 12.6)

Origin on the Pelvis
Iliopsoas—iliacus Two closely related muscles; Iliacus: iliac fossa; psoas Lesser trochanter Flex trunk at hip joint;
and psoas major fibers pass under inguinal major: transverse processes, of femur major flexor of hip (or
ligament to insert into femur bodies, and discs of T12 and thigh on pelvis when
via a common tendon lumbar vertebrae pelvis is fixed)
Sartorius Straplike superficial muscle Anterior superior iliac spine By an aponeurosis Flexes and laterally
running obliquely across anterior into medial aspect rotates thigh; flexes
surface of thigh to knee of proximal tibia leg; known as “tailor’s
muscle” because it helps
bring about cross-legged
position in which tailors
are often depicted
Thigh
Adductors (magnus, Large muscle mass forming Magnus: ischial and pubic Magnus: linea aspera Adduct and laterally
longus, and brevis) medial aspect of thigh; arise rami; longus: pubis near and adductor tubercle rotate and flex thigh;
from front of pelvis and insert at pubic symphysis; brevis: of femur; longus and posterior part of magnus
various levels on femur body and inferior ramus brevis: linea aspera is also a synergist of
of pubis the hamstrings in thigh
extension
Quadriceps
• Rectus femoris Superficial muscle of thigh; runs Pelvis Tibial tuberosity via Extends leg and flexes
straight down thigh; only muscle patellar ligament thigh
of group to cross hip joint
• Vastus lateralis Forms lateral aspect of thigh Greater trochanter of femur Tibial tuberosity Extends leg
• Vastus medialis Forms medial aspect of thigh Femur Tibial tuberosity Extends leg
12 • Vastus intermedius Obscured by rectus femoris; Femur (not shown in figure) Tibial tuberosity Extends leg
lies between vastus lateralis and
vastus medialis
Leg
Tibialis anterior Superficial muscle of anterior Lateral condyle and By tendon into Prime mover of
leg; parallels sharp anterior upper two-thirds of tibia; inferior surface of dorsiflexion; inverts foot
margin of tibia interosseous membrane first cuneiform and
metatarsal I
Extensor digitorum Lateral to tibialis anterior Lateral condyle of By tendons (4) into Prime mover of toe
longus tibia; proximal fibula; middle and distal extension; dorsiflexes
interosseous membrane phalanges of toes II–V foot
Fibularis (peroneus) Superficial lateral muscle; Upper portion of fibula By long tendon under Plantar flexes and everts
longus overlies fibula foot to first metatarsal foot; helps keep foot flat
on ground
Muscles of the Hip and Lower Limb Muscles originating on the leg act on the foot and toes.
These lower limb muscles are described in Table 12.4 and
Muscles that move the lower limb cause movement at the hip, Table 12.5 and are shown in Figure 12.6 and Figure 12.7.
knee, and ankle joints. Muscles acting on the thigh (femur)
cause various movements at the multiaxial hip joint (flexion,
extension, rotation, abduction, and adduction). These include Activity 5
the iliopsoas, the adductors, and various other muscles.
Muscles acting on the leg form the musculature of the Identifying Muscles of the Hip and Lower Limb
thigh. (Anatomically the term leg refers only to that portion Identify the muscles that move the thigh, leg, foot, and
between the knee and the ankle.) The thigh muscles cross the toes as instructed previously.
knee to allow flexion and extension of the leg. They include
the hamstrings and the quadriceps. Some of these muscles
also attach on the pelvic girdle, so they can cause movement
at the hip joint.
12th thoracic
vertebra
12th rib
Quadratus lumborum
Psoas minor
Iliac crest
Psoas major
Iliopsoas
Iliacus
5th lumbar
Anterior superior iliac spine vertebra
Fibularis longus
Gastrocnemius
Tensor fascia lata

Tibia
Pectineus Tibialis anterior
Extensor digitorum
longus
Adductor longus
Sartorius Soleus
12
Gracilis
Quadriceps femoris
r4GEVWUHGOQTKU
Extensor hallucis
Adductor magnus longus
Fibularis tertius
r8CUVWUNCVGTCNKU
Superior and inferior

r8CUVWUOGFKCNKU extensor retinacula
Tendon of quadriceps femoris
Extensor hallucis
Patella brevis
Extensor digitorum
brevis
Patellar
ligament
(a) (b)
Figure 12.6 Pelvic, thigh, and leg muscles of the right side of the body, anterior
view. (a) Pelvic and thigh muscles. (b) Leg muscles.
142 Exercise 12
Table 12.5 Muscles of the Hip and Lower Limb, Posterior Aspect (see Figure 12.7)

Origin on the Pelvis
Gluteus maximus Largest and most Ilium, sacrum, and Gluteal tuberosity of Powerful hip extensor (most
superficial of gluteal coccyx femur; iliotibial tract effective when thigh is flexed, as
muscles (which form in climbing stairs—but not as in
buttock mass) walking)
Gluteus medius Partially covered by Lateral surface of ilium Greater trochanter of Abducts and medially rotates thigh;
gluteus maximus femur steadies pelvis during walking
Thigh
Hamstrings*
• Biceps femoris Most lateral muscle of Ischial tuberosity and Tendon passes laterally Extends thigh; laterally flexes leg
group; arises from two distal femur to insert into head of
heads fibula
• Semitendinosus Medial to biceps Ischial tuberosity Proximal tibia Extends thigh; flexes leg; medially
femoris rotates leg
• Semimembranosus Deep to semitendinosus Ischial tuberosity Proximal tibia Extends thigh; flexes leg; medially
rotates leg
Leg
Gastrocnemius Superficial muscle with By two heads from Calcaneus via calcaneal Plantar flexes foot; crosses knee
two prominent bellies medial and lateral tendon joint; flexes knee when foot is
condyles of the femur dorsiflexed
Soleus Deep to gastrocnemius Proximal tibia and Calcaneus via calcaneal Plantar flexes foot
fibula tendon
*The hamstrings are the fleshy muscles of the posterior thigh. As a group, they are strong extensors of the thigh; they counteract the powerful
12 quadriceps by stabilizing the knee joint when standing.
Palpating Muscles of the Hip and Lower Limb Making a Muscle Painting
Complete this exercise by performing the following 1. Choose a male student to be “muscle painted.”
palpation demonstrations with your lab partner. As you 2. Obtain brushes and water-based paints from the
complete each demonstration, place a check mark in the supply area while the “volunteer” removes his shirt and
appropriate box. rolls up his pant legs (if necessary).
□ Go into a deep knee bend, and palpate your own glu-
3. Using paints of different colors, identify the muscles
teus maximus muscle as you extend at the hip to return listed below by painting his skin. If a muscle covers a
to the upright posture. large body area, you can opt to paint only its borders.
□ Demonstrate the contraction of the anterior quadri- Biceps brachii Biceps femoris
• •
ceps femoris by trying to extend your leg against resis-
tance. Do this while seated, and notice how the patellar • Deltoid • Extensor carpi radialis longus
ligament reacts. The hamstrings of the posterior thigh • Erector spinae • Latissimus dorsi
come into play when you flex your leg against resistance. Pectoralis major Rectus abdominis
• •
□ Now stand on your toes. Have your partner palpate
• Rectus femoris • Sternocleidomastoid
the lateral and medial heads of the gastrocnemius and
follow it to its insertion in the calcaneal tendon. • Tibialis anterior • Trapezius
□ Dorsiflex and invert your foot while palpating your • Triceps brachii • Gastrocnemius
tibialis anterior muscle (which parallels the sharp ante- • Vastus lateralis • Vastus medialis
rior crest of the tibia laterally).
4. Check your “human painting” with your instructor
before cleaning your bench and leaving the laboratory.
Gluteus medius
Plantaris
Gluteus
maximus
Medial
head
Gastroc-
Adductor nemius Lateral
magnus head
Gracilis
Iliotibial
tract
12
Long head Tendon of
Biceps gastrocnemius
Short head femoris
Hamstrings
Semitendinosus
Calcaneal
Semimembranosus tendon
Medial
malleolus Lateral
malleolus
Gastrocnemius
Calcaneus
(a) (b)
Figure 12.7 Muscles of the (a) hip and thigh, and (b) leg, posterior aspect.
EXERCISE
12 REVIEW SHEET
Gross Anatomy of the Muscular System
Name _______________________________________________________ Lab Time/Date __________________________________
Muscles of the Head and Neck

1. Using choices from the list at the left, correctly identify the muscles provided with leader lines on the diagram.
buccinator
frontal belly of epicranius
masseter
occipital belly of epicranius
orbicularis oculi
orbicularis oris
sternocleidomastoid
temporalis
zygomaticus
2. Using the terms provided above, identify the muscles described next.
1. used to smile
2. used to suck in your cheeks
3. used in blinking and squinting
4. pulls the scalp posteriorly
5. raises your eyebrows for a questioning expression
6. your kissing muscle
7. allows you to “bite” that carrot stick
8. used to turn and tilt the head toward the shoulder
145
146 Review Sheet 12
Muscles of the Trunk and Upper Limb

3. Using choices from the key, identify the major muscles described next. Some choices may be used more than once.
Key: a. biceps brachii f. flexor digitorum superficialis k. internal oblique

b. deltoid g. external intercostals l. latissimus dorsi
c. erector spinae h. external oblique m. pectoralis major
d. extensor carpi ulnaris i. flexor carpi radialis n. rectus abdominis
e. transversus abdominis j. trapezius o. triceps brachii
1. a major spine flexor
2. prime mover for pulling the arm posteriorly
3. forearm extender
, 4. help form the

abdominal girdle
, (four pairs of muscles)
5. flexes and abducts hand
6. prime mover of arm abduction
, 7. adductors of the arm (two muscles)
8. flexes and supinates the forearm
9. small muscles between the ribs; elevate the ribs during breathing
10. extends the head
11. extends the spine
12. extends and adducts the wrist
13. flexes the hand and middle phalanges

Review Sheet 12 147
Muscles of the Lower Limb

4. Use the key terms to respond to the descriptions below.
Key: a. adductor group d. fibularis longus g. semitendinosus

b. gastrocnemius e. rectus femoris h. tibialis anterior
c. gluteus maximus f. semimembranosus
1. lateral compartment muscle that plantar flexes and everts the foot
2. forms the buttock
3. posterior muscle that performs plantar flexion
4. a prime mover of dorsiflexion
5. allow you to grip a horse’s back with your thighs
, 6. muscles that originate on the ischial tuberosity (two muscles)
7. muscle that extends leg and flexes thigh
General Review: Muscle Description

5. Identify the muscles described below by completing the statements:
1. , , , and
are commonly used for intramuscular injections (four muscles).
2. The insertion of the group contains a large sesamoid bone, the patella.
3. The gastrocnemius and soleus insert in common into the tendon.
4. The bulk of the tissue of a muscle tends to lie to the part of the body it causes
to move.
5. The extrinsic muscles of the hand originate on the .
6. Most flexor muscles are on the aspect of the body;
most extensors are located . An exception to this generalization is the
extensor-flexor musculature of the .

148 Review Sheet 12
General Review: Muscle Recognition

6. Identify each lettered muscle in the illustration of the human anterior superficial musculature by matching its letter
with one of the following muscle names:
1. adductor longus 35. transversus abdominis
2. biceps brachii 36. trapezius
3. brachioradialis 37. triceps brachii
4. deltoid 38. vastus lateralis
5. extensor digitorum longus 39. vastus medialis
6. external oblique 40. zygomaticus
7. fibularis longus
a
8. flexor carpi radialis
b
nn
9. flexor carpi ulnaris c
mm d
10. frontal belly of epicranius
ll
11. gastrocnemius e
kk f
12. gracilis
jj g
13. iliopsoas
ii
14. intercostals h
hh
i
15. internal oblique gg
16. masseter
j
17. orbicularis oculi ff k
ee
l
18. orbicularis oris dd
cc m
19. palmaris longus
bb
20. pectineus aa
n
z
21. pectoralis major
o
22. pectoralis minor p
23. platysma q
y
x
24. pronator teres
w
25. rectus abdominis
26. rectus femoris
27. sartorius v
u
28. serratus anterior r
t
29. soleus
s
30. sternocleidomastoid
31. sternohyoid
32. temporalis
33. tensor fascia lata
34. tibialis anterior

Review Sheet 12 149
7. Identify each lettered muscle in this illustration of the human posterior superficial musculature by matching its letter
with one of the following muscle names:
1. adductor magnus
2. biceps femoris
3. brachialis a
4. brachioradialis b
5. deltoid c
6. extensor carpi
radialis longus
d
x
7. extensor e
carpi ulnaris w
f
8. extensor digitorum
9. external oblique
10. flexor carpi ulnaris v g

u
11. gastrocnemius
t h
12. gluteus maximus
s
13. gluteus medius i
r
14. gracilis
j
15. iliotibial tract
(tendon)
16. infraspinatus
17. latissimus dorsi

q
18. occipital belly of k
epicranius
p
l
19. semimembranosus
m
20. semitendinosus
n
21. sternocleidomastoid
22. teres major
23. trapezius o
24. triceps brachii

150 Review Sheet 12
8. + Bruxism is a condition in which individuals clench and/or grind their teeth. It often occurs as they sleep, leading
to jaw pain and damaged teeth. Which muscles contract during this nocturnal event?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
9. + Repetitive extension of the hand at the wrist and abduction of the hand can lead to lateral epicondylitis.
Although sometimes called “tennis elbow,” it more often affects individuals who don’t play tennis. Based on the
name lateral epicondylitis and the action described above, which muscle would most likely have microscopic tears
in the tendon?
EXERCISE
13 Neuron Anatomy and Physiology

● Model of a “typical” neuron (if available) □ Discuss the functional differences between neurons and
● Demonstration area: Microscopes set neuroglia.
up with the following prepared slides for
□ Identify the important anatomical characteristics of a neuron.
student examination:
Station 1: Ox spinal cord smear (under oil) □ Explain how a nerve impulse is transmitted from one neuron
Station 2: Teased myelinated nerve fibers to another.
Station 3: Nerve (cross section) □ Describe the functional importance of myelin sheaths, and
explain how those sheaths are formed by Schwann cells.
□ Classify neurons according to structure and function.
□ Describe briefly how a nerve impulse is generated.
□ Describe the structure of a nerve, identifying the connective

tissue coverings.
T
he nervous system is the master integrating and coordinating system of the
body. Every thought, action, and sensation is a reflection of its activity.
Despite its complexity, nervous tissue is made up of just two principal
cell populations: neurons and supporting cells called neuroglia or glial cells.
The neuroglia in the central nervous system (CNS: brain and spinal cord) include
several cell types that serve the needs of the neurons by acting as phagocytes and
by protecting and myelinating the delicate neurons. In addition, CNS neuroglia
act as a selective barrier between the capillary blood supply and the neurons.
The most important neuroglia in the peripheral nervous system (PNS: the neural
structures outside the CNS) are Schwann cells, which insulate nerve fibers, and
satellite cells, which surround neuron cell bodies. In this exercise, we focus on
neurons, which are highly excitable.
Neuron Anatomy
Neurons are specialized to transmit messages (nerve impulses) from one part of
the body to another. Neurons differ structurally, but they have many features in
common (Figure 13.1a). All have a cell body from which slender processes, or
fibers, extend. Neuron cell bodies found in the CNS in clusters are called nuclei.
In the PNS, clusters of neuron cell bodies are called ganglia. Nuclei and ganglia
make up the gray matter of the nervous system. Neuron processes running through
the CNS form tracts of white matter. In the PNS, they form the peripheral nerves.
The neuron cell body contains a large round nucleus surrounded by cytoplasm.
The cytoplasm is filled with neurofibrils, cytoskeletal elements of the neuron,
which have a support and intracellular transport function, and an elaborate rough
endoplasmic reticulum called the chromatophilic substance or Nissl bodies.
Generally speaking, neuron processes that conduct electrical currents toward
the cell body are called dendrites, and those that carry impulses away from the
nerve cell body are called axons or nerve fibers. Neurons have only one axon but
may have many dendrites, depending on the neuron type. The axon may branch,
forming one or more processes called axon collaterals.
A neuron is excited by other neurons when their axons release neurotransmit-
ters close to its dendrites or cell body, and an electrical current produced travels
down its axon. The axon ends in many small structures called axon terminals,
151
152 Exercise 13
Dendrites Cell body

(receptive (biosynthetic center
regions) and receptive region)
Nucleus of
neuroglial cell
Neurofibril
Nucleus
Nucleolus
Dendrites
Nucleus
Chromatophilic
substance
(b)
Initial segment of axon

Nucleolus Axon Impulse
(impulse-generating direction Myelin sheath gap
Chromatophilic and -conducting region) (node of Ranvier)
substance (rough
endoplasmic Axon terminals
reticulum) Axon hillock (secretory
Schwann cell
region)
(a) Terminal branches

13
Figure 13.1 Structure of a typical motor neuron. (a) Diagram. (b) Photomicrograph
(4503). (See also Plate 5 in the Histology Atlas.)
which store the neurotransmitter chemical in tiny vesicles wrap themselves tightly around the axon in jelly-roll fashion
(see Figure 13.1a). Each axon terminal is separated from the so that when the process is completed a tight core of plasma
cell body or dendrites of the next neuron by a tiny gap called membrane material called the myelin sheath encompasses
the synaptic cleft. Thus, although they are close, there is no the axon (Figure 13.2). The Schwann cell nucleus and
actual physical contact between neurons. When an impulse the bulk of its cytoplasm end up just beneath the outermost
reaches the axon terminals, some of the synaptic vesicles portion of its plasma membrane. This part of the Schwann
fuse with the plasma membrane and then rupture and release cell external to the myelin sheath is referred to as the outer
neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft. The neurotransmitter collar of the perinuclear cytoplasm. Because the myelin
then diffuses across the synaptic cleft to bind to membrane sheath is formed by many individual Schwann cells, it has
receptors on the next neuron, initiating the action potential. gaps or indentations called myelin sheath gaps, or nodes of
Most long nerve fibers are covered with a fatty material Ranvier (see Figure 13.1a). Within the CNS, myelination is
called myelin, and such fibers are referred to as myelinated accomplished by neuroglia called oligodendrocytes. Myelin
fibers. Nerve fibers in the peripheral nervous system are insulates the fibers and greatly increases the speed of neuro-
myelinated by special neuroglia called Schwann cells, which transmission by neuron fibers.
Neuron Anatomy and Physiology 153
Activity 1 Schwann
cell plasma
membrane
Identifying Parts of a Neuron Schwann 1 A Schwann cell
1. Study the illustration of a motor neuron shown in cell envelops an axon.
Figure 13.1, noting the structural details described, and cytoplasm
then identify these structures on a neuron model. Axon
Schwann cell
2. Go to station 1 of the demonstration area where nucleus
the microscopes are set up, and view a prepared slide
of the ox spinal cord smear, which has large, easily
identifiable neurons. Study one representative neuron
and identify the cell body, the nucleus and the large,
prominent nucleolus. If possible, distinguish the axon 2 The Schwann cell
from the many dendrites. Sketch the neuron in the space then rotates around
that follows, and label the important anatomical details the axon, wrapping its
you observe. Compare your sketch to Figure 13.1b and plasma membrane
loosely around it in
Plate 5 in the Histology Atlas. Also, as you study the successive layers.
photomicrograph of the neuron (Plate 5 in the Histology
Atlas) reexamine the diagram (Figure 13.1a), which
differentiates the neuronal processes more clearly.
3 The Schwann cell

cytoplasm is forced
Myelin from between the
sheath membranes. The tight
membrane wrappings
surrounding the axon
3. At station 2, view a prepared slide of teased myelin- form the myelin sheath.
ated nerve fibers. Identify the following: myelin sheath
gaps, outer collar of perinuclear cytoplasm, the axon,
Schwann cell cytoplasm 13
Schwann cell nuclei, and myelin sheath (use Figures 13.1 (a) Myelination of a nerve fiber (axon)
and 13.2 and Plate 8 in the Histology Atlas as guides).
Sketch a portion of a myelinated nerve fiber in the
space below, illustrating two or three myelin sheath Myelin
gaps. Label the axon, myelin sheath, myelin sheath gap, sheath
and Schwann cell nucleus.
Outer collar
of perinuclear
cytoplasm Axon
(of Schwann
cell)
Do the gaps seem to occur at consistent intervals, or are

they distributed irregularly?
(b) Cross-sectional view of a myelinated axon (electron

micrograph 24,000 :)
Figure 13.2 Myelination of a nerve fiber (axon) by

Schwann cells.
154 Exercise 13
Neuron Classification
Neurons may be classified on the basis of structure or of Most neurons in the brain and spinal cord and those whose
function. axons carry impulses away from the CNS fall into this last
category.
Classification by Structure
The number of processes attached to the cell body determines Classification by Function
the structural class of a neuron (Figure 13.3). In unipolar Neurons carrying impulses from the sensory receptors in the
neurons, one very short process, which divides into pe- internal organs or in the skin are called sensory, or afferent,
ripheral and central processes, extends from the cell body. neurons (Figure 13.4). The dendritic endings of sensory
Functionally, only the most distal portions of the peripheral neurons often bear specialized receptors that are stimulated
process act as receptive regions; the rest acts as an axon by specific changes in their immediate environment. The cell
along with the central process. Unipolar neurons are more bodies of sensory neurons are always found in a ganglion
accurately called pseudounipolar neurons because they are outside the CNS, and these neurons are typically unipolar.
derived from bipolar neurons. Nearly all neurons that conduct Neurons carrying impulses from the CNS to the viscera
impulses toward the CNS are unipolar. and/or body muscles and glands are motor, or efferent,
Bipolar neurons have two processes—one axon and one neurons. Motor neurons are most often multipolar, and their
dendrite—attached to the cell body. This neuron type is quite cell bodies are almost always located in the CNS.
rare; typically bipolar neurons serve as sensory receptor cells The third functional category of neurons is the interneu-
in some special sense organs (e.g., eye, ear). rons, which are situated in pathways that connect sensory and
Many processes issue from the cell body of multipolar motor neurons. Their cell bodies are always located within
neurons, and all are dendrites except for a single axon. the CNS, and they are multipolar.
Cell body
13
Axon
Multipolar neuron
Dendrites
Cell body
Dendrite Axon
Bipolar neuron
Cell body
Short single process
Axon (central and peripheral processes)

Receptive
endings
Unipolar (pseudounipolar) neuron
Figure 13.3 Classification of neurons based on structure (number of processes

extending from the cell body). (See also Plates 6 and 7 in the Histology Atlas.)
Dorsal root
ganglion Cell body
Peripheral
process (axon) Central process
Sensory neuron (axon)
Spinal nerve
Afferent transmission
White
Interneuron matter
Receptive Gray
endings matter
Efferent transmission
Motor neuron
Spinal cord
(central nervous system)
To effectors
(muscles)
Figure 13.4 Classification of neurons on the basis of function. Sensory (afferent)

neurons conduct impulses from the body’s sensory receptors to the central nervous
system; most are unipolar neurons with their cell bodies in ganglia in the peripheral
nervous system (PNS). Motor (efferent) neurons transmit impulses from the CNS to
effectors such as muscles and glands. Interneurons complete the communication
line between sensory and motor neurons. They are typically multipolar, and their cell
bodies reside in the CNS.
13
Neuron Physiology: The Action Potential

Neurons have two major physiological properties: (1) the Na+ permeability decreases, K+ permeability increases, and
ability to respond to stimuli and convert them into nerve K+ rushes out of the cell. Since K+ ions are positively
impulses, and (2) the ability to transmit the impulses to other charged, their movement out of the cell reverses the mem-
neurons, muscles, or glands. In a resting neuron, the outside brane potential again, so that the external membrane surface
surface of the membrane is slightly more positively charged is again positive relative to the internal membrane face
than the inside surface (Figure 13.5a). This difference in (Figure 13.5d). This event is called repolarization. The
electrical charge on the two sides of the membrane is called action potential is a brief reversal of the neuron’s membrane
the resting membrane potential, and a neuron in this state potential.
is said to be polarized. In a resting neuron, the main intracel- Once generated, the action potential propagates along
lular cation is potassium (K+); sodium ions (Na+) are found the entire length of the axon. It is never partially transmitted;
in greater concentration in the extracellular fluids. The rest- that is, it is an all-or-none response. When the action potential
ing potential is maintained by the sodium-potassium pump, reaches the axon terminals, they release a neurotransmitter
which transports Na+ out of the cell and K+ into the cell. that acts either to stimulate or to inhibit the next neuron in
When the neuron is activated by a threshold stimulus, the transmission chain. This action potential begins in the
the membrane briefly becomes more permeable to sodium axon hillock region (see Figure 13.1) and travels sequentially
(sodium gates are opened), and sodium ions rush into the cell down the axon.
(Figure 13.5b). Thus the inside of the membrane becomes Because only tiny amounts of sodium and potassium ions
less negative, an event called depolarization. If the stimulus change places, once repolarization has been completed the
is great enough to depolarize the axon to threshold, an action neuron can quickly respond again to a stimulus. Eventually,
potential is generated. (Figure 13.5c). however, the original ionic concentrations must be restored
Within a millisecond after the inward rush of sodium, on the two sides of the membrane. This is accomplished by
the membrane permeability again changes. As a result, enhanced activity of the Na+-K+ pump (Figure 13.5e).
156 Exercise 13
[Na +] [K+] Na+

++++++++++++++++ Na+-K+ pump Na+
K+ Na+ Na+
----------------
[Na+] [K +]
----------------
++++++++++++++++
(a)
K+
Stimulus K+ Na+ K + Cell interior
+70 mV
--++++++++++++++
(e)
++--------------
++--------------
--++++++++++++++
Na + Depolarization Repolarization
Relative membrane permeability

+30
Membrane potential (mV)
(b)
0
++++++---+++++++
-----+++-------- Na+ permeability
K+ permeability
-----+++-------- Hyperpolarization
++++++---+++++++ Threshold
(c) -55
-70
+++++++++++---++
0 1 2 3 4
13 -----------+++-- Time (ms)
(f)
K+
- - - - - - - - - - - + + +- -
+ + + + + + + + + + + - - -++
(d)
Figure 13.5 The action potential. (a) Resting membrane potential (RMP). There
is an excess of positive ions outside the cell, with Na+ as the main extracellular fluid
ion and K+ as the predominant intracellular ion. The plasma membrane has a low
permeability to Na+. (b) Depolarization—reversal of the RMP. Application of a stimu-
lus changes the membrane permeability, and Na+ ions are allowed to diffuse rapidly
into the cell. The interior face of the membrane becomes less negative (moves
toward positive). (c) Generation of the action potential. If the stimulus is strong
enough, the depolarization wave spreads rapidly along the entire length of the
membrane. (d) Repolarization—reestablishment of the RMP. The negative charge on
the internal plasma membrane surface and the positive charge on its external sur-
face are reestablished by diffusion of K+ ions out of the cell, proceeding in the same
direction as in depolarization. (e) The original ionic concentrations of the resting
state are restored by the Na+-K+ pump. (f) A tracing of an action potential. The purple
line shows the changes to the membrane potential over time. The yellow and green
lines show the changes to the permeability of Na+ and K+, respectively, over time.
Structure of a Nerve
In the CNS, bundles of axons are called tracts. In the PNS, bun- Axon
dles of axons are called nerves. Nerves extend to and/or from
the CNS and visceral organs or structures of the body periphery, Myelin sheath
such as skeletal muscles, glands, and skin (Figure 13.6).
Within a nerve, each fiber is surrounded by a delicate
Endoneurium
connective tissue sheath called an endoneurium, which in-
sulates it from the other neuron processes adjacent to it.
Groups of fibers are bound by a coarser connective tissue, Perineurium
called the perineurium, to form bundles of fibers called
fascicles. Finally, all the fascicles are bound together by a
tough, white, fibrous connective tissue sheath called the epi-
neurium, forming the cordlike nerve (Figure 13.6).
Epineurium
Like neurons, nerves are classified according to the di-
rection in which they transmit impulses. Nerves carrying
both sensory (afferent) and motor (efferent) fibers are mixed
nerves; all spinal nerves are mixed nerves. Nerves that carry Fascicle
only sensory processes and conduct impulses only toward the
CNS are sensory, or afferent, nerves. A few of the cranial Blood
nerves are pure sensory nerves, but the majority are mixed vessels
nerves. The ventral roots of the spinal cord, which carry only
motor fibers, are motor, or efferent, nerves.
Activity 2
Examining the Microscopic Structure
of a Nerve (a)
13
Go to station 3 of the demonstration area, and exam-
ine under the compound microscope a prepared cross
section of a peripheral nerve. Identify axons, myelin Myelinated
sheaths, fascicles, and endoneurium, perineurium, and axons
epineurium sheaths. If desired, sketch the nerve in the
space below. Compare your sketch to Figure 13.6b and Myelin
sheath
Plate 10 in the Histology Atlas.
Endoneurium
Perineurium
Fascicle
Epineurium
(b)
Figure 13.6 Structure of a nerve showing connective

tissue wrappings. (a) Three-dimensional view of a por-
tion of a nerve. (b) Photomicrograph of a cross section
of a portion of a nerve (2003).
EXERCISE
13 REVIEW SHEET
Neuron Anatomy and Physiology
1. The cellular unit of the nervous system is the neuron. What is the major function of this cell type?
2. Neuroglia have numerous functions. Name three.
3. Match each statement with a response chosen from the key.
Key: afferent neuron interneuron nuclei

central nervous system neuroglia peripheral nervous system
efferent neuron neurotransmitters synaptic cleft
ganglion nerve tract
1. the brain and spinal cord collectively
2. tiny gap that separates two neurons
3. a bundle of axons outside the CNS
4. neuron connecting sensory and motor neurons
5. a bundle of axons within the CNS
6. collections of neuron cell bodies inside the CNS
7. neuron that conducts impulses away from the CNS to muscles and glands
8. neuron that conducts impulses toward the CNS from the body periphery
9. chemicals released by axon terminals
10. specialized supporting cells in the nervous system
11. collection of neuron cell bodies found in the PNS
12. neural structures found outside of the central nervous system
159
160 Review Sheet 13
Neuron Anatomy
4. Label the following structures on the diagram of a multipolar neuron shown below: cell body, nucleus, nucleolus,
chromatophilic substance, dendrites, initial segment of axon, myelin sheath, myelin sheath gaps, and axon terminals.
5. Describe what happens when an action potential reaches the axon terminal.
6. What anatomical characteristic determines whether a particular neuron is classified as unipolar, bipolar, or multipolar?
Make a simple line drawing of each type here.
Unipolar neuron Bipolar neuron Multipolar neuron

Review Sheet 13 161
7. Describe how the Schwann cells form the myelin sheath encasing the nerve fibers.
8. Correctly identify the sensory (afferent) neuron, interneuron, and motor (efferent) neuron in the figure below.
Which of these neuron types is/are unipolar?
Which is/are most likely multipolar?
Sensory receptor
Effector organ
The Action Potential

9. Match each of the terms in column B to the appropriate definition in column A.
Column A Column B
1. reversal of the resting potential due to an action potential

influx of sodium ions
depolarization
2. period during which potassium ions are
diffusing out of the neuron because of a repolarization
change in membrane permeability
sodium-potassium pump
3. a brief reversal of membrane potential
that travels along the axon
4. mechanism that restores the resting

membrane voltage and intracellular
ionic concentrations
10. How does an action potential differ from simple depolarization? ________________________________________________
162 Review Sheet 13
Structure of a Nerve
11. What is a nerve?
12. State the location of each of the following connective tissue coverings:
endoneurium
perineurium
epineurium
13. What is the value of the connective tissue wrappings found in a nerve?
14. Define mixed nerve:
15. + Peripheral neuropathy has a variety of causes. Worldwide, the most common cause is leprosy, also known as
Hansen’s disease. Would you expect peripheral neuropathy to cause damage to tracts or to nerves? ______________
why? _______________________________________________________________________________________________________
16. + Some local anesthetics that are used to block nerve pain work by decreasing the permeability of sodium in the
plasma membrane of the neuron. Explain the effect that this change in permeability would have on the generation of
action potentials and why. ___________________________________________________________________________________

EXERCISE
14
Gross Anatomy of the Brain
and Cranial Nerves

● Human brain model (dissectible) □ Identify externally visible regions of the cerebral hemispheres,
● Three-dimensional model of ventricles diencephalon, brain stem, and cerebellum, and locate the
● Preserved human brain (if available) functional areas of the cerebral hemispheres.
● Frontally sectioned human brain slice □ Identify important internal areas of the cerebral hemispheres,
(if available)
diencephalon, brain stem, and cerebellum.
● Materials as needed for cranial nerve
testing (see Table 14.2) □ Identify the three meningeal layers, and state the function of
● Preserved sheep brain (meninges and each.
cranial nerves intact)
□ Discuss the formation, circulation, and drainage of
● Dissecting tray and instruments
cerebrospinal fluid.
□ Identify the cranial nerves by number and name on an
appropriate model or diagram, stating the function of each.
F
or convenience, the nervous system is considered in terms of two principal
divisions: the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous
system (PNS). The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal
cord, which interpret incoming sensory information and issue instructions based
on past experience. The peripheral nervous system consists of the cranial and
spinal nerves, ganglia, and sensory receptors.
In this exercise, we will study both CNS (brain) and PNS (cranial nerves)
structures together because of their close anatomical relationship.
The Human Brain
Activity 1
Identifying External Brain Structures
Generally, the brain is studied in terms of four major regions: the cerebral
hemispheres, diencephalon, brain stem, and cerebellum. Identify external
brain structures using a model of the human brain and the figures cited in
the following sections.
Cerebral Hemispheres
The cerebral hemispheres are the most superior part of the brain
(Figure 14.1). Their entire surface is thrown into elevated ridges called gyri
that are separated by depressed areas called fissures or sulci. Many of the
fissures and gyri are important anatomical landmarks.
The cerebral hemispheres are divided by the deep longitudinal fissure.
The central sulcus divides the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe, and the lat-
eral sulcus separates the temporal lobe from the parietal lobe. The parieto-
occipital sulcus, which divides the occipital lobe from the parietal lobe, is
not visible externally. Notice that the cerebral hemisphere lobes are named
for the cranial bones that lie over them.
Some important functional areas of the cerebral hemispheres have also
been located (Figure 14.1c).
163
164 Exercise 14
Central Figure 14.1 External structure (lobes and

Precentral sulcus Postcentral fissures) of the cerebral hemispheres. (a) Left
gyrus gyrus
lateral view of the brain. (b) Photo of the lat-
Frontal lobe Parietal lobe
eral aspect of the human brain. (c) Functional
Parieto-occipital sulcus areas of the left cerebral cortex. Different
(on medial surface
of hemisphere) colors define functional regions of the cortex.
Lateral sulcus
Dark colors show primary motor (red) or
sensory (blue) cortex, and lighter colors show
associated cortices. Violet shows multimodal
Occipital lobe
association cortex. The olfactory cortex, which
Temporal lobe is deep within the temporal lobe on the me-
Transverse dial hemispheric surface, is not identified.
cerebral fissure
Cerebellum
Pons
Medulla oblongata
Fissure Spinal cord Left cerebral
(a deep hemisphere
sulcus) Frontal Parietal
Gyrus lobe lobe
Occipital
Cortex (gray matter) lobe
Sulcus
White matter
(a) Temporal
lobe
Brain stem
Cerebellum
14 (b)
Sensory areas and related

Motor areas Central sulcus association areas
Primary motor cortex Primary
somatosensory
Premotor cortex cortex Somatic
Frontal Somatosensory sensation
eye field association
cortex
Broca's area
(outlined by dashes) Gustatory
cortex Taste
(in insula)
Prefrontal cortex
Working memory Wernicke's area
for spatial tasks (outlined by dashes)
Executive area for
task management
Working memory for Primary
object-recall tasks visual
cortex Vision
Solving complex,
Visual
multitask problems
association
area
Auditory
association
area
Hearing
Primary
auditory
(c) cortex
The cell bodies of neurons involved in these func- carrying impulses to or from the cortex. Some of these
tions are found only in the outermost gray matter of the functional areas are summarized in Table 14.1.
cerebrum, the area called the cerebral cortex. Most of Using a preserved human brain and/or brain slices if avail-
the balance of cerebral tissue—the deeper cerebral white able, identify the areas and structures of the cerebral hemi-
matter—consists of myelinated fibers bundled into tracts spheres that have been described above and in the table.
Gross Anatomy of the Brain and Cranial Nerves 165
Table 14.1 Important Functional Areas of the Cerebral Cortex
Functional sensory areas Location Functions

Primary somatosensory cortex Postcentral gyrus of the parietal lobe Receives information from the body’s sensory receptors in the skin
and from proprioceptors in the skeletal muscles, joints, and tendons
Primary visual cortex Occipital lobe Receives visual information that originates in the retina of the eye
Primary auditory cortex Temporal lobe in the gyrus bordering Receives sound information from the receptors for hearing in the
the lateral sulcus internal ear
Primary olfactory cortex Medial surface of the temporal lobe, Receives information from olfactory (smell) receptors in the
in a region called the uncus superior nasal cavity
Functional motor areas Location Functions
Primary motor cortex Precentral gyrus of the frontal lobe Conscious control of voluntary movement of skeletal muscles
Broca’s area Anterior to the inferior region of the Controls the muscles involved in speech production and also
premotor area in the frontal lobe, in plays a role in the planning of nonspeech motor functions
only one hemisphere
Then continue using the preserved brain along with Brain Stem
the model and figures as you read about other structures.
Continue to identify brain stem structures—the cerebral
Diencephalon peduncles (fiber tracts in the midbrain connecting the pons
below with cerebrum above), the pons, and the medulla
The diencephalon consists largely of three paired struc-
oblongata. Pons means “bridge,” and the pons consists
tures—the thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus.
primarily of motor and sensory fiber tracts connecting the
Turn the brain model to view the ventral surface of the
brain with lower CNS centers. The lowest brain stem re-
brain. Identify the visible external structures that mark the po-
gion, the medulla oblongata, is also composed primarily of
sition of the floor of the diencephalon. These are the olfactory
fiber tracts. The medulla also houses many vital autonomic
bulbs and tracts, optic nerves, optic chiasma, optic tracts,
centers involved in the control of visceral activities, such as 14
pituitary gland, and mammillary bodies (Figure 14.2).
heart rate, respiratory rhythm, and blood pressure.
Longitudinal
fissure
Frontal lobe
Olfactory bulb
Olfactory tract
Optic chiasma
Optic nerve
Optic tract
Mammillary body
Pituitary
gland Midbrain
Pons
Temporal lobe
Medulla
oblongata
Cerebellum
Spinal cord
Figure 14.2 Ventral aspect of the human brain, showing the three regions of the
brain stem. Only a small portion of the midbrain can be seen; the rest is surrounded
by other brain regions.
166 Exercise 14
Cerebral hemisphere
Corpus callosum
Septum pellucidum
Fornix
Interthalamic
adhesion Choroid plexus
(intermediate
mass of Thalamus
thalamus) (encloses third ventricle)
Posterior
Interventricular
commissure Epithalamus
foramen
Pineal gland
Anterior
commissure
Corpora
Hypothalamus quadrigemina
Midbrain
Optic chiasma Cerebral
aqueduct
Pituitary gland
Arbor vitae (of cerebellum)
Mammillary Fourth ventricle
body Choroid plexus
Pons Cerebellum
Medulla
oblongata
Spinal cord
(a)
Corpus callosum
Fornix
14
Lateral ventricle Thalamus
Posterior
commissure Epithalamus
Third ventricle
Pineal gland
Anterior Corpora
commissure quadrigemina
Midbrain
Cerebral
aqueduct
Hypothalamus
Arbor vitae
Optic chiasma Fourth ventricle
Cerebellum
Mammillary body
Pons
Medulla oblongata
(b)
Figure 14.3 Diencephalon and brain stem structures as seen in a median section
of the brain. (a) Diagram. (b) Photograph.
Cerebellum 2. Remove the cerebellum to examine the corpora quad-

rigemina, located on the posterior aspect of the midbrain.
1. Turn the brain model so you can see the dorsal aspect.
The two superior prominences are the superior colliculi
Identify the large cauliflower-shaped cerebellum, which
(visual reflex centers). The two smaller inferior colliculi are
projects dorsally from under the occipital lobe of the cere-
auditory reflex centers (Figure 14.3).
brum. Notice that, like the cerebrum, the cerebellum has
two major hemispheres and a convoluted surface.
Activity 2
Identifying Internal Brain Structures
The deeper structures of the brain have also been well balance, as well as in many other activities and drives.
mapped. As the internal brain areas are described, identify Locate the pituitary gland, which hangs from the floor of the
them on the figures cited. Also use the brain model, and pre- hypothalamus by a slender stalk called the infundibulum.
served human brains if available, to help you in this study. The pituitary gland is usually not present in preserved brain
specimens (and is not illustrated in Figure 14.3a). In life, the
Cerebral Hemispheres pituitary rests in the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone.
1. Take the brain model apart to see a median view of the Anterior to the pituitary, identify the optic chiasma
internal brain structures (Figure 14.3). Examine the model portion of the optic pathway to the brain. The mammil-
closely to see the extent of the outer cortex (gray matter), lary bodies, relay stations for olfaction, bulge exteriorly
which contains the cell bodies of cerebral neurons. from the floor of the hypothalamus just posterior to the
2. Observe the deeper area of white matter, which pituitary gland.
is composed of fiber tracts. The fiber tracts are called 3. The epithalamus forms the roof of the third ventricle.
association tracts if they connect two portions of the same Important structures in the epithalamus are the pineal
hemisphere, projection tracts if they run between the gland (part of the endocrine system) and the choroid
cerebral cortex and lower brain structures or spinal cord, and plexus of the third ventricle. The choroid plexuses, capil-
commissures if they run from one hemisphere to another. lary knots within each ventricle, form cerebrospinal fluid.
Identify the large corpus callosum, the major commissure
connecting the cerebral hemispheres. The corpus callosum Brain Stem
arches above the structures of the diencephalon. 1. Now trace the short midbrain from the mammillary
3. Buried deep within the white matter of the cerebral bodies to the rounded pons below. (Continue to refer to
hemispheres are several “islands” of gray matter (clus- Figure 14.3.) The cerebral aqueduct is a slender canal trav-
ters of neuron cell bodies) called nuclei. One important eling through the midbrain; it connects the third ventricle
group of cerebral nuclei, called the basal nuclei, flank the to the fourth ventricle. The cerebral peduncles and the
lateral and third ventricles. The basal nuclei help regulate rounded corpora quadrigemina lie anterior and posterior
voluntary motor activities. If you have an appropriate dis- (respectively) to the cerebral aqueduct.
sectible model or a coronally or cross-sectioned human 2. Trace the rounded pons to the medulla oblongata be- 14
brain slice, identify the basal nuclei. low, and identify the fourth ventricle posterior to these
structures. Attempt to identify the three orifices in the
Diencephalon walls of the fourth ventricle, which allow cerebrospinal
1. The major internal structures of the diencephalon are fluid to circulate into the subarachnoid space from the
the thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus (Figure 14.3). fourth ventricle.
The thalamus consists of two large lobes of gray matter that
laterally enclose the narrow third ventricle of the brain. A Cerebellum
slender stalk of thalamic tissue, the interthalamic adhesion Examine the internal structure of the cerebellum. The cere-
or intermediate mass, connects the two lobes and spans the bellum has an outer cortical area of gray matter and an in-
ventricle. The thalamus is a major relay station for sensory ner area of branching white matter. The treelike branching
impulses passing upward to the cortical sensory areas. of the cerebellar white matter is referred to as the arbor
2. The hypothalamus makes up the floor of the third vitae, or “tree of life.” The cerebellum controls the uncon-
ventricle. It is a crucially important autonomic center scious coordination of skeletal muscle activity along with
involved in regulation of body temperature and water balance and equilibrium.
Meninges of the Brain

The brain and spinal cord are covered and protected by three superior sagittal sinus, which collects blood draining from
connective tissue membranes called meninges (singular: me- the brain tissue.
ninx). The outermost membrane is the double-layered dura The middle layer, the weblike arachnoid mater, un-
mater (Figure 14.4a). One of its layers (the periosteal layer) derlies the dura mater and is partially separated from it by
is attached to the inner surface of the skull, forming the perios- the subdural space. Threadlike projections bridge the sub-
teum. The other (the meningeal layer) forms the outermost brain arachnoid space and attach to the innermost membrane,
covering and continues as the dura mater of the spinal cord. the pia mater. The delicate pia mater is highly vascular and
The dural layers are fused together, except in three clings to the surface of the brain.
places where the inner membrane extends inward to form In life, the subarachnoid space is filled with cerebrospi-
a fold that secures the brain in the cranial cavity. One such nal fluid. Specialized projections of the arachnoid tissue called
extension, the falx cerebri (Figure 14.4b), dips into the lon- arachnoid granulations protrude through the dura mater to
gitudinal fissure to attach to the crista galli of the ethmoid allow the cerebrospinal fluid to drain back into the venous blood
bone of the skull. The cavity created at this point is the large via the superior sagittal sinus and other dural venous sinuses.
168 Exercise 14
Parietal bone
Superior Scalp
sagittal sinus
Dura mater
Transverse
sinus
Temporal
bone
Arachnoid mater
over medulla
oblongata
(a)
Skin of scalp
Periosteum
Bone of skull
Periosteal
Dura mater
Meningeal
Superior sagittal sinus
Arachnoid mater
14 Subdural space Pia mater

Arachnoid granulation
Subarachnoid space Blood vessel
Falx cerebri
(in longitudinal
fissure only)
(b)
Figure 14.4 Meninges of the brain. (a) Posterior view of the brain in place,
surrounded by the dura mater. (b) Three-dimensional frontal section showing the
relationship of the dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater. The meningeal dura
forms the falx cerebri fold, which extends into the longitudinal fissure and attaches
the brain to the ethmoid bone of the skull. A dural venous sinus, the superior sagittal
sinus, is enclosed by the dural membranes superiorly. Arachnoid granulations, which
return cerebrospinal fluid to the dural venous sinus, are also shown.
Cerebrospinal Fluid
The cerebrospinal fluid is continually formed by the choroid
plexuses, small capillary knots hanging from the roof of the ven- Activity 3
tricles of the brain. Cerebrospinal fluid forms a watery cushion
that protects the delicate brain tissue against blows to the head. Tracing the Pathway of Cerebrospinal
Within the brain, the cerebrospinal fluid circulates from Fluid in the Brain
the two lateral ventricles (in the cerebral hemispheres) into
Obtain a three-dimensional model of the ventricles, and
the third ventricle and then through the cerebral aqueduct
trace the path of cerebrospinal fluid circulation through
of the midbrain into the fourth ventricle (Figure 14.5). From
the internal brain cavities from the lateral ventricles to
the fourth ventricle, cerebrospinal fluid circulates into the
the subarachnoid space.
subarachnoid space via three apertures (openings) in the walls
of the fourth ventricle. The fluid returns to the blood in the
dural venous sinuses via the arachnoid granulations.
Lateral ventricle
Anterior horn
Posterior
Septum horn
pellucidum
Interventricular
foramen
Inferior
horn
Third ventricle Inferior
horn
Lateral Cerebral aqueduct Lateral
aperture aperture
Fourth ventricle
Median
aperture
Central canal
(a) Anterior view (b) Left lateral view
Superior
sagittal sinus Arachnoid granulation
Subarachnoid space
Choroid plexus Arachnoid mater 14
Meningeal dura mater
Periosteal dura mater

Interventricular Right lateral ventricle
foramen (deep to cut)
Tentorium
Third ventricle cerebelli
Choroid plexus
of fourth ventricle
Cerebral aqueduct
Lateral aperture
Fourth ventricle
Median aperture
Central canal
of spinal cord
Inferior end of
spinal cord
Figure 14.5 Location and circulatory pattern of
cerebrospinal fluid. (a, b) Brain ventricles. (c) The
cerebrospinal fluid flows from the lateral ventricles
into the third ventricle, and then into the fourth
ventricle via the cerebral aqueduct. (c)
170 Exercise 14
Cranial Nerves
The cranial nerves are part of the peripheral nervous system, numeral), name, function, and testing method. You should
but they are best identified while studying the brain. The 12 memorize this information. A catchy saying that might help
pairs of cranial nerves primarily serve the head and neck. you to remember the cranial nerves in order is “On occasion
Only one pair, the vagus nerves, extends into the thoracic and our trusty truck acts funny—very good vehicle anyhow.” The
abdominal cavities. first letter of each word and the “a” and “h” of the final word,
The cranial nerves are numbered in order, and in most “anyhow,” will remind you of the first letter of the cranial
cases their names reflect the major structures they control. nerve name.
Table 14.2 describes the cranial nerves by number (Roman
Table 14.2 The Cranial Nerves (see Figure 14.6)
Number and name Function* Testing

I. Olfactory Purely sensory—carries afferent impulses for sense of Person is asked to sniff and identify aromatic
smell substances, such as oil of cloves and vanilla.
II. Optic Purely sensory—carries afferent impulses for vision Vision and visual field are determined with eye chart
and by testing the point at which the person first
sees an object (finger) moving into the visual field.
Eye interior viewed with ophthalmoscope to detect
swelling of optic disc (point at which optic nerve
leaves the eye) and to observe blood vessels.
III. Oculomotor Primarily motor—motor fibers to inferior oblique and Pupils are examined for size, shape, and equality.
superior, inferior, and medial rectus muscles, which Pupillary reflex is tested with penlight (pupils should
direct eyeball; to levator palpebrae muscles of eyelid; to constrict when illuminated). Convergence for near
iris and smooth muscle controlling lens shape and pupil vision is tested, as is subject’s ability to follow objects
size up, down, side to side, and diagonally with eyes.
IV. Trochlear Primarily motor—provides motor fibers to superior Tested with cranial nerve III
14 oblique muscle (an extrinsic eye muscle)
V. Trigeminal Mixed—conducts sensory impulses from skin of face Sensations of pain, touch, and temperature are tested
and anterior scalp, from mucosae of mouth and nose; with safety pin and hot and cold objects. Corneal
also contains motor fibers that activate the chewing reflex tested with wisp of cotton. Motor branch
muscles assessed by asking person to clench his teeth, open
mouth against resistance, and move jaw side to side.
VI. Abducens Primarily motor—carries motor fibers to lateral rectus Tested with cranial nerve III
muscle of eye
VII. Facial Mixed—supplies motor fibers to muscles of facial Anterior two-thirds of tongue is tested for ability to
expression and to lacrimal and salivary glands; carries taste sweet (sugar), salty, sour (vinegar), and bitter
sensory fibers from taste receptors of anterior tongue (quinine) substances. Symmetry of face is checked.
Subject is asked to close eyes, smile, whistle, and so
on. Tearing is assessed with ammonia fumes.
VIII. Vestibulocochlear Mostly sensory—transmits impulses for senses of Hearing is checked by air and bone conduction using
equilibrum and hearing; small motor component adjusts tuning fork.
the sensitivity of sensory receptors
IX. Glossopharyngeal Mixed—motor fibers serve pharyngeal muscles and Gag and swallowing reflexes are checked. Subject is
salivary glands; sensory fibers carry impulses from asked to speak and cough. Posterior third of tongue
pharynx, posterior tongue (taste buds), and pressure may be tested for taste.
receptors of carotid artery
X. Vagus Mixed—motor fibers to pharynx and larynx and sensory As for cranial nerve IX (IX and X are tested, together,
fibers from same structures; a very large portion is since they both serve muscles of throat and mouth)
composed of parasympathetic motor fibers, which
supply heart and smooth muscles of abdominal visceral
organs; transmits sensory impulses from viscera
XI. Accessory Mixed (but primarily motor in function)—provides Sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles are
motor fibers to sternocleidomastoid and trapezius checked for strength by asking person to rotate head
muscles and elevate shoulders against resistance.
XII. Hypoglossal Mixed (but primarily motor in function)—motor fibers Person is asked to protrude and retract tongue. Any
serve muscles of tongue, and sensory fibers carry deviations in position are noted.
impulses from tongue
*Does not include sensory impulses from proprioceptors.

Most cranial nerves are mixed nerves (containing sory cranial nerves are located in ganglia. Those of the mixed
both motor and sensory fibers), but two pairs—optic and cranial nerves are found both in the brain and in peripheral
olfactory—are purely sensory. Neuron cell bodies of the sen- ganglia.
Activity 4
Identifying and Testing the Cranial Nerves
1. Identify the cranial nerves on the anterior surface of first cranial nerves, the olfactory bulbs, are visible on the
the brain model (use Figure 14.6 as a guide). Notice that model, so identify these.
the first (olfactory) cranial nerves are not visible on the 2. Testing cranial nerves is an important part of any neu-
model because they consist only of short axons that run rological examination (see the last column of Table 14.2).
from the nasal mucosa through the cribriform foramina Conduct tests of cranial nerve function following these
of the ethmoid bone. However, the synapse points of the directions.
Filaments of Frontal lobe

olfactory nerve (I)
Olfactory bulb
Olfactory tract
Optic nerve (II)
Temporal lobe
Optic chiasma
Optic tract
Oculomotor Infundibulum
nerve (III) 14
Facial nerve (VII)
Trochlear
nerve (IV)
Trigeminal Vestibulocochlear
nerve (V) nerve (VIII)
Abducens
Glossopharyngeal
nerve (VI)
nerve (IX)
Vagus nerve (X)
Cerebellum
Accessory nerve (XI)
Medulla oblongata
Hypoglossal nerve (XII)
Figure 14.6 Ventral aspect of the human brain, showing the cranial nerves.
DISSECTION
The Sheep Brain

Obtain a sheep brain, disposable gloves, dissecting tray, 2. Place the ventral surface of the sheep brain down on
and instruments, and bring them to your laboratory bench. the dissecting tray, and observe the fragments of the dura
1. Turn your sheep brain so that you are viewing its left mater. Feel its consistency and notice its toughness. Cut
lateral aspect. Compare the various areas of the sheep through the dura mater along the line of the longitudinal
brain (cerebrum, brain stem, cerebellum) to the photo of fissure. Gently force the cerebral hemispheres apart later-
the human brain (Figure 14.1b). Relatively speaking, which ally to expose the corpus callosum, the huge fiber tract
of these structures is obviously much larger in humans? deep to the longitudinal fissure.
172 Exercise 14
3. Examine the superior surface of the brain. Notice that • Accessory nerves (XI), which serve muscles of the neck,
like the human brain, its surface is thrown into convolu- larynx, and shoulder; notice that the accessory nerves
tions (fissures and gyri). Identify the arachnoid mater, arise from the spinal cord
which appears on the brain surface as a delicate “cottony” Hypoglossal nerves (XII), which stimulate tongue and
•
material spanning the fissures. neck muscles
Ventral Structures Dorsal Structures
Note the important features of the ventral surface of the Identify the following structures (refer to Figure 14.7b as
sheep brain (Figure 14.7a and b). Turn the brain over so a guide).
that its ventral surface is up.
1. Reidentify the now exposed cerebral hemispheres.
1. Look for the clublike olfactory bulbs on the inferior How does the depth of the fissures in the sheep’s cerebral
surface of the frontal lobes of the cerebral hemispheres. hemispheres compare to that in the human brain?
How does the size of these olfactory bulbs compare with
those of humans?
2. Examine the cerebellum. Notice that, in contrast to the

human cerebellum, it is not divided longitudinally and that
Is the sense of smell more important as a protective and a its fissures are oriented differently.
foraging sense in sheep or in humans? 3. To expose the dorsal surface of the midbrain, gently
force the cerebrum and cerebellum apart (Figure 14.8).
Identify the corpora quadrigemina, four rounded promi-
nences on the dorsal midbrain surface. What is the func-
2. The optic nerve (II) carries sensory impulses concerned tion of the corpora quadrigemina?
with vision from the retina of the eye. Identify the optic
nerves, the optic chiasma, and the optic tracts.
3. Posterior to the optic chiasma, identify the stalk, or
infundibulum, of the pituitary gland and then the mam-
14 millary body. Notice that the sheep’s mammillary body
is a single rounded eminence. In humans, it is a double Also locate the pineal gland, which appears as a small
structure. oval protrusion in the midline just anterior to the corpora
4. Identify the cerebral peduncles on the ventral aspect of quadrigemina.
the midbrain, just posterior to the mammillary body. Also
identify the large oculomotor nerves (III), which arise from
Internal Structures
the ventral midbrain surface, and the tiny trochlear nerves 1. The internal structure of the brain can only be exam-
(IV), seen at the midbrain-pons junction. These cranial ined after further dissection. Position the brain ventral side
nerves provide motor fibers to extrinsic muscles of the down, and make a cut completely through it in a superior
eyeball. to inferior direction. Cut through the longitudinal fissure,
corpus callosum, and midline of the cerebellum. (Refer to
5. Moving posteriorly from the midbrain, identify first the
Figure 14.9 as you work.)
pons and then the medulla oblongata.
2. A thin nervous tissue membrane immediately ventral
6. Return to the junction of the pons and midbrain, and
to the corpus callosum that separates the lateral ventricles
proceed posteriorly to identify the following cranial
is the septum pellucidum. Pierce this membrane, and
nerves, all arising from the pons:
probe the cavity of the lateral ventricle.
• Trigeminal nerves (V), which are involved in chewing
3. Identify the thalamus, which forms the walls of the
and sensations of the head and face
third ventricle. The interthalamic adhesion spanning
• Abducens nerves (VI), which abduct the eye (and thus the ventricular cavity appears as a round protrusion of the
work in conjunction with cranial nerves III and IV) thalamus wall.
• Facial nerves (VII), large nerves involved in taste sensa- 4. The hypothalamus forms the floor of the third ventricle.
tion, gland function (salivary and lacrimal glands), and Identify the optic chiasma, infundibulum, and mammillary
facial expressions body on its exterior surface. The pineal gland is at the pos-
7. Continue posteriorly to identify the following: terior end of the third ventricle.
• Vestibulocochlear nerves (VIII), mostly sensory nerves 5. Locate the midbrain by identifying the corpora quadri-
that are involved with hearing and equilibrium gemina that form its dorsal roof. Follow the cerebral aq-
ueduct through the midbrain tissue to the fourth ventricle.
• Glossopharyngeal nerves (IX), which contain motor fibers Identify the cerebral peduncles, which form its anterior
innervating throat structures and sensory fibers transmit- walls.
ting taste stimuli (in conjunction with cranial nerve VII)
6. Identify the pons and medulla, which lie anterior to
• Vagus nerves (X), often called “wanderers,” which serve the fourth ventricle. The medulla continues into the spi-
many organs of the head, thorax, and abdominal cavity nal cord without any obvious anatomical change, but the
Olfactory bulb
Olfactory tract Cerebrum
Infundibulum Optic nerve (II)

(stalk of pituitary gland)
Optic chiasma
Mammillary body
Optic tract
Cerebral peduncle
Oculomotor nerve (III)
Trigeminal nerve (V) Trochlear nerve (IV)
Abducens nerve (VI)

Pons
Cerebellum Facial nerve (VII)
Glossopharyngeal Vestibulocochlear
nerve (IX) nerve (VIII)
Vagus nerve (X) Hypoglossal nerve (XII)

Spinal root of the
Medulla oblongata
accessory nerve (XI)
(a)
Ventral Dorsal 14
Olfactory bulb
Olfactory
bulb
Longitudinal
fissure
Optic
nerve (II) Cerebrum
Infundibulum
Mammillary
body
Cerebral
peduncle
Pons
Trigeminal
nerve (V) Cerebellum
Abducens
nerve (VI)
Medulla
oblongata
(b)
Figure 14.7 Intact sheep brain. (a) Diagram, ventral view. (b) Photographs
showing ventral and dorsal views.

174 Exercise 14
Occipital
lobe of
cerebral
hemisphere
Pineal gland
Superior
colliculus of
corpora
quadrigemina
Inferior
colliculus of
corpora
quadrigemina
Cerebellum
Figure 14.8 Means of exposing the dorsal midbrain structures of the sheep brain.
14 Parietal lobe
Cerebral
hemisphere
Corpus callosum Cerebellum
Frontal lobe of
cerebrum
Pineal gland
Fornix
Arbor vitae
Interthalamic
Corpora
adhesion
quadrigemina
Fourth ventricle
Cerebral peduncle Medulla
Optic chiasma oblongata
Pons
Figure 14.9 Sagittal section of the sheep brain, showing internal structures.
point at which the fourth ventricle narrows to a small canal cord studies (Exercise 15). If not, save the small portion
is generally accepted as the beginning of the spinal cord. of the spinal cord from your brain specimen. Otherwise,
7. Identify the cerebellum posterior to the fourth ventricle dispose of all organic debris in the appropriate laboratory
and notice the internal treelike arrangement of its white containers, and clean the dissecting instruments and tray
matter called the arbor vitae. before leaving the laboratory.
8. Check with your instructor to determine whether cow

spinal cord sections (preserved) are available for the spinal
EXERCISE
14 REVIEW SHEET
Gross Anatomy of the Brain
and Cranial Nerves
The Human Brain

1. In which of the cerebral lobes (frontal, parietal, occipital, or temporal) would the following functional areas be found?
primary auditory cortex primary olfactory cortex
primary motor cortex primary visual cortex
primary somatosensory cortex Broca’s area
2. Using the terms from the key, identify the structures of the brain.
Key:
a. brain stem
b. central sulcus
c. cerebellum
d. frontal lobe
e. lateral sulcus
f. occipital lobe
g. parietal lobe
h. parieto-occipital sulcus
i. postcentral gyrus k. temporal lobe
j. precentral gyrus l. transverse cerebral fissure
3. Which of the following structures are not part of the brain stem? (Circle the appropriate response or responses.)
cerebral hemispheres pons midbrain cerebellum medulla
4. Complete the following statements by writing the proper word or phrase in the corresponding blank at left.
1. A(n) 1 is an elevated ridge of cerebral tissue. Inward folds of cerebral

tissue are called 2 or 3 . Gray matter is composed of 4 . White matter
2. is composed of 5 . A fiber tract that provides for communication between
different parts of the same cerebral hemisphere is called a(n) 6 , whereas
one that carries impulses from one cerebral hemisphere to another is
3.
called a(n) 7 . Nuclei deep within the cerebral hemisphere white matter
are collectively called the 8 .
4.
5. 7.
6. 8.
175
176 Review Sheet 14
5. Using the terms from the key, identify the structures on the following midsagittal view of the human brain.
Key: a. anterior commissure h. fornix o. optic chiasma
b. cerebellum i. fourth ventricle p. pineal gland
c. cerebral aqueduct j. hypothalamus q. pituitary gland
d. cerebral hemisphere k. interthalamic adhesion r. pons
e. choroid plexus l. mammillary body s. septum pellucidum
f. corpora quadrigemina m. medulla oblongata t. thalamus
g. corpus callosum n. midbrain
6. Using the key from question 5, match the appropriate structures with the following descriptions:
1. important autonomic center of brain involved in the regulation of body temperature
2. located in the midbrain; contains reflex centers for vision and hearing
3. coordinates complex muscular movements
4. contains autonomic centers regulating heart rate, respiration, and other visceral activities
5. large fiber tract connecting the cerebral hemispheres
6. the infundibulum connects this gland to the hypothalamus
7. canal that connects the third and fourth ventricles
8. the interthalamic adhesion connects its two lobes

Review Sheet 14 177
Meninges of the Brain

7. Identify the meningeal (or associated) structures described below:
1. outermost meninx; composed of tough fibrous connective tissue
2. innermost meninx covering the brain; follows every convolution
3. returns cerebrospinal fluid to the venous blood in the dural venous sinuses
4. structure that produces the cerebrospinal fluid
5. middle meninx delicate with cottony fibers
6. a dural fold that attaches the cerebrum to the crista galli of the skull
Cerebrospinal Fluid
8. Label the structures involved with circulation of cerebrospinal fluid on the accompanying diagram.
178 Review Sheet 14
Cranial Nerves
9. Using the terms below, correctly identify all structures indicated by leader lines on the diagram.
a. abducens nerve (VI) h. medulla oblongata o. pons
b. accessory nerve (XI) i. oculomotor nerve (III) p. trigeminal nerve (V)
c. facial nerve (VII) j. olfactory bulb q. trochlear nerve (IV)
d. glossopharyngeal nerve (IX) k. olfactory tract r. vagus nerve (X)
e. hypoglossal nerve (XII) l. optic chiasma s. vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII)
f. longitudinal fissure m. optic nerve (II)
g. mammillary body n. optic tract

Review Sheet 14 179
Dissection of Sheep Brain

10. In your own words, describe the relative hardness of the sheep brain tissue as noticed when you were cutting into it.
Formalin hardens all tissue. What conclusions might you draw about the firmness and texture of living brain tissue?
11. How does the relative size of the cerebral hemispheres compare in sheep and human brains? _____________________
What is the significance of this difference?
12. What is the significance of the fact that the olfactory bulbs are much larger in the sheep brain than in the human brain?
13. + Explain why trauma to the brain stem is often much more dangerous than trauma to the frontal lobes.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
14. + Patients with unresponsive wakefulness syndrome (UWS) have lost awareness of self and their environment. In
many cases, there is no damage to the cerebral cortex or the brain stem. If signal transmission to the cerebral cortex
is affected, what part of the brain is most likely to have been damaged? _________________________________________
EXERCISE
15 Spinal Cord and Spinal Nerves

● Spinal cord model (cross section) □ Identify important anatomical areas on a model or appropriate
● Three-dimensional models or laboratory diagram of the spinal cord.
charts of the spinal cord and spinal nerves
□ Describe the origin, fiber composition, and distribution of the
● Colored pencils
spinal nerves, differentiating roots, the spinal nerve proper,
● Preserved cow spinal cord sections with
meninges and nerve roots intact, or
and rami.
spinal cord segment saved from the brain □ Identify the four major nerve plexuses, the major nerves of
dissection (Exercise 14) each, and their distribution.
● Petri dishes
● Dissecting tray and single-edge razor
blades
● Dissecting microscope or magnifying glass
Anatomy of the Spinal Cord
The cylindrical spinal cord plays a major role in spinal reflex activity and
provides neural pathways to and from the brain. Enclosed within the vertebral
column, the spinal cord extends from the foramen magnum of the skull to the
first or second lumbar vertebra where it terminates in the cone-shaped conus
medullaris (Figure 15.1).
Like the brain, the spinal cord is cushioned and protected by meninges. The
dura mater and arachnoid meningeal coverings extend beyond L2, approximately
to the level of S2. The filum terminale, a fibrous extension of the pia mater,
extends even farther to attach to the posterior coccyx.
In humans, 31 pairs of spinal nerves arise from the spinal cord and serve the
body area at their approximate level of emergence. The cord is about the diameter
of a thumb for most of its length, but it is obviously enlarged in the cervical and
lumbar areas where the nerves serving the upper and lower limbs leave the cord.
Because the spinal cord does not extend to the end of the vertebral column,
lumbar and sacral spinal nerves must travel through the vertebral canal for some
distance before exiting. This collection of spinal nerves at the inferior end of the
vertebral canal is called the cauda equina (literally translated as “a horse’s tail”).
Activity 1
Identifying Structures of the Spinal Cord
Obtain a model of a cross section of a spinal cord, and identify its structures
as they are described next.
Gray Matter
In cross section, the gray matter of the spinal cord looks like a butterfly or the
letter H (Figure 15.2). The two posterior projections are called the dorsal (pos-
terior) horns. The two broader anterior projections are the ventral (anterior)
horns. In the thoracic and lumbar regions of the cord, there is also a lateral out-
pocketing of gray matter on each side referred to as the lateral horn. The central
area of gray matter surrounds the central canal of the spinal cord.
The posterior horns contain interneurons and sensory fibers that enter the
cord via the dorsal root. The cell bodies of these sensory neurons are found in
an enlarged area of the dorsal root called the dorsal root ganglion. The ventral
horns contain cell bodies of motor neurons of the somatic nervous system, which
181
182 Exercise 15
of the cord is divided into three regions: the dorsal (poste-

rior) lateral, and ventral (anterior) columns, or funiculi
(singular: funiculus). Each white column contains a number
of fiber tracts composed of axons with the same origin, des-
tination, and function. Tracts conducting sensory impulses
to the brain are ascending, or sensory, tracts. Those carrying
Cervical impulses from the brain to the skeletal muscles are descend-
spinal nerves
ing, or motor, tracts.
Cervical
enlargement
DISSECTION
Spinal Cord
1. Obtain a dissecting tray and razor blade, a petri dish,
and disposable gloves. Place a segment of preserved
Dura and spinal cord from a cow or saved from the brain specimen
arachnoid (used in Exercise 14) on the petri dish, and bring it to your
mater laboratory bench. Identify the tough outer dura mater
Thoracic and the weblike arachnoid mater.
spinal nerves What name is given to the third meningeal layer, and
where is it found?
______________________________________________________
Lumbar
enlargement
Peel back the dura mater, and observe the fibers making
up the dorsal and ventral roots. If possible, identify a
Conus dorsal root ganglion.
medullaris
2. Using the razor blade, cut a thin cross section of the
Cauda cord and identify the ventral and dorsal horns of the gray
Lumbar
15 equina spinal nerves
matter with the naked eye or with the aid of a dissecting
microscope or magnifying glass.
How can you be certain that you are correctly identifying
the ventral and dorsal horns?
Filum
terminale ______________________________________________________
Sacral
spinal nerves ______________________________________________________
Also identify the central canal and the general location

of the posterior, anterior, and lateral funiculi of white
matter.
3. Refer to Figure 15.3 and to Plate 9 of the Histology
Atlas as you examine the section carefully. Using colored
pencils, color Figure 15.3 to match the spinal cord tissue
you are viewing.
Observe the shape of the central canal. Is it basically
Figure 15.1 Gross structure of the spinal cord, poste-
rior view. The bony vertebral arches have been removed circular or oval? ______________________________________
to reveal the spinal cord and its nerve roots. The dura
and arachnoid mater are cut open and reflected laterally. Can you see any neuron cell bodies? __________________
send their axons out via the ventral root of the cord to enter What type of neurons would you expect to find in the
the adjacent spinal nerve. The dorsal and ventral roots fuse ventral horns—motor, interneurons, or sensory?
to form the spinal nerves. The lateral horns, where present,
contain nerve cell bodies of motor neurons of the autonomic ______________________________________________________
nervous system (sympathetic division).
In the dorsal root ganglion? ___________________________
White Matter
The white matter of the spinal cord is composed of myelin- ______________________________________________________
ated fibers—most running to or from higher centers. Because
of the shape of the gray matter, the white matter on each side
Spinal Cord and Spinal Nerves 183
Dorsal median sulcus

Gray commissure
Dorsal funiculus
Dorsal horn
Gray
White Ventral funiculus Ventral horn matter
columns Lateral horn
Lateral funiculus
Dorsal root
ganglion
Spinal nerve
Central
Dorsal root canal
(fans out into
dorsal rootlets) Ventral
median
fissure
Pia mater
Ventral root
(derived from
several ventral
rootlets)
Arachnoid
mater
Spinal
dura
mater
Figure 15.2 Anatomy of the human spinal cord (three-dimensional view). 15
Dorsal
horn
White
matter
Ventral
horn
Figure 15.3 Cross section of the spinal cord. (See also Plate 9 in the Histology Atlas.)
Spinal Nerves and Nerve Plexuses

The nerves are named according to their point of issue vertebra for which they are named. C8 emerges between C7
(Figure 15.4). The first pair of spinal nerves leaves the and T1. (Notice that there are 7 cervical vertebrae, but 8 pairs
vertebral canal between the base of the occipital bone and the of cervical nerves.) The remaining spinal nerve pairs emerge
atlas; the rest exit via the intervertebral foramina. The first from the spinal cord below the same-numbered vertebra.
through seventh pairs of cervical nerves emerge above the
184 Exercise 15
Ventral rami Spinal nerves

Dorsal ramus
Ventral ramus
Cervical plexus Cervical
C1 – C5 nerves Spinal nerve
C1 – C8 Intercostal
Rami
Brachial plexus communicantes nerve
C 5 – T1 Dorsal root
Sympathetic trunk ganglion
Cervical ganglion
enlargement Dorsal root
Ventral root
Branches of intercostal nerve
Intercostal Thoracic Lateral cutaneous
nerves nerves Anterior cutaneous
T1 – T12
Sternum
Lumbar
enlargement
(b)
Lumbar plexus Lumbar C4

L1 – L4 nerves C5
L1 – L5
C6
Axillary nerve
C7
C8
Sacral plexus
L4 – S4 Sacral T1
nerves
S1 – S5
15
Cauda equina
Coccygeal
nerve
Co1
(a)
Figure 15.4 Human spinal nerves. (a) Spinal nerves are

shown at right; ventral rami and the major nerve plex- Humerus
uses are shown at left. (b) Distribution of the ventral and
dorsal rami of a spinal nerve (cross section of thorax). Radial
nerve
Musculo-
Almost immediately after emerging, each nerve divides cutaneous
into dorsal and ventral rami. Thus, each spinal nerve is only nerve
about 1 cm (1/2 in.) long. The rami, like the spinal nerves,
contain both motor and sensory fibers. The smaller dorsal Ulna
rami serve the skin and muscles of the posterior body trunk. Radius
The ventral rami of spinal nerves T2–T12 pass anteriorly as Ulnar nerve
the intercostal nerves to supply the muscles of intercostal Median
nerve
spaces, and the skin and muscles of the anterior and lateral
Radial nerve
trunk. The ventral rami of all other spinal nerves form com- (superficial
plex nerve networks called plexuses, which serve the motor branch)
and sensory needs of the limbs. From the plexuses the fibers Dorsal branch
diverge again to form peripheral nerves. The four major nerve of ulnar nerve
plexuses and their chief peripheral nerves are described next
Superficial branch
(see also Table 15.1). of ulnar nerve
Digital branch
of ulnar nerve
Muscular
branch
Median
Digital nerve
Figure 15.5 Distribution of the major peripheral nerves branch
arising from the brachial plexus.
Spinal Cord and Spinal Nerves 185
Table 15.1 Spinal Nerve Plexuses
Result of damage to
Plexus Ventral rami Important nerves Body areas served
plexus or its nerves
Cervical C1–C5 Phrenic Diaphragm Respiratory paralysis
(and death if not treated
promptly)
Brachial C5–C8 and T1 Axillary Deltoid muscle of Paralysis and atrophy of
shoulder deltoid muscle
Radial Triceps and extensor Wristdrop—inability to
muscles of the forearm extend hand at wrist
Median Flexor muscles of Decreased ability to flex
forearm and some and abduct hand and flex
muscles of hand and abduct thumb and
index finger—therefore,
inability to pick up small
objects
Musculocutaneous Flexor muscles of arm Decreased ability to flex
forearm or arm
Ulnar Wrist and many hand Clawhand—inability to
muscles spread fingers apart
Lumbar L1–L4 Femoral (including lateral Lower abdomen, Inability to extend leg
and anterior cutaneous buttocks, anterior thighs, and flex at the hip; loss
branches) and skin of anteromedial of cutaneous sensation
leg and thigh
Obturator Adductor muscles of Inability to adduct thigh
medial thigh and small
hip muscles; skin of
medial thigh and hip joint
15
Sacral L4–L5 and S1–S4 Sciatic (largest nerve in Lower trunk and posterior Inability to extend at the
body; splits to common surface of thigh (and leg) hip and flex at the knee;
fibular (peroneal) and sciatica
tibial nerves)
• Common fibular Lateral aspect of leg Footdrop—inability to
(peroneal) (superficial and foot dorsiflex foot
and deep branches)
• Tibial (including sural Posterior aspect of leg Inability to plantar flex
and plantar branches) and foot and invert foot; shuffling
gait
Superior and inferior Gluteus muscles of hip Inability to extend at the
gluteal hip (maximus) or abduct
and medially rotate thigh
(medius)
Cervical Plexus and the Neck Brachial Plexus and the Upper Limb
The cervical plexus (see Figure 15.4 and Table 15.1) arises The brachial plexus, arising from the ventral rami of C5
from the ventral rami of C1 through C5 and supplies muscles through C8, and T1 (Figure 15.5 and Table 15.1), is subdi-
of the shoulder and neck. The major motor branch of this vided into five major peripheral nerves.
plexus is the phrenic nerve, which arises from C3–C5 and The axillary nerve, serving the muscles and skin of the
passes into the thoracic cavity in front of the first rib to in- shoulder, has the most limited distribution. The large radial
nervate the diaphragm. The primary danger of a broken neck nerve passes down the posterolateral surface of the limb, sup-
is that the phrenic nerve may be severed, leading to paralysis plying all the extensor muscles of the arm, forearm, and hand
of the diaphragm and cessation of breathing. A jingle to help and the skin along its course. The median nerve passes down
you remember the rami (roots) forming the phrenic nerves is the anterior surface of the arm to supply most of the flexor
“C3, C4, C5 keep the diaphragm alive.” muscles in the forearm and several muscles in the lateral part
of the hand.
186 Exercise 15
Iliohypogastric
Ilioinguinal
Superior
gluteal
Femoral Inferior
gluteal
Lateral
femoral Pudendal
cutaneous
Sciatic
Obturator
Posterior
femoral
Anterior cutaneous
femoral
cutaneous
Saphenous Common
fibular
Tibial
Sural (cut)
Deep
fibular
Superficial
fibular
15
Plantar
branches
(a) (b)
Figure 15.6 Distribution of the major peripheral nerves of the lower limb.
(a) Lumbar plexus. (b) Sacral plexus.
Hyperextend at the wrist to identify the long, obvious Sacral Plexus and the Lower Limb
tendon of your palmaris longus muscle, which crosses the
exact midline of the anterior wrist. Your median nerve lies Arising from L4 through S4, the nerves of the sacral plexus
immediately deep to that tendon, and the radial nerve lies just (Figure 15.6b) supply the buttock, the posterior thigh, and
lateral to it. virtually all of the leg and foot (Table 15.1). The major
peripheral nerve of this plexus is the sciatic nerve, the larg-
The musculocutaneous nerve supplies the arm muscles that est nerve in the body. The sciatic nerve travels through the
flex the forearm and the skin of the lateral surface of the fore- greater sciatic notch and down the posterior thigh, serving its
arm. The ulnar nerve, which travels down the posteromedial flexor muscles and skin. In the popliteal region, the sciatic
surface of the arm, supplies the flexor carpi ulnaris and all nerve divides into the common fibular nerve and the tibial
intrinsic muscles of the hand not served by the median nerve. nerve, which together supply the balance of the leg and foot,
both directly and via several branches.
Lumbar Plexus and the Lower Limb
The lumbar plexus arises from ventral rami of L1 through
L4 (Figure 15.6a). Its nerves serve the lower abdominal
Activity 2
region and the anteromedial thigh (Table 15.1). The largest Identifying the Major Nerve Plexuses
nerve of this plexus is the femoral nerve, which innervates
the anterior thigh muscles. and Peripheral Nerves
Identify each of the four major nerve plexuses and their
major nerves on a large laboratory chart or model. Trace
the courses of the nerves and relate those observations
to the information provided in Table 15.1.
EXERCISE
15 REVIEW SHEET
Spinal Cord and Spinal Nerves
Anatomy of the Spinal Cord

1. Complete the following statements by inserting the proper anatomical terms in the answer blanks.
The superior boundary of the spinal cord is at the level of the , and its inferior boundary is at
the level of vertebra . The collection of spinal nerves traveling in the vertebral canal below the
terminus of the spinal cord is called the .
2. Match the key letters on the diagram with the following terms.
1. central canal 7. lateral horn
2. dorsal horn 8. spinal nerve
3. dorsal median sulcus 9. ventral horn
4. dorsal root ganglion 10. ventral median fissure
5. dorsal root of spinal nerve 11. ventral root of spinal nerve
6. gray commissure
k.
a.
j.
i. b.
c.
d.
e.
h.
f.
g.
187
188 Review Sheet 15
3. The spinal cord is enlarged in two regions, the and the regions.
What is the significance of these enlargements?
Spinal Nerves and Nerve Plexuses

4. In the human, there are 31 pairs of spinal nerves named according to the region of the vertebral column from which
they issue. The spinal nerves are named below. Note, by number, the vertebral level at which they emerge:
cervical nerves sacral nerves
lumbar nerves thoracic nerves
5. The ventral rami of spinal nerves C1 through T1 and T12 through S4 form ,
which serve the of the body. The ventral rami of T2 through T12 run between the ribs
to serve the .
6. What would happen (i.e., loss of sensory or motor function or both) if the following structures were damaged or
transected?
1. dorsal root of a spinal nerve
2. ventral root of a spinal nerve
3. ventral ramus of a spinal nerve
7. Name the major nerves that serve the following body areas:
1. deltoid muscle
2. diaphragm
3. posterior thigh
4. lateral leg and foot
5. flexor muscles of forearm and some hand muscles
6. flexor muscles of arm
7. lower abdomen and anterior thigh
8. triceps muscle
9. posterior leg and foot
8. + After a person recovers from the chickenpox, the virus can lie dormant in the dorsal root ganglion in multiple
levels of the spinal cord and cranial nerves. Later in life, the virus can be reactivated and travel within a sensory
neuron to cause shingles. Do you think it is possible to get shingles more than once? Why or why not?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
9. + Wrist drop results in an inability to extend the hand at the wrist. Which nerve would most likely be affected in
this injury, and why? _________________________________________________________________________________________

EXERCISE
16 Human Reflex Physiology

● Reflex hammer □ Define reflex and reflex arc.
● Cot (if available) □ Identify and describe the function of each element of a reflex arc.
● Absorbent cotton (sterile)
□ Describe several types of reflex activity observed in the
● Tongue depressor
● Metric ruler
laboratory.
● Flashlight
● Disposable autoclave bag
● Wash bottle containing 10% bleach
solution
The Reflex Arc

Reflexes are rapid, predictable, involuntary motor responses to stimuli and they
occur over neural pathways called reflex arcs.
Reflexes can be classed as either autonomic or somatic reflexes. Autonomic
(visceral) reflexes are mediated through the autonomic nervous system. These
reflexes activate smooth muscles, cardiac muscle, and glands. They regulate body
functions such as digestion and blood pressure. Somatic reflexes include reflexes
that stimulate skeletal muscles. An example of a somatic reflex is the rapid with-
drawal of your foot from a piece of glass you have just stepped on.
Components of a Reflex Arc

Reflex arcs have a minimum of five functional elements (Figure 16.1):
1. The receptor is the site of the stimulus action.
2. The sensory neuron conducts afferent impulses to the CNS.
3. The integration center consists of one or more synapses in the CNS.
4. The motor neuron conducts efferent impulses from the integration center to
an effector.
Stimulus
Skin
1 Receptor Interneuron
2 Sensory neuron
3 Integration center
4 Motor neuron
5 Effector
Spinal cord
(in cross section)
Figure 16.1 The five basic components of reflex arcs.

189
190 Exercise 16
Spinal cord
Interneurons
Sensory (afferent)
Sensory receptor neuron
(muscle spindle) Sensory receptor
endings in
fingertip
Nail
Sensory (afferent)
neuron
Motor (efferent)
neuron
Motor (efferent)
neuron
Effector
Effector (quadriceps (biceps
femoris muscle) brachii
muscle)
(a) Monosynaptic reflex (b) Polysynaptic reflex
Figure 16.2 Monosynaptic and polysynaptic reflex arcs. The integration center is
16 in the spinal cord, and in each example the receptor and effector are in the same
limb. (a) The patellar reflex, a two-neuron monosynaptic reflex. (b) A flexor reflex,
an example of a polysynaptic reflex.
5. The effector, a muscle fiber or a gland cell, responds to apse”) reflex arc (Figure 16.2a). It will be demonstrated in
the efferent impulses by contracting or secreting a product, the laboratory. However, most reflexes are more complex and
respectively. are polysynaptic, involving one or more interneurons in the
reflex arc pathway. For example, the flexor reflex is a three-
The simple patellar, or knee-jerk, reflex is an example neuron reflex arc (Figure 16.2b).
of a simple, two-neuron, monosynaptic (literally, “one syn-
Somatic Reflexes
There are many types of somatic reflexes, including several
that you will be observing during this laboratory session—the Activity 1
stretch, superficial, corneal, and gag reflexes. Some require
only spinal cord activity; others involve the brain as well. Initiating Stretch Reflexes
Some somatic reflexes are mediated by cranial nerves. 1. To test the patellar, or knee-jerk, reflex, seat the per-
son on the laboratory bench with legs hanging free (or
Spinal Reflexes with knees crossed). Tap the patellar ligament sharply
Spinal reflexes are somatic reflexes that are mediated by the with the broad side of the reflex hammer just below the
spinal cord. knee to elicit the response. The knee-jerk reflex assesses
the L2–L4 level of the spinal cord (Figure 16.3). Test both
Stretch Reflexes knees, and record your observations.
Stretch reflexes are important for maintaining and adjusting
muscle tone for posture, balance, and locomotion. Stretch re-
flexes are produced by tapping a tendon, which stretches the
attached muscle. This stimulates muscle spindles (specialized
sensory receptors in the muscle) and causes reflex contraction
of the stretched muscle. As the stretch reflex is occurring,
impulses are relayed to higher brain centers to advise of Which muscles contracted? ____________________________
muscle length and speed of shortening—information needed
to maintain muscle tone and posture.
Human Reflex Physiology 191
What is the result?
During walking, what is the action of the gastrocnemius?
In the stretch reflexes that have been demonstrated so far, the re-
flex pathway is initiated and completed at the spinal cord level.
Superficial Reflexes
The superficial reflexes (abdominal and plantar reflexes) are
Figure 16.3 Testing the patellar reflex. The examiner
initiated by stimulating receptors in the skin and mucosae.
supports the subject’s knee so that the subject’s muscles
The superficial reflexes depend both on brain participation
are relaxed, and then strikes the patellar ligament with
and on the spinal cord-level reflex arc. We will use the plantar
the reflex hammer. The proper location may be ascer-
reflex as our example.
tained by palpation of the patella.
The plantar reflex, an important neurological test, is elic-
What nerve is carrying the afferent and efferent impulses?
ited by stimulating the cutaneous receptors in the sole of the
foot. In adults, stimulating these receptors causes the toes to flex
and move closer together. Damage to the primary motor cortex
or the corticospinal tract, however, produces Babinski’s sign,
2. Fatigue influences the stretch reflex response. To
an abnormal response in which the great toe moves upward
demonstrate its effect, your partner should jog in position
and the smaller toes fan outward. In a newborn, Babinski’s
until the lower limbs are fatigued (really fatigued—no
sign is normal because the nervous system is still incompletely
slackers).Test the patellar reflex again, and record whether
myelinated.
it is more or less vigorous than the first response.
Activity 2 16
Initiating the Plantar Reflex

Would you say that nervous system activity or muscle
function is responsible for the changes you have just Have your partner remove a shoe and lie on the cot or
observed? laboratory bench with knees slightly bent and thighs ro-
tated so that the lateral side of the foot rests on the cot.
Alternatively, the person may sit up and rest the lateral
surface of the foot on a chair. Draw the handle of the reflex
3. The calcaneal tendon, or ankle-jerk, reflex assesses hammer firmly down the lateral side of the exposed sole
the first two sacral segments of the spinal cord. With from the heel to the base of the great toe (Figure 16.5).
your partner’s shoe removed, use one hand to dorsiflex
the foot to increase the tension of the gastrocnemius
(calf) muscle, and sharply tap the calcaneal tendon with
the broad side of the reflex hammer (Figure 16.4).
Figure 16.5 Testing the plantar reflex. Using a

moderately sharp object, the examiner strokes the
lateral border of the subject’s sole, starting at the
heel and continuing toward the big toe across the ball
Figure 16.4 Testing the calcaneal tendon reflex.
of the foot.
The examiner slightly dorsiflexes the subject’s ankle
by supporting the foot lightly in the hand, and then Text continues on next page. ➔
taps the calcaneal tendon just above the ankle.
192 Exercise 16
What is the response? cornea (on the side toward you) with a wisp of absorbent
cotton. What is the reaction?
Is this a normal plantar reflex or Babinski’s sign?

What is the function of this reflex?
Cranial Nerve Reflexes Was the sensation that of touch or of pain?

In these experiments, you will be working with your lab partner
to illustrate two somatic reflexes mediated by cranial nerves.
The first of these, the corneal reflex, is mediated through the Activity 4
trigeminal nerve (cranial nerve V). The absence of this reflex is
an ominous sign because it often indicates damage to the brain Initiating the Gag Reflex
stem. The second cranial nerve reflex you will test, the gag
For this experiment, select a subject who does not have
reflex, tests the motor responses of cranial nerves IX and X
a queasy stomach, because regurgitation is a possibil-
(glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves). When the oral mucosa on
ity. Stroke the oral mucosa on each side of the subject’s
the side of the uvula is stroked, each side of the mucosa should
uvula (the fleshy tab hanging from the roof of the mouth)
rise to the same extent.
with a tongue depressor. What happens?
Activity 3
Initiating the Corneal Reflex
Stand to one side of the subject; your partner should Discard the used tongue depressor in the dispos-
look away from you toward the opposite wall. Wait a few ! able autoclave bag before continuing. Do not lay
seconds and then quickly, but gently, touch the person’s it on the laboratory bench at any time.
16
Autonomic Reflexes
The autonomic reflexes include the pupillary reflexes as well
as many others. 3. Stand to the left of the subject to conduct the testing.
The person should shield the right eye by holding a hand
Pupillary Reflexes vertically between the eye and the right side of the nose.
There are several types of pupillary reflexes. We’ll examine 4. Using a quick right-to-left motion, shine a flashlight
the pupillary light reflex and the consensual reflex here. In into the person’s left eye. What is the pupillary response?
both of these reflexes, the retina of the eye is the receptor, the
optic nerve contains the afferent fibers, the oculomotor nerve
contains the efferent fibers, and the smooth muscle of the iris
Measure the size of the left pupil: mm
is the effector. Absence of the normal pupillary reflexes is
generally a late indication of severe trauma or deterioration
5. Observe the right pupil. Has the same type of change
of the vital brain stem tissue.
(called a consensual reflex) occurred in the right eye?
Activity 5
Initiating Pupillary Reflexes Measure the size of the right pupil: mm
1. Conduct the reflex testing in an area where the light- The consensual reflex, or any reflex observed on one side
ing is relatively dim. Before beginning, obtain a flash- of the body when the other side has been stimulated, is
light and a metric ruler. called a contralateral response. The pupillary light reflex,
2. Measure and record the size of your partner’s pupils as or any reflex occurring on the same side stimulated, is
best you can. Note that it may be easier to measure the referred to as an ipsilateral response.
size of the pupil in an individual with light-colored eyes.
What is the function of these pupillary reflexes?
Right pupil: mm
Left pupil: mm
EXERCISE
16 REVIEW SHEET
Human Reflex Physiology
The Reflex Arc

1. Label the five components of a reflex arc using the leader lines in the figure below.
Nail
2. In general, what is the importance of reflex testing in a routine physical examination?
Somatic and Autonomic Reflexes

3. Use the key terms to complete the statements given below.
Key: calcaneal tendon reflex gag reflex plantar reflex

corneal reflex patellar reflex pupillary light reflex
Reflexes classified as somatic reflexes include , , , ,
and .
Of these, the simple stretch reflexes are and , and the superficial reflex is .
A reflex classified as an autonomic reflex is the .
193
194 Review Sheet 16
4. Name three spinal cord–mediated reflexes: , , and
Name two somatic reflexes that are mediated by cranial nerves: and
5. Trace the reflex arc, naming efferent and afferent nerves, receptors, effectors, and integration centers, for the follow-
ing reflexes:
patellar reflex
calcaneal tendon reflex
6. What was the effect of muscle fatigue on your ability to produce the patellar reflex?
7. The pupillary light reflex and the corneal reflex illustrate the purposeful nature of reflex activity. Describe the
protective aspect of each:
pupillary light reflex
corneal reflex
8. Was the pupillary consensual reflex a contralateral or ipsilateral response?
Why would such a response be of significant value in this particular reflex?
9. Differentiate between the types of effectors and activities accomplished by somatic and by autonomic reflexes.
10. + Hyporeflexia occurs when normal reflexes are weak but not absent. Explain how this condition could be due to
damage to skeletal muscle, a sensory neuron, or a motor neuron. ______________________________________________

EXERCISE
17 The Special Senses

For Vision □ Describe the structure and function of the accessory visual structures.
● Dissectible eye model
□ Identify the internal structures of the eye when provided with a model,
● Chart of eye anatomy
diagram, or preserved animal eye, and list the functions of each.
● Preserved cow or sheep eye
□ Define blind spot, refraction, hyperopia, myopia, and astigmatism,
and discuss image formation on the retina.
● Metric ruler □ Discuss the importance of the accommodation and convergence
● Common straight pins reflexes.
● Snellen eye chart (floor marked to indicate
□ Identify the structures of the external, middle, and internal ear
20-ft distance from posted Snellen chart) by correctly labeling a diagram.
● Ishihara’s color-blindness plates
□ Describe the anatomy of the spiral organ and explain its role in
For Hearing and Equilibrium
● Three-dimensional dissectible ear model
hearing.
and/or chart of ear anatomy □ Describe how one is able to localize sounds and to differentiate
● Otoscope (if available) sensorineural from conduction deafness.
● Alcohol swabs
□ Describe the anatomy of the equilibrium organs of the internal
● Prepared microscope slide of cochlea
ear, and explain their relative roles in maintaining equilibrium.
● Absorbent cotton
● Pocket watch or clock that ticks

□ State the purpose of the Romberg test, and describe the role of
● 12-inch ruler
vision in maintaining equilibrium.
● Tuning forks (range of frequencies) □ Describe the location, structure, and function of the olfactory and
● Rubber mallet taste receptors.
□ List several factors that influence taste.
Cochlea slide set up under a compound
microscope for student observation
For Smell and Taste
I
● Small mirror
● Paper towels
n contrast to the small and widely distributed general receptors (touch, tem-
● Granulated sugar
perature, pressure, and pain), the special sense receptors are large, complex
sensory organs (eyes and ears) or localized clusters of receptors (taste buds and
● Cotton-tipped swabs
olfactory epithelium). This chapter focuses on the functional anatomy of each of
the special sense organs individually, but keep in mind that sensory inputs are
● Paper cups; paper plates
overlapping.
● Beaker containing 10% bleach solution
● Prepared dropper bottles of oil of cloves,
oil of peppermint, and oil of wintergreen Anatomy of the Eye

or corresponding flavorings found in the
condiment section of a supermarket Accessory Structures
● Equal-sized cubes of foods, such as
cheese, apple, dried prunes, banana, and

The adult human eye is a sphere some 2.5 cm (1 inch) in diameter. Only about
hard-cooked egg white (in an opaque one-sixth of the eye’s anterior surface is observable (Figure 17.1); the remain-
container, such as a foil-lined egg carton) der is protected by a cushion of fat and the walls of the bony orbit. The accessory
● Chipped ice structures of the eye include the eyebrows, eyelids, conjunctivae, lacrimal ap-
● Absorbent cotton
paratus, and extrinsic eye muscles (Table 17.1, Figure 17.1 and Figure 17.2).
195
196 Exercise 17
Lacrimal sac
Orbicularis Medial commissure
oculi muscle
Eyebrow Lacrimal caruncle
Tarsal plate Upper eyelid
Palpebral Lacrimal gland
conjunctiva Excretory ducts
of lacrimal glands
Tarsal glands
Lateral commissure
Cornea
Lower eyelid
Palpebral Lacrimal punctum
fissure
Lacrimal canaliculus
Nasolacrimal duct
Eyelashes Inferior meatus

of nasal cavity
Bulbar
conjunctiva Nostril
Conjunctival
sac
(a) (b)
Figure 17.1 The eye and accessory structures. (a) Lateral view. (b) Anterior view
with lacrimal apparatus. Arrows indicate the flow of lacrimal fluid.
Table 17.1 Accessory Structures of the Eye (Figures 17.1 and 17.2)
Structure Description Function
Eyebrows Short hairs located on the supraorbital margins Shade and prevent sweat from entering the eyes.
Eyelids (palpebrae) Skin-covered upper and lower lids, with eyelashes Protect the eyes and spread lacrimal fluid (tears)
projecting from their free margin with blinking.
Tarsal glands Modified sebaceous glands embedded in the tarsal Secrete an oily secretion that lubricates the
plate of the eyelid surface of the eye.
Ciliary glands Typical sebaceous and modified sweat glands that Secrete an oily secretion that lubricates the
17 lie between the eyelash follicles surface of the eye and the eyelashes. An infection
of a ciliary gland is called a sty.
Conjunctivae A clear mucous membrane that lines the eyelids Secrete mucus to lubricate the eye. Inflammation
(palpebral conjunctivae) and lines the anterior of the conjunctiva results in conjunctivitis,
white of the eye (bulbar conjunctiva) (commonly called “pinkeye”).
Medial and lateral commissures Junctions where the eyelids meet medially and Form the corners of the eyes. The medial
laterally commissure contains the lacrimal caruncle.
Lacrimal caruncle Fleshy reddish elevation that contains sebaceous Secretes a whitish oily secretion for lubrication of
and sweat glands the eye (can dry and form “eye sand”).
Lacrimal apparatus Includes the lacrimal gland and a series of ducts Protects the eye by keeping it moist. Blinking
that drain the lacrimal fluid into the nasal cavity spreads the lacrimal fluid.
Lacrimal gland Located in the superior and lateral aspect of the Secretes lacrimal fluid, which contains mucus,
orbit of the eye antibodies, and lysozyme.
Lacrimal puncta Two tiny openings on the medial margin of each Allow lacrimal fluid to drain into the superior and
eyelid inferiorly located lacrimal canaliculi.
Lacrimal canaliculi Two tiny canals that are located in the eyelids Allow lacrimal fluid to drain into the lacrimal sac.
Lacrimal sac A single pouch located in the medial orbital wall Allows lacrimal fluid to drain into the
nasolacrimal duct.
Nasolacrimal duct A single tube that empties into the nasal cavity Allows lacrimal fluid to flow into the nasal cavity.
Extrinsic eye muscles Six muscles for each eye; four recti and two Control the movement of each eyeball and hold
oblique muscles (see Figure 17.2) the eyes in the orbits.
The Special Senses 197
Superior
oblique Muscle Action
muscle
Trochlea Lateral rectus Moves eye laterally

Medial rectus Moves eye medially
Superior Superior rectus Elevates eye and turns it medially
oblique
tendon Inferior rectus Depresses eye and turns it medially
Inferior oblique Elevates eye and turns it laterally
Superior
rectus Superior oblique Depresses eye and turns it laterally
muscle
(b)
Lateral
rectus
muscle Figure 17.2 Extrinsic muscles of the eye. (a) Lateral view
of the right eye. (b) Summary of actions of the extrinsic
eye muscles.
Inferior Inferior Internal Chambers and Fluids

rectus oblique The lens divides the eye into two segments: the anterior
muscle muscle
segment anterior to the lens, which contains a clear, watery
(a) fluid called the aqueous humor and the posterior segment
behind the lens, filled with the gel-like vitreous humor. The
aqueous humor is continually formed by the capillaries of the
Activity 1 ciliary process. It helps to maintain the intraocular pressure
of the eye and provides nutrients for the avascular lens and
Identifying Accessory Eye Structures cornea. Aqueous humor is drained into the scleral venous
Observe the eyes of another student, and identify as sinus, a drainage duct located at the junction of the sclera and
many accessory structures as possible. Ask the student cornea. The vitreous humor reinforces the posterior part of
to look to the left. Which extrinsic eye muscles produce the eyeball, and helps to keep the retina pressed firmly against
this action? the wall of the eyeball.
Right eye
Light
Left eye
Axons of
Internal Anatomy of the Eye ganglion
cells
Anatomically, the wall of the eye is constructed of three
layers: the fibrous layer, the vascular layer, and the inner
layer (retina). Ganglion 17
cells
Distribution of Photoreceptors
The retina consists of two layers; an outer pigmented layer
and an inner neural layer. The inner neural layer is composed
of three major populations of neurons. There are, from outer Neural
layer
to inner aspect, the photoreceptors (rods and cones), the bi- Bipolar
polar cells, and the ganglion cells (Figure 17.3). The rods cells
are the specialized photoreceptors for dim light. The cones
are color photoreceptors that permit high levels of visual
acuity, but they only function under conditions of high light
intensity. The photoreceptor cells are distributed over most of
the neural retina, except where the optic nerve (the bundled Photo-
axons of the ganglion cells) leaves the eyeball. This site is receptors
called the optic disc, or blind spot (see Figure 17.4). Lateral Rods
to each blind spot is the macula lutea (yellow spot), an area
of high cone density. In its center is the fovea centralis, a tiny Cone
Pigmented
pit that contains only cones and is the area of greatest visual layer of retina
acuity. Focusing for detailed color vision occurs in the fovea
centralis.
Figure 17.3 Microscopic anatomy of the retina. (See
also Plate 15 in the Histology Atlas.)
198 Exercise 17
Activity 2
Identifying Internal Structures of the Eye
Obtain a dissectible eye model or observe a chart of eye
anatomy to identify the structures described below. As you
work, refer to Figure 17.4 and Table 17.2.)
Ora serrata
Ciliary body Sclera

Ciliary muscle Choroid
Ciliary process Retina
Macula lutea
Ciliary zonule
Fovea centralis
Cornea
Posterior pole
Iris
Optic nerve
Pupil
Anterior
pole
Anterior
segment
(contains
aqueous humor)
Lens
Central artery and
Scleral venous sinus vein of the retina
Optic disc
Posterior segment (blind spot)
(contains vitreous humor)
(a) Diagram of sagittal section of the eye. Ora serrata
The vitreous humor is illustrated only
in the bottom half of the eyeball.
Ciliary
body
17 Ciliary
view
processes
Vitreous humor
in posterior Ciliary muscle
Ciliary segment
processes Retina
Retina Choroid
Iris
Choroid Sclera
Margin
of pupil Sclera
Anterior Fovea centralis
segment
Optic disc
Lens
Optic nerve
Cornea Lens
(posterior
Ciliary zonule aspect)
Ciliary zonule
(b) Photograph of the human eye. (c) Posterior view of anterior half of the eye.
Figure 17.4 Internal anatomy of the right eye.

Table 17.2 Layers of the Eye (Figure 17.4)

Fibrous Layer (External Layer)
Sclera Opaque white connective tissue that forms the Helps to maintain the shape of the eyeball and provides
“white of the eye.” an attachment point for the extrinsic eye muscles.
Cornea Structurally continuous with the sclera; modified Forms a clear window that is the major light bending
to form a transparent layer that bulges anteriorly; (refracting) medium of the eye.
contains no blood vessels.
Vascular Layer (Middle Layer)
Choroid A blood vessel–rich, dark membrane. The blood vessels nourish the other layers of the eye, and
the melanin helps to absorb excess light.
Cilary body Modification of the choroid that encircles the lens. Contains the ciliary muscle and the ciliary process.
Ciliary muscle Smooth muscle found within the ciliary body. Alters the shape of the lens with contraction and relaxation.
Ciliary process Radiating folds of the ciliary muscle. Capillaries of the ciliary process form the aqueous humor
by filtering plasma.
Ciliary zonule A halo of fine fibers that extends from the ciliary Attaches the lens to the ciliary process.
(Suspensory ligament) process around the lens.
Iris The anterior portion of the vascular layer that Controls the amount of light entering the eye by changing
is pigmented. It contains two layers of smooth the size of the pupil diameter.
muscle (sphincter pupillae and dilator pupillae).
Pupil The round central opening of the iris. Allows light to enter the eye.
Inner Layer (Retina)
Pigmented layer of the The outer layer that is composed of only a single Absorbs light and prevents it from scattering in the eye.
retina layer of pigment cells (melanocytes). Pigment cells act as phagocytes for cleaning up cell debris.
Neural layer of the retina The thicker inner layer composed of three main Photoreceptors respond to light and convert the light
types of neurons: photoreceptors (rods and cones), energy into action potentials that travel to the primary
bipolar cells, and ganglion cells. visual cortex of the brain.
DISSECTION
The Cow (Sheep) Eye

1. Obtain a preserved cow or sheep eye, dissecting instru- Ciliary body: Black, pigmented body that appears in a halo
ments, and a dissecting tray. Put on disposable gloves. encircling the lens.
2. Examine the external surface of the eye, noticing the Lens: Biconvex structure that is opaque in preserved 17
thick cushion of adipose tissue. Identify the optic nerve as specimens.
it leaves the eyeball, the cut remnants of the extrinsic eye Cilary zonule: A halo of delicate fibers attaching the lens
muscles, the conjunctiva, the sclera, and the cornea. Refer to the ciliary body.
to Figure 17.5 as you work.
Carefully remove the lens and identify the adjacent
3. Trim away most of the fat and connective tissue, but structures:
leave the optic nerve intact. Holding the eye with the
cornea facing downward, carefully make an incision with Iris: Anterior continuation of the ciliary body penetrated
a sharp scalpel into the sclera, about ¼ inch above the by the pupil.
cornea. Using scissors, cut around the circumference of Cornea: More convex anteriormost portion of the sclera;
the eyeball, paralleling the corneal edge. normally transparent but cloudy in preserved specimens.
4. Carefully lift the anterior part of the eyeball away from 6. Examine the posterior portion of the eyeball. Remove
the posterior portion. Move some of the vitreous humor the vitreous humor, and identify the following structure:
aside to view the following:
Retina: Appears as a delicate tan membrane that sepa-
Pigmented choroid coat: Appears iridescent in the cow rates easily from the choroid.
or sheep eye because of a modification, the tapetum lu-
Notice its posterior point of attachment. What is this point
cidum. This specialized surface reflects the light within the
called?
eye and is found in the eyes of animals that live under
conditions of dim light. It is not found in humans. ______________________________________________________
5. Examine the anterior part of the eye, and identify the
following structures:
200 Exercise 17
Figure 17.5 Anatomy

of the cow eye. (a) Cow
eye (entire) removed
from the bony orbit
(notice the large
amount of fat
cushioning the eyeball).
(b) Cow eye (entire) with
Adipose (fatty) fat removed to show
cushion the extrinsic muscle
attachments and optic
nerve. (c) Cow eye
cut along the frontal
plane to reveal internal
(a)
structures.
Cornea
Sclera
Optic nerve
Extrinsic muscle
attachments
(b)
Ciliary body
Optic disc
Sclera
Lens
Retina (delicate white

membrane overlying
the darkly pigmented
choroid coat, which
17 (c) contains the tapetum
lucidum)
Anterior portion Posterior portion
(concavity filled with
vitreous humor)
Visual Tests and Experiments
Activity 3 2. Have your laboratory partner record in centimeters the

distance at which this occurs. The dot will reappear as the
figure is moved closer. Distance at which the dot disappears:
Demonstrating the Blind Spot
1. Hold the blind spot test figure (Figure 17.6) about Right eye
18 inches (46 cm) from your eyes. Close your left eye,
and focus your right eye on the X, which should be po- Repeat the test for the left eye. This time, close the right
sitioned so that it is directly in line with your right eye. eye and focus the left eye, on the dot. Record the dis-
Move the figure slowly toward your face, keeping your tance at which the X disappears:
right eye focused on the X. When the dot focuses on the Left eye
blind spot, which lacks photoreceptors, it will disappear.
Individuals in whom the image normally focuses in

front of the retina have myopia, or “nearsightedness”; they
can see close objects without difficulty, but distant objects
are blurred or indistinct. Correction requires a concave lens,
which causes the light reaching the eye to diverge.
If the image focuses behind the retina, the individual has
hyperopia, or farsightedness. Such persons have no prob-
lems with distant vision but need glasses with convex lenses
to boost the converging power of the lens for close vision.
Irregularities in the curvatures of the lens and/or the cornea
lead to a blurred vision problem called astigmatism. Cylindri-
cally ground lenses are prescribed to correct the condition.
The elasticity of the lens decreases dramatically with
age, resulting in difficulty in focusing for near or close vision,
especially when the person is reading. This condition is called
Figure 17.6 Blind spot test figure. presbyopia—literally, “old vision.” Lens elasticity can be
tested by measuring the near point of vision.
Refraction, Visual Acuity, Activity 4

and Astigmatism Determining Near Point of Vision
When light rays pass from one substance to another, their To determine your near point of vision, hold a common
speed changes, and the rays are bent, or refracted. Thus, the straight pin (or other object) at arm’s length in front of
light rays are refracted as they encounter the cornea, aqueous one eye. Slowly move the pin toward that eye until the
humor, lens, and vitreous humor of the eye. pin image becomes distorted. Have your lab partner use
The bending power of the cornea, aqueous humor, and the metric ruler to measure the distance from your eye
vitreous humor is constant. But the lens’s refractive strength to the pin at this point, and record the distance. Repeat
can be varied by changing its shape. The greater the lens con- the procedure for the other eye.
vexity, or bulge, the more the light will be bent.
In general, light from a distant source (over 20 feet) ap- Near point for right eye
proaches the eye as parallel rays, and no change in lens shape
is necessary for it to focus properly on the retina. However, Near point for left eye
light from a close source tends to diverge, and the convex-
ity of the lens must increase to make close vision possible.
To achieve this, the ciliary muscle contracts, decreasing the Visual acuity, or sharpness of vision, is generally tested with
tension of the ciliary zonule attached to the lens and allowing a Snellen eye chart. The distance at which the normal eye can
the elastic lens to “round up.” The ability of the eye to focus read a line of letters is printed at the end of that line.
differentially for close objects (less than 20 feet) is called
accommodation. The image formed on the retina as a result
of the light-bending activity of the lens (Figure 17.7) is a Activity 5
real image (reversed from left to right, inverted, and smaller 17
than the object). Testing Visual Acuity
The normal, emmetropic, eye is able to accommodate 1. Have your partner stand 20 feet from the posted Snel-
properly. However, visual problems may result from (1) len eye chart and cover one eye with a card or hand. As
lenses that are too strong or too “lazy” (overconverging and your partner reads each consecutive line aloud, check for
underconverging, respectively); (2) structural problems, such accuracy. If this individual wears glasses, give the test
as an eyeball that is too long or too short; or (3) a cornea or twice—first with glasses off and then with glasses on.
lens with improper curvatures. Do not remove contact lenses, but note that they were in
place during the test.
Relaxed ciliary muscle 2. Record the number of the line with the smallest-sized
Tightened ciliary zonule letters read. If it is 20/20, the person’s vision for that eye
is normal. If it is 20/40, or any ratio with a value less than
Flattened lens
one, he or she has less than the normal visual acuity.
(Such an individual is myopic, so a person with 20/40
vision is seeing objects clearly at 20 feet that a person
with normal vision sees clearly at 40 feet.) If the visual
Nearly parallel rays
acuity ratio is greater than 1, vision is better than normal.
from distant object Image Give your partner the number of the line corresponding
to the smallest letters read, to record in step 4.
3. Repeat the process for the other eye.
Figure 17.7 Refraction of light in the eye, resulting in Text continues on next page. ➔
the production of a real image on the retina.
202 Exercise 17
4. Have your partner test and record your visual acuity. If

you wear glasses, the test results without glasses should
Activity 7
be recorded first.
Testing for Color Blindness
Visual acuity, right eye 1. View the color plates in bright light or sunlight while hold-
ing them about 30 inches (0.8 m) away and at right angles
Visual acuity, left eye to your line of vision. Report to your laboratory partner what
you see in each plate. Take no more than 3 seconds for each
decision.
Activity 6 2. Your partner is to write down your responses and

then check their accuracy with the correct answers pro-
vided in the color plate book. Is there any indication that
Testing for Astigmatism
you have some degree of color blindness?
The astigmatism chart (Figure 17.8) tests for defects in
the refracting surface of the lens and/or cornea. If so, what type?
12
11 1
Repeat the procedure to test your partner’s color vision.
10 2
Eye Reflexes
9 3 Both intrinsic (internal) and extrinsic (external) muscles are
necessary for proper eye function. The intrinsic muscles, con-
trolled by the autonomic nervous system, are those of the ciliary
8 4 body (which alters the lens curvature) and the sphincter pupil-
lae and dilator pupillae muscles of the iris (which control pupil
size and thus regulate the amount of light entering the eye). The
7 5 extrinsic muscles are the rectus and oblique muscles, which are
6 attached to the outside of the eyeball (see Figure 17.2). These
muscles control eye movement and make it possible to keep
Figure 17.8 Astigmatism testing chart. moving objects focused on the fovea centralis. They are also re-
sponsible for convergence, or medial eye movements, which is
View the chart first with one eye and then with the essential for near vision. When convergence occurs, both eyes
other, focusing on the center of the chart. If all the radiat- are aimed at the near object viewed. The extrinsic eye muscles
ing lines appear equally dark and distinct, your refracting are controlled by the somatic nervous system.
surfaces are not distorted. If some of the lines are blurred
or appear less dark than others, you have at least some
degree of astigmatism.
Activity 8
17
Demonstrating Reflex Activity of Intrinsic and
Is astigmatism present in your left eye?
Extrinsic Eye Muscles
Right eye? Activity of both the intrinsic and extrinsic muscle types
is brought about by reflex actions that can be observed
with simple experiments. The convergence reflex medi-
Color Blindness ated by the extrinsic eye muscles and the accommoda-
Ishihara’s color-blindness plates are designed to test for defi- tion reflex mediated by the intrinsic eye muscles are
ciencies in the color photoreceptor cells, the cones. There are described here.
three cone types—one type primarily absorbs the red wave- Accommodation Pupillary Reflex
lengths of visible light, another the blue wavelengths, and a
third the green wavelengths. Nerve impulses reaching the Have your partner gaze for approximately 1 minute at
brain from these different photoreceptor types are then inter- a distant object in the lab—not toward the windows or
preted (seen) as red, blue, and green, respectively. The inter- another light source. Observe your partner’s pupils. Then
mediate colors of the visible light spectrum are interpreted as hold some printed material 6 to 10 inches from his or her
a result of simultaneous input from more than one cone type. face, and ask your partner to focus on it.
How does pupil size change as your partner focuses on (a pen or pencil). Do they change position as the object
the printed material? of focus is changed?
Convergence Reflex In what way?

Repeat the previous experiment, this time noting the
position of your partner’s eyeballs both while he or she
is gazing at the distant object and then at the close object
The Ear and Hearing and Balance

Gross Anatomy of the Ear
The ear, which contains sensory receptors for hearing and
Activity 9
equilibrium, is divided into three major areas: the external Identifying Structures of the Ear
ear, the middle ear, and the internal ear (Figure 17.9). The
external and middle ear structures serve the needs of the sense Obtain a dissectible ear model, and identify the struc-
of hearing only, whereas internal ear structures function both tures summarized in Table 17.3.
in equilibrium and hearing. Text continues on next page. ➔
External ear Middle ear
Internal ear
Vestibulocochlear
nerve
Auricle
(pinna) Semicircular
canals
Oval window
Cochlea 17
Vestibule
Round window
Pharyngotympanic
(auditory) tube
Lobule
Tympanic Malleus Incus Stapes

membrane (hammer) (anvil) (stirrup)
(eardrum)
External
acoustic Auditory ossicles
meatus
Figure 17.9 Anatomy of the ear.

204 Exercise 17
Table 17.3 Structures of the External, Middle, and Internal Ear (Figure 17.9)
External Ear
Auricle (pinna) Elastic cartilage covered with skin Collects and directs sound waves into the external acoustic meatus
Lobule (“earlobe”) Portion of the auricle that is inferior Completes the formation of the auricle
to the external acoustic meatus
External acoustic Short, narrow canal carved into Transmits sound waves from the auricle to the tympanic membrane
meatus the temporal bone; lined with
ceruminous glands
Tympanic membrane Thin membrane that separates the Vibrates at exactly the same frequency as the sound wave(s) hitting it
(eardrum) external ear from the middle ear and transmits vibrations to the auditory ossicles
Middle Ear A small air-filled chamber—the Contains the auditory ossicles (malleus, incus, and stapes)
tympanic cavity
Malleus (hammer) Tiny bone shaped like a hammer; its Transmits and amplifies vibrations from the tympanic membrane to the
“handle” is attached to the eardrum incus
Incus (anvil) Tiny bone shaped like an anvil that Transmits and amplifies vibrations from the malleus to the stapes
articulates with the malleus and the
stapes
Stapes (stirrup) Tiny bone shaped like a stirrup; its Transmits and amplifies vibrations from the incus to the oval window
“base” fits into the oval window
Oval window Oval-shaped membrane located Transmits vibrations from the stapes to the perilymph of the scala
deep to the stapes vestibuli
Pharyngotympanic A tube that connects the middle Equalizes the pressure in the middle ear cavity with the external air
(auditory) tube ear to the superior portion of the pressure so that the tympanic membrane can vibrate properly
pharynx (throat)
Internal Ear
Membranous labyrinth Structure that contains
Bony labyrinth (within the bony labyrinth) the receptors Function of the receptors
Cochlea Cochlea duct Spiral organ Hearing
Vestibule Utricle and saccule Maculae Equilibrium: static equilibrium and
linear acceleration of the head
Semicircular canals Semicircular ducts Ampullae Equilibrium: rotational
acceleration of the head
17
Activity 10 prevents it from penetrating too deeply into the ear canal
during the unexpected movements.
Examining the Ear with an Otoscope (Optional) 3. Grasp the ear auricle firmly, and pull it up, back,
1. Obtain an otoscope and two alcohol swabs. Inspect and slightly laterally. If this causes your partner pain or
your partner’s ear canal, and then select the speculum discomfort, the external ear may be inflamed or infected.
with the largest diameter that will fit comfortably into the If this occurs, do not attempt to examine the ear canal.
ear and permit good visibility. Clean the speculum thor- 4. Carefully insert the speculum of the otoscope into the
oughly with an alcohol swab, and then attach it to the external acoustic meatus in a downward and forward
battery-containing otoscope handle. Before beginning, direction just far enough to permit examination of the
check that the otoscope light beam is strong. If not, ob- tympanic membrane. Note its shape, color, and vascular
tain another otoscope or new batteries. network. The healthy tympanic membrane is pearly white.
2. When you are ready to begin the examination, During the examination, notice whether there is any
! hold the lighted otoscope securely between discharge or redness in the canal, and identify earwax.
your thumb and forefinger (like a pencil), and rest the 5. After the examination, thoroughly clean the specu-
little finger of your otoscope-holding hand against lum with the second alcohol swab before returning the
your partner’s head. This maneuver forms a brace that otoscope to the supply area.
allows the speculum to move as your partner moves and
Vestibular membrane Osseous spiral lamina Tectorial membrane Inner

hair cell
Tectorial membrane
Spiral Hairs (stereocilia) Afferent
Cochlear duct ganglion nerve
(scala media; Scala fiber
vestibuli Outer hair cells
contains
endolymph) (contains
perilymph) Supporting cells
Stria
vascularis
Fibers of
Spiral organ cochlear
nerve
Basilar Scala tympani
membrane (contains perilymph)
Basilar
membrane
(a) (b)
Figure 17.10 Anatomy of the cochlea. (a) Magnified cross section of one turn of the
cochlea, showing the relationship of the three scalae. (b) Detailed structure of the
spiral organ.
Microscopic Anatomy of the Traveling sound waves stimulate hair cells of the spiral
organ, where they peak. High-frequency waves (high-pitched
Spiral Organ sounds) peak close to the oval window, and low-frequency
The snail-like cochlea (Figure 17.9 and Figure 17.10) con- waves (low-pitched sounds) peak farther up the basilar mem-
tains the receptors for hearing. The cochlear membranous brane near the apex of the cochlea. Once stimulated, the hair
labyrinth, the cochlear duct, is a soft wormlike tube about cells depolarize and begin the chain of nerve impulses to the
1.5 inches long that winds through the turns of the cochlea auditory centers of the temporal lobe cortex. This series of
and separates the perilymph-containing cochlear cavity into events results in the phenomenon we call hearing.
upper and lower chambers. The upper chamber abuts the oval
window, which “seats” the foot plate of the stapes located lat-
erally in the tympanic cavity. The lower chamber is bounded Activity 12
by a membranous area called the round window. The cochlear
duct, itself filled with endolymph, supports the spiral organ, Conducting Laboratory Tests of Hearing
which contains the receptors for hearing and nerve endings Perform the following hearing tests in a quiet area.
of the cochlear division of the vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII).
In the spiral organ, the auditory receptors are hair cells Acuity Test
that rest on the basilar membrane, which forms the floor Have your lab partner pack one ear with cotton and sit 17
of the cochlear duct, and their hairs are stereocilia that pro- quietly with eyes closed. Obtain a ticking clock or pocket
ject into the gel-like tectorial membrane, overlying them watch, and hold it very close to the unpacked ear. Then
(Figure 17.10b). The roof of the cochlear duct is called the slowly move the clock or watch away from the ear until
vestibular membrane. your partner signals that the ticking is no longer audible.
Record the distance in inches at which ticking is inaudible.
Activity 11 Right ear Left ear
Examining the Microscopic Structure Is the threshold of audibility sharp or indefinite?

of the Cochlea
Go to the demonstration area, and view the prepared
microscope slide of the cochlea. Identify the areas de- Sound Localization
scribed above and shown in Figure 17.10. Compare your
observations to the view shown in Plate 16 in the Histol- Ask your partner to close both eyes. Hold the pocket
ogy Atlas. watch at an audible distance (about 6 inches) from the
ear, and move it to various locations (front, back, sides,
and above the head). Have your partner locate the posi-
The Mechanism of Hearing tion by pointing in each instance. Can the sound be local-
ized equally well at all positions?
The mechanism of hearing begins as sound waves pass through
the external acoustic meatus and through the middle ear into
the internal ear, where the vibration eventually reaches the
spiral organ, which contains the receptors for hearing. Text continues on next page. ➔
206 Exercise 17
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 17.11 The Weber and Rinne tuning fork tests. (a) The Weber test to evaluate
whether the sound remains centralized (normal) or lateralizes to one side or the
other (indicative of some degree of conduction or sensorineural deafness). (b) and
(c) The Rinne test to compare bone conduction and air conduction.
If not, at what position(s) was the sound less easily located? the sound will be heard more strongly in the ear in which
there is a hearing loss. Conduction deafness can be simu-
lated by plugging one ear with cotton to interfere with the
conduction of sound to the internal ear.
Rinne Test for Comparing Bone- and Air-Conduction

The ability to localize the source of a sound depends on Hearing
two factors—the difference in the loudness of the sound 1. Strike the tuning fork, and place its handle on your
reaching each ear and the time of arrival of the sound at partner’s mastoid process (Figure 17.11b).
each ear. How does this information help to explain your
2. When your partner indicates that he or she can no
findings?
longer hear the sound, hold the still-vibrating prongs
close to the acoustic meatus (Figure 17.11c). If your partner
hears the fork again (by air conduction) when it is moved
to that position, hearing is not impaired. Record the test
17 result as positive (+). (Record below step 4.)
Weber Test to Determine Conductive 3. Repeat the test, but this time test air-conduction hearing
first. After the tone is no longer heard by air conduction,
and Sensorineural Deafness
hold the handle of the tuning fork on the bony mastoid
Obtain a tuning fork and a rubber mallet. Strike the tuning process. If your partner hears the tone again by bone
fork with the rubber mallet, and place the handle of the tun- conduction after hearing by air conduction is lost, there is
ing fork medially on your partner’s head (Figure 17.11a). Is some conduction deafness, and the result is recorded as
the tone equally loud in both ears, or is it louder in one ear? negative (−).
4. Repeat the sequence for the opposite ear.
If it is equally loud in both ears, your partner has equal Right ear Left ear
hearing or equal loss of hearing in both ears. If senso-
rineural deafness is present in one ear, the tone will be Does the subject hear better by bone or by air conduction?
heard in the unaffected ear, but not in the ear with sen-
sorineural deafness. If conduction deafness is present,
Temporal
bone
Semicircular ducts in Facial nerve

semicircular canals
Vestibular nerve
Anterior
Posterior Superior vestibular ganglion
Lateral
Inferior vestibular ganglion
Cochlear nerve
Cristae ampullares
in the membranous Maculae
ampullae
Spiral organ
Utricle in vestibule
Cochlear duct in cochlea
Saccule in vestibule
Stapes in Round window

oval window
Figure 17.12 Internal ear. Right membranous labyrinth (blue) shown within the
bony labyrinth (tan). The locations of sensory organs for hearing and equilibrium
are shown in purple.
Anatomy of the Equilibrium Apparatus semicircular duct is an enlarged region, the ampulla, which
contains a receptor region called a crista ampullaris. This re-
and Mechanisms of Equilibrium ceptor consists of a tuft of hair cells covered with a gelatinous
The equilibrium receptors of the internal ear are collectively cap, or ampullary cupula (Figure 17.13). These dynamic
called the vestibular apparatus and are found in the vesti- equilibrium receptors react to changes in angular motion
bule and semicircular canal portions of the bony labyrinth rather than to motion itself (Figure 17.13b and c).
(Figure 17.12). The vestibule contains the saclike utricle and The membranous utricle and saccule within the vestibule
saccule, and the semicircular chambers contain membranous contain maculae, static equilibrium receptors that respond to
semicircular ducts. Like the cochlear duct, these membranes gravitational pull and to linear or straightforward changes in
(1) are suspended in perilymph within the bony chambers, (2) speed. The otolith membrane, a gelatinous material contain-
are filled with endolymph, and (3) contain receptor cells that ing small grains of calcium carbonate (otoliths), overrides the
are activated by the disturbance of the hairs on their hair cells. hair cells in each macula. As the head moves, the otoliths roll
The semicircular canals house dynamic equilibrium re- in response to changes in gravitational pull (Figure 17.14).
ceptors. The canals are about ½ inch in circumference and As they bend different hair cells, they modify the rate of im-
are oriented in the three planes of space. At the base of each pulse transmission along the vestibular nerve. 17
Ampulla
Ampullary cupula
Crista Flow of
ampullaris Endolymph endolymph
Hair bundle
(kinocilium
plus stereocilia)
Crista Hair cell
ampullaris
Membranous Supporting
labyrinth Fibers of vestibular nerve cell Direction of body movement
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 17.13 Structure and function of the crista ampullaris. (a) The semicircular
ducts in the semicircular canals each have a swelling called an ampulla at their base.
(b) Each ampulla contains a crista ampullaris. (c) Movement of the ampullary cupula
during rotational acceleration of the head.
208 Exercise 17
Otoliths
Otolith
membrane
Kinocilium
Stereocilia
Receptor potential Depolarization
Hyperpolarization
(Hairs bent toward kinocilium)
Hair cell
(Hairs bent away from kinocilium)
Nerve impulses generated Increased impulse frequency Decreased impulse frequency

in vestibular nerve fiber (Excitation) (Inhibition)
Figure 17.14 The effect of gravitational pull on a macula receptor in the utricle.
When movement of the otolith membrane bends the hair cells in the direction of
the kinocilium, the hair cells depolarize, exciting the nerve fibers, which generates
action potentials more frequently. When the hair cells are bent in the direction away
from the kinocilium, the hair cells become hyperpolarized, inhibiting the nerve fibers
and decreasing the action potential frequency.
Activity 13
Conducting Laboratory Tests on Equilibrium
The functions of the semicircular canals and vestibule are 2. Draw one line parallel to each side of your partner’s body.
not routinely tested in the laboratory, but the following He or she should stand erect, with feet together, eyes open
simple tests should serve to illustrate normal equilibrium and staring straight ahead for 2 minutes while you observe
apparatus functioning. any movements. Did you see any gross swaying movements?
Balance Test
Have your partner walk a straight line, placing one foot
directly in front of the other. 3. Repeat the test. This time the person’s eyes should be
closed. Note and record the degree of side-to-side movement.
Is he or she able to walk without noticeable wobbling from
side to side?
4. Repeat the test with the person’s eyes first open and
17 then closed. This time, however, your partner should be
Did he or she experience any dizziness? positioned with the left shoulder toward, but not touching,
the board so that you may observe and record the degree
The ability to walk with balance and without dizziness, un- of front-to-back swaying.
less subject to rotational forces, indicates normal function
of the equilibrium apparatus.
Was nystagmus* present?
Romberg Test
Do you think the equilibrium apparatus of the internal ear
The Romberg test determines the soundness of the dorsal
white column of the spinal cord, which transmits impulses
was operating equally well in all these tests?
to the brain from the proprioceptors involved with posture.
1. Have your partner stand with the back to the black- The proprioceptors?
board or whiteboard.
Why was the observed degree of swaying greater when
* Nystagmus is the involuntary rolling of the eyes in any direction the eyes were closed?
or the trailing of the eyes slowly in one direction, followed by their
rapid movement in the opposite direction. It is normal after rota-
tion; abnormal otherwise. The direction of nystagmus is that of its
quick phase on acceleration.
What conclusions can you draw regarding the factors nec- Record the observations:
essary for maintaining body equilibrium and balance?
Rest for 1 or 2 minutes; then repeat the experiment with

the same foot raised, but with your eyes closed.
Role of Vision in Maintaining Equilibrium Record the observations:

To further demonstrate the role of vision in maintaining
equilibrium, perform the following experiment. (Ask your
lab partner to record observations and act as a “spotter.”)
Stand erect, with your eyes open. Raise your left foot ap-
proximately 1 foot off the floor, and hold it there for 1 minute.
The Chemical Senses: Smell and Taste

The receptors for smell (olfaction) and taste (gustation) are Three cell types are found within the olfactory epithelium:
classified as chemoreceptors because they respond to chemi-
cals in solution. • Olfactory sensory neurons: Specialized receptor cells
that are bipolar neurons with nonmotile olfactory cilia.
Localization and Anatomy of the • Supporting cells: Columnar cells that surround and sup-
Olfactory and Taste Receptors port the olfactory sensory neurons. They form the bulk of
the olfactory epithelium.
A pseudostratified epithelium called the olfactory epithelium
is the organ of smell. It occupies an area lining the roof of each • Olfactory stem cells: Located near the basal surface of
nasal cavity (Figure 17.15 and Plate 18 in the Histology Atlas). the epithelium, they divide to form new olfactory sensory
neurons.
Olfactory Olfactory Mitral cell

epithelium tract (output cell)
Glomeruli
Olfactory tract Olfactory bulb

Olfactory bulb 17
Cribriform plate
Cribriform plate of ethmoid bone
Filaments of
olfactory nerve
Lamina propria
Nasal (connective tissue)
conchae Olfactory
gland Olfactory axon
Olfactory stem
cell
Olfactory
Route of sensory neuron
inhaled air Olfactory
epithelium Supporting cell
(a)
Dendrite
Figure 17.15 Olfactory receptors. (a) Site of Olfactory cilia
olfactory epithelium in the superior nasal cavity. Mucus
(b) An enlarged view of the olfactory epithelium
showing the course of the fibers (filaments of
the olfactory nerve, through the ethmoid bone). Route of inhaled air
These fibers synapse in the glomeruli of the (b) containing odor molecules
overlying olfactory bulb. The mitral cells are the
output cells of the olfactory bulb.
210 Exercise 17
Epiglottis Connective
tissue Gustatory
hair
Taste fibers
Palatine of cranial
tonsil nerve
Lingual
tonsil
Foliate
papillae
Vallate papilla Stratified

Basal Gustatory Taste squamous
epithelial epithelial pore epithelium
cells cells of tongue
Fungiform
papillae Taste bud
(a) Taste buds are associated with (b) Enlarged section of a (c) Enlarged view of a taste bud (445:)
fungiform, foliate, and vallate vallate papilla
papillae.
Figure 17.16 Location and structure of taste buds on the tongue. (See also Plate
17 in the Histology Atlas.)
The axons of the olfactory sensory neurons form small fas- Several nerve fibers enter each taste bud and supply sen-
cicles called the filaments of the olfactory nerve (cranial sory nerve endings to each of the taste cells. The long gusta-
nerve I), which penetrate the cribriform foramina and synapse tory hairs of the receptor cells penetrate the taste pore. When
in the olfactory bulbs. the gustatory hairs are stimulated by specific chemicals in the
The taste buds, containing specific receptors for the sense solution, the taste cells depolarize. The afferent fibers from
17
of taste, are widely distributed in the oral cavity. Most are lo- the taste buds to the gustatory cortex of the brain are carried in
cated on the tongue (as described next). A few are found on the three cranial nerves: the facial (VII), glossopharyngeal (IX),
soft palate, pharynx, epiglottis, and inner surface of the cheeks. and vagus (X) nerves.
The superior tongue surface is covered with small projec- When taste is tested with pure chemical compounds,
tions, or papillae, of three major types: foliate, fungiform, and most taste sensations can be grouped into one of five basic
vallate papillae. The taste buds are located primarily on the qualities—sweet, salty, sour, bitter, and umami (u-mam’e;
sides of the vallate papillae (arranged in a V-formation on the “delicious”). Umami is responsible for the “meaty” taste of
posterior surface of the tongue) and on the more numerous fun- steak and of foods seasoned with monosodium glutamate.
giform papillae. The latter look rather like small mushrooms
and are widely distributed on the tongue (Figure 17.16).
Each taste bud consists largely of an arrangement of two Activity 14
types of modified epithelial cells:
Identification of Papillae on the Tongue
• Gustatory epithelial cells: The receptors for taste; they Use a mirror to examine your tongue. Can you pick out
have long microvilli called gustatory hairs that project the various types of papillae? If so, which?
through the epithelial surface through a taste pore.
• Basal epithelial cells: Precursor cells that divide to re-
place the gustatory epithelial cells.
Laboratory Experiments
Activity 15
Stimulating Taste Buds
1. Obtain several paper towels and a disposable auto- 3. Place a few sugar crystals on your dried tongue. Do not
clave bag, and bring them to your bench. close your mouth. How long does it takes to taste the sugar?
2. With a paper towel, dry the superior surface of your
tongue. sec
Immediately dispose of the paper towel in the
! autoclave bag. Why couldn’t you taste the sugar immediately?
Activity 16
Examining the Combined Effects of Smell, Texture, and Temperature on Taste
Effects of Smell and Texture Where did it seem to be important and why?
1. Ask your partner to sit with eyes closed and to pinch the
nostrils shut.
2. Using a paper plate, obtain samples of the food items
listed in the chart. Do not let the person see the foods
being tested. Effect of Olfactory Stimulation
3. Use an out-of-sequence order of food testing. For each There is no question that what is commonly called taste
test, place a cube of food in your partner’s mouth, and depends heavily on the sense of smell, particularly in the
ask him or her to identify the food by using the following case of strongly scented substances. The following experi-
sequence of activities: ments should illustrate this fact.
1. Obtain paper cups; vials of oil of wintergreen, pepper-
• First, move the food around in the mouth with the
mint, and cloves; and some fresh cotton-tipped swabs.
tongue.
Ask your partner to sit so that he or she cannot see which
• Second, chew the food. vial is being used. Then ask the subject to dry the tongue
• Third, if the person cannot make a positive identifica- and pinch the nostrils shut.
tion with the first two techniques and the taste sense, 2. Apply a drop of one of the oils to the subject’s tongue.
ask him or her to release the pinched nostrils and to Can he or she distinguish the flavor?
continue chewing with the nostrils open. This may help 17
the subject make a positive identification.
Record the results on the Activity 16 chart by checking

3. Have your partner open the nostrils. Record the change
the appropriate column.
in sensation he or she reports.
Was the sense of smell equally important in all cases?
Activity 16: Method of Identification

Chewing with Chewing with Identification
Food Texture only nostrils pinched nostrils open not made

212 Exercise 17
4. Have your partner rinse the mouth well with water and Which sense, taste or smell, appears to be more important in
dry the tongue. properly identifying a strongly flavored volatile substance?
5. Prepare two swabs, each with one of the two remaining
oils.
6. Hold one swab under your partner’s open nostrils while Effect of Temperature
touching the second swab to the tongue. Olfaction and food texture are not the only influences on
our taste sensation. Temperature also helps us determine
Record the reported sensations. whether we appreciate or even taste the foods we eat. To
illustrate this, have your partner hold some chipped ice on
the tongue for approximately 1 minute and then close the
eyes. Immediately place any of the foods previously identi-
fied in the mouth, and ask for an identification.
Results?
Dispose of the used swabs and paper towels in the

! autoclave bag before continuing.
17
EXERCISE
17 REVIEW SHEET
The Special Senses
The Eye and Vision: Anatomy

1. Several accessory eye structures contribute to the formation of tears and/or help lubricate the eyeball. Match the
accessory structures with their secretion by choosing letters from the key.
Key: a. conjunctivae b. lacrimal glands c. tarsal glands
1. mucus
2. oil
3. lysozyme
2. The eyeball is wrapped in adipose tissue within the orbit. What is the function of the adipose tissue?
3. Why may it be necessary to blow your nose after having a good cry?
4. What is a sty?
Conjunctivitis?
5. What seven bones form the bony orbit? (Think! If you can’t remember, check a skull or your textbook.)
213
214 Review Sheet 17
6. Correctly identify each lettered structure in the diagram by writing the letter next to its name in the numbered list.
Use an appropriate reference if necessary.
a. 1. anterior chamber
2. choroid
b. 3. ciliary muscle
c.
4. ciliary process
n.
d.
m. 5. ciliary zonule
l. 6. cornea
k. 7. iris
8. lens
j. e.
9. ora serrata
10. posterior chamber

i.
11. posterior segment
h. f.
12. retina
Anterior
segment 13. sclera
g. 14. scleral venous sinus
7. Match the key responses with the descriptive statements that follow.
Key: aqueous humor cornea lens sclera

choroid fovea centralis optic disc scleral venous sinus
ciliary zonule iris retina vitreous humor
1. attaches the lens to the ciliary body
2. fluid filling the anterior segment of the eye
3. the blind spot
4. contains muscle that controls the size of the pupil
5. drains the aqueous humor from the eye
6. layer containing the rods and cones
7. substance occupying the posterior segment of the eyeball
8. forms most of the pigmented vascular tunic
9. tiny pit in the macula lutea; contains only cones
10. important light-bending structure of the eye; shape can be modified
11. anterior transparent part of the fibrous tunic
12. composed of tough, white, opaque, fibrous connective tissue

Review Sheet 17 215
8. The intrinsic eye muscles are under the control of which of the following? (Circle the correct response.)
autonomic nervous system somatic nervous system
Dissection of the Cow (Sheep) Eye

9. What modification of the choroid that is not present in humans is found in the cow eye?
What is its function?
10. Describe the appearance of the retina.
At what point is it attached to the posterior aspect of the eyeball?
Visual Tests and Experiments

11. Use terms from the key to complete the statements concerning near and distance vision. (Some terms may be used
more than once.)
Key: contracted decreased increased loose relaxed taut
During distance vision: The ciliary muscle is , the ciliary zonule is , the convexity of the
lens is , and light refraction is . During close vision: The ciliary muscle is ,
the ciliary zonule is , lens convexity is , and light refraction is .
12. Explain why the part of the image hitting the blind spot is not seen.
13. Match the terms in column B with the descriptions in column A:
Column A Column B
1. light bending accommodation
2. ability to focus for close (under 20 ft) vision astigmatism
3. normal vision convergence
4. inability to focus well on close objects (farsightedness) emmetropia
5. nearsightedness hyperopia
6. blurred vision due to unequal curvatures of the lens or cornea myopia
7. medial movement of the eyes during focusing on close objects refraction

216 Review Sheet 17
14. Record your Snellen eye test results below:
Left eye (without glasses) (with glasses)
Right eye (without glasses) (with glasses)
Is your visual acuity normal, less than normal, or better than normal?
Explain.
Explain why the examiner tests each eye separately when using the Snellen eye chart.
15. Define astigmatism:
16. Record the distance of your near point of accommodation as tested in the laboratory:
right eye left eye
Is your near point within the normal range for your age?
17. How can you explain the fact that we see a great range of colors even though only three cone types exist?
18. In the experiment on the convergence reflex, what happened to the position of the eyeballs as the object was moved
closer to the subject’s eyes?
Which extrinsic eye muscles control the movement of the eyes during this reflex?
What is the value of this reflex?
If these muscles were unable to function, what would be the visual result?
19. Many college students struggling through mountainous reading assignments are told that they need glasses for
“eyestrain.” Why is looking at close objects more of a strain on the extrinsic and intrinsic eye muscles than looking at
far objects?
Review Sheet 17 217
The Ear and Hearing and Balance: Anatomy

20. Select the terms from column B that apply to the column A descriptions.
Column A Column B
, endolymph
1. collectively called the auditory ossicles incus
, 2. ear structures involved malleus

with balance
oval window
3. transmits sound vibrations to the auditory ossicles
perilymph
4. fluid contained within the bony labyrinth
pharyngotympanic
5. transmits the vibratory motion of the stapes to the (auditory) tube
fluid in the ear
semicircular canals
6. passage between the throat and the tympanic cavity
stapes
7. fluid contained within the membranous labyrinth
tympanic membrane
vestibule
21. Identify all indicated structures and ear regions in the following photograph.
218 Review Sheet 17
22. Match the membranous labyrinth structures listed in column B with the descriptive statements in column A.
Column A Column B
1. contains the spiral organ ampulla
, 2. sites of the maculae ampullary cupula
3. hair cells of the spiral organ rest on this membrane basilar membrane
4. gel-like membrane overlying the hair cells of the spiral organ cochlear duct
5. contains the cristae ampullaris cochlear nerve
6. carries equilibrium information to the brain otoliths
7. three internal ear structures oriented in the three saccule

planes of space
semicircular ducts
8. carries auditory information to the brain
tectorial membrane
9. gelatinous cap overlying hair cells of the crista ampullaris
utricle
10. grains of calcium carbonate in the maculae
vestibular nerve
23. Describe how sounds of different frequency (pitch) are differentiated in the cochlea.
24. Explain the role of the endolymph of the semicircular canals in activating the receptors during angular motion.
25. Explain the role of the otoliths in perception of static equilibrium (head position).
Hearing and Balance Tests

26. Was the hearing acuity measurement made during the experiment (page 205) the same or different for both ears?
What factors might account for a difference in the acuity of the two ears?
Review Sheet 17 219
27. During the sound localization experiment (page 205), in which position(s) was the sound least easily located?
How can you explain this observation?
28. When the tuning fork handle was pressed to your forehead during the Weber test, where did the sound seem to originate?
Where did it seem to originate when one ear was plugged with cotton?
How do sound waves reach the cochlea when conduction deafness is present?
29. The Rinne test evaluates an individual’s ability to hear sounds conducted by air or bone. Which is typical of normal
hearing?
30. Define nystagmus:
31. What is the usual reason for conducting the Romberg test? (Use your textbook if necessary.)
Was the degree of sway greater with the eyes open or closed?
Why?
32. Normal balance, or equilibrium, depends on input from a number of sensory receptors. Name them.
Chemical Senses: Localization and Anatomy of Olfactory

and Taste Receptors
33. Describe the cellular makeup and the location of the olfactory epithelium.
34. Name five sites where receptors for taste are found, and circle the predominant site:
, , , and
220 Review Sheet 17
35. Describe the cellular makeup and arrangement of a taste bud. (Use a diagram, if helpful.)
Taste and Smell Experiments

36. Taste and smell receptors are both classified as because they both respond to
37. Why is it impossisble to taste substances if your tongue is dry?
38. Explain why a cold, greasy hamburger is unappetizing to most people.
39. How palatable is food when you have a cold?
Explain.
40. + A cornea transplant involves the grafting of a donor cornea into a recipient’s anterior eye. The sutures to hold the
graft in place must stay in place for a long period of time because the cornea is slow to heal. Explain why the healing
process is so slow and also why graft rejection is unlikely with a cornea transplant. _______________________________
41. + Macular degeneration is an eye disease in which the macula lutea deteriorates. Explain why this would have a
more profound effect on vision than deterioration of other parts of the retina. ____________________________________
42. + Acute labyrinthitis is sudden onset of inflammation of the structures that form the membranous labyrinth. List
the structures that could be inflamed with this condition. ________________________________________________________
43. + One symptom of the common cold is loss of appetite. Explain why this occurs.
EXERCISE
18
Functional Anatomy
of the Endocrine Glands

● Demonstration area with two microscope □ List the hormones produced by the major endocrine organs, and
stations set up: discuss the general function of each. Additionally, describe the
Station 1: Thyroid gland with pointer on major pathology resulting from hyper- or hyposecretion of each.
colloid-filled follicle
□ Describe and explain the effects of hyperinsulinism.
Station 2: Differentially stained pancreas
tissue, allowing alpha and beta cells to be □ Identify and name the major endocrine glands on an appropriate diagram.
distinguished
● 20% glucose solution
T
● Commercial insulin solution (400 IU per
100 ml H2O) he endocrine system is the second major controlling system of the body.
● Finger bowls Acting with the nervous system, it helps coordinate and integrate the activ-
● Small (1½–2 in.) freshwater fish (guppy, ity of the body’s cells. However, the nervous system uses nerve impulses
bluegill, or sunfish—listed in order of to bring about rapid control, whereas the more slowly acting endocrine system
preference) employs chemical messengers, or hormones, which are released into the blood
● Small fish net to be transported throughout the body.
● Wax marking pencils The body’s hormones are steroids or amino acid–based molecules. Although
● Human torso model hormones travel through the blood, a given hormone affects only a specific organ
● Anatomical chart of the human endocrine or organs. Cells within an organ that respond to a particular hormone are referred to
system as the target cells (also target) of that hormone. The ability of the target to respond
depends on the ability of the hormone to bind with specific cellular receptors.
Although the function of most hormone-producing glands is purely endo-
crine, the function of others (the pancreas and gonads) is mixed—both endocrine
and exocrine. In addition, there are varied numbers of hormone-producing cells
within the intestine, stomach, kidney, and placenta, organs whose functions are
primarily nonendocrine. Here we will consider only the major endocrine organs.
Gross Anatomy and Basic Function

Pituitary Gland
The pituitary gland is located in the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone. It has
two functional areas, the anterior pituitary, which is glandular tissue, and the
posterior pituitary (nervous tissue).
Anterior Pituitary Hormones
The anterior pituitary, or adenohypophysis, secretes a number of hormones, four
of which are tropic hormones. The target organ of a tropic hormone is another
endocrine gland. Target organ hormones then produce their effects on other body
organs and tissues.
The anterior pituitary controls the activity of so many other endocrine glands
that it has often been called the master endocrine gland. However, the anterior
pituitary is not all-powerful, because release of its hormones is controlled by
releasing or inhibiting hormones produced by the hypothalamus. These hypotha-
lamic hormones are liberated into the blood of the portal circulation, which con-
nects the blood supplies of the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary (Figure 18.1).
Table 18.1 summarizes the hormones released by the anterior pituitary and
categorizes each as tropic or not tropic.
Posterior Pituitary Hormones
The posterior pituitary is not an endocrine gland, because it does not synthesize
the hormones it releases. Instead it acts as a storage area for hormones produced
221
222 Exercise 18
Hypothalamus
Portal circulation of releasing

Posterior and inhibiting hormones
pituitary
Anterior pituitary
Adrenocorticotropic
hormone (ACTH)
Growth hormone (GH)
Bones and muscles Prolactin (PRL) Follicle–stimulating Thyroid-stimulating Adrenal cortex

hormone (FSH) hormone (TSH)
and luteinizing
Mammary hormone (LH)
glands
Thyroid
Testes or ovaries
Figure 18.1 Hormones of the anterior pituitary and their major target organs.
Hypothalamic neurons secrete releasing hormones, which stimulate the secretion
of hormones from the anterior pituitary. The releasing and inhibiting hormones
are secreted into a capillary network that connects via portal veins to a second
capillary bed in the anterior pituitary gland.
Table 18.1 Anterior Pituitary Gland Hormones (Figure 18.1)

18 Hormone Stimulus for release Target Effects
Anterior Pituitary Gland: Tropic Hormones
Thyroid-stimulating Thyrotropin-releasing Thyroid gland Stimulates the secretion of thyroid hormones (T3 and T4)
hormone (TSH) hormone (TRH)*
Follicle-stimulating Gonadotropin-releasing Ovaries and testes Females—stimulates ovarian follicle maturation and estrogen
hormone (FSH) hormone (GnRH)* (gonads) production
Males—stimulates sperm production
Luteinizing hormone Gonadotropin–releasing Ovaries and testes Females—triggers ovulation and stimulates ovarian production
(LH) hormone (GnRH)* (gonads) of estrogen and progesterone
Males—stimulates testosterone production
Adrenocorticotropic Corticotropin-releasing Adrenal cortex Stimulates the release of glucocorticoids and androgens
hormone (ACTH) hormone (CRH)* (mineralocorticoids to a lesser extent)
Anterior Pituitary Gland: Other Hormones (Not Tropic)
Growth hormone Growth hormone– Liver, muscle, Stimulates body growth and protein synthesis, mobilizes fat and
(GH) releasing hormone bone, and conserves glucose
(GHRH)* cartilage, mostly
Prolactin (PRL) A decrease in the amount Mammary glands Stimulates milk production (lactation)
of prolactin-inhibiting in the breasts
hormone (PIH)*
*Indicates hormones produced by the hypothalamus.

Functional Anatomy of the Endocrine Glands 223
Table 18.2 Posterior Pituitary Gland Hormones
Hormone Stimulus for release Target Effects

Posterior Pituitary Gland (Hormones That Are Synthesized by the Hypothalamus and Stored in the Posterior Pituitary)
Oxytocin* Nerve impulses from Uterus and mammary glands Stimulates powerful uterine
hypothalamic neurons in contractions during birth and
response to cervical/uterine stimulates milk ejection (let-down)
stretch or suckling of an infant in lactating mothers
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)* Nerve impulses from Kidneys Stimulates the kidneys to reabsorb
hypothalamic neurons in more water, reducing urine output and
response to increased blood conserving body water
solute concentration or decreased
blood volume
*Indicates hormones produced by the hypothalamus.
by the hypothalamus. Table 18.2 summarizes the hormones

stored in the posterior pituitary gland. follicles are large and plump, and the follicular epithe-
lium appears to be squamouslike. What is the physi-
Thyroid Gland ological state of the tissue you have been viewing?
The thyroid gland is composed of two lobes joined by a
central mass, or isthmus. It is located in the anterior neck,
just inferior to the larynx. It produces two major hormones,
thyroid hormone and calcitonin.
Examining the Microscopic Structure Palpating the Thyroid Gland
of the Thyroid Gland Try to palpate your thyroid gland by placing your fingers
Go to station 1 at the demonstration area, and scan the against your trachea. As you swallow, the thyroid gland will
thyroid under low power, noting the follicles, spherical sacs move up and down on the sides and front of the trachea.
containing a pink-stained material (colloid). Stored T3 and
T4 are attached to the protein colloidal material stored in
the follicles as thyroglobulin and are released gradually to Table 18.3 summarizes the hormones secreted by the
the blood. The parafollicular, or C, cells you see between the thyroid and parathyroid glands (discussed next).
follicles are responsible for calcitonin production.
When the thyroid gland is actively secreting, the follicles
Parathyroid Glands
appear small, and the colloidal material has a ruffled The parathyroid glands are embedded in the posterior sur- 18
border. When the thyroid is hypoactive or inactive, the face of the thyroid gland. Typically, there are two small oval
glands on each lobe, but there may be more and some may be
Table 18.3 Thyroid and Parathyroid Gland Hormones
Hormone(s) Stimulus for release Target Effects

Thyroid Gland
Thyroxine (T4) and Thyroid-stimulating Most cells of Increases basal metabolic rate (BMR); regulates tissue growth
Triiodothyronine (T3), hormone (TSH) the body and development.
collectively referred to
as thyroid hormone (TH)
Calcitonin High levels of calcium in Bones No known physiological role in humans. When the hormone is
the blood supplemented at doses higher than normally found in humans, it
does have some pharmaceutical applications.
Parathyroid Gland (Located on the Posterior Aspect of the Thyroid Gland)
Parathyroid hormone Low levels of calcium in Bones and Increases blood calcium by stimulating osteoclasts and by
(PTH) the blood kidneys stimulating the kidneys to reabsorb more calcium. PTH also
stimulates the kidneys to convert vitamin D to calcitriol, which is
required for the absorption of calcium in the intestines.
224 Exercise 18
Table 18.4 Adrenal Gland Hormones
Cortical area Hormone(s) Stimulus for release Target Effects

Adrenal Cortex
Zona glomerulosa Mineralcorticoids: Angiotensin II release and Kidneys Increases the reabsorption of sodium and water
mostly aldosterone increased potassium in by the kidney tubules. Increases the secretion of
the blood (ACTH only in potassium in the urine.
times of severe stress)
Zona fasciculata Glucocorticoids: ACTH Most body cells Promotes the breakdown of fat and protein,
mostly cortisol promotes stress resistance, and inhibits the
immune response.
Zona reticularis Gonadocorticoids: ACTH Bone, muscle, In females, androgens contribute to body growth,
androgens (most integument, and contribute to the development of pubic and
are converted to other tissues axillary hair, and enhance sex drive. They have
testosterone and insignificant effects in males.
some to estrogen)
Cells Hormone(s) Stimulus for release Target Effects
Adrenal Medulla
Chromaffin cells Catecholamines: Nerve impulses from Most body cells Mimics sympathetic nervous system activation,
epinephrine and preganglionic sympathetic “fight-or-flight” response.
norepinephrine fibers
located in other regions of the neck. They secrete parathy- Table 18.4 summarizes the hormones secreted by the
roid hormone (PTH) (see Table 18.3). adrenal glands.
Adrenal Glands Pancreas

The two adrenal, or suprarenal, glands are located atop the The pancreas, located posterior to the stomach in the abdo-
kidneys. Anatomically, the adrenal medulla develops from men, acts both as an exocrine and an endocrine gland. It
neural tissue and is directly controlled by sympathetic nervous produces digestive enzymes as well as insulin and glucagon,
system. The medullary cells respond to this stimulation by important hormones concerned with regulating blood sugar
releasing epinephrine (adrenaline) (80%) or norepinephrine levels.
(noradrenaline) (20%), which act with the sympathetic nervous Table 18.5 summarizes two of the hormones secreted
system to produce the “fight-or-flight” response to stressors. by the pancreas and by the gonads (discussed next).
18 Table 18.5 Pancreas and Gonad Hormones
Hormone Stimulus for release Target(s) Effects

Pancreas
Insulin Increased blood glucose levels, Most cells of the body Accelerates the transport of glucose into body cells;
parasympathetic nervous system promotes glycogen, fat, and protein synthesis
stimulation
Glucagon Decreased blood glucose levels, Primarily the liver Accelerates the breakdown of glycogen to glucose,
sympathetic nervous system and adipose stimulates the conversion of lactic acid into glucose,
stimulation releases glucose into the blood from the liver
Ovaries (Female Gonads)
Estrogens Luteinizing hormone (LH) and Most cells of the body Promote the maturation of the female reproductive
follicle-stimulating hormone organs and the development of secondary sex
(FSH) characteristics
Estrogens and LH and FSH Uterus and mammary Regulate the menstrual cycle and promote breast
progesterone glands development
(together)
Testes (Male Gonads)
Testosterone LH and FSH Most cells of the body Promotes the maturation of the male reproductive
organs, the development of secondary sex
characteristics, sperm production, and sex drive
Functional Anatomy of the Endocrine Glands 225
Activity 3 What types of activity did you observe in the fish before
it became comatose?
Examining the Microscopic Structure of the
Pancreas to Identify Alpha and Beta Cells
1. At station 2 in the demonstration area, observe pan-
creas tissue under low power to identify the roughly
circular pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans), the en-
docrine portions of the pancreas. The islets are scattered
amid the more numerous acinar cells and stain differ- 3. When the fish is comatose, carefully transfer it to
ently (usually lighter), which makes it possible to identify finger bowl B, and observe its actions. What happens to
them. (See Plate 38 in the Histology Atlas.) the fish after it is transferred?
2. Examine the cells of an islet under high power. Notice
that the islet cells are densely packed and have no defi-
nite arrangement. In contrast, the cuboidal acinar cells
are arranged around secretory ducts. The pancreas tis-
sue you are viewing has been treated with special stains
so that it is possible to distinguish the alpha cells, which
tend to cluster at the periphery of the islets and produce
glucagon, from the beta cells, which synthesize insulin.
With these specific stains, the beta cells are larger and
stain gray-blue, and the alpha cells are smaller and ap- Approximately how long did it take for this recovery?
pear bright pink. What is the product of the
Alpha cells?
4. After you have made and recorded all your observa-
Of the beta cells? tions, carefully return the fish to the aquarium.
Activity 4 The Gonads

The female gonads, or ovaries, are paired, almond-sized or-
Observing the Effects of Hyperinsulinism gans located in the pelvic cavity. In addition to producing
Many people with diabetes mellitus need injections of the female sex cells (ova), the ovaries produce two groups of
insulin to maintain blood glucose levels. Adequate levels steroid hormones, estrogens and progesterone. The endo-
of blood glucose are essential for proper functioning of crine and exocrine functions of the ovaries do not begin until
the nervous system; thus, insulin administration must be puberty, when the anterior pituitary gonadotropic hormones
carefully controlled. If blood glucose levels fall sharply, prod the ovary into action. The result is rhythmic ovarian
the patient will go into insulin shock. cycles in which ova develop and hormone levels rise and fall.
A small fish will be used to demonstrate the effects of The paired oval testes of the male are suspended in a 18
hyperinsulinism. The action of insulin on the fish paral- pouchlike sac, the scrotum, outside the pelvic cavity. Besides
lels that in the human, so this experiment should provide the male sex cells (sperm), the testes produce the male sex
valid information concerning its effect in humans. hormone, testosterone. Table 18.5 summarizes the hormones
1. Prepare two finger bowls. Using a wax marker, mark
produced by the gonads.
one A and the other B. To finger bowl A, add 100 ml of the
Two organs not mentioned earlier as major endocrine
commercial insulin solution. To finger bowl B, add 200 ml
organs are also briefly considered here, the thymus and the
of 20% glucose solution.
pineal gland.
2. Place a small fish in finger bowl A, and observe its Thymus
actions carefully as the insulin diffuses into its bloodstream
through the capillary circulation of its gills.
The thymus is situated in the superior thorax, posterior to
the sternum and overlying the heart. It is large in the infant,
Approximately how long did it take for the fish to be- begins to atrophy at puberty, and by old age it is relatively
come comatose? inconspicuous. The thymus produces several hormones, in-
cluding thymosin, thymulin, and thymopoietins. These
hormones are thought to be involved in the development of
T lymphocytes and the immune response. They appear to act
locally as paracrines.
226 Exercise 18
Table 18.6 Summary of Select Endocrine Homeostatic Imbalances
Hormone Effects of hyposecretion Effects of hypersecretion

Growth hormone In children: pituitary dwarfism, which results in In children: gigantism, abnormally tall
short stature with normal proportions In adults: acromegaly, abnormally large bones of the face,
feet, and hands
Antidiuretic hormone Diabetes insipidus, a condition characterized by Syndrome of inappropriate ADH secretion, a condition
thirst and excessive urine output characterized by fluid retention, headache, and disorientation
Thyroid hormone In children: cretinism, mental retardation with a Graves’ disease, elevated metabolic rate, sweating, irregular
disproportionately short-sized body heart rate, weight loss, protrusion of the eyeballs, and
In adults: myxedema, low metabolic rate, edema, nervousness
physical and mental sluggishness
Parathyroid hormone Hypoparathyroidism, neural excitability with Hyperparathyroidism, loss of calcium from bones, causing
tetany (muscle spasms) and convulsions deformation, and spontaneous fractures
Insulin Diabetes mellitus, which results in an inability of Hypoglycemia, which results in low blood sugar and is
cells to take up and utilize glucose and in loss of characterized by anxiety, nervousness, tremors, and weakness
glucose in the urine (may be due to hyposecretion
or hypoactivity of insulin)
Pineal Gland cycle. Melatonin levels peak at night, making us drowsy, and
are lowest around noon. Recent evidence suggests that mela-
The small, pinecone-shaped pineal gland hangs from the roof tonin has anti-aging properties. Melatonin appears to play a
of the third ventricle of the brain. Its major endocrine product role in the production of antioxidants.
is melatonin, which appears to be involved in the sleep-wake
Endocrine Disorders
Many endocrine disorders are a result of either hyposecretion
(underproduction) or hypersecretion (overproduction) of a
given hormone. The characteristics of select endocrine dis- Pineal gland
orders are summarized in Table 18.6. As you read through Hypothalamus
the table, recall the targets for the hormones and the effects
of normal secretion levels.
Activity 5 Parathyroid glands

(on dorsal aspect
18 Identifying the Endocrine Organs of thyroid gland)
Thymus gland
Locate the endocrine organs on Figure 18.2, and com-
plete the labeling of that figure. Also locate these organs
on the anatomical charts or torso.
Figure 18.2 Human endocrine organs.

EXERCISE
18 REVIEW SHEET
Functional Anatomy
Gross Anatomy and Basic Function of the Endocrine Glands

1. The endocrine and nervous systems are major regulating systems of the body. However, the nervous system has been
compared to a text message and the endocrine system to mailing a letter. Briefly explain this comparison.
2. Define hormone:
3. Chemically, hormones belong chiefly to two molecular groups, the
and the .
4. Identify the endocrine organ described by the following statements:
1. located in the anterior neck; bilobed gland connected by an isthmus
2. produces the hormones that are stored in the posterior pituitary
3. a mixed gland, located posterior to the stomach and close to the small intestine
4. paired glands suspended in the scrotum
5. bilobed gland located in the sella turcica
6. found in the pelvic cavity of the female, responsible for ova and female hormone production
7. found in the upper thorax overlying the heart; large during youth
8. found in the roof of the third ventricle of the brain
5. Although the pituitary gland is sometimes referred to as the “master gland” of the body, the hypothalamus exerts
some control over the pituitary gland. How does the hypothalamus control functioning of both the anterior and the
posterior pituitary?
227
228 Review Sheet 18
6. For each statement describing hormonal effects, identify the hormone(s) involved by choosing a number from key A,
and note the hormone’s site of production with a letter from key B.
Key A: Key B:
1. ACTH 11. melatonin a. adrenal cortex
2. ADH 12. oxytocin b. adrenal medulla
3. aldosterone 13. progesterone c. anterior pituitary
4. epinephrine 14. prolactin d. hypothalamus
5. estrogens 15. PTH e. ovaries
6. FSH 16. testosterone f. pancreas
7. glucagon 17. thymosin g. parathyroid glands
8. GH 18. T4 / T3 h. pineal gland
9. insulin 19. TSH i. testes
10. LH j. thymus gland
k. thyroid gland
, 1. basal metabolism hormone
, 2. helps program the immune system
, 3. regulates blood calcium levels
, 4. released in response to stressors
, and , 5. drives development of secondary sexual characteristics
, ; , ; , ; and ,
6. regulate the function of another endocrine gland
, 7. mimics the sympathetic nervous system
, and , 8. regulate blood glucose levels; produced by the same “mixed” gland
, and , 9. directly responsible for regulating the menstrual cycle
, and , 10. help maintain salt and water balance in the body fluids
, 11. involved in milk ejection
7. Name the hormone(s) produced in inadequate amounts that directly result in the following conditions.
1. diabetes insipidus
2. tetany
3. diabetes mellitus
4. abnormally small stature, normal proportions
5. myxedema (a lower-than-normal metabolic rate)
8. Name the hormone(s) produced in excessive amounts that directly result in the following conditions.
1. in the adult: large bones of the hands, feet, and face
2. nervousness, irregular pulse rate, sweating
3. demineralization of bones, spontaneous fractures

Review Sheet 18 229
Observing the Effects of Hyperinsulinism

9. Briefly explain what was happening within the fish’s system when the fish was immersed in the insulin solution.
10. What is the mechanism of the recovery process you observed?
11. What would you do to help a friend who had inadvertently taken an overdose of insulin?
Why?
12. What is a glucose tolerance test? (Use an appropriate reference, as necessary, to answer this question.)
13. + Pituitary gland tumors can secrete excess amounts of growth hormone. Describe the signs and symptoms that
these tumors cause in an adult experiencing hypersecretion of the growth hormone. ____________________________
14. + Tumors of the adrenal medulla, called pheochromocytomas, cause hypersecretion of catecholamines. Describe
the expected signs and symptoms of this tumor. ______________________________________________________________

EXERCISE
19 Blood

● Models and charts of blood cells □ State the average percentage of plasma and formed elements
● Safety glasses (provided by students) in whole blood.
● Demonstration area: Five stations of □ Describe the composition and functions of plasma.
microscopes set up under oil of human
blood smears with a pointer to each of the □ Identify each of the formed elements when presented with
formed elements, in order: a microscopic preparation or a photo, and cite their relative
Station 1: Neutrophil pointed out; percentages and functions.
surrounded by erythrocytes
□ Conduct the following blood tests in the laboratory, and state
Station 2: Eosinophil
Station 3: Basophil
the norms and importance of each: hematocrit, hemoglobin
Station 4: Lymphocyte
determination, clotting time, and ABO and Rh blood typing.
Station 5: Monocyte □ Discuss the reason for transfusion reactions resulting from
General Supply Area administration of mismatched blood.
● Plasma (obtained from an animal hospital
or prepared by centrifuging animal [e.g.,
cattle or sheep] blood obtained from a
I
biological supply house)
n this exercise, you will study plasma and formed elements of blood and con-
● Wide-range pH paper
duct various hematologic tests. These tests are useful diagnostic tools for the
● Test tubes and test tube racks
physician because blood composition reflects the status of many body func-
● Heparinized animal blood (if desired by
tions and malfunctions.
the instructor) obtained from a biological Alert: Special precautions when handling blood. Your instructor will
supply house or animal hospital (e.g., dog ! decide whether to use animal blood for testing or to have students test their
blood) or EDTA-treated red cells (reference
own blood in accordance with the educational goals of the student group. For
cells) with blood-type labels obscured
(available from Immunocor, Inc.)
example, for students in the nursing or laboratory technician curricula, learning
● Clean microscope slides
how to safely handle human blood or other human wastes is essential. If human
● Sterile lancets
blood is being tested—whether your blood or blood obtained from a clinical
agency—gloves and safety glasses must be worn, and precautions provided in
● Alcohol swabs (wipes)
the text for disposal of human waste must be observed. All soiled glassware is to
● Absorbent cotton balls
be immersed in household bleach solution immediately after use, and disposable
items (lancets, cotton balls, alcohol swabs, etc.) are to be placed in designated
● Bucket or large beaker containing 10%
disposal containers so that they can be sterilized before disposal.
household bleach solution for slide and
glassware disposal
● Spray bottles containing 10% bleach Composition of Blood
solution
● Disposable autoclave bag: Because many Circulating blood is a rather viscous substance that varies from bright red to a dull
blood tests are to be conducted in this brick-red, depending on the amount of oxygen it is carrying. Oxygen-rich blood is
exercise, it is advisable to set up a number bright red. The circulatory system of the average adult contains about 5.5 liters of
of appropriately labeled supply areas for blood. More than 100 different substances are dissolved or suspended in plasma
the various tests, as designated next. (Figure 19.1), which is over 90% water. The composition of the blood varies
Hematocrit Supply Area continuously as cells remove or add substances to the blood.
● Heparinized capillary tubes Blood is classified as a type of connective tissue because it consists of cells
● Microhematocrit centrifuge and reading within a matrix. The nonliving fluid matrix is the plasma, and the cells and cell
gauge (if the reading gauge is not available, fragments are the formed elements. The fibers typical of a connective tissue
millimeter ruler may be used) matrix become visible in blood only when clotting occurs. They then appear as
fibrin threads, which form the framework for clot formation.
Text continues on next page. ➔ Three main types of formed elements are present in blood. The most numer-
ous are the erythrocytes, or red blood cells (RBCs), which are literally sacs
of hemoglobin molecules that transport oxygen (and a small amount of carbon
dioxide). Leukocytes, or white blood cells (WBCs), are part of the body’s non-
specific defenses and the immune system, and platelets function in hemostasis
(blood clot formation). Formed elements normally account for about 45% of
whole blood, plasma for the remaining 55%.
231
232 Exercise 19
(Materials list continued) Coagulation Time Supply Area ● Rh typing box

● Capillary tube sealer or modeling clay ● Capillary tubes (nonheparinized) ● Wax marker
● Fine triangular file ● Toothpicks
Hemoglobin Determination Supply Area
● Tallquist hemoglobin scales and test Blood Typing Supply Area ● Blood test cards or clean
paper or a hemoglobinometer, hemolysis ● Blood-typing sera (anti-A, anti-B, and
microscope slides
applicator, and lens paper anti-Rh [anti-D]) ● Medicine dropper
Activity 1 depending on the effectiveness of the stain. Notice their

biconcave disc shape and that they appear paler in the
Determining the Physical center than at the edge.
Characteristics of Plasma Red blood cells differ from the other blood cells because
Go to the general supply area, and carefully pour a few they are anucleate when mature. As a result, they are
milliliters of plasma into a test tube. Also obtain some unable to reproduce and have a limited life span of 100
wide-range pH paper, and then return to your laboratory to 120 days, after which they begin to fragment.
bench to make the following simple observations. Leukocytes
pH of Plasma Leukocytes, or white blood cells, are more typical cells
Test the pH of the plasma with wide-range pH paper. than the erythrocytes because they contain a nucleus.
Record the pH observed. Much less numerous than the red blood cells, white
blood cells are protective, pathogen-destroying cells that
are transported to all parts of the body in the blood or
lymph. They are classified into two major groups, de-
pending on whether or not they contain conspicuous
Color and Clarity of Plasma granules in their cytoplasm.
Hold the test tube up to a source of natural light. Note Granulocytes make up the first group. The granules
and record its color and degree of transparency. Is it in their cytoplasm stain differentially with Wright’s stain,
clear, translucent, or opaque? and they have peculiar nuclei, which often consist of
lobes of nuclear material connected by thin strands of
Color nucleoplasm. There are three types of granulocytes:
Degree of transparency • Neutrophil: Still at the first microscope, turn your at-
tention to the cell at the end of the pointer, a neutro-
Consistency phil. Neutrophils represent 50% to 70% of the leukocyte
While wearing gloves, dip your finger and thumb into population. Typically, their nucleus consists of three to
the plasma, and then press them firmly together for a seven lobes. Their pale lilac cytoplasm contains very
few seconds. Gently pull them apart. How would you fine cytoplasmic granules, which take up both the acidic
describe the consistency of plasma? Slippery, watery, (red) and basic (blue) dyes (neutrophil = neutral loving).
19 Neutrophils function as active phagocytes, and their
sticky, or granular? Record your observations.
number increases explosively during acute infections.
Compare to views in Plate 51 in the Histology Atlas.
• Eosinophil: Go to station 2 to study the eosinophil,
which represents 2% to 4% of the leukocytes. Observe
its nucleus, which is generally figure 8 or bilobed in
Activity 2 shape, and its large cytoplasmic granules, that stain
red-orange with Wright’s stain. Eosinophils increase
Examining the Formed Elements of Blood in number during allergies and parasite infections.
Microscopically Compare to Plate 54 in the Histology Atlas.
In this section, you observe blood cells on already prepared • Basophil: At station 3, view the rarest of the WBCs, a
(purchased) blood slides. Go to the demonstration area basophil, which represents 0.5% to 1% of the popula-
where several formed elements are pointed out, and exam- tion. Notice its large U- or S-shaped nucleus and its
ine each slide in order as you read the following descrip- coarse, sparse granules that stain deep purple with
tions of cell types and find each one on Figure 19.1 and in Wright’s stain. The granules contain several chemi-
the photomicrographs (Plates 50–55 in the Histology Atlas). cals, including histamine, a vasodilator that helps me-
diate the inflammatory response. Compare to Plate 55
Erythrocytes in the Histology Atlas.
At station 1, observe the erythrocytes, the cells that are
the most numerous on this slide. (See Plate 50 in the Agranulocytes, the second group, contain no observ-
Histology Atlas.) Erythrocytes average 7.5 μm in diam- able cytoplasmic granules. Although found in the blood-
eter and vary in color from an orange-pink to pale pink, stream, these WBCs are much more abundant in lymphoid
Blood 233
Plasma 55%
Constituent Major Functions Formed elements 45%
Solvent for dissolving Number

Cell Type Functions
Water and carrying other (per mm3 of blood)
substances; absorbs
heat Erythrocytes
(red blood cells)
Salts (electrolytes) 4 – 6 million Transport oxygen
Sodium Osmotic balance, and help transport
Potassium pH buffering carbon dioxide
Calcium
Magnesium
Chloride Leukocytes 4800 – 10,800 Defense and
Bicarbonate (white blood cells) immunity
Plasma proteins
Albumin Osmotic balance
Lymphocyte
Fibrinogen Clotting of blood
Globulins Defense (antibodies) Basophil
and lipid transport
Eosinophil
Substances transported by blood
Neutrophil Monocyte
Nutrients (glucose, fatty acids, amino acids, vitamins)
Waste products of metabolism (urea, uric acid)
Respiratory gases (O2 and CO2) Platelets 150,000 – Blood clotting
Hormones 400,000 19
Figure 19.1 The composition of blood.
tissues. Their nuclei tend to be closer to the norm, that is, dramatically in number during chronic infections such
spherical, oval, or kidney-shaped. There are two types: as tuberculosis. See also Plate 53 in the Histology Atlas.
• Lymphocyte: At station 4, observe the smallest of the Students are often asked to list the leukocytes in
leukocytes, which is approximately the size of a red order from the most abundant to the least abundant.
blood cell. Notice the large dark blue to purple, gen- The following silly phrase may help you with this task:
erally spherical or slightly indented nucleus. Sparse Never let monkeys eat bananas (neutrophils, lympho-
cytoplasm appears as a thin blue rim around the nu- cytes, monocytes, eosinophils, basophils).
cleus. Lymphocytes, which function as “warriors” of
the immune system, represent 25% to 45% of the WBC Platelets
population. Compare to Plate 52 in the Histology Atlas. Also at station 5, notice the small clusters of dark-
Monocyte: At station 5, view a monocyte, the largest staining, irregularly shaped bodies that appear much
•
of the leukocytes, which is approximately twice the smaller than the other formed elements; these are plate-
size of red blood cells. Monocytes represent 3% to 8% lets. Platelets are cell fragments of large multinucleate
of leukocytes. The dark blue nucleus is generally U- cells called megakaryocytes. The normal platelet count
or kidney-shaped, and its abundant cytoplasm stains in blood ranges from 150,000 to 400,000 per cubic mil-
gray-blue. In tissues, it develops into a macrophage limeter. Platelets are needed for the clotting process that
that phagocyticizes pathogens or debris, increasing occurs in plasma when blood vessels are ruptured.
234 Exercise 19
Hematologic Tests
When someone enters a hospital as a patient, several hemato- Hematocrit
logic (blood) tests are routinely done to determine general level
of health as well as the presence of pathological conditions. The hematocrit is routinely done when anemia is suspected.
You will be conducting a few of these tests in this exercise. Centrifuging whole blood spins the formed elements to the
Materials such as cotton balls, lancets, and alcohol bottom of the tube, with plasma forming the top layer (see
! swabs are used in nearly all of the following diagnostic Figure 19.1). Since the blood cell population is mostly RBCs,
tests. These supplies are at the general supply area and should the hematocrit is generally considered equal to the RBC vol-
be properly disposed of (glassware to the “bleach bucket,” ume, and this is the only value reported. However, the relative
disposable items to the autoclave bag, and lancets in a desig- percentage of WBCs can be differentiated, and both WBC and
nated sharps disposal container) immediately after use. plasma volume will be reported here. Normal hematocrit values
Other necessary supplies and equipment are at specific for the male and female, respectively, are 42–52% and 37–47%.
supply areas marked according to the test with which they
are used. Since nearly all of the tests require a finger stick, if Activity 3
you will be using your own blood it might be wise to quickly
read through the tests to determine when more than one test Determining the Hematocrit
can be done from the same finger stick. A little planning will
The hematocrit is determined by the micromethod, so
save you the discomfort of multiple finger sticks.
only a drop of blood is needed. If possible (and if the cen-
An alternative to using your own blood is using heparin-
trifuge allows), all members of the class should prepare
ized blood samples supplied by your instructor. The purpose
their capillary tubes at the same time so the centrifuge
of using heparinized tubes is to prevent the blood from clot-
can be properly balanced and run only once.
ting. Thus blood collected and stored in such tubes will be
suitable for all tests except coagulation-time testing. 1. Obtain two heparinized capillary tubes, capillary tube
sealer or modeling clay, a lancet, alcohol swabs, and
Total White and Red Blood Cell Counts some cotton balls.
The hand-counting technique for determining total white and 2. If you are using your own blood, open the alcohol
red blood cell counts, typically done in student labs, is rather packet, and scrub your third or fourth finger with the
outdated because most clinical agencies now have computer- swab. Swing (circumduct) your arm for 10 to 15 seconds.
ized equipment for performing blood counts. Hence these This will dry the alcohol and cause your fingers to become
will not be among the tests done during this lab session. It engorged with blood. Then open the lancet packet, and
is important, however, to know the typical blood count val- grasp the lancet by its blunt end. Quickly jab the pointed
ues of healthy individuals and to understand what abnormal end into the prepared finger to produce a free flow of
counts might indicate. blood. Wipe away the first few drops with a cotton ball,
Averaging 4800 to 10,800 cells per μl, white blood cells and, holding the red-line-marked end of the capillary tube
are an important part of the body’s defense system, so it is to the blood drop, allow the tube to fill at least three-
essential to note any abnormalities in them. Leukocytosis, an fourths full by capillary action (Figure 19.2a). If the blood
abnormally high WBC count, may indicate bacterial or viral is not flowing freely, the end of the capillary tube will not
infection, hemorrhage, or poisoning by drugs or chemicals. be completely submerged in the blood during filling, air
19 An abnormally low white blood cell count (leukopenia) may will enter, and you will have to prepare another sample.
indicate measles, infectious hepatitis or cirrhosis, tuberculo- If you are using instructor-provided blood, simply
sis, or excessive antibiotic or X-ray therapy. A person with immerse the red-marked end of the capillary tube in
leukopenia lacks the usual protective mechanisms. Leukemia, the blood sample, and fill it three-quarters full as just
a malignant disorder of the lymphoid tissues characterized by described.
uncontrolled cell division of abnormal WBCs and a reduction 3. Plug the blood-containing end by pressing it into the
in the number of RBCs and platelets, is detectable not only capillary tube sealer or clay (Figure 19.2b). Prepare a
by a total WBC count but also by a differential WBC count second tube in the same manner.
(a count of the relative number of each WBC seen on the slide).
The red blood cell count, like the white blood cell count, 4. Place the prepared tubes opposite one another in the
determines the total number of this cell type per unit volume of radial grooves of the microhematocrit centrifuge with the
blood. Normally the RBC count averages 4.2 to 5.4 million/μl sealed ends abutting the rubber gasket at the centrifuge
for women and 4.7 to 6.1 millon/μl for men. Since RBCs are periphery (Figure 19.2c). This loading procedure balances
absolutely necessary for oxygen transport, a doctor typically the centrifuge and prevents blood from spraying
investigates any excessive change in their number immediately. everywhere by centrifugal force. Make a note of the
An increase in the number of RBCs (polycythemia) numbers of the grooves your tubes are in. When all the
may result from bone marrow cancer or from living at high tubes have been loaded, make sure the centrifuge is
altitudes where less oxygen is available. A decrease in the properly balanced, and secure the centrifuge cover. Turn
number of RBCs results in anemia. The term anemia simply the centrifuge on, and set the timer for 4 or 5 minutes.
indicates a decreased oxygen-carrying capacity of blood that 5. Determine the percentage of RBCs, WBCs, and
may result from a decrease in RBC number or size or a de- plasma by using the microhematocrit reader. The RBCs
creased hemoglobin content of the RBCs. are the bottom layer, the plasma is the top layer, and
the WBCs are the buff-colored layer between the two.
Blood 235
If the reader is not available, use a millimeter ruler to

measure the length of the filled capillary tube occupied
by each element, and compute its percentage by using
the following formula:
Length of the column composed of the element (mm)
3 100
Length of the original column of whole blood (mm)
Record your calculations below.
% RBC % WBC % plasma
Usually WBCs constitute 1% of the total blood volume.

How do your blood values compare to this figure and to
the normal percentages for RBCs and plasma?
(a)
As a rule, a hematocrit is considered a more accurate

test for determining the RBC composition of the blood
than the total RBC count. A hematocrit within the nor-
mal range generally indicates a normal RBC number,
whereas an abnormally high or low hematocrit is cause
for concern.
Hemoglobin Concentration
A person can be anemic even with a normal RBC count.
Because hemoglobin is the RBC protein responsible for oxy-
gen transport, perhaps the most accurate way of measuring
the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood is to determine
its hemoglobin content. Oxygen, which combines with the
(b) heme (iron-containing portion) of the hemoglobin molecule,
is picked up by the blood cells in the lungs and unloaded in
the tissues. Thus, the more hemoglobin molecules the RBCs
contain, the more oxygen they will be able to transport. Nor-
mal hemoglobin content in men is slightly higher (13 to 18 g)
than in women (12 to 16 g).
19
Activity 4
Determining Hemoglobin Concentration
Several techniques have been developed to estimate the
hemoglobin content of blood, ranging from the old, rather
inaccurate Tallquist method to expensive hemoglobinom-
eters that are precisely calibrated and yield highly accu-
rate results. Directions for both the Tallquist method and a
hemoglobinometer are provided here. Your instructor will
indicate which technique you will be using.
(c) Using the Tallquist Method
1. Obtain a Tallquist hemoglobin scale, lancets, alcohol
Figure 19.2 Steps in a hematocrit determination. swabs, and cotton balls.
(a) Fill a heparinized capillary tube with blood. (b) Plug
the blood-containing end of the tube with clay. (c) Place 2. Use instructor-provided animal blood, or prepare the
the tube in a microhematocrit centrifuge. (Centrifuge finger as previously described. (For best results, make
must be balanced.) sure the alcohol evaporates before puncturing your
finger.) Place one good-sized drop of blood on the special
absorbent paper provided with the color chart. The blood
stain should be larger than the holes on the color chart.
236 Exercise 19
3. As soon as the blood has dried and loses its glossy make sure it is working; if not, obtain new batteries before
appearance, match its color, under natural light, with proceeding and test it again.
the color standards by moving the specimen under the 2. Remove the blood chamber from the slot in the side
comparison chart so that the blood stain appears at all of the hemoglobinometer. Disassemble the chamber by
the various openings. (Do not allow the blood to dry to a separating the glass plates from the metal clip. Notice as
brown color, as this will result in an inaccurate reading.) you do this that the larger glass plate has an H-shaped
If the color of your blood sample is intermediate between depression cut into it that acts as a moat to hold the blood,
two color standards, it may be necessary to estimate the whereas the smaller glass piece is flat and serves as a
percentage of hemoglobin. coverslip.
4. Record your results as the percentage of hemoglobin 3. Clean the glass plates with an alcohol swab, and then
concentration and as grams per 100 ml of blood, below. wipe dry with lens paper. Hold the plates by their sides to
prevent smearing during the wiping process.
g/100 ml blood %
4. Reassemble the blood chamber (remember: larger
5. Dispose of the blood-stained paper in the autoclave bag. glass piece on the bottom with the moat up), and leave
the moat plate about halfway out to provide adequate
Using a Hemoglobinometer exposed surface to charge it with blood.
1. Obtain a hemoglobinometer, hemolysis applicator 5. Obtain a drop of blood (from the provided animal blood
stick, alcohol swab, and lens paper, and bring them to sample or from your fingertip as before), and place it on
your bench. Test the hemoglobinometer light source to the depressed area of the moat plate that is closest to you
(Figure 19.3a).
(a) A drop of blood is added to the moat plate of the blood (b) The blood sample is hemolyzed with a wooden hemolysis
19 chamber. The blood must flow freely. applicator. Complete hemolysis requires 35 to 45 seconds.
(c) The charged blood chamber is inserted into the slot on (d) The colors of the green split screen are found by moving the
the side of the hemoglobinometer. slide with the right index finger. When the two colors match in
density, the grams/100 ml and % Hb are read on the scale.
Figure 19.3 Hemoglobin determination using a hemoglobinometer.

Blood 237
6. Using the wooden hemolysis applicator, stir the blood 10. Record below the grams Hb (hemoglobin)/100 ml
to rupture (lyse) the RBCs (Figure 19.3b). This usually takes blood indicated on the uppermost scale by the index mark
35 to 45 seconds. Hemolysis is complete when the blood on the slide. Also record % Hb, indicated by one of the
appears transparent rather than cloudy. lower scales.
7. Push the blood-containing glass plate all the way into
the metal clip, and then firmly insert the charged blood Hemoglobinometer type:
chamber back into the slot on the side of the instrument
(Figure 19.3c). g/100 ml blood %
8. Hold the hemoglobinometer in your left hand with

your left thumb resting on the light switch located on the 11. Disassemble the blood chamber once again, and care-
underside of the instrument. Look into the eyepiece, and fully place its parts (glass plates and clip) into a bleach-
notice that there is a green area divided into two halves containing beaker.
(a split field). Generally speaking, the relationship between the he-
matocrit and grams of hemoglobin per 100 ml of blood is
9. With the index finger of your right hand, slowly move 3:1. How do your values compare?
the slide on the right side of the hemoglobinometer back
and forth until the two halves of the green field match
(Figure 19.3d).
Coagulation Time Injury to lining of Platelet Fibrin clot

vessel exposes collagen plug forms. with trapped
Hemostasis is a protective mechanism that is set into motion fibers; platelets adhere. red blood cells
when a blood vessel breaks. Hemostasis responds rapidly
to stop bleeding. During hemostasis, three events occur in
the following order: vascular spasm, platelet plug formation,
and coagulation (blood clotting). Platelet plug formation and
coagulation are illustrated in Figure 19.4.
Blood clotting, or coagulation, is a process that requires
the interaction of many substances normally present in the
plasma, as well as some released by platelets and injured tis- Collagen Platelets Fibrin
sues. The injured tissues and platelets release tissue factor fibers
(TF) and phosphatidylserine (formerly known as platelet
factor 3), respectively, which trigger the clotting mecha-
nism, or cascade. Tissue factor and phosphatidylserine inter-
act with other blood clotting factors and calcium ions to form Platelets release chemicals
prothrombin activator, which in turn converts prothrom- that make nearby platelets sticky.
bin (present in plasma) to thrombin. Thrombin then acts
enzymatically to polymerize (combine) the soluble fibrino-
gen proteins (present in plasma) into insoluble fibrin, which Phosphatidylserine Calcium
from platelets and other
forms a meshwork of strands that traps the RBCs and forms
and tissue clotting
19
the basis of the clot. Normally, blood removed from the body +
factor from factors
clots within 2 to 6 minutes. damaged in blood
tissue cells plasma
Activity 5
Determining Coagulation Time Coagulation Formation of
prothrombin
1. Obtain a nonheparinized capillary tube, a lancet, cot- activator
1
ton balls, a triangular file, and alcohol swabs.
2. Clean and prick a finger to produce a free flow of blood.
Discard the lancet in the disposal container.
Prothrombin Thrombin
3. Place one end of the capillary tube in the blood drop, 2
and hold the opposite end at a lower level to collect the
sample. Fibrinogen Fibrin
(soluble) (insoluble)
4. Lay the capillary tube on a paper towel after collecting 3
the sample.
Figure 19.4 Events of platelet plug formation and
Record the time. coagulation. The color of the arrows indicates their
source or destination: red from tissue, purple from plate-
Text continues on next page. ➔ lets, and yellow to fibrin. Steps 1–3 are the major phases
of coagulation.
238 Exercise 19
Table 19.1 ABO Blood Groups

% of U.S. population
Antigens present on Antibodies present
ABO blood type RBC membranes in plasma White Black Asian
A A Anti-B 40 27 28
B B Anti-A 11 20 27
AB A and B None 4 4 5
O Neither Anti-A and anti-B 45 49 40
5. At 30-second intervals, make a small nick on the

Activity 6
tube close to one end with the triangular file, and then Typing for ABO and Rh Blood Groups
carefully break the tube. Slowly separate the ends to see
whether a gel-like thread of fibrin spans the gap. When 1. Obtain two clean microscope slides, a wax pencil, anti-A,
this occurs, record below and on the data sheet the time anti-B, and anti-Rh typing sera, toothpicks, lancets, alcohol
it took for coagulation to occur. Are your results within swabs, medicine dropper, and the Rh typing box.
the normal time range? 2. Divide slide 1 into two equal halves with the wax
marking pencil. Label the lower left-hand corner “anti-A”
and the lower right-hand corner “anti-B.” Mark the
bottom of slide 2 “anti-Rh.”
6. Dispose of the capillary tube and used supplies in the 3. Place one drop of anti-A serum on the left side of slide
disposable autoclave bag. 1. Place one drop of anti-B serum on the right side of slide
1. Place one drop of anti-Rh serum in the center of slide 2.
4. If you are using your own blood, cleanse your finger
Blood Typing with an alcohol swab, pierce the finger with a lancet,
and wipe away the first drop of blood. Obtain 3 drops of
Blood typing is a system for classifying blood based on spe- freely flowing blood, placing one drop on each side of
cific glycoproteins present on the outer surface of the RBC slide 1 and a drop on slide 2.
plasma membrane. Such proteins are called antigens or ag- If using instructor-provided animal, EDTA-treated
glutinogens and they are genetically determined. For ABO blood, or samples from a simulated blood testing kit, use
blood groups, these antigens are accompanied by plasma pro- a medicine dropper to place one drop of blood on each
teins, which are antibodies or agglutinins. These antibodies side of slide 1 and a drop of blood on slide 2.
act against RBCs carrying antigens that are not present on the
5. Quickly mix each blood-antiserum sample with
person’s own RBCs. If the donor blood type doesn’t match,
the recipient’s antibodies react with the donor’s blood anti-
! a fresh toothpick. Then dispose of the toothpicks,
gens, causing the RBCs to clump, agglutinate, and eventually lancet, and used alcohol swab in the autoclave bag.
19 hemolyze. It is because of this phenomenon, which occurs in 6. Place slide 2 on the Rh typing box, and rock gently
a transfusion reaction, that a person’s blood must be carefully back and forth. (A slightly higher temperature is required
typed before a blood transfusion. for precise Rh typing than for ABO typing.)
Several blood typing systems exist, but the factors rou- 7. After 2 minutes, observe all three blood samples for
tinely typed for are antigens of the ABO and Rh blood groups, evidence of clumping. The agglutination that occurs in the
which are most commonly involved in transfusion reactions. positive test for the Rh factor is fine and difficult to interpret.
The basis of the ABO typing is shown in Table 19.1. Record your observations in the Activity 6 chart.
Individuals whose red blood cells carry the Rh antigen
are Rh positive (approximately 85% of the U.S. population); 8. Interpret your ABO results in light of the information
those lacking the antigen are Rh negative. Unlike ABO blood in Figure 19.5. If you observed clumping on slide 2, you
groups, neither Rh-positive (Rh+) nor Rh-negative (Rh−) blood are Rh positive. If not, you are Rh negative.
carries preformed anti-Rh antibodies. This is understandable in 9. Record your blood type at the top of the chart.
the case of the Rh-positive individual. However, Rh-negative
10. Put used slides in the bleach-containing bucket at
persons who receive transfusions of Rh-positive blood become
the general supply area; put disposable supplies in the
sensitized by the Rh antigens of the donor RBCs, and their sys-
autoclave bag.
tems begin to produce anti-Rh antibodies. On later exposures
to Rh-positive blood, typical transfusion reactions occur, re- Before leaving the laboratory, obtain a spray bottle con-
sulting in the clumping and hemolysis of the donor blood cells. taining bleach solution. Spray your laboratory bench with
the bleach solution, and wipe dry with a paper towel.
Blood 239
Activity 6: Blood Typing Result Type

Observed Not observed
Result (+) (−)
Presence of clumping
with anti-A
with anti-B
with anti-Rh
Blood being tested Serum

Anti-A Anti-B
Type AB (contains
antigens A and B)
Type B (contains
antigen B)
Type A (contains
antigen A)
Type O (contains
no antigen)
19
Figure 19.5 Blood typing of ABO blood types. When
serum containing anti-A or anti-B antibodies is added
to a blood sample, agglutination will occur between the
antibody and the corresponding antigen—A or B. As
illustrated, agglutination occurs with both sera in blood
group AB, with anti-B serum in blood group B, with
anti-A serum in blood group A, and with neither serum
in blood group O.
EXERCISE
19 REVIEW SHEET
Blood
Composition of Blood
1. What is the blood volume of an average-sized adult? liters
2. What determines whether blood is bright red or a dull brick-red?
3. Use the key to identify the cell type(s) or blood elements that fit the following descriptive statements. (Some terms
may be used more than once.)
Key: basophil platelets monocyte

eosinophil lymphocyte neutrophil
erythrocyte megakaryocyte plasma
1. its name means “neutral-loving,” a phagocyte
, , and 2. granulocytes
3. also called a red blood cell
, 4. agranulocytes
5. precursor cell of platelets
6. cell fragments
7. number rises during parasite infections
8. releases a vasodilator; the least abundant WBC
9. transports oxygen
10. primarily water, noncellular; the fluid matrix of blood
11. develops into a macrophage
, , ,
, 12. the five types of white blood cells
4. Define formed elements:
List the formed elements present in the blood.
241
242 Review Sheet 19
5. Describe the consistency and color of the plasma you observed in the laboratory.
6. What is the average life span of a red blood cell? How does its anucleate condition affect this life span?
7. Identify the leukocytes shown in the photomicrographs below.
8. Correctly identify the blood pathologies described in column A by matching them with selections from column B:
Column A Column B
1. abnormal increase in the number of WBCs anemia
2. abnormal increase in the number of RBCs leukocytosis
3. condition of too few RBCs or of RBCs leukopenia

with hemoglobin deficiencies
polycythemia
4. abnormal decrease in the number of WBCs
Hematologic Tests
9. Broadly speaking, why are hematologic studies of blood so important in diagnosing disease?
Review Sheet 19 243
10. In the chart that follows, record information from the blood tests you conducted. Complete the chart by recording
values for healthy male adults and indicating the significance of high or low values for each test.
Hematologic Tests
Significance
Student test Normal values
Test results (healthy male adults) High values Low values
Total WBC count No data
Total RBC count No data
Hematocrit
Hemoglobin
determination
Coagulation time
11. Define hematocrit:
12. If you had a high hematocrit, would you expect your hemoglobin determination to be high or low?
Why?
13. If your blood agglutinates with both anti-A and anti-B sera, your ABO blood type would be . To what
ABO blood groups could you give blood? From which ABO donor types could
you receive blood?
Which ABO blood type is most common? Least common? (If necessary, consult
your textbook or another reference source.)

244 Review Sheet 19
14. Explain why an Rh-negative person does not have a tranfusion reaction on the first exposure to Rh-positive blood but
does have a reaction on the second exposure.
What happens when an ABO blood type is mismatched for the first time?
15. Assume the blood of two patients has been typed for ABO blood type.
Typing results
Mr. Adams:
Blood drop and Blood drop and

anti-A serum anti-B serum
Typing results
Mr. Calhoon:
Blood drop and Blood drop and

anti-A serum anti-B serum
On the basis of these results, Mr. Adams has type blood, and Mr. Calhoon has type blood.
16. + Plasmapheresis is a procedure in which blood is removed, its plasma is separated from the formed elements,
and the formed elements are returned to the patient or donor. Kidney transplants usually require that the donor and
recipient have the same blood type. If plasmapheresis is administered to the patient before and after the transplant
surgery, rejection of the kidney is unlikely to occur. Explain why.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
17. + Bleeding disorders are usually a result of thrombocytopenia, a deficiency of platelets. Considering the mecha-
nism of hemostasis, explain why thrombocytopenia could lead to abnormal bleeding.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
EXERCISE
20 Anatomy of the Heart

● Torso model or laboratory chart showing □ Describe the location of the heart.
heart anatomy
□ Identify the major anatomical areas and structures of the heart
● Heart model (three-dimensional)
on a heart model, diagram, or dissected sheep heart.
● Red and blue pencils
● Three-dimensional models of cardiac and □ Trace the pathway of blood through the heart, and compare
skeletal muscle the pulmonary and systemic circuits.
● Demonstration area: Compound □ Trace the functional blood supply of the heart, and name the
microscope set up with a longitudinal
section cardiac muscle; pointer on an
associated blood vessels.
intercalated disc □ Describe the microscopic structure of cardiac muscle, and
● Preserved or fresh sheep hearts, indicate the importance of intercalated discs.
pericardial sacs intact (if possible)
□ Explain the operation of the heart valves.
● Pointed glass rods for probes
T
he major function of the cardiovascular system is transportation. Using
blood as the transport vehicle, the system carries oxygen, nutrients, cell
wastes, electrolytes, and many other substances vital to the body’s ho-
meostasis to and from the body cells. The propulsive force is the beating heart,
which is essentially a muscular pump equipped with one-way valves. As the heart
contracts, it forces blood into a closed system of large and small plumbing tubes
(blood vessels) within which the blood circulates.
Gross Anatomy of the Human Heart

The heart, a cone-shaped organ approximately the size of a fist, is located within
the mediastinum. It is flanked laterally by the lungs, posteriorly by the vertebral
column, and anteriorly by the sternum (Figure 20.1). Its more pointed apex ex-
tends slightly to the left and rests on the diaphragm, approximately at the level of
the fifth intercostal space. Its broader base, from which the great vessels emerge,
lies beneath the second rib and points toward the right shoulder. In the body, the
right ventricle of the heart forms most of its anterior surface.
If you press just below the left nipple, you can feel the apical impulse of your
beating heart. Verify the relationships described above on an X-ray image or on
Figure 20.1.
The heart is enclosed within a double-walled sac called the pericardium. The
loose-fitting superficial part of the sac is called the fibrous pericardium. Deep to
it is the serous pericardium, which lines the fibrous pericardium as the parietal
layer. At the base of the heart, the parietal layer reflects back to cover the external
heart as the visceral layer, or epicardium. Serous fluid produced by these layers
allows the heart to beat in a relatively frictionless environment.
The walls of the heart are composed of three layers:
• Epicardium: The outer layer, which is also the visceral pericardium.
• Myocardium: The middle layer and thickest layer, which is composed
mainly of cardiac muscle. It is reinforced with dense fibrous connective tis-
sue, the cardiac skeleton, which is thicker around the heart valves and at the
base of the great vessels leaving the heart.
• Endocardium: The inner lining of the heart, which covers the heart valves
and is continuous with the inner lining of the great vessels. It is composed of
simple squamous epithelium resting on areolar connective tissue.
245
246 Exercise 20
The inferior ventricles, which form the bulk of the heart,

Midsternal line
are the discharging chambers. They force blood out of the
heart into the large arteries that emerge from its base.
2nd rib
Heart Valves
Sternum Four valves enforce a one-way blood flow through the heart
chambers. The atrioventricular (AV) valves are located be-
Diaphragm Location tween the atrium and the ventricle on the left and right side of
of apical the heart. The semilunar (SL) valves are located between a
impulse ventricle and a great vessel.
• Tricuspid valve: The right AV valve has three flaplike
cusps (Figure 20.2b) anchored to the papillary muscles
of the ventricular wall by tiny white collagenic cords
called chordae tendineae (literally, heart strings)
• Mitral valve (bicuspid valve): The left AV valve has
Figure 20.1 Location of the heart in the thorax. two flaplike cusps anchored to the papillary muscles by
chordae tendineae.
Heart Chambers The AV valves are open and hang into the ventricles when
The heart has four chambers: two superior atria and two in- blood is flowing into the atria and the ventricles are relaxed.
ferior ventricles (Figure 20.2). The septum that divides the When the ventricles contract, the blood in the ventricles is
heart longitudinally is referred to as the interatrial septum compressed, causing the AV valves to move superiorly and
where it separates the atria, and the interventricular septum, close the opening between the atrium and the ventricle. The
where it separates the ventricles. Functionally, the atria are chordae tendineae, pulled tight by the contracting papillary
receiving chambers and are relatively ineffective as pumps. muscles, anchor the cusps in the closed position and prevent
Left common carotid

Brachiocephalic trunk artery
Left subclavian artery
Superior vena cava Aortic arch

Ligamentum arteriosum
Right pulmonary artery
Left pulmonary artery
Ascending aorta
Left pulmonary veins
Pulmonary trunk
20
Auricle of
left atrium
Right pulmonary
veins Circumflex artery
Right atrium (in coronary sulcus)
Left coronary artery

Right coronary artery
(in coronary sulcus)
(in coronary sulcus)
Anterior cardiac vein Left ventricle

Right ventricle
Right marginal artery Great cardiac vein

Anterior interventricular
Small cardiac vein artery (in anterior
interventricular sulcus)
Inferior vena cava
Apex
(a)
Figure 20.2 Anatomy of the human heart. (a) Anterior view.

Anatomy of the Heart 247
Aorta

Superior vena cava
Left atrium

Pulmonary trunk
Right atrium
Mitral (bicuspid) valve

Right pulmonary veins
Fossa ovalis Aortic valve

Pectinate muscles
Pulmonary valve
Tricuspid valve
Right ventricle Left ventricle
Chordae tendineae Papillary muscle

Interventricular septum
Trabeculae carneae
Epicardium
Inferior vena cava Myocardium
Endocardium
(b)
Aorta
Superior vena cava

Right pulmonary veins
20
Auricle of left atrium Right atrium
Left atrium
Inferior vena cava
Great cardiac vein
(in coronary sulcus) Coronary sinus
Right coronary artery

Posterior vein of left ventricle (in coronary sulcus)
Left ventricle Posterior interventricular

artery (in posterior
interventricular sulcus)
Middle cardiac vein
Right ventricle
Apex
(c)
Figure 20.2 (continued) (b) Frontal section. (c) External posterior view.
248 Exercise 20
Capillary beds
the backflow of blood from the ventricles into the atria. If
of lungs, where unanchored, the cusps would move upward into the atria like
gas exchange an umbrella being turned inside out by a strong wind.
occurs
• Pulmonary (SL) valve: Has three pocketlike cusps
located between the right ventricle and the pulmonary
trunk.
• Aortic (SL) valve: Has three pocketlike cusps located
between the left ventricle and the aorta.
Pulmonary Circuit
The SL valves are open and flattened against the wall of the
Pulmonary vessel when the contraction of the ventricles pushes blood
arteries Pulmonary into the great vessels. When the ventricles relax, blood flows
veins backward toward the ventricle and the cusps fill with blood,
Aorta and
closing the SL valves. This prevents the backflow of blood
branches from the great vessels into the ventricles.
Venae
cavae
Left Activity 1
atrium
Using the Heart Model to Study Heart Anatomy
Left
Locate in Figure 20.2 all the structures described so far,
Right ventricle observe the human heart model, and re-identify the
atrium same structures without referring to the figure. Notice
Heart how much thicker the myocardium of the left ventricle
Right is than that of the right ventricle. Compare the shape of
ventricle
the left ventricular cavity to the shape of the right ven-
Systemic Circuit tricular cavity. Record your observations on the lines
below.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
Capillary
beds of all
body tissues,
where gas
Oxygen-rich, exchange
CO2-poor blood occurs
20
Oxygen-poor,
CO2-rich blood
Figure 20.3 The systemic and pulmonary circuits. For

simplicity, the actual number of two pulmonary arteries
and four pulmonary veins has been reduced to one each
in this diagram.
Pulmonary, Systemic, and Coronary Circulations

Pulmonary and Systemic Circuits carry blood to and from all body tissues form the systemic
circuit (Figure 20.3).
The heart functions as a double pump: The following steps describe the blood flow through the
• The right side of the heart pumps oxygen-poor blood en- right side of the heart (pulmonary circuit):
tering its chambers to the lungs to unload carbon dioxide and 1. The right atrium receives oxygen-poor blood from the
to pick up oxygen. The blood vessels that carry blood to and body via the venae cavae (superior vena cava and inferior
from the lungs form the pulmonary circuit. The function of vena cava) and the coronary sinus.
the pulmonary circuit is strictly to provide for gas exchange.
2. From the right atrium, blood flows through the tricuspid
• The left side of the heart pumps oxygenated blood return- valve to the right ventricle.
ing from the lungs to the body tissues. The blood vessels that
Table 20.1 Coronary Circulation (Figure 20.2)
Arteries Description Areas supplied/branches

Right coronary Branches from the ascending aorta just above the aortic Its branches include the right marginal artery and the
artery (RCA) valve and encircles the heart in the coronary sulcus. posterior interventricular artery.
Right marginal artery Branches off the RCA and is located in the lateral portion Supplies the lateral right side of the heart.
of the right ventricle.
Posterior Branches off the RCA and is located in the posterior Supplies the posterior walls of the ventricles and the
interventricular artery interventricular sulcus. posterior portion of the interventricular septum. Near
the apex of the heart it merges (anastomoses) with the
anterior interventricular artery.
Left coronary artery Branches from the ascending aorta and passes posterior Its branches include the anterior interventricular artery
(LCA) to the pulmonary trunk. and the circumflex artery.
Anterior Branches off the LCA and is located in the anterior Supplies the anterior portion of the interventricular
interventricular artery interventricular sulcus. This artery is referred to clinically septum and the anterior walls of both ventricles.
as the left anterior descending artery (LAD).
Circumflex artery Branches off the LCA: located in the coronary sulcus. Supplies the left atrium and the posterior portion of
the left ventricle.
Veins Description Areas drained
Great cardiac vein Located in the anterior interventricular sulcus, parallel to Anterior portions of the right and left ventricles.
the anterior interventricular artery.
Middle cardiac vein Located in the posterior interventricular sulcus, parallel Posterior portions of the right and left ventricles.
to the posterior interventricular artery.
Small cardiac vein Located on the lateral right ventricle, parallel to the right Lateral right ventricle.
marginal artery.
Coronary sinus Located in the coronary sulcus on the posterior surface of The entire heart; the great, middle and small cardiac
the heart; drains into the right atrium. veins all drain into the coronary sinus.
Anterior cardiac veins Located on the anterior surface of the right atrium. They drain directly into the right atrium.
3. From the right ventricle, blood flows through the pulmo-

nary valve into the pulmonary trunk. Activity 2
4. The pulmonary trunk branches into left and right
pulmonary arteries, which carry blood to the lungs, where
Tracing the Path of Blood Through the Heart
the blood unloads carbon dioxide and picks up oxygen. Trace the pathway of blood through the heart by add-
ing arrows to Figure 20.2b. Use red arrows for the
5. Oxygen-rich blood returns to the heart via four pulmonary
oxygen-rich blood and blue arrows for the less oxygen- 20
veins.
rich blood.
The remaining steps describe the blood flow through the left
side of the heart (systemic circuit):
Coronary Circulation
6. Oxygen-rich blood enters the left atrium via four pulmo-
nary veins. Even though the heart chambers are bathed with blood almost
continually, this blood does not nourish the myocardium. The
7. From the left atrium, blood flows through the mitral valve blood supply that nourishes the heart is provided by the right
to the left ventricle. and left coronary arteries (see Figure 20.2a). Table 20.1
8. From the left ventricle, blood flows through the aortic summarizes the arteries that supply blood to the heart and the
valve to the aorta. veins that drain the blood.
9. Oxygen-rich blood is delivered to the body tissues by the
systemic arteries.
Microscopic Anatomy of Cardiac Muscle

Cardiac muscle is found in only one place—the heart. Be- The cardiac cells are arranged in spiral or figure-8-shaped
cause the heart acts as a blood pump, propelling blood to all bundles (Figure 20.4). When the heart contracts, its internal
tissues of the body, cardiac muscle is very important to life. chambers become smaller (or are temporarily obliterated),
Cardiac muscle is involuntary, ensuring a constant blood forcing the blood upward into the large arteries leaving the
supply. heart.
250 Exercise 20
Intercalated
discs
Sarcolemma
Cardiac
muscle Nucleus
bundles
Striations
Cardiac
muscle
cells
Figure 20.4 Longitudinal view of the heart chambers Figure 20.5 Photomicrograph of cardiac muscle (665×).
showing the spiral arrangement of the cardiac muscle
fibers.
2. Compare the model of cardiac muscle to the model
of skeletal muscle. Note the similarities and differences
Activity 3 between the two kinds of muscle tissue.
3. Go to the microscope at the demonstration area, and
Examining Cardiac Muscle Cells observe a longitudinal section of cardiac muscle under
1. Observe the three-dimensional model of cardiac mus- high power. Identify the nucleus, striations, intercalated
cle, examining its branching cells and the areas where discs, and sarcolemma of the individual cells, and then
the cells interlock, the intercalated discs. compare your observations to Figure 20.5.
DISSECTION
The Sheep Heart

Dissecting a sheep heart is a valuable exercise because the 4. Examine the external surface of the heart. Notice the
20 sheep heart is similar in size and structure to the human heart. accumulation of adipose tissue, which in many cases
Refer to Figure 20.6 as you proceed with the dissection. marks the separation of the chambers and the location of
1. Obtain a preserved sheep heart, a dissecting tray, dis- the coronary arteries. Carefully scrape away some of the
secting instruments, glass probe, and gloves. fat with a scalpel to expose the coronary blood vessels.
2. Observe the texture of the fibrous pericardium. Also, find 5. Identify the base and apex of the heart, and then identify
its point of attachment to the heart. Where is it attached? the two wrinkled auricles, earlike flaps of tissue projecting
from the atria. The balance of the heart muscle is ventricu-
lar tissue. To identify the left ventricle, compress the ven-
tricles on each side of the longitudinal fissures carrying
the coronary blood vessels. The side that feels thicker and
3. If the fibrous pericardial sac is still intact, slit it open more solid is the left ventricle. The right ventricle is much
and cut it from its attachments. Observe the epicardium. thinner and feels somewhat flabby when compressed.
Using a sharp scalpel, carefully pull a little of this serous This difference reflects the greater demand placed on the
membrane away from the myocardium. How do its posi- left ventricle, which must pump blood through the much
tion, thickness, and apposition to the heart differ from longer systemic circuit. Hold the heart in its anatomical
those of the parietal pericardium? position (Figure 20.6a), with the anterior surface upper-
most. In this position the left ventricle composes the entire
apex and the left side of the heart.
6. Identify the pulmonary trunk and the aorta leaving the
superior aspect of the heart. The pulmonary trunk is more
anterior, and you may see its division into the right and
left pulmonary arteries if it has not been cut too close to
Right pulmonary Pulmonary Left pulmonary Pulmonary Right pulmonary

artery veins artery veins artery Aorta
Ligamentum Superior
arteriosum vena cava
Aorta
Brachio-
cephalic
Pulmonary trunk
trunk
Superior Left atrium

vena cava (fat-covered)
Brachio-
cephalic Auricle of
trunk right atrium
(lumen)
Auricle Inferior
of left vena cava
atrium (peg in
lumen)
Right
Right
auricle
ventricle
Right
ventricle Left
ventricle
Anterior interventricular Apex of Left Apex of heart
sulcus (fat-filled proximally) heart ventricle
(a) (b)
Figure 20.6 Anatomy of the sheep heart. (a) Anterior view. (b) Posterior view.
the heart. The thicker-walled aorta, which branches almost Why do you suppose these differences exist?
immediately, is located just beneath the pulmonary trunk.
The first branch of the sheep aorta, the brachiocephalic
trunk, can be identified unless the aorta has been cut im-
mediately as it leaves the heart.
Carefully clear away the fat between the pulmonary
trunk and the aorta to expose the ligamentum arterio-
sum, a remnant of the ductus arteriosus. (In the fetus, the
ductus arteriosus allows blood to pass directly from the 20
pulmonary trunk to the aorta, thus bypassing the nonfunc-
tional fetal lungs.)
9. Insert a probe into the superior vena cava, and use scis-
7. Cut through the wall of the aorta until you see the aortic
sors to cut through its wall so that you can see the interior
valve. Identify the two openings into the coronary arteries
of the right atrium. Do not extend your cut entirely through
just above the valve. Insert a probe into one of these holes
the right atrium or into the ventricle. Observe the right
to see whether you can follow the course of a coronary
atrioventricular valve.
artery across the heart.
8. Turn the heart to view its posterior surface. (The heart How many cusps does it have?
will appear as shown in Figure 20.6b.) Notice that the right
and left ventricles appear equal-sized in this view. Try to
10. Return to the pulmonary trunk, and cut through its
identify the four thin-walled pulmonary veins entering
anterior wall until you can see the pulmonary valve. How
the left atrium. (It may or may not be possible to locate
does its action differ from that of the atrioventricular valve?
the pulmonary veins from this vantage point, depending
on how they were cut as the heart was removed.) Identify
the superior and inferior venae cavae entering the right
atrium. Compare the approximate diameter of the supe-
rior vena cava with that of the aorta.
Which is larger?
Which has thicker walls? Text continues on next page. ➔

252 Exercise 20
11. Return to the superior vena cava, and continue the cut Count the number of cusps in the left atrioventricular
made in its wall through the right atrium and right atrio- valve. How does this compare with the number seen in
ventricular valve into the right ventricle. the right atrioventricular valve?
12. Next, make a longitudinal incision through the aorta,
and continue it into the left ventricle. Again notice how
much thicker the myocardium of the left ventricle is than
that of the right ventricle. Compare the shape of the left
ventricular cavity to the shape of the right ventricular
cavity. How do the sheep valves compare with their human
counterparts?
13. Continue your incision from the left ventricle superi-

orly into the left atrium. Reflect the cut edges of the atrial
wall, and try to locate the entry points of the pulmonary
Are the chordae tendineae observed in the right ventricle veins into the left atrium. Follow the pulmonary veins to
the heart exterior with a probe. Notice how thin-walled
also present in the left ventricle? these vessels are.
14. Properly dispose of the organic debris in the desig-
nated container, and clean the dissecting tray and instru-
ments before leaving the laboratory.
20
EXERCISE
20 REVIEW SHEET
Anatomy of the Heart
Gross Anatomy of the Human Heart

1. An anterior view of the heart is shown here. Match each structure listed with the correct letter in the figure.
1. right atrium 8. brachiocephalic trunk 14. left pulmonary veins
2. right ventricle 9. left common carotid 15. right coronary artery

artery
3. left atrium 16. circumflex artery
10. left subclavian artery
4. left ventricle 17. anterior interventricular
11. pulmonary trunk artery
5. superior vena cava
12. left pulmonary arteries 18. apex of heart
6. ascending aorta
13. ligamentum arteriosum 19. great cardiac vein
7. aortic arch
s
b
e
r
f
q
p
g
o h
n i
j
m
l k
253
254 Review Sheet 20
2. What is the function of the fluid that fills the pericardial sac?
3. Match the terms in the key to the descriptions provided below.

Key:
1. drains blood into the right atrium
atria
2. tricuspid and mitral valves
atrioventricular valves
3. discharging chambers of the heart
coronary arteries
4. innermost layer of the pericardium
coronary sinus
5. receiving chambers of the heart
endocardium
6. layer composed of cardiac muscle
epicardium
7. provide nutrient blood to the heart muscle
myocardium
8. visceral pericardium
semilunar valves
9. pulmonary and aortic valves
ventricles
4. Which valves are anchored by chordae tendineae?
5. Which valves close when the cusps fill with blood?
Pulmonary, Systemic, and Coronary Circulations

6. Describe the role of the pulmonary circuit.
7. Describe the role of the systemic circuit.
8. Name the three vessels that deliver oxygen-poor blood to the right atrium.
Review Sheet 20 255
9. Starting with the right atrium, trace a drop of blood through the heart and lungs, naming the following structures:
aorta, aortic valve, left atrium, left ventricle, mitral valve, pulmonary arteries, pulmonary capillaries, pulmonary valve,
pulmonary trunk, pulmonary veins, right atrium, right ventricle, and tricuspid valve.
1. _________________________________________________ 8.
2. 9.
3. 10.
4. 11.
5. 12.
6. 13.
7.
Microscopic Anatomy of Cardiac Muscle

10. How would you distinguish the structure of cardiac muscle from that of skeletal muscle?
11. Add the following terms to the photograph of cardiac muscle below.
a. intercalated discs b. nucleus c. cardiac muscle cell
Describe the unique anatomical features of cardiac

muscle. What role does the unique structure of cardiac
muscle play in its function?
Dissection of the Sheep Heart

12. During the sheep heart dissection, you were asked initially to identify the right and left ventricles without cutting into
the heart. During this procedure, what differences did you observe between the two chambers?
256 Review Sheet 20
13. Semilunar valves prevent backflow into the ; AV valves prevent backflow into the
. Using your own observations, explain how the operation of the semilunar valves
differs from that of the AV valves.
14. The remnant of a fetal structure is observable in the heart—the ligamentum arteriosum. What was it called in the fetal
heart, where was it located, and what purpose did it serve?
15. + A proximal LAD lesion is a blockage in the left anterior descending artery, also known as the anterior interventric-
ular artery. Explain why a heart attack caused by an obstruction of this artery is sometimes referred to as the “widow
maker” heart attack. _________________________________________________________________________________________
16. + Congestive heart failure (CHF) is an inability of the heart to pump sufficient blood to the body. One sign of CHF
is excess fluid in the tissue spaces, known as edema. Describe the location of the edema if the left side of the heart
fails, compared to the location of edema if the right side of the heart fails. _______________________________________
EXERCISE
21 Anatomy of Blood Vessels

● Anatomical charts of human arteries and □ Describe the tunics of blood vessel walls. State the function
veins (or a three-dimensional model of the of each layer, and discuss how it is/may be modified to serve
human circulatory system) the differing functional requirements of arteries, veins, and
● Anatomical charts of the following capillaries.
specialized circulations: pulmonary
circulation, fetal circulation, hepatic portal □ Recognize a cross-sectional view of an artery and a vein.
circulation, arterial supply and cerebral
□ Identify the major arteries arising from the aorta, and name the
arterial circle (circle of Willis) (or a brain
model showing this circulation) body region supplied by each.
● Demonstration area: Microscope slides □ Identify the major veins draining into the venae cavae, and
showing cross sections of an artery and indicate the body areas drained.
vein, set up for student viewing
□ Discuss the unique features of the special circulations studied.
A
rteries, which carry blood away from the heart, and veins, which return
blood to the heart, are simply conducting vessels. Only the tiny capillaries
that branch throughout the tissues directly serve the needs of the body’s
cells. It is through the capillary walls that exchanges are made between tissue
cells and blood.
In this exercise, you will examine the microscopic structure of blood vessels
and identify the major arteries and veins of the systemic circulation and other
special circulations.
Microscopic Structure of the Blood Vessels

Except for the tiny capillaries, the walls of blood vessels have three coats, or
tunics (Figure 21.1).
• Tunica intima: Lines the lumen of a vessel and is composed of the endothe-
lium, subendothelial layer, and internal elastic membrane. The simple squamous
cells of the endothelium fit closely together, forming an extremely smooth blood
vessel lining that helps decrease resistance to blood flow.
• Tunica media: Middle coat, made primarily of smooth muscle and elastic
tissue. The smooth muscle is active in changing the diameter of blood vessels,
which in turn alters blood flow and blood pressure.
• Tunica externa: Outermost tunic, composed of areolar or fibrous connective
tissue. Its function is to support and protect the vessel.
In general, the walls of arteries tend to be thicker than those of veins. The
tunica media in particular is much heavier and contains much more smooth muscle
and elastic tissue. Arteries, which are closer to the pumping action of the heart, must
be able to expand as blood is propelled into them during systole and then recoil
passively as the blood flows off into the circulation during diastole. The anatomical
differences between the types of vessels reflect their functional differences. Table
21.1 summarizes the structure and function of various blood vessels.
Valves in veins prevent backflow of blood. The skeletal muscle “pump” also
promotes venous return; as the skeletal muscles surrounding the veins contract and
relax, the blood is milked through the veins toward the heart. Pressure changes that
occur in the thorax during breathing also help blood return to the heart.
257
258 Exercise 21
Artery Vein
Tunica intima
• Endothelium
• Subendothelial layer
• Internal elastic membrane
Tunica media
(smooth muscle and
elastic fibers)
• External elastic membrane
Tunica externa
(collagen fibers)
• Vasa vasorum
Valve
Capillary network
Lumen
Lumen
Basement membrane
Capillary
Endothelial cells
Figure 21.1 Structure of arteries, veins, and capillaries.
Table 21.1 Summary of Blood Vessel Anatomy and Physiology

Average Average
lumen wall
21 Type of vessel Description diameter thickness Function
Elastic Largest, most elastic arteries. Contain 1.5 cm 1.0 mm Act as a pressure reservoir, expanding
(conducting) more elastic tissue than other arteries. and recoiling for continuous blood flow.
arteries Examples: aorta, brachiocephalic artery,
and common carotid artery.
Muscular Medium-sized arteries, accounting for 0.6 cm 1.0 mm Better ability to constrict and less stretchable
(distributing) most arteries found in the body. They than elastic arteries. They distribute blood
arteries have less elastic tissue and more smooth to specific areas of the body. Examples:
muscle than other arteries. brachial artery and radial artery.
Arterioles Smallest arteries, with a very thin tunica 37 μm 6 μm Blood flows from arterioles into a capillary
externa and only a few layers of smooth bed. They play a role in regulating the
muscle in the tunica media. blood flow to specific areas of the body.
Capillaries Contain only a tunica intima. 9 μm 0.5 μm Provide for the exchange of materials
(gases, nutrients, etc.) between the blood
and tissue cells.
Venules Smallest veins. All tunics are very thin, 20 μm 1 μm Drain capillary beds and merge to form
with at most two layers of smooth muscle veins.
and no elastic tissue.
Veins Contain more fibrous tissue in the tunica 0.5 cm 0.5 mm Low-pressure vessels; return blood to the
externa than corresponding arteries. The heart. Valves prevent the backflow of the
tunica media is thinner, with a larger blood.
lumen than the corresponding artery.
Anatomy of Blood Vessels 259
Activity 1
Examining the Microscopic Structure of Arteries and Veins
1. Go to the demonstration area to examine a slide show-
ing a cross-sectional view of blood vessels.
2. Using Figure 21.2 as a guide, scan the section to
identify a thick-walled artery. Often, but not always, its
lumen will appear scalloped because of the constriction
of its walls by the elastic tissue of the tunica media.
3. Identify a vein. Its lumen may be elongated or irregu-
larly shaped and collapsed, and its walls will be consid-
erably thinner. Also, notice the thinness of the tunica
intima layer.
Figure 21.2 Photomicrograph of a muscular artery

and the corresponding vein in cross section (403).
See also Plate 21 in the Histology Atlas. Artery Vein
Major Systemic Arteries of the Body

The aorta is the largest artery of the body. It has three main (renal, hepatic), or the bone followed (tibial, femoral, radial,
regions: ascending aorta, aortic arch, and descending aorta. Ex- ulnar).
tending upward as the ascending aorta from the left ventricle,
it arches posteriorly and to the left as the aortic arch and then Aortic Arch
travels downward as the descending aorta through the thoracic The brachiocephalic (literally, “arm-head”) trunk is the first
cavity. Called the thoracic aorta from T5 to T12, the descending branch of the aortic arch (Figure 21.4). The other two major
aorta penetrates the diaphragm to enter the abdominal cavity. arteries branching off the aortic arch are the left common ca-
As it enters the abdominal cavity, it becomes the abdominal rotid artery and the left subclavian artery. The brachioce-
aorta. The branches of the ascending aorta and the aortic arch phalic trunk splits and divides into the right common carotid
are summarized in Table 21.2. Branches of the thoracic and artery and the right subclavian artery.
abdominal aorta are summarized in Tables 21.3 and 21.4.
Figure 21.3 depicts the relationship of the aorta and Arteries Serving the Head and Neck
its major branches. As you locate the arteries on this figure The common carotid artery on each side divides to form
and the ones that follow, notice that in many cases, the an internal carotid artery, which serves the brain, and an 21
name of the artery reflects the body region traveled through external carotid artery. The external carotid artery supplies
(axillary, subclavian, brachial, popliteal), the organ served the tissues external to the skull in the neck and head.
Table 21.2 The Aorta: Ascending Aorta and Aortic Arch (Figure 21.3)
Ascending aorta branches Structures served
Right coronary artery The myocardium of the heart (see Exercise 20)
Left coronary artery The myocardium of the heart (see Exercise 20)
Aortic arch branches Structures served
Brachiocephalic trunk (branches into right common carotid and right Right common carotid artery—right side of the head and neck
subclavian arteries) Right subclavian artery—right upper limb
Left common carotid artery Left side of the head and neck
Left subclavian artery Left upper limb
260 Exercise 21
R. external R. internal L. external L. internal

carotid artery carotid artery carotid artery carotid artery
R. common carotid L. common carotid

R. vertebral L. vertebral
– right side of head and neck – left side of head and neck
R. axillary R. subclavian Brachiocephalic L. subclavian L. axillary

– neck and – head, neck, and – neck and L.
R. upper limb R. upper limb Aortic Arch upper limb
Arteries of
Arteries of
Ascending aorta L. upper
R. upper
limb
limb
L. and R. coronary Thoracic aorta
arteries
L. ventricle of heart
Visceral branches Parietal branches
Mediastinal Esophageal Bronchial Pericardial Posterior intercostals Superior phrenics

– posterior – esophagus – lungs and – pericardium – intercostal muscles, spinal – posterior and superior
medias- bronchi cord, vertebrae, pleurae, skin diaphragm
tinum
Diaphragm
Abdominal aorta
Visceral branches Parietal branches
Gonadal Suprarenal Superior Celiac trunk Inferior phrenics Lumbars Median sacral
– testes or – adrenal and inferior – liver – inferior diaphragm – posterior – sacrum
ovaries glands mesenterics – gallbladder abdominal – coccyx
and – small – spleen wall
Renal intestine – stomach
– kidneys – colon – esophagus
– duodenum
R. common iliac L. common iliac

– pelvis and R. lower limb – pelvis and L. lower limb
21
Arteries of R. lower limb Arteries of L. lower limb
Figure 21.3 Schematic of the systemic arterial circulation. (L. 5 left, R. 5 right.)
Common carotid arteries

Vertebral artery
Thyrocervical trunk Right subclavian artery
Costocervical trunk
Suprascapular artery Left subclavian artery
Thoracoacromial artery
Brachiocephalic trunk
Axillary artery
Subscapular artery
Posterior circumflex Posterior intercostal
humeral artery arteries
Anterior circumflex
humeral artery Anterior intercostal
artery
Brachial artery Internal thoracic artery
Lateral thoracic artery

Deep artery of arm
Thoracic aorta
Common interosseous
artery
Radial artery
Ulnar artery
Deep palmar arch
Superficial palmar arch 21

Digital arteries
Figure 21.4 Arteries of the right upper limb and thorax.

262 Exercise 21
Table 21.3 The Aorta: Thoracic Aorta (Figure 21.3) (Note that many of these
arteries vary in number from person to person)
Visceral thoracic aorta branches Structures served
Pericardial arteries Pericardium, the serous membrane of the heart
Bronchial arteries Bronchi, bronchioles, and lungs
Esophageal arteries Esophagus
Mediastinal arteries Posterior mediastinum
Parietal thoracic aorta branches Structures served
Posterior intercostal arteries (inferior pairs) Intercostal muscles, spinal cord, vertebrae, and skin
Subcostal arteries Intercostal muscles, spinal cord, vertebrae, and skin
Superior phrenic arteries Posterior, superior part of the diaphragm
The right and left subclavian arteries each give off sev- intercostal arteries. Not shown in Figure 21.4 are the small
eral branches to the head and neck. The first of these is the arteries that serve the diaphragm (phrenic arteries), esopha-
vertebral artery, which runs up the posterior neck to supply gus (esophageal arteries), and bronchi (bronchial arteries).
the cerebellum, brain stem, and the posterior cerebral hemi- However, these vessels are indicated in Figure 21.3 and sum-
spheres. In the armpit, the subclavian artery becomes the marized in Table 21.3.
axillary artery, which serves the upper limb.
Thoracic Aorta
Arteries Serving the Thorax and Upper Limbs
The thoracic aorta is the superior portion of the descending
As the axillary artery runs through the axilla, it gives
aorta (Figure 21.4). It begins where the aortic arch ends and
off several branches to the chest wall and shoulder girdle
ends as it pierces the diaphragm. The main branches of the
(Figure 21.4). As it enters the arm, the axillary artery becomes
thoracic aorta are summarized in Table 21.3.
the brachial artery. This gives off a deep branch, and, at the
elbow, the brachial artery divides into the radial and ulnar
arteries, which follow the same-named bones to supply the Abdominal Aorta
forearm and hand. The radial artery is often palpated to take Although several small branches of the descending aorta
a pulse. serve the thorax, its more major branches serve the abdominal
Most of the thorax wall and the anterior intercostal struc- organs and the lower limbs (Figure 21.5).
tures are supplied by anterior intercostal artery branches. The major branches of the abdominal aorta are summa-
The posterior intercostal regions are served by the posterior rized in Table 21.4.
21 Table 21.4 The Aorta: Abdominal Aorta (Figure 21.5)
Branches Structures served

Inferior phrenic arteries Inferior surface of the diaphragm
Celiac trunk: left gastric artery Stomach and esophagus
Celiac trunk: splenic artery Branches to the spleen; short gastric arteries branch to the stomach; and the left gastroepiploic
artery branches to the stomach
Celiac trunk: common hepatic artery Branches into the hepatic artery proper (its branches serve the liver, gallbladder, and stomach) and
the gastroduodenal artery (its branches serve the stomach, pancreas, and duodenum)
Superior mesenteric artery Most of the small intestine and the first part of the large intestine
Middle suprarenal arteries Adrenal glands that sit on top of the kidneys
Renal arteries Kidneys
Gonadal arteries Ovarian arteries (female)—ovaries
Testicular arteries (male)—testes
Inferior mesenteric artery Distal portion of the large intestine
Lumbar arteries Posterior abdominal wall
Median sacral artery Sacrum and coccyx
Common iliac arteries The distal abdominal aorta splits to form the left and right common iliac arteries, which serve the
pelvic organs, lower abdominal wall, and the lower limbs
Liver (cut) Diaphragm
Inferior vena cava

Esophagus
Celiac trunk
Left gastric artery
Stomach
Common hepatic artery
Splenic artery
Hepatic artery proper
Left gastroepiploic
Gastroduodenal artery artery
Right gastric artery
Spleen
Gallbladder
Pancreas Right gastroepiploic
(major portion lies artery
posterior to stomach)
Duodenum
Abdominal aorta Superior mesenteric
artery
(a)
Diaphragm
Hiatus (opening)
for inferior vena cava
Inferior phrenic artery
Hiatus (opening)
for esophagus
Adrenal (suprarenal) Middle suprarenal artery

gland
Celiac trunk
Renal artery
Kidney
Superior mesenteric artery
Abdominal aorta
Gonadal (testicular 21
or ovarian) artery
Lumbar arteries
Inferior mesenteric artery

Ureter
Median sacral
artery
Common iliac artery
(b)
Figure 21.5 Arteries of the abdomen. (a) The celiac trunk and its major branches.
The left half of the liver has been removed. (b) Major branches of the abdominal aorta.
264 Exercise 21
Arteries Serving the Lower Limbs

Each of the common iliac arteries extends for about 2 inches
into the pelvis before it divides into the internal and external Common iliac artery
iliac arteries (Figure 21.6). The internal iliac artery sup- Internal iliac artery
plies the gluteal muscles, and the adductor muscles of the
Superior gluteal artery
medial thigh, as well as the genitals.
The external iliac artery supplies the anterior abdomi- External iliac artery
nal wall and the lower limb. In the thigh, its name changes
to femoral artery. Proximal branches of the femoral artery Deep artery of thigh
supply the head of the femur and the hamstring muscles. Obturator artery
Slightly lower, the femoral artery gives off a deep branch,
the deep artery of the thigh, which supplies blood to most
of the thigh muscles. At the knee, the femoral artery briefly Medial circumflex
femoral artery
becomes the popliteal artery; its subdivisions—the anterior
and posterior tibial arteries—supply the leg, ankle, and Lateral circumflex
foot. The anterior tibial artery supplies the extensor muscles femoral artery
and terminates with the dorsalis pedis artery. The dorsalis Femoral
pedis supplies the dorsum of the foot and continues on as artery
the arcuate artery. The dorsalis pedis is often palpated in
patients with circulation problems of the leg to determine the
circulatory efficiency to the limb as a whole.
Adductor
□ Palpate your own dorsalis pedis artery. hiatus
Popliteal
artery
Popliteal
artery
Activity 2 Anterior
tibial
Locating Arteries on an Anatomical artery
Chart or Model
Now that you have identified the arteries on Figures Anterior Fibular
tibial artery artery
21.3–21.6, attempt to locate and name them (without
referring to these figures) on a large anatomical chart or Posterior Posterior
three-dimensional model of the vascular system. tibial artery tibial
artery
Fibular
artery Lateral
plantar
Dorsalis artery
pedis artery Medial
plantar
Arcuate artery
21 artery
Dorsalis
Dorsal pedis
metatarsal artery
arteries (from top
of foot)
Plantar
arch
(a) (b)
Figure 21.6 Arteries of the right pelvis and lower limb.

(a) Anterior view. (b) Posterior view.
Major Systemic Veins of the Body

Arteries are generally located in deep, well-protected body artery. Veins draining the head and upper extremities empty
areas. However, veins tend to follow a more superficial into the superior vena cava, and those draining the lower
course and are often easily seen on the body surface. Most body empty into the inferior vena cava. Figure 21.7 shows
deep veins parallel the course of the major arteries, and in the systemic veins and their relationship to the venae cavae
many cases the vein has the same name as its corresponding to get you started.
R. external R. vertebral Intracranial

Veins of
jugular – cervical spinal dural venous sinuses
R. upper
limb – superficial cord and
head and neck vertebrae
R. internal jugular
– dural venous
sinuses of the brain
R. subclavian
R. axillary – R. head, neck,
and upper Same as R. brachiocephalic
limb
R. brachiocephalic L. brachiocephalic
– R. side of head and R. upper limb – L. side of head and L. upper limb
Superior vena cava

Azygos system
– runs from union of brachiocephalic
– drains much of thorax
veins behind manubrium to R. atrium
R. atrium of heart
Diaphragm
Inferior vena cava

– runs from junction of common iliac
veins at L5 to R. atrium of heart
L., R., and middle

hepatic veins
R. suprarenal – liver
(L. suprarenal drains
into L. renal vein) 21
– adrenal glands L. and R. renal veins
– kidneys
R. gonadal
(L. gonadal drains Lumbar veins
into L. renal vein) (several pairs)
– testis or ovary – posterior abdominal
wall
R. common iliac L. common iliac

– pelvis and R. lower – pelvis and L. lower
limb limb
Veins of Veins of
R. lower limb L. lower limb
Figure 21.7 Schematic of systemic venous circulation. (L. 5 left, R. 5 right.)

266 Exercise 21
Veins of the Lower Limbs

Each common iliac vein is formed by the union of the inter-
nal iliac vein, draining the pelvis, and the external iliac vein,
Common iliac vein which receives venous blood from the lower limb (Figure
21.8). Veins of the leg include the anterior and posterior
Internal iliac vein
tibial veins, which serve the calf and foot. The anterior tibial
External iliac vein vein is a continuation of the dorsalis pedis vein of the foot.
The posterior tibial vein is formed by the union of the medial
and lateral plantar veins, and it ascends deep in the calf
Inguinal ligament
muscles. It joins with the fibular vein at the knee to pro-
duce the popliteal vein, which crosses the back of the knee.
The popliteal vein becomes the femoral vein in the thigh.
Femoral vein
The femoral vein in turn becomes the external iliac vein
Great saphenous in the inguinal region.
vein (superficial)
The great saphenous vein, a superficial vein, is the lon-
gest vein in the body. Beginning in common with the small
saphenous vein from the dorsal venous arch, it extends
up the medial side of the leg, knee, and thigh to empty into
the femoral vein. The small saphenous vein drains the calf
muscle and then empties into the popliteal vein at the knee
Great (Figure 21.8b).
saphenous
vein Veins of the Abdomen
Popliteal
vein Popliteal Moving superiorly in the abdominal cavity (Figure 21.9),
vein the inferior vena cava receives blood from the posterior ab-
Small dominal wall via several pairs of lumbar veins and from the
saphenous Anterior
vein tibial vein right ovary or testis via the right gonadal vein. (The left
Fibular gonadal vein drains into the left renal vein superiorly.) The
Fibular vein paired renal veins drain the kidneys. Just above the right re-
vein nal vein, the right suprarenal vein (receiving blood from the
Small adrenal gland on the same side) drains into the inferior vena
Anterior saphenous
tibial vein vein
cava, but its partner, the left suprarenal vein, empties into
(superficial) the left renal vein inferiorly. The right and left hepatic veins
Dorsalis drain the liver. The unpaired veins draining the digestive tract
pedis vein Posterior organs empty into a special vessel, the hepatic portal vein,
tibial which carries blood to the liver to be processed before it en-
Dorsal vein
venous
ters the systemic venous system. (The hepatic portal system
arch Plantar is discussed separately on page 269.)
veins
Dorsal Deep Veins Draining into the
21 metatarsal
veins
plantar arch Superior Vena Cava
Digital veins Veins draining into the superior vena cava are named from
the superior vena cava distally, but remember that the blood
flows in the opposite direction.
Veins of the Head and Neck
Figure 21.8 Veins of the right lower limb. The right and left brachiocephalic veins drain the head,
neck, and upper extremities and unite to form the superior
vena cava (Figure 21.10). Notice that although there is only
Veins Draining into one brachiocephalic artery (trunk), there are two brachioce-
phalic veins.
the Inferior Vena Cava Branches of the brachiocephalic veins include the in-
The inferior vena cava, a much longer vessel than the superior ternal jugular, vertebral, and subclavian veins. The internal
vena cava, returns blood to the heart from all body regions be- jugular veins are large veins that drain the dural sinuses of
low the diaphragm. It begins in the lower abdominal region with the brain, and they receive blood from the head and neck
the union of the paired common iliac veins (Figure 21.8), as they move inferiorly. The vertebral veins (not shown in
which drain venous blood from the legs and pelvis. Figure 21.10) drain the posterior aspect of the head and neck.
Inferior phrenic vein

Hepatic veins
Inferior vena cava

Left suprarenal vein
Right suprarenal vein
Renal veins
Left ascending
Right gonadal vein lumbar vein
Lumbar veins
Left gonadal vein
Common iliac vein
External iliac vein Internal iliac vein
Figure 21.9 Venous drainage of abdominal organs not drained by the hepatic
portal vein.
The subclavian veins receive venous blood from the upper the median cubital vein, which runs between the cephalic
limb. The external jugular vein, returning venous drainage and basilic veins in the anterior elbow.
of the extracranial (superficial) tissues of the head and neck, The azygos vein, which drains the right side of the tho-
joins the subclavian vein near its origin. rax, enters the dorsal aspect of the superior vena cava just
before that vessel enters the heart.
Veins of the Upper Limb and Thorax
As the subclavian vein enters the axilla, it becomes the axil-
lary vein and then the brachial vein as it runs the course Activity 3
of the humerus (Figure 21.10). The deep and superficial
venous palmar arches empty into the radial and ulnar Identifying the Systemic Veins
veins of the forearm, which then unite to form the brachial Identify the important veins of the systemic circulation
vein. The superficial venous drainage of the arm includes the on the large anatomical chart or model without referring
cephalic vein laterally, which empties into the axillary vein; 21
to the figures.
the medial basilic vein, which enters the brachial vein; and
Special Circulations
Pulmonary Circulation surrounding the air sacs of the lungs. The respiratory gases
diffuse across the walls of the air sacs (alveoli) and pulmonary
The pulmonary circulation (discussed with heart anatomy on capillaries. The pulmonary capillary beds are drained by
page 248) differs in many ways from systemic circulation venules, which converge to form larger and larger veins and
because it does not serve the metabolic needs of the body finally the four pulmonary veins (two leaving each lung),
tissues. It functions instead to bring blood into close contact which return the blood to the left atrium of the heart.
with the air sacs of the lungs to permit gas exchanges that rid
the blood of excess carbon dioxide and replenish its supply
of vital oxygen. Activity 4
Pulmonary circulation begins with the large pulmonary
trunk, which leaves the right ventricle and divides into the Identifying Vessels of the Pulmonary
right and left pulmonary arteries about 2 inches above its Circulation
origin (Figure 21.11). The pulmonary arteries plunge into
the lungs, where they subdivide into lobar arteries (three In Figure 21.11, label all structures provided with leader
on the right and two on the left), which accompany the main lines using choices from the list at the right.
bronchi into the lungs. The lobar arteries branch extensively
within the lungs and finally end in the capillary networks
268 Exercise 21
Brachiocephalic veins Internal jugular vein

External jugular vein
Right subclavian vein
Left subclavian vein

Axillary vein
Superior vena cava

Brachial vein
Azygos vein
Cephalic vein
Accessory hemiazygos vein
Basilic vein
Hemiazygos vein
Posterior intercostals
Inferior vena cava
Median cubital vein Ascending lumbar vein
Median
antebrachial
vein
Basilic vein
Cephalic vein
Ulnar vein
Radial vein
Deep venous
palmar arch
21
Superficial venous
palmar arch
Digital veins
Figure 21.10 Veins of the right upper limb and shoulder. For clarity, the abundant
branching and anastomoses of these vessels are not shown.
Superior vena cava Aortic arch
a. Left atrium
b. Pulmonary trunk
c. Right pulmonary
artery
d. Left pulmonary
artery
e. Left pulmonary
veins
f. Lobar arteries
(left lung)
g. Lobar arteries
(right lung)
h. Right atrium
i. Right ventricle
j. Right pulmonary
veins
Inferior vena cava k. Left ventricle
Figure 21.11 The pulmonary circulation.
Hepatic Portal Circulation Arterial Supply of the Brain and the

The veins of the hepatic portal circulation (Figure 21.12) Cerebral Arterial Circle
drain the digestive organs, spleen, and pancreas and deliver A continuous blood supply to the brain is essential because
this blood to the liver via the hepatic portal vein (formed the delicate brain tissue will die if it is deprived of oxygen for
by the union of the splenic and superior mesenteric vein). even a few minutes. The brain is supplied by two pairs of ar-
As blood travels through the liver, some of the nutrients are teries arising from the region of the aortic arch—the internal
stored or processed in various ways for release to the general carotid arteries and the vertebral arteries (Figure 21.13).
circulation. The liver in turn is drained by the hepatic veins
that enter the inferior vena cava.
The splenic vein carries blood from the spleen, parts of Activity 6
the pancreas, and the stomach. The splenic vein unites with
the superior mesenteric vein to form the hepatic portal vein. Tracing the Arterial Supply of the Brain 21
The superior mesenteric vein drains the small intestine, part The internal carotid and vertebral arteries are labeled in
of the large intestine, and the stomach. The inferior mesen- Figure 21.13. As you read the description of the brain’s
teric vein, which drains the distal portion of the large intes- blood supply, complete the labeling of this diagram.
tine and rectum, empties into the splenic vein just before the
splenic vein merges with the superior mesenteric vein.
The internal carotid arteries, which are branches of
the common carotid arteries, take a deep course through the
Activity 5 neck, entering the skull through the carotid canals of the tem-
poral bone. Within the cranium, each divides into anterior
Tracing the Hepatic Portal Circulation and middle cerebral arteries, which supply the bulk of the
Locate on Figure 21.12 the vessels named above. cerebrum. The internal carotid arteries also contribute to the
cerebral arterial circle (circle of Willis), an arterial network
270 Exercise 21
Hepatic veins
Gastric veins
Liver
Spleen
Hepatic portal vein

Splenic vein
Right
gastroepiploic vein
Inferior
mesenteric vein
Superior
mesenteric vein
Small intestine
Large intestine
Rectum
Figure 21.12 The hepatic portal circulation.
Frontal lobe at the base of the brain surrounding the pituitary gland and
21 of cerebrum the optic chiasma, by helping to form a posterior commu-
nicating artery on each side. The circle is completed by the
anterior communicating artery, a short shunt connecting
the right and left anterior cerebral arteries.
The paired vertebral arteries branch from the subcla-
vian arteries and pass superiorly through the foramina of the
Internal
carotid transverse processes of the cervical vertebrae to enter the skull
artery through the foramen magnum. Within the skull, the vertebral
Mammillary arteries unite to form the single basilar artery, which runs
body superiorly along the ventral brain stem, giving off branches
to the pons, cerebellum, and internal ear. At the base of the
Temporal
lobe
cerebrum, the basilar artery divides to form the posterior
Vertebral cerebral arteries, which supply the posterior part of the cere-
Pons artery
brum and become part of the cerebral arterial circle by joining
Occipital lobe with the posterior communicating arteries.
of cerebrum Cerebellum
The uniting of the anterior and posterior blood supplies
via the cerebral arterial circle is a protective device that
provides an alternate set of pathways for blood to reach the
Figure 21.13 Major arteries serving the brain. brain tissue in the case of impaired blood flow anywhere in
Inferior view, right side of cerebellum and part of the the system.
right temporal lobe removed.
EXERCISE
21 REVIEW SHEET
Anatomy of Blood Vessels
Microscopic Structure of the Blood Vessels

1. Use the key choices to identify the blood vessel tunic described. (Some choices may be used more than once.)
Key: tunica intima tunica media tunica externa
1. innermost tunic
2. bulky middle tunic; contains smooth muscle and elastic tissue
3. its smooth surface decreases resistance to blood flow
4. tunic of capillaries
, , 5. tunic(s) of arteries and veins
6. tunic that is especially thick in arteries
7. most superficial tunic
2. Describe the basic function that capillaries provide.
3. Cross-sectional views of an artery and of a vein are shown here. Identify each, and also respond to the related ques-
tions that follow.
(vessel type) (vessel type)
Which of these vessels may have valves?
Which of these vessels depends on its elasticity to propel blood along?
Which depends on the skeletal muscle pump and changes during breathing? Explain this dependence.
271
272 Review Sheet 21
4. Why are the walls of arteries relatively thicker than those of the corresponding veins?
Major Systemic Arteries and Veins of the Body

5. Use the key on the right to identify the arteries or veins described on the left. Key:
anterior tibial
1. vessel that is paired in the venous system but only
basilic
a single vessel is present in the arterial system
brachial
brachiocephalic
2. these arteries supply the myocardium celiac trunk
cephalic
3. the more anterior artery pair serving the brain common carotid
coronary
4. longest vein in the body deep artery of the thigh
dorsalis pedis
5. artery on the foot checked to determine external carotid
circulation of the leg gonadal
great saphenous
inferior mesenteric
6. main artery that serves the thigh muscles
internal carotid
internal iliac
7. supplies the diaphragm phrenic
popliteal
8. formed by the union of the radial and ulnar veins posterior tibial
radial
, 9. two superficial veins of the arm renal
superior mesenteric
10. artery serving the kidney vertebral
11. testicular or ovarian veins
12. artery that supplies the distal half of the large intestine
13. divides into the external and internal carotid arteries
14. arteries that merge to form the basilar artery
15. artery serving the gluteal muscles
16. supplies most of the small intestine
17. what the femoral artery becomes at the knee
18. an arterial trunk that has three major branches, which run to
the liver, spleen, and stomach
19. major artery serving the skin and scalp of the head
, 20. two veins that join, forming the popliteal vein
21. artery generally used to take the pulse at the wrist

Review Sheet 21 273
6. The human arterial and venous systems are diagrammed on this page and the next. Identify all indicated blood vessels.
Arteries
274 Review Sheet 21
Veins
Review Sheet 21 275
7. Trace the blood flow for the following situations:
a. From the capillary beds of the left thumb to the capillary beds of the right thumb
b. From the pulmonary vein to the pulmonary artery by way of the right side of the brain
Pulmonary Circulation
8. Trace the pathway of a carbon dioxide gas molecule in the blood from the inferior vena cava until it leaves the blood-
stream. Name all structures (vessels, heart chambers, and others) it passes through en route.
9. Most arteries of the adult body carry oxygen-rich blood, and the veins carry oxygen-depleted, carbon dioxide–rich
blood. What is different about the pulmonary arteries and veins?

276 Review Sheet 21
Hepatic Portal Circulation

10. Why is the blood that drains into the hepatic portal circulation nutrient-rich?
11. Why is this blood carried to the liver before it enters the systemic circulation?
12. The hepatic portal vein is formed by the union of the and
the . The vein carries blood from the
, , and . The
vein drains the , ,
and . The vein empties into the splenic
vein and drains the and .
Arterial Supply of the Brain and the Cerebral Arterial Circle

13. Branches of the internal carotid and vertebral arteries cooperate to form a ring of blood vessels encircling the pituitary
gland, at the base of the brain. What name is given to this communication network?
What is its function?
14. What portion of the brain is served by the anterior and middle cerebral arteries?
Both the anterior and middle cerebral arteries arise from the arteries.
15. + A peripherally inserted central catheter (PICC) line involves the use of a long, thin tube to deliver medications or
nutrients to a patient. For adult patients, it is usually inserted into the right cephalic vein.Trace the route that a medication
would take to reach the right atrium. List all vessels on the route.
16. + A patient with iliofemoral deep vein thrombosis (IFDVT) has a blood clot located in the femoral or external iliac
vein. Such a patient is at risk of the clot traveling to the lungs, resulting in a pulmonary embolism. Trace the route of the
clot from the femoral vein to the pulmonary artery. List all vessels on the route.
EXERCISE
22
Human Cardiovascular
Physiology—Blood Pressure
and Pulse Determinations
● Stethoscope □ Define systole, diastole, and cardiac cycle, and describe the
● Sphygmomanometer events of the cardiac cycle.
● Watch (or clock) with a second hand □ Relate heart sounds to events of the cardiac cycle.
● Felt marker
□ Define pulse, and accurately determine a subject’s radial and
● Step stools (16 in. and 20 in. in height)
● Cot (if available)
apical pulse.
● Alcohol swabs □ Define blood pressure, and accurately determine a subject’s
blood pressure with a sphygmomanometer.
□ Investigate the effects of exercise on blood pressure, pulse,
and cardiovascular fitness.
□ Indicate factors affecting or determining blood flow and skin
color.
D
uring this exercise, we will investigate pulse, heart sounds, and blood pres-
sure, all of which reflect the heart and blood vessels in action. The discus-
sion of the cardiac cycle below will help you to understand and interpret
the physiological measurements taken during the lab.
Cardiac Cycle
In a healthy heart, the atria contract simultaneously. Then, as they begin to relax,
the ventricles contract. However, in general usage, the terms systole and diastole
refer to contraction and relaxation, respectively, of the ventricles.
The cardiac cycle includes events of one complete heartbeat. During the
cardiac cycle, both atria and ventricles contract and then relax, and a predictable
sequence of changes in blood volume and pressure occur within the heart. To
better understand the events of the cardiac cycle, read the descriptions for a
given phase in Table 22.1 and correlate each phase to the electrical events,
heart sounds, pressure changes in the left side of the heart, and volume changes
in the left side of the heart depicted in Figure 22.1. We begin with the heart in
total relaxation, mid-to-late diastole; however, you could start anywhere within
the cycle.
Assuming the average heart beats approximately 75 beats per minute, the
length of the cardiac cycle is about 0.8 second. (This value was obtained by dividing
60 seconds by the number of beats per minute.)
277
278 Exercise 22
Ventricular Ventricular Ventricular

diastole systole diastole
Left heart
QRS
P T
Electrocardiogram
1st 2nd
Heart sounds
Dicrotic notch
120
Pressure (mm Hg)
80
Aorta
Left ventricle
40
The rise in pressure Left atrium
is caused by atrial
contraction.
0
The amount of blood
120 ejected from each
Ventricular volume (ml)
ventricle is the stroke

volume (SV).
The volume of blood in

the ventricle is greatest
at the end of diastole.
The volume of blood in
This is the end diastolic
the ventricle is smallest
volume (EDV).
at the end of systole.
50 This is the end systolic
volume (ESV).
22
Passive Atrial contraction

2 Isovolumetric 3 Ventricular 4 Isovolumetric
1 Ventricular filling phase contraction phase ejection phase relaxation phase
Figure 22.1 Summary of events occurring in the heart during the cardiac cycle.
Human Cardiovascular Physiology—Blood Pressure and Pulse Determinations 279
Table 22.1 Events of the Cardiac Cycle

Status of Status of Status of Status of
Phase Description of events ventricles atria AV valves SL valves
Mid-to-late diastole When atrial pressure is greater than ventricular Relaxed Relaxed (atrial Opened Closed
1 Ventricular filling pressure, the AV valves are forced open, and (diastole) diastole)
(passive) blood flows passively into the atria and on
through to the ventricles.
Mid-to-late diastole The atria contract to complete the filling of the Relaxed Contracted Opened Closed
1 Ventricular ventricles. Ventricular diastole ends, and so the (diastole) (atrial systole)
filling with atrial end diastolic volume (EDV) of the ventricles is
contraction achieved.
Ventricular systole The contraction of the ventricles begins, and Contracted Relaxed (atrial Closed Closed
2 Isovolumetric ventricular pressure increases, closing the AV (systole) diastole)
contraction valves.
Ventricular systole Ventricular pressure continues to rise; when the Contracted Relaxed (atrial Closed Opened
3 Ventricular pressure in the ventricles exceeds the pressure in (systole) diastole)
ejection the great vessels exiting the heart, the SL valves
open, and blood is ejected.
Early diastole The ventricles relax, decreasing the pressure in Relaxed Relaxed (atrial Closed Closed
4 Isovolumetric the ventricles; the decrease in pressure causes (diastole) diastole)
relaxation the SL valves to close. The dicrotic notch is the
result of a pressure fluctuation that occurs when
the aortic valve snaps shut.
Heart Sounds
Two distinct sounds can be heard during each cardiac cycle. valves close at the beginning of ventricular systole. The second
These heart sounds are commonly described by the monosyl- heart sound (dup) occurs as the semilunar valves close at the
lables “lub” and “dup”; and the sequence is lub-dup, pause, end of ventricular systole. Figure 22.1 indicates the timing of
lub-dup, pause. The first heart sound (lub) occurs as the AV heart sounds in the cardiac cycle and in relation to an ECG.
Activity 1
Auscultating Heart Sounds
In the following procedure, you will auscultate (listen to) for heart sounds. The first sound will be a longer, louder
your partner’s heart sounds with a stethoscope. (more booming) sound than the second, which is short
1. Obtain a stethoscope and some alcohol swabs. Heart and sharp. After listening for a couple minutes, try to time 22
sounds are best auscultated if the person’s outer clothing the pause between the second sound of one heartbeat and
is removed, so a male subject is preferable. the first sound of the subsequent heartbeat.
2. Clean the earpieces of the stethoscope with an alcohol

swab. Allow the alcohol to dry. Notice that the earpieces How long is this interval? sec
are angled. For comfort, the earpieces should be angled in
a forward direction when you place them into your ears. How does it compare to the interval between the first and
second sounds of a single heartbeat?
3. Don the stethoscope. Place the diaphragm of the
stethoscope on your partner’s thorax, just medial to the
left nipple at the fifth intercostal space. Listen carefully
The Pulse
The term pulse refers to the alternating surges of pressure Conditions other than pulse rate are also useful clini-
(expansion and then recoil) in an artery that occur with each cally. Can you feel it strongly—does the blood vessel expand
beat of the left ventricle. Normally the pulse rate equals the and recoil (sometimes visibly) with the pressure waves—or
heart rate, and the pulse averages 70 to 76 beats per minute is it difficult to detect? Is it regular like the ticking of a clock,
in the resting state. or does it seem to skip beats?
280 Exercise 22
Activity 2
Palpating Superficial Pulse Points
Superficial temporal artery
The pulse may be felt easily on any artery close to the body
surface when the artery is compressed over a bone or firm
tissue. Palpate the following pulse points on your partner or Facial artery
yourself by placing the fingertips of the first two fingers of
one hand over the artery. Note that you should never use
your thumb when measuring an individual’s pulse, because Common carotid artery
your thumb has a faint pulse of its own. It helps to compress
the artery firmly as you begin your palpation and then imme-
diately ease up on the pressure slightly. In each case, notice Brachial artery
the regularity of the pulse, and assess its force. Figure 22.2
illustrates the superficial pulse points to be palpated. Check
off the boxes as you locate each pulse point.
Radial artery
□ Common carotid artery: At the side of the neck.
□ Superficial temporal artery: Anterior to the ear.
Femoral artery
□ Facial artery: Clench the teeth, and palpate the pulse
just anterior to the masseter muscle in line with the
corner of the mouth. Popliteal artery
□ Brachial artery: In the antecubital fossa, at the point

where it splits into the radial and ulnar arteries.
□ Radial artery: At the lateral aspect of the wrist, just Posterior tibial
artery
above the thumb.
□ Femoral artery: In the groin.
Dorsalis pedis
□ Popliteal artery: At the back of the knee. artery
□ Posterior tibial artery: Just above the medial malleolus.
□ Dorsalis pedis artery: On the dorsum of the foot. Figure 22.2 Body sites where the pulse is most easily
palpated.
Which pulse point had the greatest amplitude?
Because of its easy accessibility, the pulse is most

Which the least? often taken on the radial artery. With your partner sitting
quietly, practice counting the radial pulse for 1 minute.
Can you offer any explanation for this? Make three counts, and average the results.
22 count 1 ___________________ count 2 ____________________
count 3 ___________________ average ___________________
Apical-Radial Pulse blood rushes from the heart into the large arteries where it
can be palpated. A difference between the values observed is
The relationship between the apical and radial pulse rates can referred to as a pulse deficit. A large difference may indicate a
be determined by counting them simultaneously. The apical weakened heart that is unable to pump sufficient blood into the
pulse (actually the counting of heartbeats) may be slightly arterial tree, or abnormal heart rhythms. Apical pulse counts
faster than the radial because of a slight lag in time as the are routinely ordered for patients with cardiac disease.
Activity 3
Taking an Apical Pulse starting point for the count and give the stop-count signal
exactly 1 minute later. Record your values.
With the subject sitting quietly, one student, using a stetho-
scope, determines the apical pulse rate while another apical count beats/min
counts the radial pulse rate at the same time. The stetho-
scope should be positioned over the fifth left intercostal radial count pulses/min
space. The person taking the radial pulse will determine the
pulse deficit pulses/min
Blood Pressure Determinations

Blood pressure is the pressure the blood exerts against the and the diastolic pressure, the pressure during ventricular
inner blood vessel walls; it is generally measured in the arter- relaxation. Blood pressures are reported in millimeters of
ies. Because the heart alternately contracts and relaxes, the mercury (mm Hg), with the systolic pressure appearing first;
rhythmic flow of blood into the arteries causes the blood pres- 120/80 translates to 120 over 80, or a systolic pressure of
sure to rise and fall during each beat. Thus you must take two 120 mm Hg and a diastolic pressure of 80 mm Hg. However,
blood pressure readings: the systolic pressure, which is the normal blood pressure varies considerably from one person
pressure in the arteries at the peak of ventricular contraction, to another.
Activity 4
Using a Sphygmomanometer to Measure Arterial Blood Pressure Indirectly
The sphygmomanometer, commonly called a blood pres- 1. Work in pairs to obtain radial artery blood pressure
sure cuff, is an instrument used to measure blood pres- readings. Obtain a stethoscope, alcohol swabs, and a
sure by the auscultatory method (Figure 22.3). It consists sphygmomanometer. Clean the earpieces of the stetho-
of an inflatable cuff with an attached pressure gauge. scope with the alcohol swabs, and check the cuff for the
The cuff is wrapped snugly around the arm (see Figure presence of trapped air by compressing it against the
22.3b) and inflated to stop blood flow to the forearm. As laboratory table. (A partially inflated cuff will produce er-
cuff pressure is gradually released, the examiner listens roneous measurements.)
with a stethoscope over the brachial artery (Figure 22.3c) 2. The subject should sit in a comfortable position with
for characteristic sounds called the sounds of Korotkoff, one arm resting on the laboratory table (approximately at
which indicate the resumption of blood flow into the fore- heart level if possible). Wrap the cuff around the subject’s
arm. The pressure at which the first soft tapping sounds arm, just above the elbow, with the inflatable area on
are heard is recorded as the systolic pressure. As the pres- the medial arm surface. The cuff may be marked with an
sure is reduced further, blood flow becomes more turbu- arrow; if so, position the arrow over the brachial artery
lent, and the sounds become louder. Below the diastolic (Figure 22.3). Secure the cuff by tucking the distal end
pressure, when the artery is no longer compressed, blood under the wrapped portion or by bringing the Velcro®
flows freely and the sounds of Korotkoff can no longer areas together.
be heard. The pressure at which the sounds disappear is
recorded as the diastolic pressure (Figure 22.3d). Text continues on next page. ➔
Blood pressure Pressure in cuff Pressure in cuff Pressure in cuff

120 systolic above 120; below 120, below 70;
70 diastolic no sounds audible but above 70 no sounds audible
(to be measured)
22
120 mm Hg 120 mm Hg
Rubber cuff
inflated with 70 mm Hg
air
Sounds
audible in
stethoscope
Brachial Brachial
artery artery
closed
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure 22.3 Procedure for measuring blood pressure. (Assume a blood pressure
of 120/70.)
282 Exercise 22
3. Palpate the brachial pulse, and lightly mark its position Make a mental note of this pressure (systolic pressure),
with a felt pen. Don the stethoscope, and place its and continue to release the cuff pressure. You will notice
diaphragm over the pulse point. first an increase, then a muffling, of the sound. Record as
Do not keep the cuff inflated for more than 1 minute. the diastolic pressure, the pressure at which the sound
! If you have any trouble obtaining a reading within disappears. Make two blood pressure determinations,
this time, deflate the cuff, wait 1 or 2 minutes, and try and record your results.
again. (A prolonged interruption of blood flow can cause First trial: Second trial:
fainting.)
systolic pressure ________ systolic pressure ________
4. Inflate the cuff to approximately 160 mm Hg pressure,
and slowly release the pressure valve. Watch the pressure diastolic pressure ________ diastolic pressure _______
gauge as you listen for the first soft thudding sounds of
the blood spurting through the partially blocked artery.
Activity 5
Observing the Effect of Various Factors on Blood Pressure and Heart Rate
Arterial blood pressure (BP) is directly proportional to car- conditions noted in the Activity 5A Posture chart. Also
diac output (amount of blood pumped out of the left ventri- record your results in that chart.
cle per minute; CO) and total peripheral resistance (TPR) to
blood flow. The following equation shows this relationship: Exercise
Changes in blood pressure and pulse during and after
BP 5 CO 3TPR exercise provide a good yardstick for measuring overall
Total peripheral resistance is increased by blood vessel cardiovascular fitness. Although there are more accurate
constriction (most importantly, the arterioles), by an in- tests to evaluate fitness, the Harvard Step Test described
crease in blood viscosity or volume, and by a loss of here is a quick way to compare the relative fitness level of
elasticity of the arteries (seen in arteriosclerosis). Any fac- a group of people.
tor that increases either the cardiac output or the total You will be working in groups of four, duties assigned as
peripheral resistance causes an almost immediate reflex indicated above, except that student 4, in addition to record-
rise in blood pressure. Two factors that alter blood pres- ing the data, will act as the timer and call the cadence (rhythm).
sure—posture and exercise—are investigated here. Any student with a known heart problem should
To do the following tests efficiently, students should ! refuse to be the subject.
work in groups of four: one student acts as the subject and
All four students may act as the subject in turn, if desired,
two as examiners (one taking the radial pulse, and the other
but the bench stepping is to be performed at least twice in
ausculating the brachial blood pressure). A fourth student
each group—once with a well-conditioned person acting as
collects and records the data. The sphygmomanometer
the subject, and once with a poorly conditioned subject.
cuff should be left on the subject’s arm throughout the
Bench stepping is the following series of movements
experiments (in a deflated state, of course) so that, at the
22 repeated sequentially:
proper times, the blood pressure can be taken quickly. In
each case, take the measurements at least twice. 1. Place one foot on the step.
2. Step up with the other foot so that both feet are on the
Posture platform. Straighten the legs and the back.
To monitor circulatory adjustments to changes in position,
take blood pressure and pulse measurements under the
Activity 5A: Cardiovascular Responses to Changes in Posture BP = blood pressure

Trial 1 Trial 2
BP Pulse BP Pulse
Sitting quietly
Reclining (after 2 to 3 min)
Immediately on standing
from the reclining position
(“at attention” stance)
After standing for 3 min

3. Step down with the other foot. 5. The subject’s index of physical fitness is to be calcu-
4. Bring the other foot down. lated using the following formula:
The pace for the stepping will be set by the “timer” (stu- duration of exercise in seconds 3 100
index 5 2 3 sum of the 3 pulse counts in recovery
dent 4), who will repeat “Up-2-3-4, up-2-3-4” at such a
pace that each “up-2-3-4” sequence takes 2 sec (so there
are 30 cycles/min). Scores are interpreted according to the following scale:
below 55 poor physical condition
1. Student 4 should obtain the step (20-in. height for male
55 to 62 low average
subject, or 16 in. for a female subject) while baseline mea-
63 to 71 average
surements are being obtained on the subject.
72 to 79 high average
2. Once the baseline pulse and blood pressure 80 to 89 good
measurements have been recorded in the Activity 5B 90 and over excellent
Exercise chart below, the subject is to stand quietly at
6. Record the test values in the chart below, and repeat the
attention for 2 min to allow his or her blood pressure to
testing and recording procedure with the second subject.
stabilize before beginning to step.
3. The subject is to bench step for as long as possible, up When did you notice a greater elevation of blood pressure
to a maximum of 5 min, according to the cadence called and pulse?
by the timer. Watch the subject for crouching (posture
must remain erect). If the subject is unable to keep the
pace up for 15 sec, stop the test.
4. When the subject is stopped by the timer for crouching, Explain:
stops voluntarily because he or she is unable to continue,
or has completed 5 min of bench stepping, he or she is
to sit down. At this point, record the duration of exercise
(in seconds), and measure the blood pressure and pulse Was there a sizeable difference between the after-exercise
immediately and thereafter at 1-min intervals for 3 min values for well-conditioned and poorly conditioned indi-
postexercise. viduals?
Duration of exercise: sec _______________ Explain:
BP = blood pressure
Activity 5B: Cardiovascular Responses to Changes in Exercise
P = pulse
Interval Following Test
Baseline Immediately 1 min 2 min 3 min
Harvard Step Test
for 5 min at 30/min BP P BP P BP P BP P BP P 22
Well-conditioned
individual
Poorly conditioned
individual
Skin Color as an Indicator of Local Circulatory Dynamics

Skin color reveals, with surprising accuracy, the state of the the brain is constriction of the skin’s blood vessels. This re-
local circulation. The experiments on local circulation that duces blood flow to the skin and diverts it into the circulatory
follow consider a number of factors that affect blood flow to mainstream to serve other, more vital tissues. As a result, the
the tissues. skin, particularly that of the extremities, becomes pale, cold,
A good clinical diagnosis often depends on good obser- and eventually moist with perspiration. Therefore, pale, cold,
vation skills and logical interpretation of the findings. One of clammy skin should immediately prompt a suspicion that the
the earliest responses of the body to impaired blood flow to circulation is dangerously inadequate.
284 Exercise 22
Activity 6
Examining the Effect of Local Chemical and Physical Factors on Skin Color
The local blood supply to the skin (indeed, to any tissue) fist and return the forearm to the bench top so it can be
is influenced by (1) local metabolites, (2) the oxygen sup- compared to the other forearm.
ply, (3) local temperature, and (4) substances released by 7. Leave the cuff inflated for exactly 1 min. During this
injured tissues, to name a few. Three of these factors are interval, compare the skin color in the “ischemic” (blood-
examined in the simple experiments that follow. Each ex- deprived) hand to that of the “normal” (noncuffed limb)
periment should be conducted by students in groups of hand. After 1 min, quickly release the pressure.
three or four. One student will act as the subject; the others
will conduct the tests and make and record observations.
What are the subjective effects (sensations felt by the
subject, such as pain, cold, warmth, tingling, weakness) of
Vasodilation and Flushing of the Skin Due
stopping blood flow to the arm and hand for 1 min?
to Lack of Oxygen
1. Obtain a blood pressure cuff (sphygmomanometer)
and stethoscope. You will also need a watch with a second
hand.
2. The subject should roll up the sleeves as high as
possible and then lay the forearms side by side on the What are the objective effects (actual color of skin and
bench top. condition of veins)?
3. Observe the general color of the subject’s forearm skin,

and the normal contour and size of the veins. Notice whether
skin color is similar bilaterally. Record your observations:
How long does it take for the subject’s ischemic hand to

regain its normal color?
Effects of Venous Congestion

4. Apply the blood pressure cuff to one arm, and inflate it 1. Again, but with a different subject, observe and record
to 250 mm Hg. Keep it inflated for 1 min. During this period, the appearance of the skin and veins on the forearms rest-
repeat the observations made above and record the results: ing on the bench top. Pay particular attention to the color of
the fingertips and the nail beds. Record this information:
22
5. Release the pressure in the cuff (leaving the deflated cuff
in position), and again record the forearm skin color and 2. Wrap the blood pressure cuff around one of the subject’s
the condition of the forearm veins. Make this observation arms, and inflate it to 40 mm Hg. Maintain this pressure
immediately after deflating and then again 30 sec later. for 5 min. Record the subjective and objective findings just
before the 5 min are up, and then again immediately after
Immediately after deflating release of the pressure at the end of 5 min.
Subjective (arm cuffed)
30 sec after deflating
Objective (arm cuffed)
The above observations constitute your baseline infor-

mation. Now conduct the following tests.
6. Instruct the subject to raise the cuffed arm above his Subjective (pressure released)
or her head and to clench the fist as tightly as possible.
While the hand and forearm muscles are tightly
contracted, rapidly inflate the cuff to 240 mm Hg or more.
This maneuver partially empties the hand and forearm of Objective (pressure released)
blood and stops most blood flow to the hand and forearm.
Once the cuff has been inflated, the subject is to relax the
3. With still another subject, conduct the following simple Effect of Mechanical Stimulation of Blood
experiment: Raise one arm above the head, and let the Vessels of the Skin
other hang by the side for 1 min. After 1 min, quickly lay
With moderate pressure, draw the blunt end of your pen
both arms on the bench top, and compare their color.
across the skin of a subject’s forearm. Wait 3 min to ob-
serve the effects, and then repeat with firmer pressure.
Color of raised arm
What changes in skin color do you observe with light-to-
Color of dependent arm
moderate pressure?
From this and the two preceding observations, analyze
the factors that determine tint of color (pink or blue) and
intensity of skin color (deep pink or blue as opposed to
With heavy pressure?
light pink or blue). Record your conclusions.
The redness, or flare, observed after mechanical
stimulation of the skin results from a local inflammatory
response promoted by chemical mediators released by in-
jured tissues. These mediators stimulate increased blood
flow into the area and cause the capillaries to leak fluid
into the local tissues.
22
EXERCISE
22 REVIEW SHEET
Human Cardiovascular Physiology—Blood
Pressure and Pulse Determinations
Cardiac Cycle
1. Using the terms to the right of the diagram, correctly identify each trace, valve closings and openings, and each time
period of the cardiac cycle.
1. aortic pressure
a c e
2. atrial pressure (left)
QRS
P T n 3. ECG
(mv)
o p
4. first heart sound
120
5. second heart sound
i
6. ventricular pressure (left)
Pressure (mm Hg)
80
7. ventricular volume
g
8. aortic (semilunar) valve closes
40
9. aortic (semilunar) valve opens
k 10. AV and semilunar valves are

0 closed (2 letters)
120
f 11. AV valve closes
j
volume (ml)
Ventricular
m
b d 12. AV valve opens
h l
13. ventricular diastole (2 letters)
60
14. ventricular systole
2. Define the following terms:
systole:
diastole:
cardiac cycle:
287
288 Review Sheet 22
3. Answer the following questions concerning events of the cardiac cycle:
During which phase of the cardiac cycle are the AV valves opened?
Describe the pressure difference that causes the AV valves to open.
During which phase of the cardiac cycle are the semilunar valves opened?
What event causes the semilunar valves to open?
Are both sets of valves closed during any part of the cycle?
If so, when?
Are both sets of valves open during any part of the cycle?
During which phase in the cardiac cycle is the pressure in the left ventricle highest?
What event results in the pressure deflection called the dicrotic notch?
4. If an individual’s heart rate is 80 beats/min, what is the length of the cardiac cycle? _______________________________
Heart Sounds 1.
5. Complete the following statements:

2.
The two monosyllables describing the heart sounds are 1 .
The first heart sound is a result of closure of the 2 valves, whereas
3.
the second is a result of closure of the 3 valves. The heart cham-
bers that have just been filled when you hear the first heart sound
are the 4 , and the chambers that have just emptied are the 5 . 4.
Immediately after the second heart sound, the 6 are filling with
blood, and the 7 are empty. 5.
6.
7.
The Pulse
6. Define pulse: ________________________________________________________________________________________________
7. Identify the artery palpated at each of the following pressure points:
at the wrist on the dorsum of the foot
in front of the ear at the side of the neck
in the groin above the medial malleolus
8. How would you tell by simple observation whether bleeding is arterial or venous? _______________________________
Review Sheet 22 289
Blood Pressure Determinations

9. Define blood pressure: _______________________________________________________________________________________
10. Identify the phase of the cardiac cycle to which each of the following apply:
systolic pressure diastolic pressure
11. What is the name of the instrument used to compress the artery and record pressures in the auscultatory method of
determining blood pressure? _________________________________________________________________________________
12. What are sounds of Korotkoff? _______________________________________________________________________________
What causes the systolic sound?
What causes the disappearance of the sound?
13. Describe how blood pressure is measured using a sphygmomanometer. ________________________________________
14. Based on what you know about the relative positions of veins and arteries (Exercise 21), how would you expect venous
pressures to compare to arterial pressures? ___________________________________________________________________
Why?
Observing the Effect of Various Factors

on Blood Pressure and Heart Rate
15. What effect do the following have on blood pressure? (Use I to indicate increase and D to indicate decrease.)
1. increased diameter of the arterioles 4. hemorrhage
2. increased blood viscosity 5. arteriosclerosis
3. increased cardiac output 6. increased pulse rate
16. In which position (sitting, reclining, or standing) is the blood pressure normally the highest?
The lowest?
What immediate changes in blood pressure did you observe when the subject stood up after sitting or reclining?
What changes in the blood vessels might account for the change?
290 Review Sheet 22
After the subject stood for 3 minutes, what changes in blood pressure did you observe?
How do you account for this change?
17. What was the effect of exercise on blood pressure? ____________________________________________________________
On pulse rate?
Skin Color as an Indicator of Local Circulatory Dynamics

18. Describe normal skin color and the appearance of the veins in the subject’s forearm before any testing was conducted.
19. What changes occurred when the subject emptied the forearm of blood (by raising the arm and making a fist) and the
flow was blocked with the cuff?
What changes occurred during venous congestion?
20. Explain the mechanism by which mechanical stimulation of the skin produced a flare. ___________________________
21. + A left ventricular assist device (LVAD) is a medical device that is sometimes used as an alternative to heart trans-
plant for patients who have a weakened left ventricle. Once implanted, the LVAD pumps blood from the left ventricle
to the aorta. Name the phase of the cardiac cycle that this device assists:
_________________________________________________ . Describe the status of the AV and SL valves during this phase.
22. + Fainting (syncope) during or shortly after urination (micturition) is common in men of advanced age. Although the
phenomenon of micturition syncope is not well understood, it is known to be due to a sudden drop in blood pressure.
Explain why dehydration would be an additional risk factor for micturition syncope. _____________________________
EXERCISE
23 Anatomy of the Respiratory System

● Resin cast of the bronchial tree □ Define pulmonary ventilation, external respiration, and internal
(if available) respiration.
● Human torso model
□ Identify the major structures of the upper respiratory system
● Respiratory organ system model and/or
chart of the respiratory system
on a diagram or model, and describe their functions.
● Preserved inflatable lung preparation □ Identify lower respiratory system organs and describe the
(obtained from a biological supply structure of each.
house) or sheep pluck fresh from the
slaughterhouse □ Recognize the microscopic structure of tissue of the trachea
● Source of compressed air* and lungs.
● 2-foot length of laboratory rubber tubing
● Dissecting tray
T
he major role of the respiratory system, our focus in this exercise, is to sup-
ply the body with the oxygen it needs and dispose of carbon dioxide. To
Station 1: Cross section of trachea set fulfill this role, at least four distinct processes, collectively referred to as
up for viewing under low power of a
respiration, must occur.
microscope
Station 2: Lung tissue set up for Pulmonary ventilation: The movement of air into and out of the lungs; more
microscopic viewing simply called breathing.
*If a compressed air source is not available, External respiration: Gas exchanges to and from the pulmonary circuit blood
cardboard mouthpieces that fit the cut end of that occur in the lungs (oxygen loading and carbon dioxide unloading).
the rubber tubing should be available for stu- Transport of respiratory gases: Transport of respiratory gases between the
dent use. Disposable autoclave bags should lungs and tissue cells of the body using blood as the transport vehicle.
also be provided for discarding the mouthpiece.
Internal respiration: Exchange of gases to and from the blood capillaries of the
systemic circulation (oxygen unloading and carbon dioxide loading).
Only the first two processes are the tasks of the respiratory system, but all four
must occur for the respiratory system to function completely. Hence, the respira-
tory and circulatory systems are irreversibly linked.
Upper Respiratory System Structures

The upper respiratory system structures—the external nose, nasal cavity, phar-
ynx, and paranasal sinuses—are summarized in Table 23.1 and illustrated in
Figure 23.1. As you read through the descriptions in the table, identify each
structure in the figure.
Activity 1
Identifying the Upper Respiratory System Organs
Before continuing identify all the respiratory organs described inTable 23.1 on
a torso model or anatomical chart.
291
292 Exercise 23
Table 23.1 Structures of the Upper Respiratory System (Figure 23.1)

External Nose Externally visible, its inferior surface has nostrils (nares). The nostrils provide an entrance for air into the
Supported by bone and cartilage and covered with skin. respiratory system.
Nasal Cavity (includes the Lined with respiratory mucosa composed of Functions to filter, warm, and moisten incoming
structures listed below) pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium. The floor air; resonance chambers for voice production.
of the cavity is formed by the hard and soft palates.
Superior, middle, and Turbinates that project medially from the lateral walls Increase the surface area of the mucosa, which
inferior nasal conchae of the cavity. Each concha has a corresponding meatus enhances air turbulence and aids in trapping large
beneath it. particles in the mucus.
Pharynx (3 subdivisions: nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx—listed below)
Nasopharynx Superior portion of the pharynx located posterior to the Provides for the passage of air from the nasal
nasal cavity. The pharyngeal tonsil and openings of the cavity. Tonsils in the region provide protection
pharyngotympanic tubes are located in this region. against pathogens.
Oropharynx Located posterior to the oral cavity and extends from the Provides for the passage of air and swallowed
soft palate to the epiglottis. Its lateral walls contain the food.
palatine tonsils. The lingual tonsils are in the anterior Tonsils provide protection against pathogens.
oropharynx at the base of the tongue.
Laryngopharynx Extends from the epiglottis to the larynx. It diverges into Provides for the passage of air and swallowed
respiratory and digestive branches. food.
Pharyngotympanic Tube Tube that opens into the lateral walls of the nasopharynx Allows the middle ear pressure to equalize with
and connects the nasopharynx to the middle ear. the atmospheric pressure.
Paranasal Sinuses Surround the nasal cavity and are named for the bones in Act as resonance chambers for speech; warm and
which they are located. moisten incoming air.
Cribriform plate
of ethmoid bone Frontal sinus
Sphenoidal sinus Nasal cavity
Nasal conchae
Posterior nasal (superior, middle,
aperture and inferior)
Nasopharynx
Pharyngeal tonsil
Opening of Nasal vestibule
pharyngotympanic Nostril
23 tube Hard palate
Uvula
Nasal meatuses
(superior, middle,
Oropharynx and inferior)
Palatine tonsil
Soft palate
Isthmus of the
fauces
Tongue
Lingual tonsil
Laryngopharynx Hyoid bone
Larynx
Epiglottis
Esophagus Vestibular fold
Thyroid cartilage
Vocal fold
Cricoid cartilage
Trachea
Thyroid gland
Figure 23.1 Structures of the upper respiratory tract (sagittal section).

Anatomy of the Respiratory System 293
Lower Respiratory System Structures

Anatomically, the lower respiratory structures include the cartilages, with the incomplete portion of the rings toward
larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs. the esophagus. The open parts of these cartilages allow the
The larynx (Figure 23.1) is made up of nine cartilages, esophagus to expand anteriorly when a large piece of food is
most quite small. The largest are the shield-shaped thyroid swallowed. The solid portions reinforce the trachea walls to
cartilage, whose anterior protrusion is commonly called the keep its passageway open regardless of the pressure changes
Adam’s apple, and the more inferior ring-shaped cricoid that occur during breathing.
cartilage. All laryngeal cartilages are composed of hyaline The main bronchi plunge into their respective lungs at an
cartilage except the epiglottis, a flaplike elastic cartilage su- indented area called the hilum (see Figure 23.4b). The right
perior to the opening of the larynx. The epiglottis forms a lid main bronchus is wider, shorter, and more vertical than the
over the larynx when we swallow. This closes off the respira- left, and inhaled foreign objects are more likely to become
tory passageway and routes the incoming food or drink into lodged in it. Inside the lungs, the main bronchi divide further
the esophagus, or food chute, posteriorly. into smaller and smaller branches (the secondary, tertiary,
on down), finally becoming the bronchioles. Each bronchi-
□ Palpate your larynx by placing your hand on the anterior ole divides into many terminal bronchioles. Each terminal
neck surface approximately halfway down its length. Swal- bronchiole branches into two or more respiratory bronchi-
low. Can you feel the cartilaginous larynx rising? oles (Figure 23.2b). All but the tiniest branches have cartilage
The mucous membrane of the larynx is thrown into a pair in their walls, usually in the form of small plates of hyaline
of folds called the vocal folds, or true vocal cords, which cartilage. As the respiratory tubes get smaller and smaller, the
vibrate with expelled air for speech. The slitlike passageway relative amount of smooth muscle in their walls increases and
between the vocal folds is called the glottis. the amount of cartilage declines and finally disappears. The
Air entering the trachea travels down its length (about continuous branching of the respiratory passageways in the
4 inches) to the level of the fifth thoracic vertebra. There the lungs is often referred to as the bronchial tree.
passageway divides into the right and left main (primary), □ The comparison becomes much more meaningful if you
bronchi (Figure 23.2). observe a cast of the respiratory passages. Do so, if one is
The trachea is lined with a ciliated mucus-secreting epi- available for observation in the laboratory.
thelium, as are many other respiratory system passageways.
The cilia propel mucus (produced by goblet cells) loaded The respiratory bronchioles subdivide into alveolar
with dust particles, bacteria, and other debris away from the ducts, which end in alveolar sacs that rather resemble clus-
lungs and toward the throat, where it can be spat out or swal- ters of grapes. Alveoli, tiny balloonlike expansions that each
lowed. The walls of the trachea are reinforced with C-shaped
Trachea
Superior lobe 23
of left lung
Carina
Left main
(primary) Alveoli
bronchus
Alveolar duct
Lobar
(secondary)
bronchus
Respiratory
Segmental bronchioles
(tertiary)
bronchus
Superior lobe of right lung Inferior lobe Terminal

of left lung bronchiole
Middle lobe of right lung
Alveolar sac
Inferior lobe of right lung
(a) Diagram (b) Enlarged view of alveoli
Figure 23.2 Structures of the lower respiratory tract.

294 Exercise 23
Red blood
cell
Nucleus of type I
alveolar cell
Alveolar pores
Capillary
O2 Capillary
CO2
Alveolar macrophage Alveolus

Endothelial cell nucleus
Alveolus
Alveolar epithelium
Respiratory Fused basement membranes
membrane of the alveolar epithelium
and the capillary endothelium
Capillary endothelium
Alveoli (gas-filled Red blood cell Type II alveolar cell Type I

air spaces) in capillary (secretes surfactant) alveolar cell
(a) Alveolus surrounded by capillaries (b) Respiratory membrane
Figure 23.3 Diagram of the relationship between the alveoli and pulmonary
capillaries involved in gas exchange.
represent a single grape in the alveolar sac, are composed are mostly elastic connective tissue, which allows them to recoil
of a single thin layer of squamous epithelium (called type passively during expiration.
I alveolar cells) overlying a wispy connective tissue layer. Each lung is enclosed in a double-layered serous mem-
Type II alveolar cells secrete a fluid called surfactant, which brane sac called the pleura. The outer layer, the parietal
alters the surface tension of the alveoli to prevent a collapse. pleura, is attached to the thoracic walls and the diaphragm.
The external surfaces of the alveoli are densely spiderwebbed The inner layer, covering the lung tissue, is the visceral
with pulmonary capillaries (Figure 23.3). Together, the pleura. The two pleural layers are separated by the pleural
alveolar and capillary walls and their fused basement mem- cavity. The pleural layers produce lubricating serous fluid
23
branes form the respiratory membrane. that causes them to adhere closely to one another, holding the
Because gas exchanges occur by simple diffusion across lungs to the thoracic wall and allowing them to move easily
the respiratory membrane, the alveoli, alveolar ducts, and against one another during the movements of breathing.
respiratory bronchioles are referred to as respiratory zone
structures. All other respiratory passageways serve as access
or exit routes to and from these gas exchange chambers and Activity 2
are called conducting zone structures.
Identifying the Lower Respiratory System Organs
The Lungs and Pleurae Before proceeding, be sure to locate all the lower respi-
The paired lungs are soft, spongy organs that occupy the entire ratory structures described on the torso model, thoracic
thoracic cavity except for the mediastinum, which houses the cavity structures model, or an anatomical chart.
heart, bronchi, esophagus, and other organs (Figure 23.4).
Each lung is connected to the mediastinum by a root containing
its vascular supply and bronchial attachments. All structures dis-
tal to the primary bronchi are inside the lungs. A lung’s apex, its
narrower superior aspect, is just deep to the clavicle, and its base,
the inferior surface, rests on the diaphragm. The medial surface
of the left lung has a recess, or impression, that accommodates
the heart. Fissures divide the lungs into a number of lobes—two
in the left lung and three in the right. Other than the respiratory
passageways and air spaces that make up their bulk, the lungs
Anatomy of the Respiratory System 295
Intercostal muscle
Rib
Parietal pleura
Apex of lung
Lung Pleural cavity
Visceral pleura
Trachea
Thymus Pulmonary
artery
Apex of lung Left

superior lobe Left main
bronchus
Right superior lobe Oblique Pulmonary
Horizontal fissure fissure vein
Right middle lobe Left inferior Impression

lobe of heart
Oblique fissure
Hilum of Oblique
Right inferior lobe lung fissure
Heart Aortic
(in mediastinum) impression
Lobules
Diaphragm (b)
Cardiac notch
Base of lung
(a)
Posterior
Vertebra Esophagus
(in mediastinum)
Root of lung
at hilum
Right lung • Left main bronchus
• Left pulmonary artery
Parietal pleura 23
• Left pulmonary vein
Visceral pleura
Left lung
Pleural cavity
Thoracic wall
Pulmonary trunk
Pericardial
membranes Heart (in mediastinum)
Anterior mediastinum
Sternum
Anterior
(c)
Figure 23.4 Anatomical relationships of organs in the thoracic cavity.

(a) Anterior view of the thoracic organs. The lungs flank the central mediastinum. The
enlargement at upper right depicts the pleura and the pleural cavity. (b) Photograph
of medial aspect of left lung. (c) Transverse section through the superior part of the
thorax, showing the lungs and the main organs in the mediastinum. Note that the
size of the pleural cavity is exaggerated for clarity.
296 Exercise 23
Activity 3
Demonstrating Lung Inflation in a Sheep Pluck
A sheep pluck includes the larynx, trachea with attached air to flow alternately into and out of the lungs. Notice how
lungs, the heart, and portions of the major blood vessels the lungs inflate. This observation is educational in a pre-
found in the mediastinum. served pluck but it is a spectacular sight in a fresh one.
Don disposable gloves, obtain a fresh sheep pluck When a fresh pluck is used, it changes color (becomes
! (or a preserved pluck of another animal), and iden- redder) as hemoglobin in trapped red blood cells becomes
tify the lower respiratory system organs. Once you have loaded with oxygen.
completed your observations, insert a hose from an air Dispose of the mouthpiece and gloves in the auto-
compressor (vacuum pump) into the trachea, and allow
! clave bag immediately after use.
Activity 4
Examining Prepared Slides of Trachea and Lung Tissue
1. Go to station 1 at the demonstration area to examine thin squamous epithelium of the alveolar walls (Figure
a slide of a cross section of the tracheal wall. Identify 23.5b). (See also Plate 26 in the Histology Atlas.)
the smooth muscle layer, the hyaline cartilage supporting
rings, and the pseudostratified ciliated epithelium. Using
How does the structure of the alveolar walls aid in their
Figure 23.5a and Plates 27 and 28 in the Histology Atlas
as a guide, also try to identify a few goblet cells in the
epithelium. role of gas exchange?
2. Next, at station 2, examine a slide of lung tissue. The

alveolus is the main structural and functional unit of the
lung and is the actual site of gas exchange. Identify the
Pseudo-
UVTCVKƂGF
ciliated
Part of hyaline Seromucous Goblet columnar Alveolar Alveoli Alveolar
cartilage ring glands cell epithelium duct sacs
23
(a) (b)
Figure 23.5 Microscopic structure of (a) a portion of the trachea, cross-sectional

view, and (b) alveoli.
EXERCISE
23
REVIEW SHEET
Anatomy of the Respiratory System
Upper and Lower Respiratory System Structures

1. Label the upper respiratory structures (sagittal section) shown in the model below.
2. Why is it important that the human trachea is reinforced with cartilage rings?
Why is it important that the rings are incomplete posteriorly?
3. Name the specific cartilages in the larynx that are described below:
1. forms the Adam’s apple 3. shaped like a ring
2. a “lid” for the larynx
4. Trace a molecule of oxygen from the nostrils (nares) to the pulmonary capillaries of the lungs:
Nostrils
pulmonary capillaries
297
298 Review Sheet 23
5. What is the function of the pleural fluid?
6. Name two functions of the nasal conchae.
7. The following questions refer to the primary bronchi:
Which is longer? Larger in diameter? More horizontal?
The more common site for lodging of a foreign object that has entered the respiratory passageways?
8. Appropriately label all structures provided with leader lines on the model shown below.
Review Sheet 23 299
9. Match the terms in column B to those in column A.
Column A Column B
1. pleural layer attached directly to the lung alveolus
2. “floor” of the nasal cavity concha
3. food and fluid passageway inferior to the laryngopharynx epiglottis
4. flaps over the glottis during swallowing of food esophagus
5. contains the vocal cords glottis
6. the part of the conducting pathway between the larynx larynx

and the main bronchi
palate
7. pleural layer lining the walls of the thorax
parietal pleura
8. site from which oxygen enters the pulmonary blood
trachea
9. opening between the vocal folds
visceral pleura
10. increases air turbulence in the nasal cavity
10. Define external respiration:
internal respiration:
Demonstrating Lung Inflation in a Sheep Pluck

11. Does the lung inflate part by part or as a whole, like a balloon?
What happened when the pressure was released?
What type of tissue ensures this phenomenon?
Examining Prepared Slides of Lung and Tracheal Tissue

12. The tracheal epithelium is ciliated and has goblet cells. What is the function of each of these modifications?
cilia:
goblet cells:
13. The tracheal epithelium is pseudostratified. Describe the appearance of a pseudostratified epithelium.
300 Review Sheet 23
14. On the diagram below, identify alveolar duct, respiratory bronchioles, terminal bronchiole, alveoli, and alveolar sac.
15. By what process does oxygen move from the alveolar sac into the blood in a pulmonary capillary? Which of these
structures, the alveolus or the pulmonary capillary, would initially have a higher partial pressure of oxygen?
16. + Epiglottitis is a condition in which the epiglottis is inflamed. It is most often caused by a bacterial infection. Explain
why this type of inflammation is life-threatening.
17. + Pneumonia is an infectious disease in which fluid accumulates in the alveoli. Patients who are diagnosed with
pneumonia are monitored for their oxygen saturation levels. Describe how pneumonia could affect the amount of
oxygen in the blood.

EXERCISE
24 Respiratory System Physiology

● Model lung (bell jar demonstrator) □ Define inspiration and expiration, and explain the role of
● Tape measure muscles and volume changes in the mechanical process
● Spirometer (nonrecording) of breathing.
● Disposable mouthpieces □ Define and provide volume figures for the various respiratory
● Nose clips volumes investigated in the laboratory.
● Alcohol swabs
□ Demonstrate proper usage of a spirometer.
● 70% ethanol solution in a battery jar
● Disposable autoclave bag □ Explain the relative importance of various chemical and
● Paper bag mechanical factors causing respiratory variations.
● Pneumograph, recording attachments,
and recording apparatus—kymograph or
physiograph (if available)
● Table for recording class data
● Millimeter ruler Mechanics of Respiration
Pulmonary ventilation, or breathing, consists of two phases: inspiration, when
air is flowing into the lungs, and expiration, when air passes out of the lungs.
As the inspiratory muscles contract, the size of the thoracic cavity increases. The
diaphragm moves from its relaxed dome shape to a flattened position, increas-
ing the vertical dimension, and the external intercostal muscles lift the rib cage,
increasing the anteroposterior and lateral dimensions (Figure 24.1). Since the
lungs adhere to the thoracic walls because of the presence of serous fluid in the
pleural cavity, the intrapulmonary volume also increases, lowering the air (gas)
pressure inside the lungs. The gases then expand to fill the available space, creat-
ing a partial vacuum that causes airflow into the lungs—the act of inspiration.
During expiration, the inspiratory muscles relax, and the elastic lung tissue
recoils. Thus, both the intrathoracic and intrapulmonary volumes decrease. As
the gas molecules within the lungs are forced closer together, intrapulmonary
pressure rises above atmospheric pressure. This causes gases to flow out of the
lungs to equalize the pressure inside and outside the lungs—the act of expiration.
Activity 1
Operating the Model Lung
Observe the bell jar model of the lungs, which demonstrates the principles
involved as gas flows into and out of the lungs. It is a simple device with a hard
plastic dome-shaped container called a bell jar (representing the parietal pleura),
the interior of the bell jar (representing the thoracic cavity), a rubber membrane
(representing the diaphragm), two balloons (representing the lungs), and an
inverted Y-shaped tube (representing the trachea and main bronchi).
1. Go to the demonstration area, and work the model lung by moving the
rubber diaphragm up and down. Notice the changes in balloon (lung) size
as the volume of the thoracic cavity is alternately increased and decreased.
Note that this demonstration shows the effects of manipulating the dia-
phragm only. The lungs would show a more dramatic change if the action
of the rib cage could also be shown.
2. Check the appropriate columns in the chart concerning these observations
in the Review Sheet at the end of this exercise.

301
302 Exercise 24
Figure 24.1 Rib cage and Inspiration Expiration

diaphragm positions during
breathing. (a) At the end of a
normal inspiration: chest ex- Ribs are
panded, diaphragm contracted. elevated and
Ribs and
(b) At the end of a normal sternum flares
sternum are
expiration: chest depressed, as external
intercostals depressed
diaphragm relaxed. contract. as external
intercostals
relax.
Diaphragm moves Diaphragm

inferiorly during moves
contraction. superiorly
as it relaxes.
Trachea
Lung
Diaphragm
(a) (b)
24 3. After observing the operation of the model lung, con- Quiet breathing:
duct the following tests on your lab partner. Use the tape
measure to determine chest circumference by placing the Inspiration Expiration
tape around the chest as high up under the armpits as
possible. Record the measurements in inches in the ap- Forced breathing:
propriate space for each of the conditions.
Inspiration Expiration
Respiratory Volumes and Capacities—Spirometry

A person’s size, sex, age, and physical condition can all pro- measurable respiratory volumes and capacities are defined
duce variations in respiratory volumes. Normal quiet breath- and illustrated with an idealized tracing in Figure 24.2.
ing moves about 500 ml of air into and out of the lungs with Respiratory volumes are measured with an apparatus
each breath. As you have seen in the first activity, we can called a spirometer. There are two major types of spirom-
usually forcibly inhale or exhale much more air than is ex- eters, which give comparable results—the handheld dry,
changed in normal quiet breathing. The terms denoting the or wheel, spirometers, such as the Wright spirometer
Respiratory System Physiology 303
6000
5000
Inspiratory
reserve volume Inspiratory
3100 ml capacity
4000 3600 ml Vital Total lung
Milliliters (ml)
capacity capacity
4800 ml 6000 ml
3000
Tidal volume 500 ml
2000 Expiratory
reserve volume
Functional
1200 ml
residual
1000 capacity
Residual volume 2400 ml
1200 ml
0
(a) Spirographic record for a male
Adult male Adult female

Measurement average value average value Description
Tidal volume (TV) 500 ml 500 ml Amount of air inhaled or exhaled with each breath under
resting conditions
Inspiratory reserve Amount of air that can be forcefully inhaled after a normal
3100 ml 1900 ml
volume (IRV) tidal volume inspiration
Respiratory
volumes Expiratory reserve Amount of air that can be forcefully exhaled after a normal
1200 ml 700 ml
volume (ERV) tidal volume expiration
Residual volume (RV) 1200 ml 1100 ml Amount of air remaining in the lungs after a forced expiration
Maximum amount of air contained in lungs after a

Total lung capacity (TLC) 6000 ml 4200 ml
maximum inspiratory effort: TLC = TV + IRV + ERV + RV
Maximum amount of air that can be expired after a
Vital capacity (VC) 4800 ml 3100 ml
maximum inspiratory effort: VC = TV + IRV + ERV
Respiratory
capacities Maximum amount of air that can be inspired after a
Inspiratory capacity (IC) 3600 ml 2400 ml
normal tidal volume expiration: IC = TV + IRV
Functional residual Volume of air remaining in the lungs after a normal tidal
2400 ml 1800 ml
capacity (FRC) volume expiration: FRC = ERV + RV
(b) Summary of respiratory volumes and capacities for males and females 24
Figure 24.2 Respiratory volumes and capacities.
(Figure 24.3a) and “wet” spirometers, such as the Phipps or cylindrical tank. The tank contains water and has a tube
and Bird spirometer (Figure 24.3b). The more sophisticated running through it to carry air above the water level and into
wet spirometer consists of a plastic or metal bell that air can the floating bottomless bell, which is inverted over the water-
be added to or removed from and that rests in a rectangular containing tank and connected to a volume indicator.
Activity 2
Measuring Respiratory Volumes
1. Before using the spirometer, count and record the sub- examine the spirometer volume indicator to make sure
ject’s normal respiratory rate. you know how to read the scale. Work in pairs, with one
person acting as the subject while the other records the
Respirations per minute ______________________________ volume measured. The subject should stand up straight
during testing. Note: Reset the indicator to zero before
2. Identify the parts of the spirometer you will be using beginning each trial.
by comparing it to Figure 24.3a or b. Before you begin,
304 Exercise 24
Volume
indicator
scale
Drum
retainer
Floating
bell
Volume Water
indicator tank
Stem
Valve
assembly
(a) (b)
Figure 24.3 Spirometers. (a) The Wright handheld dry spirometer. Reset to zero
prior to each test. (b) The Phipps and Bird “wet” spirometer.
Obtain a disposable cardboard mouthpiece and clean much of the additional air as you can. Record your results,
the valve assembly with an alcohol swab. Then insert it in and repeat the test twice more.
the open end of the valve assembly (attached to the flexible
tube) of the wet spirometer or over the fixed stem of the trial 1 _______________ ml trial 2 _________________ ml
handheld dry spirometer. Before beginning, the subject
should practice exhaling through the mouthpiece without trial 3 _______________ ml average ERV ____________ ml
exhaling through the nose, or prepare to use the nose clips
(clean them first with an alcohol swab). If you are using the 6. Measure vital capacity (VC). The VC, or total exchange-
handheld spirometer, make sure its dial faces upward so able air of the lungs (the sum of TV 1 IRV 1 ERV), is nor-
that the volumes can be easily read during the tests. mally around 4500 ml with a range of 3100 ml to 4800 ml.
3. Ensure the subject stands erect during testing. Run the Breathe in and out normally two or three times, and
test three times for each required measurement. Record then bend over and exhale all the air possible. Then, as
24 the data, and then find the average volume figure for that you raise yourself to the upright position, inhale as fully as
measurement. After you have completed the trials and possible. (It is very important to strain to inhale as much
calculated the averages, enter the average values on the air as you possibly can.) Quickly insert the mouthpiece,
table prepared on the board for tabulating class data, and and exhale as forcibly as you can. Record your results and
copy all averaged data onto the Review Sheet. repeat the test twice more.
4. Measure tidal volume (TV). The TV, or volume of air
inhaled and exhaled with each normal respiration, is approxi- trial 1 ml trial 2 ml
mately 500 ml (see Figure 24.2). To conduct the test, inhale a
normal breath, and then exhale a normal breath of air into trial 3 ml average VC ml
the spirometer mouthpiece. (Do not force the expiration!)
Record the volume, and repeat the test twice more. 7. Calculate the inspiratory reserve volume (IRV), or
volume of air that can be forcibly inhaled following a
trial 1 ________________ ml trial 2 ________________ ml normal inspiration. You can now calculate the IRV; using
the average values you obtained for TV, ERV, and VC, plug
trial 3 ________________ ml average TV ___________ ml them into this equation:
IRV 5 VC 2 (TV 1 ERV)

5. Measure expiratory reserve volume (ERV). The
expiratory reserve volume, the volume of air that can be Record your average IRV: ml
forcibly exhaled after a normal expiration, ranges between The normal IRV is substantial, ranging from 1900 to
700 and 1200 ml. 3100 ml. How does your calculated value compare?
Inhale and exhale normally two or three times. Then,
insert the spirometer mouthpiece, and exhale forcibly as
Respiratory System Physiology 305
Reexamine Figure 24.2 carefully. How closely do your Compute your predicted RV using the following equation:
test results compare to the values in that tracing?
RV = VC 3 factor
9. Finish recording for this subject. Before continu-

! ing with the next member of your group:
8. Calculate residual volume (RV). A respiratory volume • Dispose of used cardboard mouthpieces in the
that cannot be experimentally demonstrated here is RV, autoclave bag.
the amount of air remaining in the lungs after a maximal
• Swish the valve assembly (if removable) in the 70%
expiratory effort. The presence of RV (usually about 1200
ethanol solution, then rinse with tap water.
ml) is important because it allows gas exchange to go on
continuously—even between breaths. • Put a fresh mouthpiece into the valve assembly (or
Although RV cannot be measured directly, you can on the stem of the handheld spirometer). Using the
approximate it by using one of the following factors: procedures outlined previously, measure and record
the respiratory volumes for all members of your
For ages 16–34 Factor = 0.250 group.
For ages 35–49 Factor = 1.305
For ages 50–69 Factor = 1.445
Factors Influencing Rate and Depth of Respiration

The neural centers that control respiratory rhythm and depth The pneumograph, an apparatus that records variations
are located in the medulla and pons. Although the neural cen- in breathing patterns, is the best means of observing respi-
ters maintain the rate of breathing, typically at 12 to 18 respira- ratory variations. The chest pneumograph is a coiled rub-
tions/min, physical actions such as talking, yawning, coughing, ber hose that is attached around the thorax. As the subject
and exercise can modify the rate and depth of respiration. So breathes, chest movements produce pressure changes within
too can chemical factors such as changes in oxygen or carbon the pneumograph that are transmitted to a recorder.
dioxide concentrations in the blood or changes in blood pH. The instructor will demonstrate the method of setting up
Changes in carbon dioxide blood levels act directly on the the pneumograph and discuss the interpretation of the results.
medulla control centers, whereas changes in pH and oxygen Work in pairs so that one person can mark the record to identify
levels are monitored by chemoreceptor regions in the aortic the test for later interpretation. Ideally, the student being tested
and carotid bodies, which in turn send input to the medulla. should face away from the recording apparatus.
Experiments in this section test the relative importance of vari-
ous physical and chemical factors in the process of respiration.
Activity 3 24
Visualizing Respiratory Variations
1. Attach the pneumograph tubing firmly, but not restric- during the rest of the pneumograph testing. Stop the
tively, around the thoracic cage at the level of the sixth rib, recording apparatus and mark the graph appropriately
leaving room for the chest to expand during testing. If the to indicate tidal volume, expiratory reserve volume,
subject is female, position the tubing above the breasts inspiratory reserve volume, and vital capacity (the total
to prevent slippage during testing. Set the pneumograph of the three measurements). Also mark, with arrows, the
speed at 1 or 2, and the time signal at 10-second intervals. direction the recording stylus moves during inspiration
Record quiet breathing for 1 minute with the subject in a and during expiration.
sitting position. If the pneumograph is not available, sim- Measure in millimeters the height of the vital capacity
ply count the subject’s breaths per minute. recording. Divide the vital capacity measurement average
recorded on the Review Sheet by the number of millimeters
Record breaths per minute: to obtain the volume (in milliliters of air) represented by 1
mm on the recording. For example, if your vital capacity
2. The next step is to make a vital capacity tracing. (This will reading is 4000 ml and the vital capacity tracing occupies a
not be done if the pneumograph is not available. Use the VC vertical distance of 40 mm on the pneumograph recording,
measurement obtained earlier as your baseline.) Record then a vertical distance of 1 mm equals 100 ml of air.
a maximal inhalation followed by a maximal exhalation.
This should agree with the vital capacity measurement Record your computed VC value: ml air/mm
obtained earlier and will provide a baseline for comparison
306 Exercise 24
3. Record or count the subject’s breathing as he or she 6. Repeat the above test, but do not record or do a visual
performs activities from the list that follows. Make sure count until after hyperventilation. After hyperventilation,
the record is marked accurately to identify each test the subject is to hold his or her breath as long as he or she
conducted. Record your results on the Review Sheet. can. Can the subject hold his or her breath for a longer or
shorter time after hyperventilating?
talking swallowing water
yawning coughing
laughing lying down
7. Without recording, have the subject breathe into a
standing doing a math problem paper bag for 3 minutes, and then record his or her
running in place (concentrating) breathing movements.
During the bag-breathing exercise, the subject’s
4. Without recording, have the subject breathe normally ! partner should watch the subject carefully for any
for 2 minutes then inhale deeply and hold his or her breath
unusual reactions.
for as long as he or she can.
Is the breathing rate faster or slower than that recorded
Time the breath-holding interval: sec during normal quiet breathing?
As the subject exhales, turn on the recording apparatus,

and record the recovery period (time to return to normal
breathing—usually slightly over 1 minute): After hyperventilating?
Time of recovery period: sec 8. Have the subject run in place for 2 minutes, and then
determine the length of time that the person can hold his
Did the subject have the urge to inspire or expire during or her breath.
breath holding?
Length of breath holding: sec
9. To prove that respiration has a marked effect on circula-

Without recording, repeat the above experiment, but this tion, conduct the following test. Before you begin, record
time have the subject exhale completely and forcefully after the rate and relative force of your lab partner’s radial
taking the deep breath. What was observed this time? pulse.
Rate beats/min Relative force
Have your partner inspire forcibly. The person then imme-

diately closes the mouth and nose to retain the inhaled air
and makes a forceful and prolonged expiration. Observe
5. During the next task, the subject may experience dizzi- and record the condition of the blood vessels of your
ness. As the carbon dioxide is washed out of the blood by partner’s neck and face, and again immediately palpate
24 hyperventilation, the blood pH increases, leading to a de- the radial pulse.
crease in blood pressure and reduced cerebral circulation.
If you have a history of dizzy spells or a heart Observations
! condition, do not perform this task.
The subject may experience a lack of desire to breathe
after forced breathing is stopped. If the period of breathing
Radial pulse beats/min Relative force
cessation—apnea—is extended, cyanosis of the lips may
occur.
Explain the changes observed.
Have the subject hyperventilate (breathe deeply
and forcefully at the rate of 1 breath/4 sec) for about 30
seconds. Record, or visually count breaths per minute,
both during and after hyperventilation. How does the
Dispose of the paper bag in the autoclave bag.
pattern obtained during hyperventilation compare with
that recorded during the vital capacity tracing?
! Keep the pneumograph records to interpret re-
sults, and hand them in if the instructor requests them.
By looking at the test results, you should be able to de-
termine which chemical factor has the greater effect on
Is the respiratory rate after hyperventilation faster or modifying the respiratory rate and depth.
slower than during normal quiet breathing?
EXERCISE
24 REVIEW SHEET
Respiratory System Physiology
Mechanics of Respiration
1. Base your answers to the following on your observations of the operation of the model lung.
Under what internal conditions of the thoracic cavity does air tend to flow into the lungs?
Under what internal conditions of the thoracic cavity does air tend to flow out of the lungs? Explain.
2. Activation of the diaphragm and the external intercostal muscles begins the inspiratory process. What effect does
contraction of these muscles have on thoracic volume, and how is this accomplished? ___________________________
3. What was the approximate increase in diameter of chest circumference during a quiet inspiration?
inches During forced inspiration? inches
4. What temporary advantage does the substantial increase in chest circumference during forced inspiration create?
Respiratory Volumes and Capacities: Spirometry

5. Write the respiratory volume term and the normal value that is described by the following statements:
Volume of air present in the lungs after a forceful expiration
Volume of air that can be expired forcibly after a normal expiration
Volume of air that is breathed in and out during a normal respiration
Volume of air that can be inspired forcibly after a normal inspiration
Volume of air corresponding to TV 1 IRV 1 ERV
307
308 Review Sheet 24
6. Record experimental respiratory volumes as determined in the laboratory.
Average TV _____________________________________ ml Average VC ______________________________________ ml
Average ERV ___________________________________ ml Average IRV ______________________________________ ml
Factors Influencing Rate and Depth of Respiration

7. Where are the neural control centers of respiratory rhythm? ________________________ and ________________________
8. Based on pneumograph reading of respiratory variation, what was the rate of quiet breathing?
Initial testing ___________________________ breaths/min
Record observations of how the initial pneumograph recording was modified during the various testing procedures
described below. Indicate the respiratory rate, and include comments on the relative depth of the respiratory peaks
observed.
Pneumograph Readings
Test performed Observations (breaths per minute)
Talking
Yawning
Laughing
Standing
Running in place
Swallowing water
Coughing
Lying down
Concentrating
9. Student data:
Breath-holding interval after a deep inhalation sec length of recovery period sec
Breath-holding interval after a forceful expiration sec length of recovery period sec
After breathing quietly and taking a deep breath (which you held), was your urge to inspire or expire? _______________
After exhaling and then holding your breath, did you want to inspire or expire?
10. Observations after hyperventilation: __________________________________________________________________________

Review Sheet 24 309
11. Blood CO2 levels and blood pH are related. When blood CO2 levels increase, the pH increases.
Explain what changes would occur in the blood’s pH if the breathing rate were increased or decreased.
12. Length of breath holding after hyperventilation: ____________________________________________________________ sec
Why does hyperventilation produce apnea or reduce respiratory rate?
13. Observations for rebreathing breathed air: ____________________________________________________________________
Why does rebreathing breathed air increase respiratory rate?
14. What was the effect of running in place (exercise) on the duration of breath holding? _____________________________
Explain:
15. Record your data for the test illustrating the effect of respiration on circulation:
Radial pulse before beginning test _______________/min Radial pulse after testing _______________/min
Relative radial pulse force before beginning test _____________ Relative radial pulse force after testing _____________
Condition of neck and facial veins after testing
Explain:
16. Do the following factors generally increase (indicate with I) or decrease (indicate with D) the respiratory rate
and depth?
1. increase in blood CO2 3. increase in blood pH
2. decrease in blood O2 4. decrease in blood pH
Did it appear that CO2 or O2 had a greater effect on modifying the respiratory rate?
17. Where are sensory receptors sensitive to changes in O2 levels in the blood located? ______________________________
310 Review Sheet 24
18. + Atelectasis is a collapsed lung. Explain how a pneumothorax might result in atelectasis and what should be done to
restore the negative pressure of the pleural cavity.
19. + Pectus excavatum is a condition in which the anterior thoracic cage is caved inward because of abnormal
development of the sternum and ribs. What effect would you expect this condition to have on vital capacity, and why?
EXERCISE
25
Functional Anatomy of the
Digestive System

Digestive System Anatomy □ Describe the general histologic structure of the wall of the
● Dissectible torso model alimentary canal.
● Anatomical chart of the human digestive
□ Identify on a model or appropriate diagram the organs that
system
● Model of a villus (if available) make up the alimentary canal, and indicate the digestive role
● Jaw model or human skull of each organ.
● Demonstration area: Prepared microscope □ Describe structural specializations of the small intestine that
slides for student viewing under low
contribute to its digestive role(s).
power:
Station 1: cross section of the duodenum □ Name and indicate the function of each accessory digestive
(small intestine) organ.
Station 2: mixed salivary gland
□ Name human deciduous and permanent teeth, and describe
Station 3: liver
the basic anatomy of a tooth.
Chemical and Physical Processes of
Digestion □ List and indicate the specific function of the major enzymes
Enzyme Action Supply Area or enzyme groups produced by the salivary glands, stomach,
● Test tubes and test tube rack small intestine, and pancreas. Summarize conditions promoting
● Graduated cylinder
their optimal functioning.
● Wax markers
□ Perform an appropriate chemical test to determine whether
● Hot plates
● 250-ml beakers
protein digestion has occurred.
● Boiling chips (or beads) □ Describe the function(s) of bile in the digestive process.
● Water bath set at 37°C (if not available,
□ Identify the alimentary canal organs involved in the physical
incubate at room temperature and double
the time) processes of digestion.
● Ice water bath
□ Compare and contrast segmentation and peristalsis as
● Chart on chalkboard for recording class
mechanisms of propulsion.
results
● Dropper bottle of 1% trypsin
● Dropper bottle of 0.01% BAPNA solution
● Dropper bottle of vegetable oil
T
● Bile salts (sodium taurocholate)
● Parafilm (small squares to cover the test

he digestive system provides the body with the nutrients essential for health.
tubes)
The organs of this system ingest, digest, and absorb food and eliminate the
undigested remains as feces.
Physical Processes Supply Area
● Water pitcher
The digestive system consists of a hollow tube extending from the mouth
● Paper cups
to the anus, into which a number of accessory organs empty their secretions
● Stethoscope
(Figure 25.1). Before ingested food is available to the body cells, it must be
● Alcohol swabs
broken down into its smaller diffusible molecules—a process called digestion.
The digested end products can then pass through the epithelial cells lining the tract
into the blood to be distributed to the body cells—a process termed absorption.
The organs of the digestive system are separated into two major groups: the
alimentary canal, or gastrointestinal (GI) tract, and the accessory digestive
organs. The alimentary canal consists of the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stom-
ach, small and large intestines, and anus. The accessory structures include the
teeth and tongue, which participate in the mechanical breakdown of the food; and
the salivary glands, gallbladder, liver, and pancreas, which release their products
into the alimentary canal.
311
312 Exercise 25
Mouth (oral cavity) Parotid gland

Sublingual gland
Tongue* Salivary glands*
Submandibular
gland
Pharynx
Esophagus
Stomach
Pancreas*
(Spleen)
Liver*
Gallbladder*
Transverse
colon
Duodenum Descending
Small intestine Jejunum colon
Ileum Ascending
colon
Large intestine
Cecum
Sigmoid colon
Rectum
Appendix
25
Anus Anal canal
Figure 25.1 Alimentary canal and related accessory digestive organs. Organs
labeled with asterisks are accessory organs. Organs without asterisks are alimentary
canal organs (except the spleen, an organ of the lymphatic system).
General Histologic Plan of the Alimentary Canal

Because the organs of the alimentary canal share a basic struc- externa, and either a serosa or adventitia (Figure 25.2). Each
tural plan, it makes sense to review that structure as we begin layer has a predominant tissue type and plays a specific role in
studying this group of organs. Essentially, the alimentary canal digestion. Table 25.1 summarizes the characteristics of the
walls have four basic layers, or tunics. From the lumen out- layers of the wall of the alimentary canal.
ward, these are the mucosa, the submucosa, the muscularis
Functional Anatomy of the Digestive System 313
Intrinsic nerve plexuses

r Myenteric nerve plexus
r Submucosal nerve plexus
Glands in submucosa
Mucosa
r Epithelium
r Lamina propria
r Muscularis mucosae
Submucosa
Muscularis externa
r Longitudinal muscle
r Circular muscle
Serosa
r Epithelium
r Connective tissue
Nerve
Lumen
Artery Gland in mucosa
Vein Duct of gland outside Mucosa-associated
Mesentery Lymphatic vessel alimentary canal lymphoid tissue
Figure 25.2 Basic structure of the alimentary canal wall. (See also Plate 33 in
the Histology Atlas.)
Table 25.1 Alimentary Canal Wall Layers (Figure 25.2)

Subdivision Major functions
Layer of the layer Tissue type (generalized for the layer)
Mucosa Epithelium Stratified squamous epithelium in the Secretion of mucus, digestive
mouth, oropharynx, laryngopharynx, enzymes, and hormones; absorption
25
esophagus, and anus; simple columnar of end products into the blood;
epithelium in the remainder of the canal protection against infectious disease.
Lamina propria Areolar connective tissue with blood
vessels; many lymphoid follicles,
especially as tonsils and mucosa-
associated lymphoid tissue (MALT)
Muscularis mucosae A thin layer of smooth muscle
Submucosa N/A Areolar and dense irregular connective Blood vessels absorb and transport
tissue containing blood vessels, lymphatic nutrients. Elastic fibers help maintain
vessels, and nerve fibers (submucosal the shape of each organ.
nerve plexus)
Muscularis externa Circular layer Inner layer of smooth muscle Segmentation and peristalsis of
Longitudinal layer Outer layer of smooth muscle digested food along the tract are
regulated by the myenteric nerve
plexus.
Serosa* (visceral Connective tissue Areolar connective tissue Reduces friction as the digestive
peritoneum) Epithelium (mesothelium) Simple squamous epithelium system organs slide across one
another.
*Since the esophagus is outside the peritoneal cavity, the serosa is replaced by an adventitia made of aerolar connective tissue that binds the
esophagus to surrounding tissues.
314 Exercise 25
Activity 1
Observing the Histological Structure of the Alimentary Canal Wall
Go to the demonstration area where a cross section of the leaflike villi, which increase the surface area for absorp-
duodenum (part of the small intestine) is secured to the tion. (Consult Figure 25.2 and Table 25.1, as well as Plate
microscope stage. Observe the tissue to identify the four 33 in the Histology Atlas as you work.)
basic tunics of the intestinal wall—that is, the mucosa (and
its three sublayers), the submucosa (connective tissue What type of epithelium do you see here?
layer deep to the mucosa), the muscularis externa (com-
posed of circular and longitudinal smooth muscle layers),
and the serosa (the outermost layer). Examine the large
Organs of the Alimentary Canal

called the hard palate because bone underlies it. The posterior
Activity 2 soft palate is unsupported by bone. The uvula, a fingerlike
projection of the soft palate, extends inferiorly from its poste-
Identifying Alimentary Canal Organs rior edge. The muscular tongue occupies the floor of the oral
The pathway that food takes as it passes through the ali- cavity. A membrane, the lingual frenulum, secures the tongue
mentary canal organs is described in the next sections. to the floor of the mouth (Figure 25.3b). The space between
Identify each structure in Figure 25.1 and on the torso the lips and cheeks and the teeth is the oral vestibule; the area
model as you work. that lies within the teeth and gums is the oral cavity proper.
On each side of the mouth at its posterior end are masses
of lymphoid tissue, the palatine tonsils (Figure 25.3). The
lingual tonsil covers the base of the tongue, posterior to the
Mouth, or Oral Cavity oral cavity proper. The tonsils, along with other lymphoid
Food enters the digestive tract through the mouth, or oral tissues, are part of the body’s defense system. (For histology
cavity (Figure 25.3). Within this mucous membrane–lined of the palatine tonsils, see Plate 25 in the Histology Atlas.)
cavity are the gums, teeth, tongue, and openings of the ducts Three pairs of salivary glands secrete saliva into the oral
of the salivary glands. The lips (labia) protect the anterior cavity. One component of saliva, salivary amylase, begins the
opening, the oral orifice. The cheeks form the mouth’s lateral digestion of starchy foods in the mouth. (The salivary glands
walls, and the palate, its roof. The anterior part of the palate is are discussed in more detail on page 319.)
Soft palate Uvula

Palatoglossal
arch Upper lip
25 Gingivae
Hard palate (gums) Superior labial
Oral cavity frenulum
Palatine
Palatine raphe Palatoglossal
tonsil Hard palate arch
Tongue Soft palate Palatopharyngeal
Oropharynx arch
Uvula
Lingual tonsil Posterior wall
Palatine
Epiglottis tonsil of oropharynx
Tongue
Hyoid bone
Sublingual Lingual frenulum
Laryngopharynx fold with Opening of
openings of submandibular
sublingual ducts duct
Gingivae (gums)
Esophagus Oral vestibule
Inferior labial
Lower lip frenulum
Trachea
(a) Sagittal section of the oral cavity and pharynx (b) Anterior view
Figure 25.3 Anatomy of the oral cavity (mouth).

Cardia
Fundus
Esophagus
Muscularis Serosa
externa
• Longitudinal layer
• Circular layer
• Oblique layer Body
Lumen
Lesser
Pylorus curvature
Rugae of
mucosa
Greater
curvature
Pyloric sphincter Pyloric Pyloric

Duodenum (valve) at pylorus canal antrum
(a) Pyloric sphincter Pyloric antrum
(b)
Figure 25.4 Anatomy of the stomach. (a) Gross anatomy of the stomach (frontal
section). (b) Photograph of internal aspect of stomach.
As food enters the mouth, it is mixed with saliva and circular constrictor muscles. These muscles initiate wavelike
masticated (chewed). The cheeks and lips help hold the food contractions that propel the food inferiorly into the esophagus.
between the teeth during mastication. The mobile tongue
mixes the food with saliva during chewing and initiates swal- Esophagus
lowing. Thus the mechanical and chemical breakdown of The esophagus extends from the laryngopharynx through the
food begins before the food has left the mouth. diaphragm to the stomach. It is approximately 10 inches long
in humans and is basically a food passageway that conducts
Pharynx food to the stomach by peristalsis. At its superior end, its walls
From the mouth, food passes posteriorly into the pharynx, a contain skeletal muscle; this is replaced by smooth muscle in
common passageway for food, fluid, and air (Figure 25.3). the area nearing the stomach. The gastroesophageal sphincter, 25
The pharynx has three parts—the nasopharynx (behind the a thickening of the smooth muscle layer at the esophagus-
nasal cavity), the oropharynx (extends from the soft palate stomach junction, controls food passage into the stomach.
to the epiglottis), and the laryngopharynx (behind the larynx
extending from the epiglottis to the base of the larynx), which Stomach
is continuous with the esophagus. The stomach (Figure 25.1 and Figure 25.4) is primarily
The walls of the pharynx contain two layers of skel- located in the upper left quadrant of the abdominopelvic
etal muscle: an inner longitudinal layer and an outer layer of cavity and is nearly hidden by the liver and diaphragm.
Table 25.2 Parts of the Stomach (Figure 25.4)

Structure Description
Cardia (cardial part) The area surrounding the cardial orifice through which food enters the stomach
Fundus The dome-shaped area that is located superior and lateral to the cardia
Body Midportion of the stomach and largest region
Pyloric part: Funnel-shaped pouch that forms the distal stomach
Pyloric antrum Wide superior portion of the pyloric part
Pyloric canal Narrow tubelike portion of the pyloric part
Pylorus Distal end of the pyloric part that is continuous with the small intestine
Pyloric sphincter Valve that controls the emptying of the stomach into the small intestine
316 Exercise 25
Falciform ligament
Liver
Gallbladder
Lesser omentum
Spleen
Stomach
Duodenum
Ligamentum teres
Transverse colon
Greater omentum
Small intestine
Cecum
Urinary bladder
(a) (b)
Figure 25.5 Peritoneal attachments of the abdominal organs. (a) Anterior view; the
greater omentum is shown in its normal position covering the abdominal viscera.
(b) Anterior diagram showing greater omentum removed and liver and gallbladder
reflected superiorly.
The stomach is made up of several regions, summarized small intestine is suspended by the fan-shaped mesentery
in Table 25.2. Mesentery is the general term that refers to from the posterior abdominal wall (see Figure 25.5), and
a double layer of peritoneum—a sheet of two serous mem- it lies, framed on both sides and superiorly by the large
branes fused together—that extends from the digestive organs intestine, in the abdominal cavity. The small intestine has
to the body wall. There are two mesenteries, the greater omen- three regions (see Figure 25.1).
tum and the lesser omentum, that connect to the stomach.
The lesser omentum extends from the liver to the lesser 1. The duodenum extends from the pyloric sphincter for
curvature of the stomach. The greater omentum extends from about 10 inches and curves around the head of the pancreas.
the greater curvature of the stomach, drapes downward over 2. The jejunum, continuous with the duodenum, extends for
25 the abdominal contents to cover them in an apronlike fashion, about 8 feet.
and then attaches to the posterior body wall. Figure 25.5 3. The ileum, the terminal portion of the small intestine, is
illustrates the omenta as well as the other peritoneal attach- about 12 feet long and joins the large intestine at the ileocecal
ments of the abdominal organs. valve (see Figure 25.7).
The stomach is a temporary storage region for food as
well as a site for food breakdown. It contains a third obliquely In the small intestine, enzymes from two sources com-
oriented layer of smooth muscle in its muscularis externa plete the digestive process: brush border enzymes, enzymes
that allows it to churn, mix, and pummel the food, physically bound to the microvilli of the columnar epithelial cells; and,
breaking it down to smaller fragments. Gastric glands of the more important, enzymes produced by the pancreas and ducted
mucosa secrete hydrochloric acid and hydrolytic enzymes. into the duodenum via the pancreatic duct. Bile (formed in
The hydrochloric acid in the stomach serves two functions: the liver) also enters the duodenum via the bile duct in the
it creates an environment that is hostile to foreign organisms, same area. At the duodenum, the ducts join to form the bulb-
and it activates the digestive enzymes that are initially secreted like hepatopancreatic ampulla and empty their products
into the stomach in an inactive form. The mucosal glands also into the duodenal lumen through an opening called the major
secrete a thick mucus that protects the stomach from being di- duodenal papilla, an orifice controlled by a smooth muscle
gested by its protein-digesting enzymes. Food processed in the valve called the hepatopancreatic sphincter.
stomach resembles a creamy mass (chyme). The chyme enters Nearly all food absorption occurs in the small intestine,
the small intestine through the pyloric sphincter. (For histology where three structural modifications that increase the absorptive
of the stomach, see Plates 31 and 32 in the Histology Atlas.) area appear—microvilli, villi, and circular folds (Figure 25.6).
Small Intestine • Microvilli: Microscopic projections of the surface plasma

membrane of the columnar epithelial cells of the mucosa.
The small intestine is a convoluted tube that extends from
the pyloric sphincter to the ileocecal valve (sphincter). The • Villi: Fingerlike projections of the mucosa that give it a
velvety appearance and texture. In the core of each villus is
Vein carrying Microvilli

blood to (brush border)
hepatic portal
vessel
Muscle
layers
Lumen
Circular
Enterocytes
folds
(absorptive
cells)
Villi Lacteal (c)
Goblet
cell Villus
Blood
capillaries
(a)
Mucosa-
associated
lymphoid Entero-
tissue endocrine
Intestinal cells
crypt Venule
Muscularis Lymphatic
mucosae vessel
Duodenal Submucosa
gland
(b)
Figure 25.6 Structural modifications of the small intestine. (a) Several circular
folds seen on the inner surface of the small intestine. (b) Enlargement of one villus
extension of the circular fold. (c) Enlargement of the enterocytes to show microvilli.
a dense capillary bed and a wide lymphatic capillary called a The colon has several regions. The ascending colon trav-
lacteal. Digested foodstuffs are absorbed through the epithe- els up the right side of the abdominal cavity and makes a
lial cells into both the capillary blood and the lacteal. right-angle turn at the right colic (hepatic) flexure to cross
• Circular folds: Deep folds of the mucosal and submucosal the abdominal cavity as the transverse colon. It then turns at
25
layers that force chyme to spiral through the intestine, mixing the left colic (splenic) flexure and continues downward as the
it and slowing its progress to allow time for digestion and ab- descending colon, where it becomes the S-shaped sigmoid
sorption. Any residue remaining undigested at the end of the colon. The sigmoid colon, rectum, and the anal canal lie in the
small intestine enters the large intestine through the ileocecal pelvis and thus are not considered abdominal cavity structures.
valve. Local collections of lymphoid nodules found in the The anal canal terminates in the anus, the opening to the
submucosa called Peyer’s patches increase along the length body exterior. The anus has an external sphincter of skeletal
of the small intestine. (See Plate 35 in the Histology Atlas.) muscle (the voluntary sphincter) and an internal sphincter of
smooth muscle (the involuntary sphincter). These sphincters
are normally closed except during defecation, when feces are
Activity 3 eliminated from the body.
In the large intestine, the longitudinal muscle layer of the
Examining the Villus Model muscularis externa is reduced to three muscle bands. These
If a villus model is available, identify the following cells bands are shorter than the rest of the wall of the large intes-
or regions before continuing: epithelium, goblet cells, tine, so they cause the wall to pucker into small pocketlike
lamina propria, slips of the muscularis mucosae, capil- sacks called haustra.
lary bed, and lacteal. The major function of the large intestine is to compact
and propel the fecal matter toward the anus and to eliminate it
from the body. While it does this task, it (1) provides a site for
Large Intestine intestinal bacteria to manufacture vitamins B and K, which
it then absorbs into the bloodstream; and (2) reclaims most
The large intestine (Figure 25.7) is about 1.5 m (5 feet) of the remaining water (and some of the electrolytes) from
long and extends from the ileocecal valve to the anus. It undigested food, thus conserving body water.
consists of the following subdivisions: the cecum, appendix,
colon, rectum, and anal canal.
318 Exercise 25
Left colic
(splenic) flexure
Transverse mesocolon
Right colic
(hepatic) flexure
Epiploic appendages
Transverse colon
Superior
mesenteric
artery Descending colon
Haustrum
Ascending colon
IIeum
Mesentery (cut edge)
IIeocecal valve Tenia coli
Sigmoid colon
Cecum
Appendix
Rectum
Anal canal
External anal sphincter
Figure 25.7 The large intestine. A section of the cecum is removed to show the
ileocecal valve.
25
Accessory Digestive Organs
Teeth Upper teeth: 2 incisors, 1 canine, 0 premolars, 2 molars
Lower teeth: 2 incisors, 1 canine, 0 premolars, 2 molars 3 2
Usually by the early 20s, two sets of teeth have developed
(Figure 25.8). The initial set, the deciduous (or milk) teeth, This formula is generally shortened to read as follows:
appears between the ages of 6 months and 2½ years. The child 2,1,0,2
begins to shed the deciduous teeth around the age of 6, and a 3 2 (20 deciduous teeth)
2,1,0,2
second set of teeth, the permanent teeth, gradually replaces
them. The 32 permanent teeth are then described by the following
Teeth are classified as incisors, canines (eye teeth, dental formula:
cuspids), premolars (bicuspids), and molars. Teeth names 2,1,2,3
3 2 (32 permanent teeth)
reflect differences in relative structure and function. The 2,1,2,3
chisel-shaped incisors are used in biting. Canines are fang- Although 32 is the usual number of permanent teeth, not ev-
like, used for tearing or piercing food. The premolars and eryone develops a full set. In many people, the third molars,
molars have broad crowns with rounded cusps (grinding sur- commonly called wisdom teeth, never erupt.
faces) specialized for the grinding of food.
Dentition is described by means of a dental formula,
which specifies the numbers, types, and position of the teeth
Activity 4
in one side of the jaw. Because tooth arrangement is bilater- Identifying Types of Teeth
ally symmetrical, it is necessary to indicate only one side of
the jaw. The complete dental formula for the deciduous teeth Identify the four types of teeth (incisors, canines, premo-
from the medial to posterior aspect of each jaw is as follows: lars, and molars) on the jaw model or human skull.
Incisors
Central (6–8 mo) Enamel
Lateral (8–10 mo)

Dentin
Canine (eyetooth)
(16–20 mo) Crown Dentinal
tubules
Molars
First molar Pulp cavity
(10–15 mo) Deciduous (contains
(milk) teeth blood vessels
Second molar and nerves)
(about 2 yr)
Neck Gingival
sulcus
Incisors Gingiva
Central (7 yr) (gum)
Lateral (8 yr)
Cement
Canine (eyetooth)
(11 yr)
Root canal
Premolars Root
(bicuspids)
Periodontal
First premolar
ligament
(11 yr)
Second premolar
(12–13 yr)
Molars
First molar (6–7 yr) Apical
foramen
Second molar
(12–13 yr)
Bone
Third molar
(wisdom tooth) Permanent
(17–25 yr) teeth
Figure 25.9 Longitudinal section of a canine tooth.
Figure 25.8 Human dentition. (Approximate time of

teeth eruption shown in parentheses.) Activity 5
Studying Internal Tooth Anatomy
A tooth consists of two major regions, the crown and the If the jaw model provided has a removable tooth that is 25
root. These two regions meet at the neck near the gum line. sectioned longitudinally, identify as many of the struc-
A longitudinal section made through a tooth shows the fol- tures detailed in Figure 25.9 as possible.
lowing basic anatomy (Figure 25.9). The enamel-covered
crown is the superior portion of the tooth visible above the
gum, or gingiva, which surrounds the tooth. Enamel is the Salivary Glands
hardest substance in the body and is fairly brittle because it is
heavily mineralized with calcium salts. Three pairs of major salivary glands (see Figure 25.1) empty
That part of the tooth embedded in the bone is the root. their secretions into the oral cavity.
The outermost surface of the root is covered by cement, Parotid glands: Large glands located anterior to the ear and
which is similar to bone in composition. The cement at- ducting via the parotid duct into the mouth over the second
taches the tooth to the periodontal ligament, which holds upper molar.
the tooth in the bony socket. Dentin, which comprises the
bulk of the tooth, is the bonelike material deep to the enamel Submandibular glands: Located along the medial aspect of
and cement. the mandible in the floor of the mouth, and ducting under the
Dentin surrounds the pulp cavity, which is filled with tongue close to the lingual frenulum.
pulp. Pulp is comprised of connective tissue liberally sup- Sublingual glands: Small glands located most anteriorly in
plied with blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatics that provide the floor of the mouth and emptying under the tongue via
for tooth sensation and supply nutrients to the tooth tissues. several small ducts.
Where the pulp cavity extends into the root, it becomes the
root canal. Saliva is a mixture of mucus, which moistens the food
and helps to bind it together into a mass called a bolus, and
a clear serous fluid containing the enzyme salivary amylase.
Salivary amylase begins the digestion of starch.
320 Exercise 25
phagocytic cells, stellate macrophages, remove debris such as

Activity 6 bacteria from the blood as it flows past, while the hepatocytes
pick up oxygen and nutrients. Much of the glucose transported
Locating the Salivary Glands to the liver from the GI tract is stored as glycogen in the liver
Identify on an anatomical chart or torso model each of for later use, and amino acids taken from the blood by the liver
the salivary glands discussed above. Also, attempt to fol- cells are used to make plasma proteins. The processed blood
low their ducts to where they empty into the oral cavity. ultimately drains from the liver via the hepatic veins.
Pancreas
The pancreas is a soft, triangular gland that extends across the
Activity 7 posterior abdominal wall from the spleen to the duodenum (see
Figure 25.1). Like the duodenum, the pancreas is a retroperi-
Examining the Histology of Salivary Gland Tissue toneal organ. It has both an endocrine function, producing the
Go to station 2 at the demonstration area, and examine hormones insulin and glucagon, and an exocrine function. (See
salivary gland tissue under low power to become famil- Plate 38 in the Histology Atlas.) Its exocrine secretion includes
iar with the appearance of a glandular tissue. Notice the many hydrolytic enzymes, which it secretes into the duodenum
clustered arrangement of the cells around their ducts. The via the main pancreatic duct. Pancreatic juice is very alkaline.
cells are basically triangular, with their pointed ends facing Its high concentration of bicarbonate ion (HCO32) neutralizes
the duct lumen. If possible, differentiate between mucus- the acidic chyme entering the duodenum from the stomach,
producing cells, which look hollow or have a clear enabling the pancreatic and intestinal enzymes to operate at
cytoplasm, and serous cells, which produce the clear, their optimal pH, which is slightly alkaline.
enzyme-containing fluid and have granules in their cyto-
plasm.The serous cells often form demilunes (caps) around
the more central mucous cells. (The photomicrograph in Activity 8
Plate 37 in the Histology Atlas may be helpful in this task.)
Locating the Liver, Pancreas, and Associated
Structures
Liver and Gallbladder Identify the liver, gallbladder, and the common hepatic,
bile, and cystic ducts on the anatomical chart or torso
The liver (see Figure 25.1), the largest gland in the body, is model before continuing. Notice the relationship of the
located inferior to the diaphragm, more to the right side of the liver to the diaphragm and stomach. Also identify the
body. The human liver has four lobes and is suspended from pancreas, pancreatic duct, and if possible, the hepato-
the diaphragm and anterior abdominal wall by the falciform pancreatic ampulla and duodenal papilla.
ligament (see Figure 25.5a).
The liver’s digestive function is to produce bile, which
leaves the liver through the common hepatic duct and then
enters the duodenum via the bile duct. Bile has no enzymes, Activity 9
but it is important to fat digestion because it acts as an emulsi-
fier, breaking up fat globules into small droplets. This creates a Examining the Histology of the Liver
larger surface area for fat-digesting enzymes (lipases) to work Go to station 3 at the demonstration area, and examine a
25 on. Without bile, little fat digestion or absorption occurs. slide of liver tissue. Identify as many of the structural fea-
When digestive activity is not occurring, bile backs up in tures illustrated in the photomicrograph (Plate 39 in the
the cystic duct and enters the gallbladder, a small green sac Histology Atlas) as you can. Notice the central vein and
on the inferior surface of the liver. Bile produced by the hepa- how the hepatocytes form cords that radiate from the
tocytes (liver cells) is stored there until needed for the digestive vein. If possible, identify a portal triad—a region contain-
process. While there, bile is concentrated by the removal of ing a branch of the hepatic artery, a branch of the hepatic
water and some ions. portal vein, and a bile duct. The liver units, called lobules,
The liver is very important in the initial processing of have six sides, and a portal triad is found at each corner.
the nutrient-rich blood draining the digestive organs. Special
Chemical Digestion of Foodstuffs: Enzymatic Action

Figure 25.10 depicts the progressive digestion and absorption The hydrolytic enzymes are very specific in their ac-
of proteins, fats, and carbohydrates. It indicates the enzymes in- tion. Each enzyme hydrolyzes only one or a small group of
volved, their site of formation, and their site of action. Acquaint substrate molecules, and certain environmental conditions
yourself with the flowchart before beginning this experiment, are necessary for it to function optimally. Because digestive
and refer to it as necessary during the laboratory session. enzymes and bile actually function outside the body cells
Enzymes are large protein molecules produced by body while in the digestive tract, their activity can also be studied
cells that act as biologic catalysts. The digestive enzymes are in a test tube.
hydrolytic enzymes, or hydrolases. Their substrates, or the In this laboratory session we will examine factors that
molecules on which they act, are organic food molecules that influence trypsin’s digestion of proteins and explore the role
they break down by adding water to the molecular bonds, thus of bile made by the liver.
breaking the bonds between the building blocks, or monomers.
Foodstuff Enzyme(s) and source Site of action Path of absorption
Starch and disaccharides • Glucose and galactose are absorbed

via cotransport with sodium ions.
Salivary amylase Mouth • Fructose passes via facilitated
diffusion.
• All monosaccharides leave the
Pancreatic Small epithelial cells via facilitated diffusion,
amylase intestine enter the capillary blood in the
Oligosaccharides villi, and are transported to the liver
Carbohydrate
and disaccharides via the hepatic portal vein.
digestion
Brush border Small

Lactose Maltose Sucrose enzymes in intestine
small intestine
(dextrinase, gluco-
amylase, lactase,
Galactose Glucose Fructose maltase, and sucrase)
Proteins
• Amino acids are absorbed via
Pepsin Stomach cotransport with sodium ions.
(stomach glands) • Some dipeptides and tripeptides are
Large polypeptides in presence absorbed via cotransport with H+ and
of HCl hydrolyzed to amino acids within the
cells.
Pancreatic Small
• Infrequently, transcytosis of small
enzymes (trypsin, intestine
Protein peptides occurs.
Small polypeptides, chymotrypsin,
digestion • Amino acids leave the epithelial cells
small peptides carboxypeptidase)
by facilitated diffusion, enter the
capillary blood in the villi, and are
Brush border Small transported to the liver via the
enzymes intestine hepatic portal vein.
Amino acids (aminopeptidase,
(some dipeptides carboxypeptidase,
and tripeptides) and dipeptidase)
Unemulsified triglycerides
• Fatty acids and monoglycerides
enter the intestinal cells via diffusion.
Lingual lipase Mouth • Fatty acids and monoglycerides are
(minor
recombined to form triglycerides and
importance)
then combined with other lipids and
proteins within the cells. The
resulting chylomicrons are extruded
Gastric lipase Stomach by exocytosis.
(minor • The chylomicrons enter the lacteals
importance) of the villi and are transported to the 25
Fat systemic circulation via the lymph in
digestion Emulsification by Small the thoracic duct.
the detergent intestine • Some short-chain fatty acids are
action of bile absorbed, move into the capillary
salts ducted blood in the villi by diffusion, and are
in from the liver transported to the liver via the
hepatic portal vein.
Pancreatic Small
lipases intestine
Monoglycerides (or diglycerides

with gastric lipase) and fatty acids
Nucleic acids
• Units enter intestinal cells by active
Pancreatic ribo- Small transport via membrane carriers.
nuclease and intestine • Units are absorbed into capillary
deoxyribonuclease blood in the villi and transported to
Nucleic acid the liver via the hepatic portal vein.
digestion Brush border Small
enzymes intestine
Pentose sugars, (nucleosidases
N-containing bases, and phosphatases)
phosphate ions
Figure 25.10 Flowchart of digestion and absorption of foodstuffs.

322 Exercise 25
Protein Digestion by Trypsin

Trypsin, an enzyme produced by the pancreas, hydrolyzes bright yellow. The covalent bond between the dye molecule
proteins to small fragments. BAPNA is a synthetic substrate and the amino acid is the same as the peptide bonds that link
consisting of a dye covalently bound to an amino acid. Tryp- amino acids together, so the appearance of a yellow color
sin hydrolysis of BAPNA cleaves the dye molecule from the indicates the activity of an enzyme that is capable of cleaving
amino acid, causing the solution to change from colorless to peptide bonds and is direct evidence of hydrolysis by trypsin.
Activity 10
Assessing Protein Digestion by Trypsin
Work in groups of three or four, with each person in the the sample-containing part of the test tube), and bring
group taking responsibility for setting up some of the ex- the water to a boil on the hot plate. Place the specimen
perimental samples. in the boiling water for 4 minutes.
1. From supply area 1, obtain five test tubes, a test tube rack, • Place all tubes in a rack in the appropriate water bath
a dropper bottle of trypsin and one of BAPNA, a graduated for approximately 1 hour. Shake the rack occasionally
cylinder, a wax pencil, a 250-ml beaker, boiling chips (or boil- to keep the contents well mixed.
ing beads), and a hot plate and bring them to your bench. 3. Assess your results. The presence of a yellow color
2. One student should prepare the controls (tubes 1T and indicates a positive hydrolysis test. If the sample mixture
2T), and two should prepare the experimental samples (tubes remains clear, no detectable hydrolysis has occurred.
3T to 5T). Record the color of the experimental tube in Figure
Mark each tube with a wax pencil, and load the tubes 25.11.
•
as indicated in Figure 25.11, using 3 drops of each Upon completing the experiments, each group should
indicated substance. communicate its results to the rest of the class by record-
1T—trypsin and water ing them in a chart on the board. All members of the class
should observe the controls as well as the positive and
2T—BAPNA and water
negative results of all experimental samples. Controls are
3T, 4T, and 5T—trypsin and BAPNA specimens or standards against which experimental sam-
• For experimental sample 3T, which is to be boiled be- ples are compared. Additionally, all members of the class
fore incubation, place a few boiling chips in the 250-ml should be able to explain the tests used and the results
beaker, add about 125 ml of water (or enough to cover anticipated and observed for each experiment.
Activity 10: Trypsin Digestion of Protein
Tube no. 1T 2T 3T 4T 5T
25
Additives Boil trypsin
(3 drops ea) 4 min, then
add BAPNA.
trypsin, BAPNA, trypsin boiled trypsin, trypsin,

water water trypsin, BAPNA BAPNA
BAPNA
Incubation
condition
Color
change
Result:
(+) or (-)
Additive key:
= Trypsin = BAPNA = Water
Figure 25.11 Summary table for trypsin digestion of protein.

The Action of Bile on Fats 2. Although bile, a secretory product of the liver, is not an
The treatment that fats and oils go through during digestion in enzyme, it emulsifies fats, providing a larger surface area
the small intestine is more complicated than that of carbohy- for enzymatic activity. To demonstrate the action of bile on
drates or proteins—pretreatment with bile to physically emul- fats, mark one of the test tubes as #1 and the other as #2
sify the fats is required. Hence, two sets of reactions occur. with a wax marker, and prepare them as follows:
Bile • To tube 1, add 20 drops of water and 4 drops of veg-
First: Fats/oils minute fat/oil droplets
(emulsification) etable oil.
Then: Fat/oil droplets Lipase monoglycerides and fatty acids • To tube 2, add 20 drops of water, 4 drops of vegetable
(digestion) oil, and a pinch of bile salts.
In this activity we will be investigating the emulsifying activ- • Cover each tube with a small square of Parafilm,
ity of bile. shake vigorously, and allow the tubes to stand at
room temperature.
Activity 11 After 10–15 minutes, observe both tubes. If emulsifica-

tion has not occurred, the oil will be floating on the sur-
Demonstrating the Action of Bile on Fats face of the water. If emulsification has occurred, the fat
1. From supply area 1, obtain two test tubes and a test droplets will be suspended throughout the water.
tube rack, plus one dropper bottle of vegetable oil, bile
salts, a wax marker, and two squares of Parafilm®. In which tube has emulsification occurred?
Physical Processes: Mechanisms of Food Propulsion and Mixing

Although enzyme activity is very important in the overall Deglutition (Swallowing)
digestion process, foods must also be broken down (through
chewing and churning) and moved by mechanical means Deglutition, or swallowing, is largely the result of skeletal
along the tract if digestion and absorption are to be com- muscle activity and occurs in two phases: buccal (mouth) and
pleted. Both skeletal and smooth muscles are involved in pharyngeal-esophageal. The initial phase—the buccal—is
digestion. This fact is demonstrated by the simple activities voluntarily controlled and initiated by the tongue. Once be-
that follow. gun, the process continues involuntarily in the pharynx and
esophagus, through peristalsis, resulting in the delivery of the
swallowed contents to the stomach.
Activity 12
Observing Movements and Sounds of Digestion
1. From supply area 2, obtain a pitcher of water, a stetho- What do these movements accomplish?
scope, a paper cup, an alcohol swab, and an autoclave bag 25
to prepare for the following observations.
2. While swallowing a mouthful of water, consciously notice
the movement of your tongue. Record your observations.
4. Before donning the stethoscope, your lab partner should

clean the earpieces with an alcohol swab. Then, he or she
should place the diaphragm of the stethoscope over your
abdominal wall, approximately 1 inch below the xiphoid
process and slightly to the left, to listen for sounds as you
again take two or three swallows of water. There should
be two audible sounds—one when the water splashes
3. Repeat the swallowing process while your laboratory against the gastroesophageal (cardiac) sphincter, and the
partner watches movements of your larynx that are visible second when the peristaltic wave of the esophagus arrives
externally. (This movement is more obvious in males, who at the sphincter and the sphincter opens, allowing water
have larger thyroid cartilages.) Record your observations. to gurgle into the stomach. Determine, as accurately as
possible, the time interval between these two sounds, and
record it on the next page.

324 Exercise 25
Interval between arrival of water at the sphincter and the esophagus. (Actually, the time interval is slightly less than
opening of the sphincter: it seems, because pressure causes the sphincter to relax
before the peristaltic wave reaches it.)
sec
Dispose of the used paper cup in the autoclave bag.
This interval gives a fair indication of the time it takes for !
the peristaltic wave to travel down the 10-inch-long
Segmentation and Peristalsis Peristaltic movements are the major means of propel-
ling food through most of the digestive viscera. Essentially
Although several types of movements occur in the alimentary they are waves of contraction followed by waves of relax-
canal, segmentation and peristalsis are most important as ation that squeeze foodstuffs through the alimentary canal.
mixing and propulsive mechanisms. They are superimposed on segmentation.
Segmental movements are local constrictions of the
organ wall that occur rhythmically. They serve mainly to
mix the foodstuffs with digestive juices. However, segmen- Activity 13
tation is also important in propelling food through the small
intestine. Viewing Segmental and Peristaltic Movements
If a video showing some of the propulsive movements is
available, go to a viewing station to view it before leav-
ing the laboratory.
25
EXERCISE
25 REVIEW SHEET
Functional Anatomy
of the Digestive System
General Histologic Plan of the Alimentary Canal

1. The basic structural plan of the digestive tube has been presented. Fill in the table below to complete the information
listed.
Structure of the Alimentary Canal
Subdivisions of the layer

Wall layer (if applicable) Major functions
Mucosa
Submucosa (Not applicable)
Muscularis externa
Serosa or adventitia (Not applicable)
Organs of the Alimentary Canal

2. The tubelike digestive system canal that extends from the mouth to the anus is the canal.
3. How is the muscularis externa of the stomach modified?
How does this modification relate to the stomach’s function?
325
326 Review Sheet 25
4. Using the key letters, match the items in column B with the descriptive statements in column A. (Some responses
may be used more than once.)
Column A Column B
1. structure that suspends the digestive organs to the body wall a. anus
, , 2. three modifications of the small intestine that increase b. appendix

the surface area for absorption
c. circular folds
3. large collections of lymphoid tissue found in the submucosa of the small
intestine d. esophagus
4. deep folds of the mucosa and submucosa that extend completely or e. frenulum
partially around the circumference of the small intestine
f. greater omentum
5. initiates protein digestion
g. hard palate
6. mobile organ that manipulates food in the mouth and initiates swallowing
h. haustra
7. passageway that serves the respiratory and digestive systems
i. ileocecal valve
8. lies posterior to the trachea; moves food from the pharynx to the stomach
j. large intestine
9. surface projections of a mucosal epithelial cell
k. lesser omentum
10. valve at the junction of the small and large intestines
l. mesentery
11. primary region of nutrient absorption
m. microvilli
12. membrane securing the tongue to the floor of the mouth
n. oral cavity
13. area between the teeth and lips/cheeks
o. oral vestibule
14. pocketlike sacs of the large intestine
p. parietal peritoneum
15. carbohydrate (starch) digestion begins here
q. Peyer’s patches
16. two-layered serous membrane attached to the greater curvature of the stomach
r. pharynx
17. distal portion of the anal canal
s. pyloric sphincter
18. valve preventing movement of chyme from the duodenum into the stomach
t. rugae
19. posterosuperior boundary of the oral cavity
u. small intestine
20. location of the hepatopancreatic sphincter through which pancreatic
secretions and bile pass v. soft palate
21. food passageway that has no digestive/absorptive function w. stomach
22. principal site for the synthesis of vitamins B and K by bacteria x. tongue
23. absorbs water and forms feces y. villi
24. bone-supported part of roof of the mouth

Review Sheet 25 327
5. Correctly identify all structures depicted in the diagram below.

328 Review Sheet 25
Accessory Digestive Organs

6. Use the key terms to identify each tooth area described below. (Some terms may be used more than once.)
1. visible portion of the tooth Key:
2. material covering the tooth root cement
3. hardest substance in the body crown
4. attaches the tooth to the tooth socket dentin
5. portion of the tooth embedded in bone enamel
6. forms the major portion of tooth structure; similar to bone gingiva
7. gum that surrounds the tooth periodontal ligament
8. site of blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatics pulp
9. portion of the tooth covered with enamel root
7. In humans, the number of deciduous teeth is ; the number of permanent teeth is .
2, 1, 2, 3
8. The dental formula for permanent teeth is .
2, 1, 2, 3
Explain what this means:
9. Which teeth are the “wisdom teeth”?
10. Various types of glands form a part of the alimentary tube wall or release their secretions into it by means of ducts.
Match the glands listed in column B with the function/locations described in column A.
Column A Column B
1. produce(s) mucus; found in the submucosa of the small intestine duodenal glands
2. produce(s) a product containing amylase that begins starch gastric glands

breakdown in the mouth
liver
3. produce(s) a whole spectrum of enzymes and an alkaline fluid
that is secreted into the duodenum pancreas
4. produce(s) bile that it secretes into the duodenum via the bile duct salivary glands
5. produce(s) HCl and pepsinogen
11. What is the role of the gallbladder?

Review Sheet 25 329
Chemical Digestion of Foodstuffs: Enzymatic Action

12. Match the following definitions with the proper choices from the key.
Key:
1. increases the rate of a chemical reaction without becoming
part of the product catalyst
2. provides a standard of comparison for test results control
3. biologic catalyst: protein in nature enzyme
4. substance on which a catalyst works substrate
13. The enzymes of the digestive system are classified as hydrolases. What does this mean?
14. Fill in the following chart about the various digestive system enzymes described in this exercise.
Digestive Enzymes
Enzyme Organ producing it Site of action Substrate(s) Optimal pH
Salivary amylase
Trypsin
Lipase (pancreatic)
15. Name the end products of digestion for the following macromolecules:
proteins: carbohydrates:
fats:
16. In the exercise concerning trypsin function, how could you tell protein hydrolysis occurred?
Why was tube 1T necessary?
Why was tube 2T necessary?
Why was 37°C the optimal incubation temperature?
Why did very little, if any, digestion occur in test tube 3T?
Why did very little, if any, digestion occur in test tube 5T?
Trypsin is a protein-digesting enzyme similar to pepsin, the protein-digesting enzyme in the stomach. Would trypsin
work well in the stomach? Why or why not?

330 Review Sheet 25
17. In the procedure concerning the action of bile salts, how did the appearance of tubes 1 and 2 differ?
Explain the difference.
18. Pancreatic and intestinal enzymes operate optimally at a pH that is slightly alkaline, yet the chyme entering the duo-
denum from the stomach is very acidic. How is the proper pH for the functioning of the pancreatic-intestinal enzymes
ensured?
19. Assume you have been chewing a piece of bread for 5 or 6 minutes. How would you expect its taste to change during
this interval?
Why?
Physical Processes: Mechanisms of Food Propulsion and Mixing

20. Match the items in the key to the descriptive statements that follow.
1. blocks off the nasal cavity during swallowing Key:
2. voluntary phase of swallowing buccal
3. propulsive waves of smooth muscle contraction gastroesophageal
4. sphincter that opens when food or fluids exert pressure on it peristalsis
5. movement that mainly serves to mix foodstuffs pharyngeal-esophageal
6. forces food into the pharynx segmentation
7. involuntary phase of swallowing tongue
uvula
21. + Pyloric stenosis is a type of gastric outlet obstruction caused by a narrowing of the pyloric part of the stomach. It is
most common in infants. Describe the clinical signs that you would expect to see with this condition.
22. + Individuals with cystic fibrosis are plagued by increased production of mucus. This excess mucus has a variety of
effects on the body, including decreased production of pancreatic enzymes and blockage of the pancreatic ducts that
secrete enzymes.
Describe how impaired pancreatic enzyme secretion affects digestion.

EXERCISE
26
Functional Anatomy
of the Urinary System

● Human dissectible torso model and/or □ Identify, on an appropriate model or diagram, the urinary
anatomical chart of the human urinary system organs and describe the function of each.
system
□ Identify the major anatomical areas of a dissected kidney.
● Three-dimensional model of the cut kidney
and of a nephron (if available) □ Trace the blood supply of the kidney from the renal artery to
● Dissecting tray and instruments the renal vein.
● Pig or sheep kidney, doubly or triply injected
□ Describe the anatomy of a nephron.
● Demonstration area: Longitudinal section □ List the physical characteristics and normal pH and specific
of the kidney, set up for microscopic gravity ranges of urine.
examination under low power; pointer on a
□ Conduct dipstick tests to determine the presence of abnormal
glomerulus
● Student samples of urine collected in
substances in the urine specimens.
sterile containers at the beginning of the
lab or “normal” artificial urine provided by
the instructor
M
● Numbered “pathological” urine specimens etabolism of nutrients produces wastes that must be removed from the
provided by the instructor body. Although excretory processes involve several organ systems (the
● Wide-range pH paper lungs excrete carbon dioxide and skin glands excrete salts and water),
● Urinometer it is mainly the urinary system that removes nitrogenous wastes from the body.
● Disposable autoclave bags The kidney also maintains the electrolyte, acid-base, and fluid balances of the
● Laboratory buckets containing 10% bleach blood.
solution To properly do its job, the kidney acts first as a blood “filter” and then as a fil-
● Combination dipsticks (Multistix® trate processor. It allows toxins, metabolic wastes, and excess ions to leave the body
preferred) via the urine while retaining needed substances and returning them to the blood.
Gross Anatomy of the Human Urinary System

The paired kidneys and ureters and the single urinary bladder and urethra make up
the urinary system (Figure 26.1). The kidneys perform the functions described
and manufacture urine in the process. The remaining organs of the system provide
temporary storage or transportation channels for urine.
Activity 1
Identifying Urinary System Organs
Examine the human torso model, a large anatomical chart, or a three-
dimensional model of the urinary system to locate and study the anatomy
and relationships of the urinary organs.
1. Locate the paired kidneys on the dorsal body wall in the superior lumbar
region. Notice that the right kidney is slightly lower than the left kidney be-
cause it is “crowded” by the liver. In a living person, a perirenal fat capsule
and a fibrous renal fascia hold the kidneys in place in a retroperitoneal posi-
tion against the muscles of the posterior trunk wall.
2. Observe the renal arteries as they diverge from the descending aorta and
plunge into the indented medial region, called the hilum, of each kidney.
Note also the renal veins, which drain the kidneys and the two ureters,
which drain urine from the kidneys, moving it by peristalsis to the bladder
for temporary storage.
331
332 Exercise 26
Hepatic veins (cut)
Esophagus (cut)
Inferior vena cava
Renal artery
Adrenal gland
Renal hilum
Aorta Renal vein
Kidney
Iliac crest
Ureter
Rectum (cut)
Uterus (part of female
reproductive system)
Urinary
bladder
Urethra
Figure 26.1 Organs of the female urinary system. Anterior view.
3. Locate the urinary bladder, and notice where the two Urinary bladder
ureters enter this organ. Also identify the single urethra, Ureter
which drains the bladder.The triangular region of the bladder,
which is outlined by these three openings (two ureteral and
one urethral orifice), is the trigone (Figure 26.2). If possible,
identify the two sphincter muscles that control the outflow of Ureteric
urine from the bladder. The more superior internal urethral orifices
sphincter is an involuntary sphincter composed of smooth
muscle. The external urethral sphincter consists of skeletal
muscle and is voluntarily controlled. Internal
urethral sphincter Trigone
26 4. Follow the course of the urethra to the body exterior. In
the male, it is approximately 20 cm (8 inches) long, travels External Internal
the length of the penis, and opens at its tip. Its three named urethral sphincter urethral
regions—the prostatic, intermediate part, and spongy (pe- orifice
Urogenital
nile) urethrae—are described in more detail with the re- diaphragm
Urethra
productive system (Exercise 27). The male urethra has a
External urethral orifice
dual function: it conducts urine to the body exterior, and it
provides a passageway for semen ejection from the body.
Thus, in the male, the urethra is part of both the urinary and Figure 26.2 Basic structure of the urinary bladder
reproductive systems. In females, the urethra is very short, and urethra of a female.
approximately 4 cm (1½ inches) long, and it serves only to
transport urine. Its external opening, the external urethral
orifice, lies anterior to the vaginal opening.
Functional Anatomy of the Urinary System 333
DISSECTION
Gross Internal Anatomy of the Pig or Sheep Kidney

1. In preparation for dissection, don gloves. Obtain a pre- areas that have a striped appearance—the renal (medul-
served sheep or pig kidney, dissecting tray, and instru- lary) pyramids. The base of each pyramid faces the cortex,
ments. Observe the kidney to identify the fibrous capsule, whereas the pointed papilla, or apex, points to the inner-
a smooth transparent membrane that adheres tightly to most kidney region.
the surface of the kidney. Renal columns: Areas of tissue within the medulla but
2. Find the ureter, renal vein, and renal artery at the hilum. more like the cortex in appearance. They separate the
The renal vein has the thinnest wall and will be collapsed. renal pyramids.
The ureter is the largest of these structures and has the Renal pelvis: Medial to the hilum; a relatively flat, basin-
thickest wall. like cavity that is continuous with the ureter, which exits
3. Make a cut through the longitudinal axis (frontal sec- from the hilum region. Fingerlike extensions of the pelvis
tion) of the kidney, and locate the regions described below form cuplike areas called calyces that enclose the apexes
and shown in Figure 26.3. of the renal pyramids. There is a minor calyx (plural: ca-
Renal cortex: The superficial kidney region, which is lyces) associated with each renal pyramid, and several
lighter in color. If the kidney is doubly injected with latex, minor calyces combine together to form a major calyx.
you will see a predominance of red and blue latex specks The calyces collect urine draining continuously from the
in this region, indicating its rich blood supply. papillae into the pelvis.
Renal medulla: Deep to the cortex; a darker, reddish 4. Now obtain a three-dimensional model of a cut kidney
brown color. The medulla is segregated into triangular and re-identify the structures described in steps 2 through 3.
Renal
hilum
Cortical radiate
vein
Cortical radiate
artery
Renal cortex
Arcuate vein
Arcuate artery
Renal medulla
Interlobar vein
Interlobar artery
Segmental 26
Major calyx arteries
Renal vein
Papilla of
pyramid Renal artery
Renal pelvis
Renal pelvis
Minor calyx
Ureter
Ureter
Renal pyramid in
renal medulla
Renal column
Fibrous capsule
(a) (b)
Figure 26.3 Internal anatomy of the kidney. Frontal sections. (a) Photograph of a right
kidney. (b) Diagram showing the larger blood vessels supplying the kidney tissue.
334 Exercise 26
The arterial blood supply is delivered to the kidneys by the arcuate arteries and ascend into the cortex, giving off the
the large renal arteries. As a renal artery approaches the individual afferent arterioles, which lead to the glomerulus,
kidney, it breaks up into five branches called segmental a ball of capillaries. Efferent arterioles drain the glomerulus
arteries, which enter the hilum. Each segmental artery, in and feed into one of two capillary beds, either the peritubu-
turn, divides into several interlobar arteries, which ascend lar capillaries or the vasa recta. Blood draining from the
toward the cortex in the renal column areas. At the top of nephron capillary networks in the cortex enters the cortical
the cortex-medulla junction, the interlobar arteries branch radiate veins and then drains through the arcuate veins and
into the arcuate arteries, which curve over the bases of the the interlobar veins to finally enter the renal vein in the
renal pyramids. Small cortical radiate arteries branch off pelvis region. There are no segmental veins.
Functional Microscopic Anatomy of the Kidney

Each kidney contains over a million nephrons, the anatomical the renal tubule and empty into the cortical radiate veins that
units responsible for forming urine (Figure 26.4). leave the cortex. The peritubular capillaries are low-pressure
Each nephron consists of a renal corpuscle and a renal porous capillaries adapted for absorption and readily take up
tubule. The structures within the renal corpuscle are summa- the solutes and water reclaimed from the filtrate by the tubule
rized individually in Table 26.1. cells. Efferent arterioles that supply juxtamedullary nephrons
The renal tubule is approximately 3 cm (1.25 inches) form long, straight, highly interconnected vessels called vasa
long. As it extends from the glomerular capsule, it coils and recta. The vasa recta is essential for the formation of concen-
drops down into a long hairpin loop, and then again coils and trated urine.
twists before entering a collecting duct. In order from the glo- Substances that are almost entirely reabsorbed from the
merular capsule, the anatomical areas of the renal tubule are filtrate include water, glucose, and amino acids. Various ions
as follows: the proximal convoluted tubule, nephron loop, are selectively reabsorbed or allowed to go out in the urine
and the distal convoluted tubule. according to what is required to maintain appropriate blood
Most nephrons, called cortical nephrons, are located pH and electrolyte balance. Wastes are reabsorbed to a much
entirely within the cortex. The renal corpuscles of the lesser degree or not at all. Most of tubular reabsorption occurs
juxtamedullary nephrons are located deep in the cortex; their in the proximal convoluted tubule.
long nephron loops dip deep into the medulla. The collecting
ducts, each of which receives urine from many nephrons, run
downward through the renal pyramids to empty the urine prod- Activity 2
uct into the calyces and pelvis of the kidney.
Nephron function depends on some unique features of Studying Nephron Structure
the renal circulation. There are three distinct capillary beds, 1. Obtain a nephron model, and bring it to your lab
the glomerulus, the peritubular capillary bed, and the vasa bench. Begin your study of nephron structure by identi-
recta. Because (1) the glomerulus is fed and drained by ar- fying the glomerulus, glomerular capsule, proximal and
terioles (arterioles are high-resistance vessels as opposed to distal convoluted tubules, and the nephron loop on the
venules) and (2) the feeder afferent arteriole is larger in di- model. Also identify the arcuate and interlobar arteries
ameter than the efferent arteriole draining the bed, the glom- and the corresponding veins, the afferent and efferent
erulus is a high-pressure bed along its entire length. The high arterioles, and the peritubular capillary bed.
26 hydrostatic pressure created by these two anatomical features
2. Go to the demonstration area to continue your study
forces out fluid and blood components smaller than proteins
of nephron structure by examining a longitudinal section
from the glomerulus into the glomerular capsule. That is, it
of the kidney. Scan the slide under low power.
forms the filtrate, which is processed by the renal tubule.
The peritubular capillary bed arises from the efferent Text continues on page 336. ➔
arteriole draining the glomerulus. These capillaries cling to
Table 26.1 Structures of the Renal Corpuscle (Figure 26.4)

Glomerulus A cluster of capillaries supplied by the afferent Forms part of the filtration membrane.
arteriole and drained by the efferent arteriole
Visceral layer of the Podocytes that wrap around the glomerular capillaries Forms part of the filtration membrane. Spaces between
glomerular capsule branch into foot processes the foot processes form filtration slits that allow filtrate
to enter the capsular space.
Parietal layer of the Outer impermeable wall of the glomerular capsule Forms the outside of the cuplike glomerular capsule.
glomerular capsule Plays no role in filtration.
Cortical
nephron Fibrous capsule
Collecting
Cortex
duct
Medulla
Renal
cortex Proximal
convoluted tubule
Renal pelvis
Glomerulus Juxtamedullary
Ureter nephron
Distal
convoluted tubule
Nephron loop
Renal
medulla
Proximal
Peritubular convoluted
capillaries tubule
Glomerulus Parietal layer
(a) of glomerular
Distal capsule
Proximal
convoluted
convoluted Glomerular
tubule
tubule capsular
Glomerular
space
capsule
Glomerulus
covered by
podocytes
Efferent arteriole forming
visceral
Afferent arteriole layer of
glomerular
Cells of the capsule
juxtaglomerular Efferent
complex arteriole
Cortical radiate artery Afferent

Arcuate artery arteriole
Arcuate (c)
vein Cortical radiate
vein 26
Collecting duct
Filtration slits between foot processes
Podocyte
Nephron loop cell body
(b)
Foot
Figure 26.4 Structure of the nephron. (a) Wedge-shaped processes
of podocyte
section of kidney tissue indicating the positioning of
nephrons in the kidney. (b) Detailed anatomy of a nephron
and its associated blood supply. Part of the distal convo-
luted tubule and afferent arteriole have been sectioned to
reveal the location of the juxtaglomerular complex. (c) The
renal corpuscle consists of a glomerulus surrounded by a
glomerular capsule. (d) Scanning electron micrograph of
podocytes clinging to the glomerular capillaries (85003). (d)
336 Exercise 26
3. Take a close look at the cortical area. Identify a Renal tubules Glomerular Glomeruli
glomerulus (pointed-out structure), which appears as capsular space
a ball of tightly packed material containing many small
nuclei (Figure 26.5). Notice the vacant-appearing region
corresponding to the lumen of the glomerular capsule that
surrounds it.
4. The balance of the kidney tissue consists of renal tu-
bules. Note that the renal tubules are cut at various angles.
Also try to pick out the thin-walled nephron loop portion of
the tubules and a section of the proximal convoluted tu-
bule, which has dense microvilli that provide for increased
capability for reabsorption.
Figure 26.5 Microscopic structure of kidney tissue.

Low-power view of the renal cortex (703). (See also
Plate 41 in the Histology Atlas.)
Urinalysis
Blood composition depends largely on three factors: diet, cel- their tubules, where it is processed. In the same period, urine
lular metabolism, and urinary output. In 24 hours, the kidneys output is 0.8 to 1.8 liters.
filter approximately 150 to 180 liters of blood plasma into
Characteristics of Urine
Freshly voided urine is usually clear and pale to deep Specific gravity is the relative weight of a specific volume
yellow in color. This normal yellow color is due to of liquid compared with an equal volume of distilled water. The
urochrome, a pigment arising from the body’s breakdown specific gravity of distilled water is 1.000, because 1 ml weighs
of hemoglobin. As a rule, the greater the solute concentra- 1 g. Because urine contains dissolved solutes, a given volume of
tion, the deeper the yellow color. Abnormal urine color urine weighs more than the same volume of water, and its cus-
may be due to certain foods, such as beets, various drugs, tomary specific gravity ranges from 1.001 to 1.030. Urine with a
bile, or blood. specific gravity of 1.001 contains few solutes and is very dilute.
26 The odor of freshly voided urine is slightly aromatic, Dilute urine is common when a person drinks large amounts of
but bacterial action gives it an ammonia-like odor when left water, uses diuretics, or suffers from chronic renal failure. Con-
standing. Certain diseases may alter the characteristic odor of ditions that produce urine with a high specific gravity include
urine. For example, the urine of a person with uncontrolled limited fluid intake, fever, diabetes mellitus, gonorrhea, and
diabetes mellitus (and elevated levels of ketones) smells kidney inflammation, called pyelonephritis. If urine becomes
fruity, like acetone. excessively concentrated, some of the solutes begin to precipi-
The pH of urine ranges from 4.5 to 8.0, but its average tate or crystallize, forming kidney stones, or renal calculi.
value is slightly acidic (usually around 6). Diet may markedly Solutes normally found in urine (in order of decreasing
influence the pH of the urine. For example, a high-protein concentration) include urea; sodium, potassium, phosphate,
diet increases the acidity of urine, while a vegetarian diet in- and sulfate ions; creatinine; and uric acid. Much smaller but
creases the alkalinity of the urine. A bacterial infection of the highly variable amounts of calcium, magnesium, and bicar-
urinary tract may also result in urine with a high pH. bonate ions are also found in urine.
Abnormal Constituents of Urine

Abnormal urinary constituents are substances not normally white blood cells (leukocytes), and bile. Table 26.2 lists ab-
present in the urine when the body is operating properly. normal urinary constituents and possible conditions in which
These include glucose, ketone bodies, blood proteins (pri- they might be seen.
marily albumin), red blood cells (erythrocytes), hemoglobin,
Table 26.2 Abnormal Constituents of Urine
Substance Name of condition Possible causes

Glucose Glycosuria Nonpathological: excessive carbohydrate intake
Pathological: uncontrolled diabetes mellitus
Proteins Proteinuria, albuminuria Nonpathological: excessive physical exertion, pregnancy
Pathological (over 150 mg/day): heart failure, severe hypertension,
glomerulonephritis, often initial sign of asymptomatic renal disease
Ketone bodies Ketonuria Excessive formation and accumulation of ketone bodies, as in low-
carbohydrate diets, starvation and uncontrolled diabetes mellitus
Hemoglobin Hemoglobinuria Various: transfusion reaction, hemolytic anemia, severe burns, poisonous
snake bites, and renal disease
Bile pigments Bilirubinuria Liver disease (hepatitis, cirrhosis) or obstruction of bile ducts from liver
or gallbladder
Erythrocytes Hematuria Bleeding in the urinary tract (due to trauma, kidney stones, infection, or
cancer)
Leukocytes (pus) Pyuria Urinary tract infection, gonorrhea
Activity 3
Analyzing Urine Samples
In this part of the exercise, you will use combination dip urine samples are actually artificial urine, you should still
sticks and perform a number of tests to determine the observe the techniques of safe handling of body fluids as
characteristics of normal urine as well as to identify abnor- part of your learning process. When you have completed
mal urinary components. You will investigate both “nor- the laboratory procedures: (1) dispose of the gloves and
mal” urine—yours or a normal sample provided by your used pH paper strips in the autoclave bag; (2) put used
instructor—designated as the standard urine specimen in glassware in the bleach-containing laboratory bucket; (3)
Table 26.3 and an unknown urine specimen provided by wash the lab bench down with 10% bleach solution.
your instructor. Record the number of your unknown spec-
imen in the table. Then conduct the following tests on both Determining Physical Characteristics of Urine
samples, and record your results by circling the appropri- 1. Assess the color, transparency, and odor of your
ate description or by adding data to complete Table 26.3. standard sample and one of the numbered pathologi-
Obtain and wear disposable gloves throughout this cal samples, and circle the appropriate descriptions in
! laboratory session. Although the instructor-provided Table 26.3.
Table 26.3 Urinalysis Results*

26
Observation or test Normal values Standard urine specimen Unknown specimen (# )
Physical Characteristics
Color Pale yellow Yellow: pale medium dark Yellow: pale medium dark
other other
Transparency Clear Clear Slightly cloudy Cloudy Clear Slightly cloudy Cloudy
Odor Aromatic Describe Describe
pH 4.5–8.0
Specific gravity 1.001–1.030
Organic Components
Glucose Negative Record results: Record results:
Protein Negative Record results: Record results:
Ketone bodies Negative Record results: Record results:
RBCs/hemoglobin Negative Record results: Record results:
Bilirubin Negative Record results: Record results:
*In recording urinalysis data, circle the appropriate description if provided; otherwise, record the results you observed.
338 Exercise 26
2. Obtain a roll of wide-range pH paper to determine the ketones, and blood/hemoglobin) at the same time. Gen-
pH of each sample. Use a fresh piece of paper for each erally speaking, results for all of these tests may be read
test, and dip the strip into the urine to be tested two or during the second minute after immersion, but readings
three times before comparing the color obtained with the taken after 2 minutes have passed should be considered
chart on the dispenser. Record your results in Table 26.3. inaccurate. Pay careful attention to the directions for
You will be using one of the combination dipsticks (e.g., method and time of immersion and disposal of excess
Multistix®) later; recheck this pH determination then. urine from the strip, regardless of the dipstick used.
3. To determine specific gravity, obtain a urinometer
Glucose
cylinder and float. Mix the urine well, and fill the urinometer
cylinder about two-thirds full with urine. Conduct the dipstick test according to the instructions on
the vial. Record the results in Table 26.3.
4. Examine the urinometer float to determine how to read
its markings. In most cases, the scale has numbered lines Protein
separated by a series of unnumbered lines. The numbered
Use a combination dipstick, and conduct the determina-
lines give the reading for the first two decimal places. You
tions as indicated on the vial. Record your results.
must determine the third decimal place by reading the lower
edge of the meniscus—the curved surface representing the Ketone Bodies
urine-air junction—on the stem of the float.
Use a combination dipstick, and conduct the tests as indi-
5. Carefully lower the urinometer float into the urine. cated on the vial. Record your results.
Make sure it is floating freely before attempting to take the
reading. Record the specific gravity of both samples in the Blood/Hemoglobin
table. Do not dispose of this urine if the samples that you Test your urine samples for the presence of hemoglobin
have are less than 200 ml in volume because you will need by using a combination dipstick according to the direc-
to make more determinations. tions on the vial. Usually a short drying period is required
before the reading can be made, so read the directions
Determining Organic Constituents in Urine carefully. Record your results.
Combination dipsticks will be used for all of the tests in Verify your conclusions on the unknown specimen
this section, so you should be prepared to take the read- with your instructor before cleaning your bench with
ings on several factors (pH, protein [albumin], glucose, bleach solution and leaving the laboratory.
26
EXERCISE
26 REVIEW SHEET
Functional Anatomy
of the Urinary System
Gross Anatomy of the Human Urinary System

1. What is the function of the fat capsule that surrounds the kidneys in life?
2. Label the photograph of the kidney model by selecting the letter for the correct structure from the key below.
Key:
a. minor calyx d. renal papilla g. renal vein
b. renal artery e. renal pelvis h. ureter
c. renal column f. renal pyramid
339
340 Review Sheet 26
Gross Internal Anatomy of the Pig or Sheep Kidney

3. Match the appropriate structure in Column B to its description in Column A.
Column A Column B
1. smooth membrane clinging tightly to the kidney surface cortex
2. portion of the kidney containing mostly collecting ducts medulla
3. superficial region of kidney tissue minor calyx
4. basinlike area of the kidney, continuous with the ureter fibrous capsule
5. an extension of the pelvis that encircles the apex of a pyramid renal column
6. tissue running between the renal pyramids renal pelvis
Functional Microscopic Anatomy of the Kidney

4. Match each of the lettered structures on the diagram of the nephron (and associated renal blood supply) on the left
with the terms on the right:
1. collecting duct
m. a.
b. 2. glomerulus
l. c.
3. peritubular capillaries
d.
e.
f. 4. distal convoluted tubule
k.
5. proximal convoluted tubule
6. cortical radiate artery
j. 7. glomerular capsule
8. arcuate artery
9. cortical radiate vein
10. efferent arteriole
i.
11. arcuate vein
h.
12. nephron loop
g.
13. afferent arteriole
5. Using the terms provided in question 4, identify the following:
1. ball of capillaries within the renal corpuscle
2. primary site of tubular reabsorption
3. structure that conveys the processed filtrate (urine) from many nephrons
Review Sheet 26 341
4. blood supply that directly receives substances from the tubular cells
5. its inner (visceral) membrane forms part of the filtration membrane
6. Explain why the glomerulus is such a high-pressure capillary bed.
How does its high-pressure condition help the glomerulus carry out filtrate formation?
7. What structural modification of certain tubule cells enhances their ability to reabsorb substances from the filtrate?
8. Trace a drop of blood from the time it enters the kidney in the renal artery until it leaves the kidney through the renal
vein.
Renal artery
renal vein
9. Trace the anatomical pathway of a molecule of a waste substance from the glomerular capsule to the urethra. Note
each microscopic and/or gross structure it passes through in its travels, and include the names of the subdivisions of
the renal tubule.
Glomerular capsule
urethra
Urinalysis: Characteristics of Urine

10. What is the range for the volume of urine normally excreted in a 24-hour period?
11. List three solutes that are routinely found in urine:
List three substances that are absent from the urine of healthy individuals:
List two substances that are routinely found in filtrate but not in the urine product:
12. Explain why urinalysis is a routine part of any good physical examination.
13. What substance is responsible for the normal yellow color of urine?
342 Review Sheet 26
14. Which has a greater specific gravity: 1 ml of urine or 1 ml of distilled water?
Explain.
15. Explain the relationships among the color, specific gravity, and volume of urine.
Abnormal Constituents of Urine

16. Explain two reasons why glucose might be present in the urine.
17. Several specific terms have been used to indicate the presence of abnormal urine constituents. Identify which urine
abnormalities listed in column A might be caused by each of the conditions listed in column B.
Column A Column B
1. blood in the urine proteinuria
2. hemolytic anemia glycosuria
3. eating a 2-lb box of candy at one sitting hematuria
4. pregnancy hemoglobinuria
5. starvation ketonuria
6. urinary tract infection pyuria
18. What are renal calculi, and what conditions favor their formation?
19. Describe the effect that dehydration would have on the specific gravity of urine and why.
20. + A urinary tract infection (UTI) is an infection of any of the urinary tract structures: kidneys, ureter, bladder, or
urethra. Considering the differences in the male and female anatomy and that the bacteria that cause UTIs are often
found in the feces, explain why females are more likely to contract a UTI. _______________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
21. + Proteus mirabilis produces the enzyme urease, which converts urea into ammonia. Explain why patients with a
UTI caused by Proteus mirabilis would have a higher-than-normal urine pH. _____________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
EXERCISE
27 Anatomy of the Reproductive System

● Models or large laboratory charts of the □ Identify structures of the male reproductive system on an
male and female reproductive tracts appropriate model or diagram, and give the function of each.
● Ovary model
□ Trace the pathway of sperm from the testis to the body
● Demonstration area: Prepared microscope
slides set up for microscopic examination
exterior.
Station 1: Human sperm (oil-immersion) □ Name the exocrine and endocrine products of the testis.
Station 2: Ovary □ Relate sperm structure to sperm function.
□ Identify the structures of the female reproductive system

when provided with an appropriate model or diagram, and
explain the function of each.
□ Identify the fundus, body, and cervix regions of the uterus.
□ Name the exocrine and endocrine products of the ovary.
T
he reproductive system is unique. Most simply stated, its biological func-
tion is to produce offspring. The reproductive role of the male is to manufac-
ture sperm and to deliver them to the female reproductive tract. The female,
in turn, produces eggs. If the time is suitable, the combination of sperm and egg
produces a fertilized egg. Once fertilization has occurred, the female uterus pro-
vides a nurturing, protective environment in which the embryo, later called the
fetus, develops until birth.
Gross Anatomy of the Human Male

Reproductive System
The primary sex organs of the male are the testes, the male gonads, which have
both an exocrine (sperm production) and an endocrine (testosterone production)
function. All other reproductive structures are ducts or sources of secretions, which
help deliver the sperm safely to the body exterior or female reproductive tract. A
sagittal view of the male reproductive system is illustrated in Figure 27.1.
Activity 1
Identifying Male Reproductive Organs
As the following organs and structures are described, locate them on
Figure 27.1, and then identify them on a model of the male reproductive
system or on a large laboratory chart.
The paired oval testes lie in the scrotum outside the abdominopelvic cavity.
The temperature there is slightly lower than body temperature, a requirement for
producing viable sperm.
The accessory structures forming the duct system are the epididymis, the
ductus deferens, the ejaculatory duct, and the urethra. Identify the epididymis, an
elongated structure running up the posterior and lateral aspect of the testis and cap-
ping its superior aspect. The epididymis forms the first portion of the duct system
and provides a site for immature sperm to mature. Follow the ductus deferens, or
343
344 Exercise 27
7TGVGT
2GTKVQPGWO
Ducts
r'LCEWNCVQT[FWEV
r&WEVWU XCU FGHGTGPU
#ORWNNCQH
7TKPCT[ r7TGVJTC
FWEVWUFGHGTGPU
DNCFFGT r'RKFKF[OKU
4GEVWO
Accessory glands
2WDKU
r5GOKPCNINCPF XGUKENG
r2TQUVCVG
r$WNDQWTGVJTCNINCPF Penis
r%QTRWUECXGTPQUWO
7TQIGPKVCNFKCRJTCIO r%QTRWUURQPIKQUWO
#PWU r)NCPURGPKU
r2TGRWEG HQTGUMKP
Testis
r'ZVGTPCNWTGVJTCN
Scrotum QTKHKEG
Figure 27.1 Reproductive system of the human male, sagittal view.
vas deferens (sperm duct) as it runs superiorly from the epi- medium in which sperm leave the body. The location and
didymis, passes through the inguinal canal into the pelvic cav- secretion of accessory glands are summarized in Table 27.1.
ity, and arches over the superior aspect of the urinary bladder. The penis, part of the external genitalia of the male along
The ductus deferens is enclosed along with blood vessels and with the scrotum, is the copulatory organ of the male. Designed
nerves in a connective tissue sheath called the spermatic cord. to deliver sperm into the female reproductive tract, it consists of
The end of the ductus deferens empties into the ejaculatory a body or shaft, which terminates in an enlarged tip, the glans
duct. During ejaculation, contraction of the ejaculatory duct penis. The skin covering the penis is loosely applied, and it re-
propels the sperm through the prostate gland to the prostatic flects downward to form a fold of skin, the prepuce, or foreskin,
urethra, which in turn empties into the intermediate part of around the proximal end of the glans. The foreskin is sometimes
the urethra and then into the spongy urethra, which runs removed in the surgical procedure called circumcision. Inter-
through the length of the penis to the body exterior. nally, the penis consists primarily of three elongated cylinders of
The accessory glands include the prostate gland, the erectile tissue that fill with blood during sexual excitement. This
paired seminal glands (seminal vesicles), and the bulbo- causes the penis to enlarge and become rigid so that it may serve
urethral glands. These glands produce seminal fluid, the liquid as a penetrating device. This event is called erection.
27 Table 27.1 Accessory Glands of the Male Reproductive System (Figure 27.1)
Accessory gland Location Secretion

Seminal glands Paired glands located posterior to the urinary bladder. A thick, light yellow, alkaline secretion containing
The duct of each gland merges with a ductus deferens fructose and citric acid, which nourish the sperm, and
to form the ejaculatory duct. prostaglandins for enhanced sperm motility. Its secretion
has the largest contribution to the volume of semen.
Prostate Single gland that encircles the prostatic urethra inferior A milky, slightly acidic fluid that contains citric acid,
to the bladder. several enzymes, and prostate-specific antigen (PSA).
Its secretion plays a role in activating the sperm.
Bulbo-urethral glands Paired tiny glands that drain into the intermediate part A clear alkaline mucus that lubricates the tip of the
of the urethra. penis for copulation and neutralizes traces of acidic
urine in the urethra prior to ejaculation.
Anatomy of the Reproductive System 345
Microscopic Anatomy of the Testes and Sperm

Testis
Each testis is covered by two connective tissue layers: the out-
Activity 2
ermost tunica vaginalis and the deeper tunica albuginea. Ex- Viewing Sperm Microscopically
tensions of the tunica albuginea enter the testis, dividing it into
a number of lobules, each of which houses one to four highly Go to station 1 of the demonstration area, and view a
coiled seminiferous tubules, the sperm-forming factories prepared slide of human sperm with the oil immersion
(Figure 27.2). The seminiferous tubules of each lobule empty lens. Compare what you see to Figure 27.3a and Plate 47
the sperm into another set of tubules, the rete testis, at the poste- in the Histology Atlas. Identify the head, acrosome, and
rior side of the testis. Sperm traveling through the rete testis then tail regions. Draw and appropriately label two or three
enter the epididymis, located on the exterior aspect of the testis, sperm in the space below.
as previously described. Lying in the connective tissue between
the seminiferous tubules are the interstitial endocrine cells,
which produce testosterone, the hormonal product of the testes.
Sperm
During sperm formation, all the excess cytoplasm is sloughed
off the developing sperm, and what remains is compacted into
the three regions. At the risk of oversimplifying, these regions
are the head, the midpiece, and the tail (Figure 27.3), which Deformed sperm, for example, sperm with multiple
correspond roughly to the activating and genetic region, the heads or tails, are sometimes present in such prepara-
metabolic region (rich in mitochondria for ATP production), tions. Did you observe any?
and the locomotor region (a flagellum powered by ATP), re-
spectively. The mature sperm is a streamlined cell equipped If so, describe them.
with an organ of locomotion that enables it to move long
distances in jig time to get to the egg.
The sperm head contains the DNA of the chromosomes.
Essentially it is the nucleus of the spermatid. Anterior to the
nucleus is the acrosome, which contains enzymes involved
in sperm penetration of the egg.
Spermatic cord
Blood vessels
and nerves
Ductus (vas)
deferens
Head of Testis
epididymis
Seminiferous
Efferent
tubule
ductule
Rete testis
Lobule
27
Straight Septum
tubule
Tunica
Body of albuginea
epididymis
Tunica
vaginalis
Duct of
epididymis Cavity of
Tail of tunica
epididymis vaginalis
Figure 27.2 Structure of the testis. Longitudinal section of the testis showing
seminiferous tubules. Epididymis and part of the ductus deferens also shown.
(See also Plates 44 and 46 in the Histology Atlas.)
346 Exercise 27
Plasma membrane
Neck
Tail
Head
Midpiece
#ZKCNƂNCOGPV
of tail Distal Acrosome
centriole
Nucleus
(a) Mitochondria
Proximal centriole
(b)
Figure 27.3 Structure of a sperm. (a) Scanning electron micrograph of mature

sperm (21003). (b) Diagram of a sperm.
Gross Anatomy of the Human Female Reproductive System

The ovaries (female gonads) are the primary sex organs of the The external genitalia (vulva) consist of the mons pubis,
female. Like the testes of the male, the ovaries produce both an the labia majora and minora, the clitoris, the urethral and vaginal
exocrine product (eggs, or ova) and endocrine products (estro- orifices, and greater vestibular glands. Table 27.2 summarizes
gens and progesterone). The accessory structures of the female the structures of the female external genitalia (Figure 27.4).
reproductive system transport, house, nurture, or otherwise serve The diamond-shaped region between the anterior end of
the needs of the reproductive cells and/or the developing fetus. the labial folds, the ischial tuberosities laterally, and the anus
posteriorly is called the perineum.
The internal female organs include the vagina, uterus,
Activity 3 uterine tubes, ovaries, and the structures that suspend these
organs in the pelvic cavity (Figure 27.5). The vagina ex-
Identifying Female Reproductive Organs tends for approximately 10 cm (4 inches) from the vesti-
As you read the descriptions of these structures, locate bule to the uterus superiorly. It serves as a copulatory organ
them on Figures 27.4, 27.5, and 27.6 and then on the female because it receives the penis (and semen) during sexual inter-
reproductive system model or large laboratory chart. course. The vagina also provides a passageway for delivery
Table 27.2 External Genitalia (Vulva) of the Human Female (Figure 27.4)
Structure Description
Mons pubis Rounded fatty eminence that cushions the pubic symphysis; covered with coarse pubic hair after puberty.
Labia majora Two elongated hair-covered skin folds that extend from the mons pubis. They contain sebaceous glands,
(singular: labium majus) apocrine glands, and adipose. They are homologous to the scrotum.
27 Labia minora Two smaller folds located medial to the labia majora. They don’t have hair or adipose but they do have many
(singular: labium minus) sebaceous glands.
Vestibule Region located between the two labia minora. From anterior to posterior, it contains the clitoris, the external
urethral orifice, and the vaginal orifice.
Clitoris Small mass of erectile tissue located where the labia minora meet anteriorly. It is homologous to the penis.
Prepuce of the clitoris Skin folds formed by the union of the labia minora; they serve to hood the clitoris.
External urethral orifice Serves as the outlet for the urinary system. It has no reproductive function in the female.
Hymen A thin fold of vascular mucous membrane that may partially cover the vaginal opening.
Greater vestibular glands Pea-sized mucus-secreting glands located on either side of the hymen. They lubricate the distal end of the
vagina during coitus. They are homologous to the bulbo-urethral glands of males.
A fertilized egg is implanted in the uterus, which houses the

embryo or fetus during its development.
The uterine, or fallopian, tubes enter the superior part
Mons
pubis Labia of the uterus and extend for about 10 cm (4 inches) toward the
majora ovaries in the peritoneal cavity. The distal ends of the tubes
Prepuce
of clitoris Labia
are funnel-shaped and have fingerlike projections called fim-
Clitoris minora briae. Unlike the male duct system, there is no actual contact
(glans) between the female gonad and the initial part of the female
External
urethral duct system—the uterine tube. Therefore, the function of the
Vestibule
orifice fimbriae is to create a current that sweeps the ovulated egg
Hymen into the uterine tube.
(ruptured) The internal female organs are all retroperitoneal, except
Vaginal the ovaries. They are supported and suspended somewhat
Anus orifice freely by folds of peritoneum. The peritoneum takes an un-
dulating course. The fold that encloses the uterine tubes
and uterus and secures them to the lateral body walls is the
broad ligament (Figure 27.6). The round ligaments and
Opening of the duct the uterosacral ligaments also help attach the uterus to the
of the greater
vestibular gland
body wall. The ovaries are supported medially by the ovarian
ligament (extending from the uterus to the ovary) and later-
ally by the suspensory ligaments. The ovaries are considered
Figure 27.4 External genitalia (vulva) of the human
to be homologous to the testes and possess the same covering
female. The region enclosed by the dashed lines is the
as the tunica albuginea.
perineum.
Within the ovaries, the female gametes (eggs) be-
gin their development in saclike structures called follicles
of an infant and for menstrual flow. The pear-shaped uterus, (Figure 27.7). The growing follicles also produce estrogens.
situated between the bladder and the rectum, is a muscular When a developing egg has reached the appropriate stage
organ with its narrow end, the cervix, directed inferiorly. The of maturity, it is ejected from the ovary in an event called
major portion of the uterus is the body; its superior rounded ovulation. The ruptured follicle is then converted to a corpus
region above the entrance of the uterine tubes is the fundus. luteum, which secretes progesterone (and some estrogens).
5WURGPUQT[ Uterine tube

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Ovary
Uterus
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2WDKU External genitalia (vulva)
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27
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Anus QTKHKEG
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Figure 27.5 Midsagittal section of the human female reproductive system.

348 Exercise 27
Suspensory
ligament of ovary Uterine (fallopian) tube
Ovarian
blood Fundus Uterine
vessels of uterus cavity Uterine tube
(lumen) • Ampulla
Ovary • Isthmus
Broad ligament • Infundibulum
• Mesosalpinx • Fimbriae
• Mesovarium
• Mesometrium
Round ligament of uterus

Ovarian
ligament Wall of uterus
• Endometrium
Body of uterus
• Myometrium
Ureter
• Perimetrium
Uterine blood vessels
Isthmus
Internal os
Uterosacral ligament Cervical canal
Cardinal (transverse cervical) External os
ligament
Vagina
Lateral fornix
Cervix
Figure 27.6 Internal reproductive organs of a female, posterior view. The posterior
walls of the vagina, uterus, and uterine tubes, and the broad ligament (a peritoneal
fold) have been removed on the right side to reveal the shape of the lumen of these
organs.
Tunica Secondary
albuginea follicle
Cortex Granulosa Late
Degenerating secondary
cells
corpus luteum follicle
(corpus albicans)
Mesovarium and
blood vessels
Surface
epithelium
Vesicular
Primary (antral)
follicles follicle
Antrum
Secondary
oocyte
Ovarian
ligament Zona
pellucida
Theca
27 Medulla folliculi
Ovulated
secondary
oocyte
Corpus luteum Ruptured
follicle Corona
Developing radiata
corpus luteum
Figure 27.7 Anatomy of the human ovary.

Activity 4
Conducting a Microscopic Study of the Ovary
Because many different stages of ovarian development
exist within the ovary at any one time, a single micro- Surface epithelium
scopic preparation will contain follicles at many different Tunica
stages of development. Go to station 2 of the demonstra- albuginea
tion area where a cross section of ovary tissue has been
set up for viewing, and identify the following structures.
Refer to Figure 27.7 and Figure 27.8 as you work.
Surface epithelium: Outermost layer of the ovary.
Primary follicle: One or a few layers of cuboidal follicle
cells surrounding the larger central developing ovum.
Secondary follicles: Follicles consisting of several layers
of follicle cells surrounding the central developing ovum
and beginning to show evidence of fluid accumulation in
a central cavity. Secretes estrogens.
Vesicular (antral) follicle: At this stage of development, Primary
the follicle has a large antrum containing fluid. The de- follicles
veloping ovum is pushed to one side of the follicle and Antrum of a Secondary
is surrounded by a capsule of several layers of follicle vesicular follicle follicle
cells called the corona radiata (radiating crown). When the
secondary oocyte is released, it enters the uterine tubes Figure 27.8 Photomicrograph of a mammalian ovary
with its corona radiata intact. showing follicles in different developmental phases
Corpus luteum: A solid glandular structure or a structure (2.53). (See also Plates 19, 20, and 49 in the Histology
containing a scalloped lumen that develops from the ovu- Atlas.)
lated follicle. Produces both estrogens and progesterone.
Now examine the ovary model to re-identify the same
structures on a model.
27
EXERCISE
27 REVIEW SHEET
Anatomy of the Reproductive System
Anatomy of the Human Male Reproductive System

1. List the two main functions of the testis:
2. Identify all indicated structures or portions of structures on the photo of the model of the male reproductive system
below.
3. How might enlargement of the prostate gland interfere with urination or a man’s reproductive ability?
351
352 Review Sheet 27
4. Why are the testes located in the scrotum rather than inside the ventral body cavity?
5. Match the terms in column B to the descriptive statements in column A.
Column A Column B
1. copulatory organ/penetrating device bulbo-urethral gland
2. produces sperm ductus deferens
3. duct conveying sperm to the ejaculatory duct; epididymis

in the spermatic cord
intermediate part of the urethra
4. distal urethra that transports urine and semen
penis
5. sperm maturation site
prepuce
6. location of the testis in adult males
scrotum
7. hoods the glans penis
seminal gland
8. portion of the urethra that is located in the
urogenital diaphragm spongy urethra
9. accessory gland that secretes fluid to cleanse testis

the urethra prior to ejaculation
10. accessory gland that secretes the largest

contribution to semen
6. Name the male structure that is homologous to the female structures named below.
labia majora clitoris ovaries
7. Describe the composition of semen, and name all structures contributing to its formation.
8. Using the following terms, trace the pathway of sperm from the testes to the urethra: rete testis, epididymis, seminif-
erous tubule, ductus deferens.
9. The testis is divided into a number of lobes by connective tissue. Each of these lobes contains one to four
, which converge on a tubular region called
.
Review Sheet 27 353
10. On the diagram showing the sagittal section of the human testis, correctly identify all structures provided with leader
lines.
Anatomy of the Human Female Reproductive System

11. Name the structures composing the external genitalia, or vulva, of the female.
12. Identify the female reproductive system structures described below:
1. site of fetal development
2. copulatory canal
3. winglike structure that holds the uterine tubes and uterus in place
4. becomes erect during sexual excitement
5. glands homologous to the bulbo-urethral glands of the male
6. produces eggs, estrogens, and progesterone
7. fingerlike ends of the uterine tube
13. Put the following vestibular-perineal structures in their proper order from the anterior to the posterior aspect: vaginal
orifice, anus, urethral opening, and clitoris.
354 Review Sheet 27
14. Assume a couple has just consummated the sex act and the male’s sperm have been deposited in the woman’s vagina.
Trace the pathway of the sperm to the site of possible fertilization. (Hint: fertilization occurs in the uterine tube.)
15. Define ovulation:
16. On the photo of the model of the female reproductive system below, identify all indicated structures.
17. How are primary and vesicular follicles anatomically different?
18. + Cryptorchidism is failure of the testes to descend. Explain why this would cause sterility if not corrected.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
19. + Hysterectomy is a surgical removal of the uterus. It may or may not be accompanied by a salpingo-oophorectomy,
removal of the uterine tubes and ovaries. Why would it be an advantage to leave the ovaries intact? ______________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Histology Atlas
Goblet cells Motor neuron

axon branches
Mucus
secretion
Axon
Microvilli terminals at
(brush border) neuromuscular
junctions
Underlying
connective Muscle fibers
tissue
PLATE 1 Simple columnar epithelium containing goblet

cells, which are secreting mucus (4303). (Exercise 5,
page 40)
PLATE 4 Part of a motor unit, neuromuscular junctions
(7403). (Exercise 11, page 126)
Muscle
fibers,
longitudinal
view Nucleus of
neuroglial cell
Nuclei of Neurofibril
muscle fibers
Nucleus
Nucleolus
Dendrites
Muscle
fibers,
cross-
sectional
view
Chromatophilic
substance
PLATE 2 Skeletal muscle, cross section and longitudinal
views shown (4803). (Exercise 5, page 47; Exercise 11,
page 123)
PLATE 5 Light micrograph of a multipolar neuron
(4503). (Exercise 5, page 49; Exercise 13, page 153)
Smooth
muscle
cells Dendrites
Cell body
Nucleus
PLATE 6 Silver-stained Purkinje cells of the cerebellum

PLATE 3 Smooth muscle (3303). (Exercise 5, page 47) (653). (Exercise 13, page 154)
355
356 Histology Atlas
Axons
Myelin sheath
Nonmyelinated
axon
Satellite Endoneurium
cells
Heavily
myelinated
Cell bodies axons
of unipolar Perineurium
neurons
Epineurium
Schwann cell
PLATE 7 Dorsal root ganglion displaying neuron cell nucleus and
bodies and satellite cells (1853). (Exercise 13, page 154) cytoplasm
PLATE 10 Cross section of a portion of a peripheral

nerve (5103). Heavily myelinated fibers are identified by
a centrally located axon surrounded by an unstained ring
Myelin of myelin. (Exercise 13, page 157)
sheath
Myelin gap
sheath
Axon
Schwann
cell
nucleus
Epidermis
Tactile corpuscle
Dermal papilla
PLATE 8 A small portion of a peripheral nerve in longi-
tudinal section (3003). (Exercise 13, page 153)
Dura mater
Dorsal funiculus
PLATE 11 Tactile corpuscle in a dermal papilla (4003).
Dorsal median (Exercise 6, page 58)
sulcus
Dorsal horn
of gray matter
Lateral funiculus
Gray Epidermal
commissure cells
Ventral horn
of gray matter
Central canal
Free nerve
Ventral median endings
fissure
Ventral funiculus
PLATE 9 Cross section of an adult spinal cord (43).

(Exercise 15, page 182)
Dermis
PLATE 12 Free nerve endings at dermal-epidermal

junction (4303). (Exercise 6, page 58)
Histology Atlas 357
Vestibular
Lamellar membrane
corpuscle Scala
vestibuli
Hair (receptor)
cells
Tectorial
membrane
Dense Afferent fibers
irregular of the
connective cochlear
tissue nerve
Scala tympani
Basilar
membrane
PLATE 13 Cross section of a lamellar corpuscle in the PLATE 16 The spiral organ (1603). (Exercise 17, page 205)
dermis (1203). (Exercise 6, page 58)
Trough between
adjacent papillae
Extrafusal muscle fibers
Foliate papillae
Capsule
Taste buds
Intrafusal fibers of the

muscle spindle (receptor)
PLATE 17 Location of taste buds on lateral aspects of

PLATE 14 Longitudinal section of a muscle spindle (803). foliate papillae of tongue (1053). (Exercise 17, page 210)
Lamina propria
Choroid containing
mucus-secreting
Pigmented layer of retina glands
Outer segments of rods Olfactory stem
and cones cell nucleus
Nuclei of rods and cones
Supporting cell
nucleus
Nuclei of bipolar cells Olfactory sensory

neuron nucleus
Olfactory cilia
Ganglion cell layer

Lumen of nasal
cavity
PLATE 18 Olfactory epithelium. From lamina propria

PLATE 15 Structure of the retina of the eye (1403). to nasal cavity, the general arrangement of cells in
(Exercise 17, page 197) this pseudostratified epithelium: olfactory stem cells,
olfactory sensory neurons, and supporting cells (2603).
358 Histology Atlas
Follicle
(granulosa) Capsule
cells
Connective
tissue (theca) Medullary
Zona pellucida cords
Developing Lymphoid
oocyte follicles
Corona
radiata
Antrum Trabecula
(central
fluid-filled
cavity) Cortex
PLATE 19 Vesicular (antral) follicle of an ovary (1003).

PLATE 22 Main structural features of a lymph node (403).
Corpus Valve
luteum leaflet
Collecting
lymphatic
vessel
Blood
PLATE 20 Glandular corpus luteum of an ovary (903). capillary
PLATE 23 Collecting lymphatic vessel (7003).

Vein
Artery
Tunica Red
media pulp
Tunica
externa
White
Cross sections pulp
of nerves
External
Arteriole
elastic
membrane
PLATE 21 Cross-sectional view of an artery, a vein, and

nerves (253). (Exercise 21, page 259)
PLATE 24 Microscopic portion of spleen showing red

and white pulp regions (803).
Histology Atlas 359
Germinal
centers in
lymphoid
follicles
Hyaline
cartilage
ring
Tonsil
Lumen of
trachea
Tonsillar
crypt
Follicles
PLATE 25 Palatine tonsil. The exterior surface of the of thyroid
tonsil is covered by stratified squamous epithelium, gland
which invaginates deeply to form tonsillar crypts (123).
Lumen of
Respiratory esophagus
bronchiole
Alveolar duct
Stratified
squamous
epithelium
Alveoli
PLATE 28 Cross section through trachea and esophagus

(1.53). (Exercise 23, page 296)
Alveolar sac
PLATE 26 Part of the lung showing alveoli and alveolar Alveolar sacs
ducts and sacs (503). (Exercise 23, page 296)
Smooth
muscle
layer
Hyaline
cartilage ring Pseudo-
stratified
Goblet cells ciliated
columnar
epithelium
Pseudo-
stratified Lumen
ciliated of bronchiole
columnar
epithelium Lamina
propria
Seromucous
glands
PLATE 29 Bronchiole, cross-sectional view (753).
Lamina
propria
PLATE 27 Cross section through the trachea showing

the pseudostratified ciliated epithelium, glands, and part
of the supporting ring of hyaline cartilage (1403).
360 Histology Atlas
Stratified Simple
squamous columnar
epithelium of epithelium
esophagus
Lamina
propria
Esophagus-
stomach
junction
Gastric pit
Gastric
glands
Simple
columnar
epithelium
of stomach
PLATE 32 Detailed structure of gastric glands and pits

(1503). (Exercise 25, page 316)
PLATE 30 Esophagus-stomach junction showing simple
columnar epithelium of stomach meeting stratified
squamous epithelium of esophagus (1303).
Gastric
glands
Circular folds
(permanent folds
Muscularis of mucosa and
mucosae submucosa)
Mucosa
Submucosa
Mucosa
Oblique
(villus with
layer
core of lamina
Circular propria and
Muscularis
layer smooth muscle)
externa
Longitudinal
layer Submucosa
PLATE 31 Stomach. Longitudinal view (183). (Exercise Circular layer

of smooth
25, page 316) muscle
Longitudinal
layer of smooth
muscle
Serosa
PLATE 33 Cross-sectional view of the duodenum of the

small intestine (353). (Exercise 25, page 314)
Histology Atlas 361
Mucous cells Serous demilunes Lumen of duct
Villus
Simple columnar
epithelium
Lamina propria
Intestinal crypt
Muscularis mucosae
Duodenal glands
PLATE 37 Sublingual mixed salivary glands (1703).

PLATE 34 Cross-sectional view of duodenum showing
villi and duodenal glands (553).
Acinar cells (exocrine tissue) Islets (endocrine tissue)
Peyer’s
patch
Villi of
mucosa
Connec-
Muscularis tive
externa tissue
septa
PLATE 35 Cross section through ileum, showing
Peyer’s patches (503). (Exercise 25, page 317) PLATE 38 Pancreas tissue. Exocrine and endocrine
(islets) areas clearly visible (903). (Exercise 18, page 225;
Exercise 25, page 320)
Lumen
Connective
Goblet tissue
cells septum
Lamina Portal
propria triad
region
Central
Muscularis vein
mucosae
Submucosa Lobule
PLATE 36 Large intestine. Cross-sectional view show-

ing the abundant goblet cells of the mucosa (753).
PLATE 39 Pig liver. Structure of a liver lobule (653).
362 Histology Atlas
Sinusoids
Smooth muscle
Circular
layer
Longitudinal
layer
Stellate
macrophages
containing Transitional
dark epithelium
deposits
Hepatocytes
Adventitia
PLATE 40 Liver stained to show location of phagocytic PLATE 43 Cross section of ureter (403).
cells (Stellate macrophages) lining sinusoids (2803).
Renal tubules Glomerular capsular space
Pseudo-
stratified
columnar
epithelium
Glomeruli
Sperm in
lumen
Stereocilia
PLATE 44 Cross section of epididymis (1653). Stereocilia

PLATE 41 Renal cortex (603). (Exercise 26, page 336) of the epithelial lining are obvious. (Exercise 27, page 345)
Cuboidal Corpora cavernosa

epithelium of the
renal tubule
Glomerular Venous cavities

capsular
space
Glomerulus Tunica albuginea

(surrounds
Juxtaglomerular corpora)
cells
Lumen of spongy
Parietal layer urethra
of the glomerular
capsule Corpus spongiosum
Macula densa
PLATE 45 Penis, transverse section (23).
PLATE 42 Detailed structure of a glomerulus (2603).

Histology Atlas 363
Medulla
Spermatogenic
cells in tubule Primary follicle
wall
Immature Oocyte
sperm in
lumen Granulosa cells
Cortex of ovary
Antrum of vesicular
(antral) follicle
Interstitial
endocrine
cells Surface epithelium
PLATE 49 The ovary, showing its follicles in various

PLATE 46 Cross section of a portion of a seminiferous stages of development (253). (Exercise 27, page 349)
tubule (2203). (Exercise 27, page 345)
Fluid medium
of semen Monocyte
Lymphocytes
Neutrophil
Head with
acrosome
Sperm
Midpiece Platelets
Tail
Erythrocytes
PLATE 50 Human blood smear (6303). (Exercise 19,

PLATE 47 Semen, the product of ejaculation, consisting
page 232)
of sperm and fluids secreted by the accessory glands,
particularly the prostate and seminal vesicles (19503).
Serosa
Smooth
muscle
Highly
folded
mucosa
Lumen
PLATE 51 Two neutrophils surrounded by erythrocytes

(11003). (Exercise 19, page 232)
PLATE 48 Cross-sectional view of the uterine tube (123).

364 Histology Atlas
PLATE 54 An eosinophil surrounded by erythrocytes

PLATE 52 Lymphocyte surrounded by erythrocytes
(15403). (Exercise 19, page 232)
(10403). (Exercise 19, page 233)
PLATE 55 A basophil surrounded by erythrocytes

PLATE 53 Monocyte surrounded by erythrocytes (13303). (Exercise 19, page 232)
(10603). (Exercise 19, page 233)
APPENDIX
A The Microscope

● Compound microscope □ Identify the parts of the microscope, and list the function of each.
● Millimeter ruler □ Describe and demonstrate the proper techniques for care of
● Prepared slides of the letter e or newsprint the microscope.
● Immersion oil in a dropper bottle □ Define total magnification and resolution.
● Lens paper
□ Demonstrate proper focusing technique.
● Prepared slide of grid ruled in millimeters
(grid slide) □ Define parfocal, field diameter, and depth of field.
● Prepared slide of three colored crossed □ Estimate the size of objects in a field.
threads
● Clean microscope slide and coverslip
● Toothpicks (flat-tipped)
W
● Physiological saline in a dropper bottle
● Methylene blue stain (dilute) in a dropper
ith the invention of the microscope, biologists gained a valuable tool to
bottle observe and study structures, such as cells, that are too small to be seen
by the unaided eye. As a result, many of the theories basic to the under-
● Filter paper
standing of biological sciences have been established. This exercise will famil-
● Forceps iarize you with the workhorse of microscopes—the compound microscope—and
● Beaker containing fresh 10% household provide you with the necessary instructions for its proper use.
bleach solution for wet mount disposal
Care and Structure of the
Note to the Instructor: The slides and cov-
erslips used for viewing cheek cells are to be Compound Microscope
soaked for 2 hours (or longer) in 10% bleach
solution and then drained. The slides, cover- The compound microscope is a precision instrument and should always be
slips, and disposable autoclave bag (contain- handled with care. At all times you must observe the following rules for its trans-
ing used toothpicks) are to be autoclaved for port, cleaning, use, and storage:
15 min at 121°C and 15 pounds pressure to • When transporting the microscope, hold it in an upright position, with one
ensure sterility. After autoclaving, the dispos- hand on its arm and the other supporting its base. Avoid jarring the instru-
able autoclave bag may be discarded in any ment when setting it down.
disposal facility and the glassware washed
with laboratory detergent and reprepared for • Use only special grit-free lens paper to clean the lenses. Clean all lenses
use. These instructions apply as well to any before and after use.
bloodstained glassware or disposable items • Always begin the focusing process with the scanning objective lens in posi-
used in other experimental procedures. tion, changing to the higher-power lenses as necessary.
• Never use the coarse adjustment knob with the high-power or oil immersion
lenses.
• Always use a coverslip with temporary (wet mount) preparations.
• Before putting the microscope in the storage cabinet, remove the slide from
the stage, rotate the scanning objective lens into position, and replace the
dust cover.
• Never remove any parts from the microscope; inform your instructor of any
mechanical problems that arise.
365
366 Appendix A
Activity
Identifying the Parts of a Microscope
1. Using the proper transport technique, obtain a micro- usually the longest of the objectives and has a magnifying
scope and bring it to the laboratory bench. power of 953 to 1003. Note that some microscopes lack
□ Record the number of your microscope in the Micro- the oil immersion lens.
scope Summary Chart (page 368). □ Record the magnification of each objective lens of your
Compare your microscope with Figure A.1, and identify microscope in the first row of the Microscope Summa-
the microscope parts described in Table A.1. ry Chart. Also, cross out any column relating to a lens
that your microscope does not have.
2. Examine the objectives carefully; note their relative
lengths and the numbers inscribed on their sides. On 3. Rotate the scanning objective until it clicks into
most microscopes, the scanning objective lens is the position, and turn the coarse adjustment knob about
shortest and typically has a magnification of 43. The low- 180 degrees. Notice how far the stage (or objective) trav-
power objective lens typically has a magnification of 103. els during this adjustment. Move the fine adjustment knob
The high-power objective lens is of intermediate length 180 degrees, noting again the distance that the stage
and has a magnification range from 403 to 503, depend- (or the objective) moves.
ing on the microscope. The oil immersion objective lens is
Ocular lenses
Rotating
nosepiece
Arm
Mechanical Stage
stage
Objective lenses
Condenser
knob Condenser
(regulates
height of Iris diaphragm
condenser) lever
Coarse
adjustment Mechanical stage
knob controls
Fine Substage light

adjustment
knob
Base
Light control
Figure A.1 Compound microscope and its parts.

Appendix A 367
Table A.1 Parts of the Microscope

Microscope part Description and function
Base The bottom of the microscope. Provides a sturdy flat surface to support and steady the microscope.
Substage light Located in the base. The light from the lamp passes directly upward through the microscope.
Light control Located on the base or arm. This dial allows you to adjust the intensity of the light passing through the specimen.
Stage The platform that the slide rests on while being viewed. The stage has a hole in it to allow light to pass
through the stage and through the specimen.
Mechanical stage Holds the slide in position for viewing and has two adjustable knobs that control the precise movement of the slide.
Condenser Small nonmagnifying lens located beneath the stage that concentrates the light on the specimen. The condenser
may have a knob that raises and lowers the condenser to vary the light delivery. Generally, the best position
is close to the inferior surface of the stage.
Iris diaphragm lever The iris diaphragm is a shutter within the condenser that can be controlled by a lever to adjust the amount of
light passing through the condenser. The lever can be moved to close the diaphragm and improve contrast. If
your field of view is too dark, you can open the diaphragm to let in more light.
Coarse adjustment knob This knob allows you to make large adjustments to the height of the stage to initially focus your specimen.
Fine adjustment knob This knob is used for precise focusing once the initial coarse focusing has been completed.
Head Attaches to the nosepiece to support the objective lens system. It also provides for attachment of the
eyepieces which house the ocular lenses.
Arm Vertical portion of the microscope that connects the base and the head.
Nosepiece Rotating mechanism connected to the head. Generally, it carries three or four objective lenses and permits
positioning of these lenses over the hole in the stage.
Objective lenses These lenses are attached to the nosepiece. Usually, a compound microscope has four objective lenses:
scanning (43), low-power (103), high-power (403), and oil immersion (1003) lenses. Typical magnifying
powers for the objectives are listed in parentheses.
Ocular lens(es) Binocular microscopes will have two lenses located in the eyepieces at the superior end of the head. Most
ocular lenses have a magnification power of 103. Some microscopes will have a pointer and/or reticle
(micrometer), which can be positioned by rotating the ocular lens.
Magnification and Resolution (c) Retina

The microscope is an instrument of magnification. In the
compound microscope, magnification is achieved through the
Ocular lens
interplay of two lenses—the ocular lens and the objective lens.
The objective lens magnifies the specimen to produce a real (a) Real image
image that is projected to the ocular. This real image is magni-
fied by the ocular lens to produce the virtual image that your
eye sees (Figure A.2).
Image
The total magnification of any specimen being viewed remagnified
is equal to the power of the ocular lens multiplied by the
power of the objective lens used. For example, if the ocular Image
lens magnifies 103 and the objective lens being used magni- magnified
fies 453, the total magnification is 4503 (10 3 45).
Objective
Activity lens
Object
Determining Total Magnification
Determine the total magnification for each of the objec-
tives on your microscope, and record the figures on the
second row of the Microscope Summary Chart. Light
(b) Virtual image
Figure A.2 Image formation in light microscopy.

(a) Light passing through the objective lens forms a real
image. (b) The real image serves as the object for the
ocular lens, which remagnifies the image and forms the
virtual image. (c) The virtual image passes through the
lens of the eye and is focused on the retina.
368 Appendix A
Microscope Summary Chart
Microscope # Magnification of Ocular Lens 3

Scanning Low power High power Oil immersion
Magnification of 3 3 3 3
objective lens
Total magnification 3 3 3 3
Detail observed
Field diameter mm μm mm μm mm μm mm μm
Working distance mm mm mm mm
The compound light microscope has certain limita- Resolution is determined by the amount and physical
tions. Although the level of magnification is almost limit- properties of the visible light that enters the microscope. In
less, the resolution (or resolving power), the ability to general, the more light delivered to the objective lens, the
discriminate two close objects as separate, is not. The greater the resolution. The size of the objective lens aperture
human eye can resolve objects about 100 μm apart, but the (opening) decreases with increasing magnification, allow-
compound microscope has a resolution of 0.2 μm under ing less light to enter the objective. Thus, you will probably
ideal conditions. Objects closer than 0.2 μm are seen as a find it necessary to increase the light intensity at the higher
single fused image. magnifications.
Activity
Viewing Objects Through the Microscope
1. Obtain a millimeter ruler, a prepared slide of the letter e How far is the bottom of the objective lens from the surface
or newsprint, a dropper bottle of immersion oil, and some of the slide? In other words, what is the working distance?
lens paper. Adjust the condenser to its highest position, Hold a millimeter ruler vertically to make this measure-
and switch on the light source of your microscope. ment, and record it here and in the summary chart.
2. Secure the slide on the stage so that the letter e is cen-
tered over the light beam passing through the stage. On the mm
mechanical stage of your microscope, open the jaws of its
slide retainer (holder) by using the control lever, typically How has the apparent orientation of the e changed in
located at the rear left corner of the mechanical stage. Insert terms of top to bottom, right to left, and so on?
the slide squarely within the confines of the slide retainer.
3. With your scanning objective in position over the stage,
use the coarse adjustment knob to bring the objective and
stage as close together as possible.
4. Look through the ocular lens, and adjust the light for
comfort. Now use the coarse adjustment knob to focus 6. Move the slide slowly away from you on the stage as
slowly away from the e until it is as clearly focused as pos- you view it through the ocular. In what direction does the
sible. Complete the focusing with the fine adjustment knob. image move?
5. Sketch the letter in the circle just as it appears in the
field—the area you see through the microscope.
Move the slide to the left. In what direction does the im-
age move?
7. Today most good laboratory microscopes are parfocal;

that is, the slide should be in focus (or nearly so) at the
higher magnifications once you have properly focused in
1.p. If you are unable to swing the objective into position
without raising the objective, your microscope is not par-
focal. Consult your instructor. Without touching the focus-
What is the total magnification? 3 ing knobs, increase the magnification by rotating the next
Appendix A 369
higher magnification lens (low-power or high-power) into 4: 10: 40:

position over the stage. Make sure it clicks into position.
Using the fine adjustment only, sharpen the focus. What
new details become clear?
Working
distance
What is the total magnification now? 3

Stage
As best you can, measure the distance between the objec- Figure A.3 Relative working distances of the 43, 103,
tive and the slide (the working distance), and record it on and 403 objectives.
the chart.
working distance, and information on detail observed on
Why should you not use the coarse focusing knob when the Microscope Summary Chart (page 368).
focusing with the higher-powered objective lenses?
9. Without touching the focusing knob, rotate the high-
power lens out of position so that the area of the slide over
the opening in the stage is unobstructed. Place a drop of
immersion oil over the e on the slide and rotate the oil im-
mersion lens into position. Set the condenser at its high-
est point (closest to the stage), and open the diaphragm
Is the image larger or smaller? fully. Adjust the fine focus and fine-tune the light for the
best possible resolution.
Approximately how much of the letter e is visible now?
Is the field diameter again decreased in size?
What is the total magnification with the oil immersion lens?

Is the field diameter larger or smaller?
3
Why is it necessary to center your object (or the portion
of the slide you wish to view) before changing to a higher Is the working distance less or greater than it was when
power? the high-power lens was focused?
Move the iris diaphragm lever while observing the field. Compare your observations on the relative working dis-
What happens? tances of the objective lenses with Figure A.3. Explain
why it is desirable to begin the focusing process in low
power.
Is it more desirable to increase or decrease the light when

changing to a higher magnification?
__________ Why? ______________________________________
10. Rotate the oil immersion lens slightly to the side, and
8. If you have just been using the low-power objective, remove the slide. Clean the oil immersion lens carefully
repeat the steps given in direction 7 using the high-power with lens paper, and then clean the slide in the same man-
objective lens. Record the total magnification, approximate ner with a fresh piece of lens paper.
Diameter of the Microscope Field observed extends across half this diameter, you can estimate
the length of the object to be approximately 2 mm.
The microscope field decreases with increasing magnifica- Microscopic specimens are usually measured in microm-
tion. Measuring the diameter of each of the microscope fields eters and millimeters, both units of the metric system. You
will allow you to make a fairly accurate estimate of the size can get an idea of the relationship and meaning of these units
of the objects you view in any field. For example, if you have from the Comparing Metric Units of Length chart. A more
calculated the field diameter to be 4 mm and the object being detailed treatment appears in the inside back cover.
370 Appendix A
Comparing Metric Units of Length approximate diameter of the high-power and immer-
sion fields. Say the diameter of the low-power field (total
Metric unit Abbreviation Equivalent
magnification of 503) is 2 mm. You would compute the
Meter m about 39.37 in. diameter of a high-power field with a total magnification
Centimeter cm 1022 m of 1003 as follows:
Millimeter mm 1023 m 2 mm 3 50 5 Y (diameter of h.p. field) 3 100
Micrometer (or micron) μm (μ) 1026 m 100 mm 5 100Y
1 mm 5 Y (diameter of the h.p. field)
Nanometer nm (mμ) 1029 m
The formula is:
Diameter of the l.p. field (mm) 3 total magnification

Activity of the l.p. field 5 diameter of field Y 3 total magnification
Determining the Diameter of field Y
of the Microscope Field 3. Estimate the length (longest dimension) of the fol-
1. Return the letter e slide to the supplies area, and ob- lowing drawings of microscopic objects. Base your cal-
tain a grid slide (a slide prepared with graph paper ruled culations on the field diameters you have determined for
in millimeters). Each of the squares in the grid is 1 mm your microscope. The first one is done for you.
on each side. Use your scanning objective to bring the Fat cell seen in 4003 (total magnification, TM) field:
grid lines into focus.
2. Move the slide so that one grid line touches the edge Field diameter 5 0.4 mm 5 400 μm
of the field on one side, and then count the number of
squares you can see across the diameter of the field. If Portion of the field diameter
you can see only part of a square, as in the accompany- occupied by the object 5 1/3
ing diagram, estimate the part of a millimeter that the
partial square represents.
Approximate length 5 133 μm
Field diameter
Smooth muscle cell seen in 4003 (TM) field:
approximate length:
~2.5 mm
____________ mm
or ____________ μm
Cheek cell seen in oil immersion field:

For future reference, record this figure in the appropri-
approximate length:
ate space marked “field diameter” on the Microscope
Summary Chart (page 368). (If you have been using the
scanning lens, repeat the procedure with the low-power ____________ μm
objective lens.) Complete the chart by computing the
Perceiving Depth
Any microscopic specimen has depth as well as length and relative depth with your microscope. In microscope work, the
width; it is rare indeed to view a tissue slide with just one depth of field (the depth of the specimen clearly in focus) is
layer of cells. Normally you can see two or three cell thick- greater at lower magnifications.
nesses. Therefore, it is important to learn how to determine
Activity
Perceiving Depth
1. Return the grid slide, and obtain a slide with colored 2. Use the iris diaphragm lever to greatly reduce the light,
crossed threads. Focusing at low magnification, locate the thus increasing the contrast. Focus down with the coarse
point where the three threads cross each other. adjustment until the threads are out of focus, then slowly
Appendix A 371
focus upward again, noting which thread comes into clear Continue to focus upward until the uppermost thread is
focus first. This one is the lowest, or most inferior, thread. clearly focused. Again record your observation.
(You will see two or even all three threads, so you must
be very careful in determining which one comes into clear _____________________ thread over ______________________
focus first.) Record your observations:
Which thread is uppermost? ____________________________
______________________ thread over _____________________
Lowest? _______________________________________________
Activity
Preparing and Observing a Wet Mount
1. Obtain the following: a clean microscope slide and cov- 4. As shown in Figure A.4b, hold the coverslip with the
erslip, a flat-tipped toothpick, a dropper bottle of physi- forceps so that its bottom edge touches one side of the
ological saline, a dropper bottle of methylene blue stain, fluid drop, then slowly lower the coverslip onto the prepa-
forceps, and filter paper. ration (Figure A.4c). Do not just drop the coverslip, or you
2. Place a drop of physiological saline in the center of the will trap large air bubbles under it, which will obscure the
slide. Using the flat end of the toothpick, gently scrape the cells. Always use a coverslip with a wet mount to prevent
inner lining of your cheek. Agitate the end of the tooth- soiling the lens if you should misfocus.
pick containing the cheek scrapings in the drop of saline 5. Examine your preparation carefully. The coverslip
(Figure A.4a). should be closely apposed to the slide. If there is excess
3. Add a tiny drop of the methylene blue stain to the fluid around its edges, you will need to remove it. Obtain
preparation. (These epithelial cells are nearly transparent a piece of filter paper, fold it in half, and use the folded
and thus difficult to see without the stain, which colors the edge to absorb the excess fluid.
Before continuing, discard the filter paper in the
nuclei of the cells and makes them look much darker than
the cytoplasm.) Stir again and then dispose of the tooth-
! disposable autoclave bag.
pick as described below. 6. Place the slide on the stage and locate the cells in low
Immediately discard the used toothpick in the dis- power. You will probably want to dim the light with the iris
! posable autoclave bag provided at the supplies area. diaphragm lever to provide more contrast for viewing the
lightly stained cells.
7. Cheek epithelial cells are very thin, flat cells. In the
cheek, they provide a smooth, tilelike lining (Figure A.5).
8. Make a sketch of the epithelial cells that you observe.
(a) Approximately how wide are the cheek epithelial cells?
mm
(b)
(c)
Figure A.4 Procedure for preparing a wet mount.

(a) Place the object in a drop of water (or saline) on
a clean slide, (b) hold a coverslip at a 45° angle with Figure A.5 Epithelial cells of the cheek cavity (surface
forceps, and (c) lower the coverslip slowly. view, 7103).
372 Appendix A
Why do your cheek cells look different from those in 10. Before leaving the laboratory, make sure all other ma-
Figure A.5? (Hint: What did you have to do to your cheek terials are properly discarded or returned to the appropri-
to obtain them?) ate laboratory station. Clean the microscope lenses, and
put the dust cover on the microscope before you return it
to the storage cabinet.
9. When you complete your observations, dispose of

! your wet mount preparation in the beaker of bleach
solution.
Credits
Photographs Exercise 12 12.3b: Karen Krabbenhoft/ David L. Bassett; 23.RS.1, 23.RS.8: 3B
Exercise 1 1.3, 1.7a: John Wilson White/ Pearson Education, Inc.; 12.RS.1: PAL 3.0/ Scientific.
Pearson Education, Inc. Pearson Education, Inc. Exercise 24 24.3: Elena Dorfman/Pearson
Exercise 2 2.1-2.4: Elena Dorfman/Pearson Exercise 13 13.1b: William Karkow/Pearson Education, Inc.
Education, Inc.; 2.5: Arcady/Shutterstock. Education, Inc.; 13.2b: Don W. Fawcett/ Exercise 25 25.4b: Karen Krabbenhoft/
Science Source; 13.6b: Karen Krabbenhoft/ Pearson Education, Inc.; 25.5a: From A
Exercise 3 3.3, 3.RS.5: William Karkow/ PAL 3.0/Pearson Education, Inc. Stereoscopic Atlas of Human Anatomy, by
Pearson Education, Inc.
Exercise 14 14.1b, 14.2, 14.3b, David L. Bassett.
Exercise 4 4.1: Richard Megna/ 14.RS.2: Karen Krabbenhoft/Pearson Exercise 26 26.3a: Karen Krabbenhoft/
Fundamental Photographs. Education, Inc.; 14.4a: From A Stereoscopic PAL 3.0/Pearson Education, Inc.;
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College. /Pearson Education, Inc.;
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Plate 55: James O. Ballard, M.D.
White/Pearson Education, Inc. Pearson Education, Inc.; 21.RS.11: Ed
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Exercise 11 11.1a: Marian Rice;
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Source. Stereoscopic Atlas of Human Anatomy, by
373
Index
NOTE: Page numbers in boldface indicate a definition. A t following a
page number indicates tabular material and an f indicates an illustration.
A (dark) bands, 121, 122f Adrenal medulla, 224, 224t Anus, 312f, 317 ATP
Abdomen Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), rat, 14f, 15 in active transport, 29
arteries, 260f, 262t, 263f 222f, 222t Anvil (incus), 203f, 204t mitochondria and, 21t
muscles, 132f, 136t Adventitia alimentary canal, 312, 313t Aorta, 246f, 247f, 248f, 249, 259–264, in muscle contraction, 123–124
veins, 265f, 266, 266f, 267f Afferent arterioles, 334, 335f 260f Atria of heart, 246, 246f, 247f, 248f
Abdominal aorta, 259, 262, 262t, 263f Afferent (sensory) nerves, 157 sheep, 251f sheep, 251f
Abdominal cavity, 5 Afferent (sensory) neurons, 154, 155f Aortic arch, 246f, 259–262, 260f Atrioventricular (AV) valves, 246–248,
rat, 13–14f Agar gel, observing diffusion in, 30f Aortic (SL) valve, 247f, 248 247f
Abdominal reflex, 191 Agglutinins, 238, 239f Apex of coccyx, 87f Attachment sites, skeletal muscle, 113,
Abdominal region, 1, 2f Agglutinogens (antigens), 238, 239f Apex of heart, 245, 246f, 247f 124, 126
Abdominopelvic cavity, 5–6, 5f, 15, 16f Agonist muscles, 126 sheep, 251f Auditory (pharyngotympanic) tubes,
quadrants, 5–6, 6f Agranulocytes, 232–233 Apex of lung, 294, 295f 203f, 204t, 292f, 292t
rat dissection, 12–15 Air sacs (alveoli), 39f Apical impulse, 246f Auditory receptors (hair cells), 205, 357f
regions, 5–6 Ala/alae of sacrum, 87, 87f Apical pulse, 280 Auricle (pinna) of outer ear, 46f,
Abducens nerve (VI), 170t, 171f Albumin, in urine, 336, 337t, 338 Apical surface of epithelial 203f, 204t
Abduction (movement), 113, 115f Alcohol detoxification, 21t membranes, 37, 38, 38f Auricles of heart, sheep, 250, 251f
ABO blood groups, 238, 238t, 239f Aldosterone, 224t Apical-radial pulse, 280 Auricular surface of sacrum, 87f
typing of, 238–239 Alimentary canal. Apocrine sweat glands, 59 Auscultation of heart sounds, 279
Absorption of foodstuffs, 311, 313t, See Gastrointestinal (GI) tract Aponeuroses, 124, 137f Autonomic reflexes, 189, 192, 202
316–317 Alpha cells of pancreatic islets, 225 epicranial, 135f Axial skeleton, 67, 68f, 79–94
flowchart, 321f Alveolar ducts, 293, 293f, 296f, 359f Appendages of skin. skull, 79–84
Accessory glands, male reproductive, Alveolar processes, 80f, 82t, 83f See Skin vertebral column, 84–87
344, 344t Alveolar sacs, 293f, 359f Appendicular skeleton, 67, 68f, Axillary artery, 260f, 261f, 262
Accessory nerve (XI), 170t, 171f Alveoli (air sacs), 39f, 293, 293f, 359f 95–108, 97t Axillary nerve, 184f, 185, 185t
Accessory organs microscopic structure, 296f lower limbs, 101, 103–104f, Axillary region, 2
digestive, 311, 312f, 318–320 pulmonary capillaries, gas exchange 103–104t Axillary vein, 267, 268f
of skin, 59–62 in, 294f pectoral girdle, 95, 96f, 97t Axis (C2), 85, 86f, 113
Accommodation pupillary reflex, Amphiarthroses, 109 pelvic girdle, 68f, 99–101, 100f Axon hillock, 152f
202–203 Ampulla, 207, 207f upper limbs, 95–99, 97t, 98f, 99f Axon terminals, 124, 125f, 151–152,
Accommodation, visual, 201 of ductus deferens, 344f Appendix, 6f, 312f, 317, 318f 152f, 355f
near point of, 201 Ampullary cupula, 207, 207f Aqueous humor, 197, 198f Axons (nerve fibers), 49f, 151, 152,
Acetabulum, 99, 100f Anal canal, 312f, 317, 318f Arachnoid mater, 167, 168f, 183f 154, 355f, 356f
in females vs. males, 102t Anal sphincter, external, 318f Arachnoid granulations, 167, 168f, 169f of bipolar/multipolar/unipolar
Acetylcholine, 125, 125f Anaphase stage of mitosis, 23, 24f Arbor vitae, 166f, 167 neurons, 154f
Achilles (calcaneal) tendon, 133f, 143f Anatomical neck of humerus, 95, 98f Arcuate artery bundles of in CNS (tracts), 157
reflex, 191 Anatomical position, 1, 4f of foot, 264, 264f bundles of in PNS (nerves), 157
Acid hydrolases, 21t Anatomical terminology, 1 of kidney, 333f, 334, 335f myelin sheaths of, 152, 153f, 356f
Acinar cells (exocrine tissue), 361f body cavities, 5–6 Arcuate veins, of kidney, 333f, 334, 335f myelinated, 356f
Acne, 59 body landmarks, 1–3 Areolar connective tissue, 42, 43f nonmyelinated, 356f
Acoustic meatus body orientation, 3, 3f Arm of peripheral nerve, 157f, 356f
external, 80f, 80t, 82f, 84, 203f, 204t body planes, 4 arteries, 260f, 261f, 262 vs. dendrites, 151, 152f
internal, 81f body sections, 4 bone, 68f, 70f, 95, 96f Azygos system, 265f
Acromegaly, 226t directional, 3, 3f muscles, 132f, 133f, 136t, 137–138, Azygos vein, 267, 268f
Acromial region, 1 Anatomy 137f, 138t, 139f
Acromioclavicular (shoulder) joint, gross, 1 nerves, 184f, 185t Babinski’s sign, 191
96f, 97t, 111f, 112f, 112t surface, 1–3, 2f veins, 267, 268f Back muscles, 136t, 138t
palpating, 99 Anemia, 234 Arrector pili muscles, 56f, 60f, 61 Balance. See Equilibrium
Acromion of scapula, 96f, 97t, 112f Angles of scapula, 96f Arteries, 257–264, 258f Ball-and-socket joint, 110t, 112t
Acrosome, 345, 346f, 363f Animal (four-legged) anatomical terms, 3 elastic (conducting), 258t Basal epithelial cells, 210, 210f
ACTH (adrenocorticotropic) hormone, Ankle, 2 factors affecting blood flow, 284 Basal surface of epithelial membranes,
222f, 222t bones, 101, 104t major, of body, 259–264, 260f 38f
Actin, 121, 122f palpating, 104 microscopic structure, 257–259, Base of heart, 245
Actin filaments, 122f Ankle-jerk (calcaneal tendon) reflex, 191 259f, 358f Base of lung, 294, 295f
Action potential, 152, 155, 156f, 208f. Antagonist muscles, 126 muscular (distributing), 258t Basement membrane, 38, 39f, 40f, 41f
muscle contraction, 123, 125 Antebrachial region, 1 Arterioles, 258t Basilar artery, 270
physiology of, 155, 156f Antebrachial vein, median, 268f Articular capsule of synovial joints, Basilar membrane, 205, 205f, 357f
transmission of, 155, 156f Antecubital region, 2 110, 110t, 112f Basilic vein, 267, 268f
See also Nerve impulses Anterior border of tibia, 104t Articular cartilage, 70f, 71, 112f Basophils, 232, 233f, 364f
Active transport processes, 29 Anterior columns of spinal cord, 182, Articular facet, superior, 85f, 87f Benedict’s solution, 32t
Adam’s apple, 291 183f Articular processes, vertebral, 85, Beta cells of pancreatic islets, 225
Adaptation of sensory receptors, 59 Anterior gluteal line, 100f 85f, 86f Biaxial movement, 112, 112t
Adduction (movement), 113, 115f Anterior inferior iliac spine, 100f Articulations. Biceps brachii muscle, 132f, 136t,
Adductor brevis muscle, 140t Anterior orientation/direction, 3, 3f See Joints (articulations) 137f, 138
Adductor longus muscle, 132f, 140t, Anterior pituitary, 221, 222f Ascending aorta, 259, 260f Biceps femoris muscle, 133f, 142t, 143f
141f Anterior pituitary hormones, 221 Ascending colon, 6f, 312f, 317, 318f Bicuspid (mitral) valve of heart, 246,
Adductor magnus muscle, 133f, 140t, Anterior segment of eye, 197, 198f Ascending (sensory) tracts, 182 247f
141f, 143f Anterior superior iliac spine, 100f, 141f Association neurons. Bile
Adductor tubercle of femur, 103f palpating, 99 See Interneurons emulsifying actions of, 321f, 323
ADH (antidiuretic hormone), 223t, 226t Anterior (ventral) horns, spinal cord, Association tracts (cerebral in urine, 336, 337t
Adhesions, 116 181, 183f, 356f hemisphere), 167 Bile duct, 316, 320
Adipocytes (fat cells), 43f Antibodies (agglutinins), 238, 239f Aster, 23f Bipolar cells, 197, 197f
Adipose tissue, 42, 43f, 55, 56f, 60f Antidiuretic hormone (ADH), 223t Astigmatism, 201 Bipolar neurons, 154, 154f
Adrenal cortex, 224t hyposecretion/hypersecretion of, testing, 202, 202f Blackheads, 59
Adrenal glands, 10t, 15, 16f, 224 226t Atlantoaxial joints, 112t Bladder. See Urinary bladder
rat, 14f, 15 Antigens (agglutinogens), 238, 239f Atlas (C1), 85, 86f, 113 Blastulas of whitefish, 24
375
376 Index
Blind spot (optic disc), 197, 198f Brachial region, 2, 3 Carbohydrate digestion, 320, 321f Cephalic region, 2f, 3
cow eye, 200f Brachial vein, 267, 268f Carbon dioxide Cephalic vein, 267, 268f
demonstrating, 200–201, 201f Brachialis muscle, 132f, 133f, 136t, 137f cell membrane transport and, 29 Cerebellum, 164f, 165f, 166, 166f, 167
Blindness, color, 202 Brachiocephalic trunk, 259, 259t, 260f, cell’s need to dispose of, 291 Purkinje cells of, 355f
Blisters, 55 261f Cardia (cardial part of stomach), 315f, Cerebral aqueduct, 166f, 167
Blood, 10t, 231–244 sheep, 251, 251f 315t Cerebral arterial circle (circle of
composition of, 231–233, 233f Brachiocephalic veins, 265f, 266, 268f Cardiac cycle, 277–279, 278f Willis), 269–270
as connective tissue, 42, 231 Brachioradialis muscle, 132f, 133f, events of, 278f, 279t Cerebral arteries, 269, 270
hematologic tests, 234–239 136t, 137f heart sounds during, 279 Cerebral cortex, 164, 164f, 165t
microscopic examination, 232–233, Brain, 10t, 15, 16f, 163–171 Cardiac (gastroesophageal) sphincter, 315 Cerebral hemispheres (cerebrum),
363f, 364f arteries, 269–270, 270f Cardiac muscle, 47, 48f, 245, 247f 163–165, 164f, 166f, 167
safe handling of, 231 cerebral arterial circle (circle of examining, 250, 250f Cerebral peduncles, 165
Blood cell formation, site for, 67 Willis), 269–270 microscopic anatomy of, 249–250 Cerebral white matter, 151, 164, 164f
Blood clotting (coagulation) test, 237, cerebrospinal fluid, 168 Cardiac skeleton, 245 Cerebrospinal fluid, 167, 168
237f cranial nerves and, 163, 170–171, Cardiac veins, 246f, 247f, 249t tracing pathway through CNS,
Blood pressure, 281 170t, 171f Cardinal (transverse) ligament, 348f 168, 169f
cardiac cycle and, 277–279, 278f meninges, 167, 168f Cardiovascular system, 10t, 245 Ceruminous glands, 204t
cuff (sphygmomanometer), 281, 281f neuroglia, 49, 151 blood, 231–244 Cervical curvature, 84f
effects of exercise on, 282–283 neurons, 49, 151–162 blood pressure and, 277–279 Cervical plexus, 184f, 185, 185t
measuring, 281–282, 281f sheep dissection, 171–174, 173f, 174f blood vessels, 257–276 Cervical region, 2f
postural effects on, 282 structures cardiac cycle and, 277–279, 278f Cervical spinal nerves, 182f, 184f
Blood typing, 238–239 external, 163–166 components, 10t Cervical vertebrae, 84, 85–86
for ABO, Rh blood groups, 238–239 internal, 167 functions (overview), 10t palpating, 86
Blood vessels, 10t, 257–276, 358f. See veins, 265f, 266 heart, 10t, 245–256 regional features, 86f
also specific types Brain stem, 165, 165f, 166f, 167 Carina, 293f Cervix, 347, 347f, 348f
arteries, 257–264, 258f medulla oblongata, 164f, 165, 165f, Carotid arteries, 259, 259t, 260f, 261f, Cheeks, 2, 314, 315
of brain, 269–270 166f, 168f 269, 270f epithelial cells of, wet mount of,
factors affecting blood flow, 283–285 Breathing (pulmonary ventilation), as pulse point, 280, 280f 371–372
of hepatic portal circulation, 269, 270f 291, 301 Carotid canal, 80t, 82f Chemical digestion of foodstuffs,
microscopic structure, 257–259, 259f factors influencing rate/depth, 305–306 Carpal bones, 68f, 98, 99f 320–323
of pulmonary circulation, 267, 269f measuring respiratory volume, Carpal region, 2f flowchart, 321f
of skin, effect of mechanical 302–305 Carpometacarpal joint of thumb, 112t Chemical mediators, local
stimulation on, 285 mechanics, 294f, 301, 302f Carpus (wrist), 98 inflammatory response promoted
summary of anatomy and observing variations in, 305–306 Cartilage, 10t, 42 by, 285
physiology, 258t operating model lung, 301–302 articular, 70f, 71 Chemical senses, 209–212
veins, 265–267, 266f, 268f rib cage/diaphragm positions during, elastic, 46f Chemoreceptors
Body 302f joints and, 109 lab experiments, 211–212
of hyoid bone, 83f Broad ligament, 347, 348f Cartilaginous joints, 109, 110t, 111f of smell sense, 209–210, 209f
of mandible, 82t Broca’s area, 164f, 165t Catalysts, 320 of taste sense, 210–211, 357f
of nail, 61f, 62 Bronchi, 10t, 15 Catecholamines, 224t Chest. See Thorax
of stomach, 315f, 315t primary (main), 293, 293f Cauda equina, 181, 182f, 184f Chewing muscles, 134t, 135f
of uterus, 347 rat, 12 Caudal orientation/direction, 3, 3f Cholesterol in plasma membrane, 20, 21f
Body cavities, 5–6 Bronchial arteries, 260f, 262, 262t Cavities of body, 5–6 Chondrocytes
Body landmarks, 1–3 Bronchial tree, 293 Cecum, 6f, 312f, 317, 318f in fibrocartilage, 45f
Body movements Bronchioles, 293, 293f, 359f peritoneal attachments, 316f in hyaline cartilage, 45f
joint function in, 109 respiratory, 293, 293f rat, 12 in lacuna, 46f
types of, 113–116, 114f terminal, 293, 293f Celiac trunk, 260f, 262t, 263f Chordae tendineae, 246, 247f
Body orientation terminology, 3, 3f Brush border enzymes, 316, 321f Cell, 9, 19–27 Choroid, eye, 198f, 199t, 357f
Body planes and sections, 4, 4f Buccal region, 2f active membrane transport, 29 cow, 199, 200f
Body temperature regulation Buccinator muscle, 134t, 135f anatomy, 19–22 Choroid plexuses, 166f, 167, 168
dermal blood supply and, 57 Bulbar conjunctiva, 196f, 196t cytokinesis, 23–24, 24, 24f Chromatid, sister, 23, 23f
sweat glands and, 59 Bulbo-urethral glands, 344f, 344t division, 23–24, 23–24f Chromatin, 19, 20f, 23f
Bolus, 319 rat, 14f inclusions of, 21 Chromatophilic substance (Nissl
Bone markings, 67, 69t Bursae, 110 life cycle, 23–24, 23–24f bodies), 151, 152f
Bone (osseous tissue), 42, 46f Bursitis, 116 mitosis, 23–24, 23–24f Chromosomes, 19, 23, 23–24f
Bone salts, 71 Buttocks, 2f, 3 passive membrane transport, 29–36 daughter, 24f
Bone spurs, 116 specialization, benefits/risks, 37 Cilia, 40f
Bones, 10t C (parafollicular) cells, 223 Cell division, 23–24, 23–24f as specialized epithelial cells, 37, 42
acid effects on, 71–72 Calcaneal (Achilles) tendon, 133f, 143f in skin layers, 57t Ciliary body, 198f, 199t
of appendicular skeleton, 68f, ankle-jerk reflex, 191 Cellular energy, mitochondria and, 21t cow eye, 199, 200f
95–108, 97t Calcaneal region, 2f, 3 Cement, 319, 319f Ciliary glands, 196t
of axial skeleton, 68f, 79–94 Calcaneus (heel bone), 101, 104f Central canal of spinal cord, 181, 183f, Ciliary muscle, 198f, 199t
chemical composition of, 71–72 Calcitonin, 223t, 3 356f Ciliary process, 197, 198f, 199t
heat effects on, 71–72 Calcium ions Central (Haversian) canal, 46f, 72, 73f Ciliary zonule, 198f, 199t
long, 68, 70–71, 70f stored by bones, 67 Central nervous system (CNS), 163 cow eye, 199
surface markings, 69t tetany and, 226t brain, 163–171 Circle of Willis (cerebral arterial
tensile/compressional strength, 71 Calf region of leg, 3f neurons, 151–157 circle), 269–270
types of, 67–71 Calyces of renal pelvis, minor and spinal cord, 10t, 15, 16f, 181–183, Circular folds of small intestine, 317,
Bony labyrinth, 204t major, 333, 333f 182f, 183f 317f, 360f
equilibrium apparatus in, 207 Canaliculi, 72, 73f tracts, 157 Circulatory system
Bony matrix, 71 lacrimal, 196f, 196t Central sulcus of cerebral hemisphere, coronary, 246f, 249, 249t
Bony pelvis, 99 Canines (eye teeth), 318, 319f 163, 164f factors affecting blood flow, 283–284
Borders of scapula, 96f, 97t Capillaries, 258t Central vein of liver, 361f pulmonary and systemic, 248–249,
Brachial artery, 261f, 262 body temperature regulation and, Centrioles, 20f, 21t 248f, 267, 269f
blood pressure measurements at, 55, 57 Centromere, 23, 23f Circumcision, 344
281–282, 281f pulmonary, 248f, 267 Centrosome(s), 23f Circumduction movement, 113, 115f
as pulse point, 280, 280f of small intestine, 316, 317f Centrosome matrix, 20f Circumferential lamellae, 72, 73f
Brachial plexus, 184f, 185, 185t structure of, 258f Centrum (body) of vertebrae, 85, 85f, 86f Circumflex artery, 246f, 249t
distribution of nerves arising from, Capillary walls, filtration process and, 29 Cephalad/caudad (caudal) body Circumflex humeral artery, 261f
184f Capitate, 99f orientation/direction, 3 Clavicle, 68f, 95, 96f, 97t
Brachial pulse, 282 Capitulum, 97t, 98f in animals, 3 palpating, 99
Index 377
Clavicular notch, 88f Conus medullaris, 181, 182f of Schwann cell, 153f Digital region, 2f
Cleavage furrow, 24, 24f Convergence reflex, 202, 203 Cytoplasmic organelles, 21, 21t Digital veins, 266f, 268f
Clitoris, 346, 347f Coracoid process of scapula, 96f, 97t Cytoskeletal elements, 20f, 21t Directional terminology, 3, 3f
Coagulation (blood clotting), 237, 237f Cornea, 198f, 199t of neurons, 151, 152f Dissections
determining clotting time, 237–238 astigmatism and, 201 Cytoskeleton, filaments of, 21f cow eye, 199–200, 200f
Coccygeal nerve, 184f cow eye, 199, 200f Cytosol, 20f, 21 pig/sheep kidney, 333
Coccyx, 84, 84f, 87, 87f, 100f Corneal reflex, 192 rat, 9–15, 11f, 12f, 13–14f
in females vs. males, 102t Cornua (horn) of hyoid bone, 83, 84f Dark (A) bands, 121, 122f sheep brain, 171–174, 173f, 174f
Cochlea, 203f, 204t, 205f Corona radiata, 348f, 349 Daughter chromosomes, 24f sheep heart, 250–252, 251f
microscopic exam, 205, 357f Coronal (frontal) plane, 4, 4f Deafness spinal cord, 182, 356f
Cochlear duct, 205, 205f, 207f Coronal (frontal) section, 4f conduction, 206 Distal convoluted tubule, 334, 335f
Cochlear nerve, 207f, 357f Coronal suture, 79, 80f sensorineural, 206 Distal direction/orientation, 3, 3f
Colic flexures of large intestine, 317, 318f Coronary arteries, 246f, 247f, 249t, Deciduous (milk) teeth, 318, 319f Distant vision, 201
Collagen fibers, 42, 44f 259t, 260f Deep artery of arm, 261f DNA replication, in cell division, 23
of areolar connective tissue, 43f Coronary circulation, 246f, 249, 249t Deep artery of thigh, 264, 264f Dorsal body cavity, human, 5, 5f, 15, 16f
in bone matrix, 71 Coronary sinus, 247f, 249t Deep (internal) direction/orientation, 3 Dorsal direction/orientation, 3, 3f
of dermis, 57 Coronary sulcus, 246f, 247f, 249t Deglutition (swallowing), 323 in animals, 3
of fibrocartilage, 45f Coronoid fossa of humerus, 97t, 98f Deltoid muscle, 132f, 133f, 136t, 137, Dorsal median sulcus of spinal cord,
of intervertebral discs, 85 Coronoid processes 137f, 138t, 139f 183f, 356f
Collaterals, of axons, 151 of mandible, 80f, 82t Deltoid tuberosity, 97t, 98f Dorsal pedis vein, 266, 266f
Collecting ducts of nephrons, 334, 335f of ulna, 97t, 98f Demilunes of serous cells, 320, 361f Dorsal (posterior) columns (funiculi)
Colon, 6f, 312f, 317, 318f Corpora quadrigemina, 166, 166f Dendrites, 49f, 151, 152, 152f, 355f of spinal cord, 182, 183f, 356f
Color blindness, 202 Corpus callosum, 166f, 167 of bipolar/multipolar/unipolar Dorsal (posterior) horns, spinal cord,
Columnar epithelia, 38, 38f Corpus cavernosum, 344f neurons, 154f 181, 183f, 356f
pseudostratified, 40f Corpus luteum, 347, 348f, 349, 358f vs. axons, 151, 154 Dorsal rami, spinal nerves, 184, 184f
simple, 40f, 355f Corpus spongiosum, 344f Dendritic cells, 56 Dorsal root ganglion, 155f, 181, 183f,
Commissures Corrugator supercilii muscle, 135f Dens of axis, 85 356f
cerebral hemisphere, 166f, 167 Cortex Dense connective tissue, 42, 44f Dorsal roots, spinal cord, 181, 183f
gray, of spinal cord, 183f, 356f cerebral, 164, 164f, 165t Dental formula, 318 Dorsal venous arch, 266
Common fibular nerve, 185t, 186, 186f of hair, 60f Dentin, 319, 319f Dorsalis pedis artery, 264, 264f
Common hepatic duct, 320 renal, 333, 333f, 335f, 336f Dentinal tubules, 319f as pulse point, 280, 280f
Communicating arteries of brain, 270 Cortical nephrons, 334, 335f Depolarization in action potential/ Dorsiflexion movement of foot,
Compact bone, 67, 70f, 72–73, 73f Cortical radiate arteries, 333f, 334 nerve impulse, 155, 156f, 208f 113, 115f
Compound microscope, 365 Cortical radiate veins, 333f, 334 Depressor anguli oris muscle, 135f Drug detoxification site, 21t
care and structure of, 365–370, 366f, Costal cartilage, 45f, 88f Depressor labii inferioris muscle, 135f Ductus arteriosus, sheep, 251
367t Costal facets of thoracic vertebrae, 86f, 87 Dermal papillae, 56f, 57, 356f Ductus (vas) deferens, 343, 344f, 345f
depth of field, 370–371 Costocervical trunk, 261f Dermal vascular plexus, 56f rat, 14f, 15
diameter of microscope field, Coxal bones (ossa coxae), 99, 100f Dermis, 55, 56f, 57, 61f Duodenal glands, 361f
369–370 Coxal region, 2f blood supply, 57 Duodenal papilla, major, 316
magnification of, 367–368 Cranial aponeurosis, 134t cutaneous receptors of, 57–59 Duodenum, 312f, 315f, 316, 360f
resolution of, 368 Cranial bones (cranium), 68f, 79–83 Descending aorta, 15, 16f, 259 peritoneal attachments of, 316f
viewing objects through, 368–369 Cranial cavity, 5 rat, 14f, 15 Dura mater, 167, 168f, 356f
wet mount, preparing and observing, Cranial fossa, 81f Descending colon, 6f, 312f, 317, 318f Dwarfism, pituitary, 226t
371–372 Cranial nerves, 170–171, 170t, 171f Descending (motor) tracts of CNS, 182
Compressional strength of bone reflex tests, 192 Diabetes insipidus, 226t Ear
matrix, 71 testing of, 170t, 171 Diabetes mellitus, 226t anatomy, 203–205, 203f, 207
Concentration gradient, 29 Cranium (cranial bones), 68f, 79–83 Diagnostic blood tests, 234–239 equilibrium mechanism, 207
Concept map of tissues, 50, 50f Crest, bone marking, 69t Dialysis sacs, 31 examining with otoscope, 204
Conducting zone structures, 294 Cretinism, 226t Diaphragm, 6f, 15, 16f, 294, 295f hearing mechanism, 205, 357f
Condylar joints, 110t, 112t Cribriform foramina, 81f rat, 12, 13f Eardrum (tympanic membrane), 203f,
Condylar process, 80f, 82t Cribriform plate of ethmoid bone, 81f, Diaphysis, 70f, 71 204t
Condyles, 69t 81t, 209f Diarthroses, 109, 110, 110t otoscopic viewing, 204
of femur, 103f, 103t Cricoid cartilage, 292f, 293 Diastole, 277, 278f, 279t Earlobe (lobule), 203f, 204t
palpating, 104 Crista ampullaris, as receptor for Diastolic blood pressure, 281–282, 281f Eccrine sweat gland, skin, 56f, 59
of tibia, 103f, 104t equilibrium, 207, 207f Dicrotic notch, 278f, 279t Effectors, in reflex arcs, 189f, 190, 190f
Cones and rods, 197, 197f, 202, 357f Crista galli, 81f, 81t Diencephalon, 165, 166f, 167 Efferent arteriole, 334, 335f
Conjunctiva, 196f, 196t Cristae, 21t Differential (selective) permeability, 29 Efferent ductule of testis, 345f
Conjunctivitis, 196t Cross section (transverse section), 4, 4f Diffusion, 29–33 Efferent (motor) nerves, 157
Connective tissue, 9, 37, 42, 43–46f Crown, tooth, 319, 319f through nonliving membranes, 31–32 Efferent (motor) neurons, 154, 155f
blood as, 42 Crural region, 2f observing dyes in agar gel, 30f Ejaculatory duct, 344, 344f
bone as, 42 Crystals in cell cytoplasm, 21 by osmosis, 29, 32 Elastic cartilage, 46f
dense, 42, 44f Cuboid bone, 104f through semipermeable membranes, Elastic fibers, 42
elastic cartilage, 46f Cuboidal epithelia, 38, 38f 29–32 of areolar connective tissue, 43f
extracellular matrix and, 42 simple, 39f simple, 29, 32 of dermis, 57
fibrocartilage, 45f Cuneiform bones, intermediate/lateral/ of solutes, 29, 31 Elastic (titin) filaments, 122f
hyaline cartilage, 45f medial, 104f Digestion, 311 Elbow joint, 110t, 111f, 112t
ligaments as, 42 Curvatures, stomach (greater/lesser), of carbohydrates, 320, 321f muscles crossing, 136t, 137
loose, 42 315f, 316 chemical, 320–323 muscles of, 136t
reticular, 44f Cutaneous glands, 56f, 59–60 of fats, 320, 321f Elbow, palpating, 99
tendons as, 42 Cutaneous receptors, 10t, 55, 57–59 flowchart, 321f Embryonic development, of skeletal
Connective tissue proper, 42 adaptation test, 59 physical processes of, 323–324 muscle cells, 23
Connective tissue sheath tactile localization test, 58–59 of proteins, 320, 321f, 322, 322f Emmetropic eye, 201
of fibers within nerves, 157, 157f two-point threshold test, 58 Digestive enzymes, 21t, 320–322, 321f Enamel, tooth, 319, 319f
of hair follicle, 60f, 61 Cuticle Digestive system, 10t, 311–330 End plate. See Neuromuscular junction
Connective tissue wrappings of of hair, 60f accessory organs, 311, 312f, 318–320 Endocardium, 245, 247f
skeletal muscle, 124, 125f of nail, 61f, 62 alimentary canal histology, 312–314, Endocrine system, 221–229
Consensual reflex, 192 Cyanotic signs in nail beds, 61 360f, 361f disorders of, 226, 226t
Contraction of skeletal muscle, 121, 123 Cystic duct, 320 functions (overview), 10t functions, 10t, 221–226
observational experiment, 123–124 Cytokinesis, 23, 24, 24f organs, 10t, 314–318 hormones, 221–226
Contralateral response to reflex tests, 192 Cytoplasm, 19, 20–21 Digestive tract, rat, 12 organs, 10t, 226f
Controls, experimental, 322 organelles, 21, 21t Digital arteries, 261f Endolymph, 205, 205f, 207, 207f
378 Index
Endometrium, 348f Extensor digitorum longus muscle, Fibrous capsule, 333, 333f, 335f Fovea centralis, 197, 198f
Endomysium, 124, 125f 132f, 140t, 141f Fibrous connective tissue Free edge of nail, 61f, 62
Endoneurium, 157, 157f, 356f Extensor digitorum muscle, 133f, 138, of sutures, 110t, 111f Free nerve endings in skin, 56f, 58,
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER), 20f, 21t 138t of syndesmoses, 111f 356f
Endosteum, 70f, 71, 73f Extensor hallucis brevis, 141f Fibrous joints, 110t, 111f Frenulum, lingual, 314, 314f
Endothelium, 257, 258f Extensor hallucis longus muscle, 141f Fibrous layer Friction-reduction demonstration, 112
Enterocytes, 317f External acoustic meatus, 80f, 80t, 82f, of articular capsule, 110, 112f Frontal bone, 79, 80f, 80t, 81f, 83f
Enzymes, 320 84, 203f, 204t of eye, 197, 199t squamous part of, 83f
digestive, 320–322, 321f External ear, 204t Fibrous pericardium, 245 Frontal (coronal) plane, 4, 4f
Eosinophils, 232, 233f, 364f anatomy, 203f, 204t Fibula, 68f, 101, 103f, 104t Frontal (coronal) section, 4f
Epicardium, 245, 247f External genitalia Fibular artery, 264f Frontal lobe, 163, 164f, 165f
Epicondyle(s), 69t female, 346, 346t, 347f Fibular region, 2f, 3 Frontal sinus, 84f
of femur, 103f male, 343, 344f Fibular vein, 266, 266f Frontonasal suture, 83f
of humerus, 97t, 98f, 99 External oblique muscle, 132f, 133f, Fibularis longus muscle, 132f, 133f, FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone),
Epicranial aponeurosis, 135f 136t, 137f, 139f 140t, 141f 222f, 222t
Epicranius External occipital crest, 82f Fibularis tertius muscle, 141f Functional residual capacity (FRC), 303f
frontal belly of, 132f, 134t, 135f External occipital protuberance, 82f Field, microscope, 368 Fundus of stomach, 315f, 315t
occipital belly of, 133f, 134t, 135f External respiration, 291 depth of, 370–371 Fundus of uterus, 347, 348f
Epidermis, 55, 56–57, 56f, 61f Extracellular matrix, 42, 45f, 46f diameter of, 369–370 Fungiform papillae, 210, 210f
Epididymis, 343, 344f, 345f, 362f Extrinsic eye muscles, 196t, 197f Filaments Funiculi (columns) of spinal cord,
Epigastric region, 6, 6f cow eye, 199, 200f of cytoskeleton, 21f dorsal/lateral/ventral, 182, 183f,
Epiglottis, 292f, 293, 314f reflexes, 202 intermediate, 20f, 21t 356f
Epimysium, 124, 125f Eye, 195–203 of olfactory nerve, 171f
Epinephrine, 224, 224t accessory structures, 195–197, 196f, thick/thin, 122f Gag reflex, 192
Epineurium, 157, 157f, 356f 196t Filtration, 29, 33–34 Gallbladder, 6f, 10t, 15, 16f, 312f, 320
Epiphyseal lines, 70f, 71 anatomy, 195–200 observing, 33–34 peritoneal attachments of, 316f
Epiphyseal plate, 71 muscles Filum terminale, 181, 182f Ganglia, 151
Epiphysis, 70f, 71 extrinsic, 196t, 197f, 202 Fimbriae, 347, 347f, 348f dorsal root, 155f, 181, 183f, 356f
Epiploic appendages, 318f intrinsic, 202 Fingerprints, 57 Ganglion cells, retina, 197, 197f, 357f
Epithalamus, 166f, 167 reflexes, 192, 202 Fingers Gas exchanges
Epithelial root sheath of hair follicle, refraction, 201, 201f bones, 98, 99f in external respiration, 291, 294f
60f, 61 visual acuity, 201 muscles, 136t, 137, 138, 138t in internal respiration, 248f, 291
Epithelial tissues (epithelia), 9, 37–42 Eyebrows, 196f, 196t Fissure, bone marking, 69t Gastric arteries, 262t, 263f
descriptions/functions/locations, 39–41f muscles, 134t Fissures Gastric glands, 316, 360f
of GI tract, 313f, 313t Eyelashes, 196f, 196t of cerebral hemispheres, 163, 164f Gastric pit, 360f
simple, 22f, 38, 38f, 39f, 40f, 355f, 360f Eyelids, 196f, 196t of spinal cord, 183f, 356f Gastric veins, 270f
Eponychium (cuticle), 61f, 62 muscles, 134t Fixator (fixation) muscles, 126 Gastrocnemius muscle, 132f, 133f,
Equilibrium (balance), 207–209 Flare, after mechanical stimulation of 141f, 142, 142t, 143f
apparatus anatomy, 207 Face skin, 285 Gastroepiploic arteries, 263f
dynamic, 207 muscles of facial expression, 131, 134t Flat bones, 68 Gastroepiploic vein, 270f
laboratory tests of, 208–209 superficial muscles, 132f, 135f Flexion movement, 113, 114f Gastroesophageal (cardiac) sphincter,
mechanism of, 207 Facet, bone marking, 69t Flexor carpi radialis muscle, 132f, 136t 315
role of vision in, 209 Facial artery, as pulse point, 280, 280f Flexor carpi ulnaris muscle, 133f, 136t Gastrointestinal (GI) tract, 311
static, 207 Facial bones, 68f, 82t, 83 Flexor digitorum superficialis, 136t histology, 312–314, 313f, 360f
ER. See Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) palpating bone markings, 83–84 Flexor reflexes, 190, 190f nerve plexuses, 313f, 313t
Erection, 344 Facial nerves (VII), 170t, 171f, 210 Floating ribs, 88, 88f organs, 312f
Erector spinae muscles, 138t, 139f Falciform ligament, 316f, 320 Foliate papillae, 210, 210f, 357f rat, 12
Erythrocytes (red blood cells/RBCs), Fallopian tubes, 347, 347f, 348f Follicles Genitalia, external
22f, 231, 232, 233f False pelvis, 101 hair, 56f, 60–61, 60f, 61f female, 346, 346t, 347f
hematologic tests, 234–239 False ribs, 88, 88f of ovaries, 347, 349f, 363f male, 343, 344f
microscopic examination, 33 Falx cerebri, 167, 168f of thyroid gland, 223 Germinal centers, 259f
microscopic examinations, 232, Fascicles Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), GH (growth hormone), 222f, 222t
363f, 364f nerve fibers, 157, 157f 222f, 222t GI tract. See Gastrointestinal (GI) tract
normal values, 234 skeletal muscle, 124, 125f Foot Gigantism, 226t
permeability properties, 33 Fat cells (adipocytes), 43f arteries, 264 Gingiva (gum), 319, 319f
total counts, 234 Fatigue, stretch reflex response and, 191 bones, 101, 104f Gingival sulcus, 319f
in urine, 336, 337t Fats, digestion of, 320, 321f joints, 112t Glabella, 83f
Esophageal arteries, 260f, 262, 262t Female reproductive system, 10t, 225, movements of, 113, 115f Glans penis, 344, 344f
Esophagus, 10t, 15, 16f, 41f, 312f, 315, 346–349, 347f, 348f muscles, 140t Glassy membrane, 61
315f, 359f histology, 358f, 363f nerve supply, 185t, 186f Glenoid cavity, 96f, 97t
digestive functions, 315 rat, 14f, 15 veins, 265f, 266, 266f Glial cells (neuroglia), 49, 151
rat, 12 Femoral artery, 264, 264f Foot processes of podocyte, 335f oligodendrocytes in CNS, 152
Esophagus-stomach junction, 360f as pulse point, 280, 280f Foramen, 69t Schwann cells of PNS, 151, 152
Estrogens, 224t, 225, 347 Femoral nerve, 185t, 186, 186f Foramen lacerum, 81f, 82f Glomerular capsular space, 335f, 336f,
Ethmoid bone, 80f, 81t, 83f Femoral region, 2f, 3 Foramen magnum, 80t, 81f, 82f 362f
cribriform plate, 81f, 81t, 209f Femoral vein, 266, 266f Foramen ovale, 81f, 81t, 82f Glomerular capsule, 334t, 335f, 336f,
crista galli, 81f Femur, 68f, 101, 103f, 103t Foramen rotundum, 81f 362f
Ethmoidal air cells, 84f bone markings, 69t Foramen spinosum, 81f, 82f Glomeruli
Eversion movement of foot, 113, 115f palpating surface anatomy of, 104 Forearm of nephrons, 334, 334t, 335f, 336f,
Exercise, effects on blood pressure, Fibers, joints and, 109 bones, 98 362f
282–283 Fibers of extracellular matrix, 42 muscles, 132f, 133f, 136t, 138t olfactory, 209f
Exocytosis, 20f Fibers (processes) of neuron cell bodies nerves, 185–186, 185t Glossopharyngeal nerve (IX), 170t,
Expiration phase of breathing, 301, 302f in CNS, 151 Formed elements of blood, 231, 233f 171f, 192, 210
Expiratory reserve volume (ERV), in PNS, 151 examining microscopically, Glottis, 293
303f, 304 Fibrin, 237, 237f 232–233 Glucagon, 224t
Extension movement, 113, 114f Fibrinogen, 237, 237f Fornix Glucocorticoids, 224t
Extensor carpi radialis longus muscle, Fibroblast nuclei, 43f corpus callosum, 166f Glucose, in urine, 336, 337t, 338
133f, 138t Fibroblasts, of dermis, 57 vagina, 347f, 348f Gluteal arteries, 264f
Extensor carpi ulnaris muscle, 133f, 138t Fibrocartilage, 45f, 110t Fossa, 69t Gluteal nerves, superior and inferior,
Extensor digitorum brevis, 141f of intervertebral discs, 45f, 85, Fossa ovalis, heart, 247f 185t, 186f
110t, 111f Fovea capitis of femur, 103f Gluteal region, 3f
Index 379
Gluteal tuberosity, 103f, 103t Harvard Step Test, 282–283 hypothalamus, 221, 222f, 223t Infraorbital foramen, 82f, 83f
Gluteus maximus muscle, 133f, 142, Haustra, 317, 318f pancreas, 224t Infraspinatus muscle, 133f, 139f
142t, 143 f Haversian (central) canal, 46f, 72, 73f parathyroid, 223t Infraspinous fossa, 96f, 97t
Gluteus medius muscle, 133f, 142t, 143f Haversian system (osteon), 72, 73f pituitary, 221–223 Infundibulum, 167, 347f, 348f
Glycogen granules, 21 Head, 3 steroid, 221, 225 Inguinal ligament, 137f
Glycolipids, 57t arteries, 259–262, 260f target cells of, 221 Inguinal region, 2f
GnRH (gonadotropin-releasing bones (skull), 79–84 thyroid, 223 Inhibiting hormones of hypothalamus,
hormones), 222t muscles, 131, 132f, 134t, 135f tropic, 221, 222t 221
Goblet cells, 40f, 42 veins, 265f, 266–267, 268f Horns (cornua) of hyoid bone, 83, 83f Initial segment of axon, 152f
GI tract, 317f, 355f, 359f, 361f Head, bone marking, 69t Human torso model, 15–16f Inner layer of eye. See Retina
respiratory, 293 of femur, 103t Humerus, 68f, 96f, 97t, 98f Insertion/origin (skeletal muscle), 113,
Golgi apparatus, 20f, 21t of fibula, 103t epicondyles, 97t, 98f 113f, 124, 126
Gomphosis, 110t of humerus, 98f muscles that move, 136t, 137 Inspiration phase of breathing, 301,
Gonadal arteries, 260f, 262t, 263f of radius, 98f at shoulder joint, 95, 111f, 112f 302f
Gonadal veins, 265f, 266, 267f of ulna, 98f tubercles, 97t, 98f Inspiratory capacity (IC), 303f
Gonadocorticoid hormones, 224t Hearing sense typical long bone structure of, 70f Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV),
Gonadotropin-releasing hormones ear anatomy, 203–205, 203f Hyaline cartilage, 45f, 111f 303f, 304–305
(GnRH), 222t mechanism of, 205 ring, 359f Instep of foot, 101, 104f
Gonads, 343 sensory areas and related association Hydrolases (hydrolytic enzymes), 320 Insulin, 224t, 225
ovaries, 224t, 225, 346, 347, 347f, areas in brain for, 164f Hydrolysis test of protein digestion, hyposecretion/hypersecretion of,
348, 348f, 349, 358f, 363f sensory receptors, 205 322 226t
testes, 224t, 225, 343, 344f, 345, sound waves and, 205 Hymen, 346t, 347f Integration centers of CNS, reflex arcs
345f, 362f, 363f Hearing tests (laboratory), 205–206 Hyoid bone, 83, 83f and, 189, 189f, 190f
Gracilis muscles, 132f, 141f, 143f Heart, 10t, 15, 16f, 245–256 Hyperextension movement, 113, 114f Integumentary system, 55–66
Granulocytes, 232 blood pressure determinations, Hyperinsulinism, 225 components, 10t
Granulosa cells, 348f, 358f, 363f 281–283, 281f Hyperopia, 201 functions, 55
Grave’s disease, 226t cardiac cycle, 277–279, 278f Hyperparathyroidism, 226t functions (overview), 10t
Gravitational pull, equilibrium and, cardiac muscle cells, 47, 48f, 249, Hyperpolarization, 208f structure, 55–59, 56f
207, 208f 250f Hypersecretion of hormones, 226, 226t Interatrial septum, 246
Gray commissure, spinal cord, 183f, chambers, 246–247f, 250f Hypertonic solution, 33 Intercalated discs of cardiac muscle,
356f dissection (sheep), 250–252, 251f Hyperventilation, 306 47, 48f, 250f
Gray matter location in thorax, 246f Hypochondriac regions, 6, 6f Intercarpal joints, 112t
of brain, 151, 164f pathway of blood through, 248–249, Hypodermis (subcutaneous layer), 43f, Intercondylar eminence of tibia, 103f,
of spinal cord, 181–182, 183f, 356f 248f 55, 56f, 60f 104t
Greater horns of hyoid bone, 83f pulse/pulse points, 279–280, 280f Hypogastric (pubic) region, 2f, 6, 6f Intercondylar fossa of femur, 103f, 103t
Greater omentum, 316, 316f rat, 12, 13f Hypoglossal canal, 81f Intercostal arteries, 260f, 261f, 262,
rat, 12 valves, 246–248, 247f Hypoglossal nerve (XII), 170t, 171f 262t
Greater sciatic notch, 100f, 101t, 102t Heart rate Hypoglycemia, 226t Intercostal muscles, 132f
Greater trochanter of femur, 103f, 103t exercise effects on, 282–283 Hyponychium, 61f, 62 Intercostal nerves, 184, 184f
Greater tubercle of humerus, 97t, 98f observing postural effects, 282 Hypoparathyroidism, 226t Intercostal spaces, 88f
Greater vestibular glands, 346t, 347f palpating pulse points, 280 Hypophyseal fossa of sella turcica, 81f Interlobar arteries, 333f, 334
Greater wing of sphenoid bone, 80f, Heart sounds, 279 Hyposecretion of hormones, 226, 226t Interlobar veins, 333f, 334
81f, 81t, 82f, 84 auscultating, 279 Hypothalamus, 166f, 167, 226f Intermaxillary suture, 82f
Groove, bone marking, 69t timing of, 278f releasing/inhibiting hormones of, Intermediate filaments, 20f, 21t
Gross anatomy, 1 Heat loss regulation, dermal blood 221, 222f, 223t Intermediate mass (interthalamic
Ground substance, 42, 43f supply and, 55, 57 Hypotonic solution, 33 adhesion) of thalamus, 166f, 167
Growth hormone (GH), 222, 222f Hematocrit, 234 Intermediate part of the urethra, 332,
hyposecretion/hypersecretion of, determining, 234–235f I (light) bands, 121, 122f 344, 344f
226t normal values, 234 Ileocecal valve, 316, 318f Internal acoustic meatus, 81f
Gum (gingiva), 319, 319f Hematologic tests, 234–239 Ileum, 312f, 316, 318f, 361f Internal (deep) direction/orientation, 3
Gustation. See Taste sense Hemiazygos vein, 268f Iliac arteries, 260f, 262t, 263f, 264, Internal ear, 207f
Gustatory cortex, 164f Hemoglobin concentration test, 264f anatomy, 203f
Gustatory epithelial cells, 210, 210f 235–237, 236f Iliac crest, 69t, 100f, 101t, 141f equilibrium apparatus, 207
Gustatory hairs, 210, 210f Hemoglobin, in urine, 336, 337t, 338 palpating, 99 hearing apparatus, 204t
Gyri of cerebral hemispheres, 163, 164f Hemoglobinometer, 236–237, 236f Iliac fossa, 100f Internal oblique muscle, 132f, 136t, 137f
Hemostasis, 231, 237, 237f Iliac region, 6, 6f Internal respiration, 291
H zone, skeletal muscle fiber, 122 Hepatic arteries, 262t, 263f Iliac spine, anterior inferior/anterior Interneurons, 154, 155f
Hair, 10t, 56f, 60–61, 60f Hepatic portal circulation, 269, 270f superior, 99, 100f, 141f in reflex arcs, 189f, 190, 190f
Hair bulb, 60f, 61 Hepatic portal vein, 266, 269, 270f Iliac veins, 265f, 266, 266f, 267f Interosseous artery, 261f
Hair cells, 205, 205f, 208f, 357f Hepatic veins, 265f, 266, 267f, 270f, Iliacus muscle, 140t, 141f Interosseous membrane
of equilibrium apparatus, 207, 207f, 320 Iliocostalis muscle, 139f of forearm, 98f
208f Hepatocytes, 320, 362f Iliopsoas muscle, 132f, 140t, 141f of leg, 103f
hearing mechanism and, 205 Hepatopancreatic ampulla, 316 Iliotibial tract, 133f Interphalangeal joints, as hinge joints,
Hair follicle, 56f, 60–61, 60f, 61f Hepatopancreatic sphincter, 316 Ilium, 68f, 100f, 101t 112t
Hair follicle receptor (root hair plexus), Hilum Image formation in light microscopy, Interphase stage of cell life cycle, 23,
56f lung, 293, 295f 367f 23f
Hair matrix, 60f, 61 renal, 331, 332f, 333f Immovable joints, 109 Interstitial endocrine cells, 345, 363f
Hair papilla, 60f, 61 Hinge joints, 110t, 112t Incisive fossa, 82f Interstitial lamellae, 73f
Hair root, 56f, 60, 60f Hip Incisors (teeth), 318, 319f Intertarsal joints, 112t
Hair shaft, 60f, 61, 61f arteries, 260f, 264 Incus (anvil) bone, 203f, 204t Interthalamic adhesion (intermediate
Hallux region, 2f bones, 99–101 Indirect muscle attachments, 124 mass) of thalamus, 166f, 167
Hamate bone, 99f joint, 112t Inferior colliculi, corpora Intertrochanteric crest, 103f, 103t
Hammer (malleus), 203f, 204t muscles, 133f, 140, 140t, 141f, 142, quadrigemina, 166, 166f Intertrochanteric line, 69t, 103f
Hamstring muscles, 133f, 142t, 143f 142t, 143f Inferior direction/orientation, 3, 3f Intertubercular sulcus, 97t, 98f
Hand (manus), 2 veins, 265f, 266, 266f Inferior gluteal line, 100f Interventricular arteries, 246f, 247f, 249t
bones, 98 Hip (pelvic) girdle, 68f, 99–101, 100f Inferior orbital fissure, 69t Interventricular foramen, 166f
joints, 112t Hormones, 221 Inferior vena cava, 15, 16f, 246f, 247f, Interventricular septum, 246, 247f
muscles, 136t, 137, 138 adrenal, 224t 248, 248f, 265, 265f, 267f Interventricular sulcus, sheep, 251f
nerves, 184f, 185t glucocorticoids, 224t rat, 14f, 15 Intervertebral discs, 45f, 84f, 85, 110t,
wrist joint, 111f hyposecretion/hypersecretion of, sheep, 251f 111f
Hard palate, 82f, 292f, 292t 226, 226t veins draining into, 266 fibrocartilage of, 45f
380 Index
Intervertebral foramen, 84f Lamellar granules, 57t Lingual frenulum, 314, 314f Malleus (hammer) bone, 203f, 204t
Intestinal crypt, 317f, 361f Lamina of vertebra, 85, 85f Lingual tonsil, 292f, 292t, 314, 314f Mammary glands, 43f
Intestinal enzymes, 321f Lamina propria Lipid droplets, 21 Mammary region, 2f
Intestines of areolar connective tissue, 43f Lipid metabolism site, 21t Mammillary bodies, 165, 165f, 166f,
large. See Large intestine of GI tract, 313f, 313t, 360f, 361f Lipid structure of plasma membrane, 20 167
small. See Small intestine of olfactory epithelium, 357f Lipid synthesis site, 21t Mandible, 80f, 82t, 83f
Intrinsic eye muscles, 202 of respiratory organs, 359f Lipids digestion, 320, 321f muscles that move, 134t
Inversion movement of foot, 113, 115f Landmarks, anatomical, 1–3 Lips (labia), mouth, 314, 314f Mandibular angle, 80f
Involuntary muscles, 47, 48f Langerhans (dendritic) cells, 56 Liver, 6f, 10t, 15, 16f, 312f, 316f, 320 palpating, 84
Ipsilateral response to reflex tests, 192 Large intestine, 6f, 10t, 15, 16f, 312f, cytoplasmic division and, 23 Mandibular fossa, 80t, 82f
Iris, 198f, 199t 317, 318f digestive functions, 320 Mandibular notch, 80f, 82t
cow eye, 199 digestive functions, 317 histology, 361f, 362f Mandibular ramus, 80f, 82t
Irregular bones, 68 histology, 361f lobules, 320, 361f Mandibular symphysis, 83f
Ischial body, 100f rat, 12, 13f peritoneal attachments of, 316f Manubrium of sternum, 88, 88f
Ischial ramus, 100f Laryngeal cartilages, 291 portal triad region, 320, 361f clavicle and, 96f
Ischial spine, 69t, 100f, 101, 101t Laryngopharynx, 292f, 292t, 314f, 315 rat, 13f, 15 Manus region, 2f.
Ischial tuberosity, 69t, 100f, 101t Larynx, 10t, 292f, 293 LLQ (left lower quadrant), 6f bones of, 98, 99f See also Hand
Ischium, 68f, 100f, 101t Lateral columns (funiculi) of spinal Lobar arteries, 267, 269f Marginal arteries, 246f, 249t
Islets of Langerhans (pancreatic islets), cord, 182, 183f, 356f Lobes, lung, 293f, 294, 295f Marrow, bone, 71
225, 361f Lateral commissure of eyelids, 196, Lobule (earlobe), 203f, 204t Masseter muscle, 132f, 134t, 135f
Isotonic solution, 33 196f Loin region, 2f, 3 palpating, 131
Isthmus of the fauces, 292f Lateral horns of spinal cord, 181, 182, Long bones, 68, 70–71, 70f Mastication, muscles of, 134t, 135f
183f Longissimus muscle, 139f Mastoid process, 80f, 80t, 82f, 83
Jaws, muscles that move, 134t Lateral malleolus of fibula, 103f, 104t Longitudinal fissure of cerebral Matrix, hair, 60f, 61
Jejunum, 312f, 316 Lateral sulcus of cerebral hemisphere, hemispheres, 163, 165f, 173f Maxilla/maxillae, 80f, 82f, 82t, 83f
Joint cavity, 110t, 112f 163, 164f Loose connective tissues, 42 Maxillary sinus, 84f
Joints (articulations), 10t, 67, 109–119 Lateral/medial orientation/direction, 3 adipose, 43f Meatus, 69t
disorders, 116 Latissimus dorsi muscle, 133f, 137, areolar, 43f Medial commissure of eyelids, 196, 196f
projections helping to form, 69t 138t, 139f reticular, 44f Medial malleolus of tibia, 104, 104t
Jugular foramen, 80t, 81f, 82f Left colic (splenic) flexure, 317, 318f Lordosis, 85, 85f Medial/lateral orientation/direction, 3
Jugular notch, 88, 88f, 97t Left lower quadrant (LLQ), 6f Lower limbs, 68f Median cubital vein, 267, 268f
Jugular veins, 265f, 266, 267, 268f Left upper quadrant (LUQ), 5, 6f arteries, 260f, 264, 264f Median (midsagittal) plane, 4, 4f
Juxtaglomerular cells, 362f Leg bones, 101, 103–104f, 103–104t Median (midsagittal) section, 4f
Juxtamedullary nephrons, 334, 335f arteries, 264 muscles, 132f, 133f, 140, 140t, 141f, Median nerve, 184f, 185, 185t
bones, 101, 103f 142, 142t Median sacral crest, 87, 87f
Keratin, 56, 57t muscles, 132f, 133f, 140, 140t, 141f, nerve supply, 185t, 186, 186f Mediastinal arteries, 260f, 262t
Keratinocytes, 56, 57t 142, 142t, 143f palpating surface anatomy, 104, 142 Mediastinum, 5, 245, 294, 295f
Keratohyaline granules, 57t nerve supply, 185t, 186f veins, 266, 266f Medulla oblongata, of brain stem, 164f,
Ketone bodies, in urine, 336, 337t, 338 veins, 265f, 266, 266f Lower respiratory tract, 293–296 165, 165f, 166f
Kidney stones (renal calculi), 336 Lens, 197, 198f Lugol’s iodine, 32t Medulla, renal, 333, 333f, 335f
Kidneys, 10t, 15, 16f, 331, 332f astigmatism and, 201 Lumbar arteries, 262t, 263f Medullary cavity of long bone, 70f, 71
blood supply, 332f, 333f, 334, 335f cow eye, 199, 200f Lumbar curvature, 84f Medullary (renal) pyramids, 333, 333f
capillary beds, 334, 335f elasticity of, 201 Lumbar plexus, 184f, 185t, 186, 186f Megakaryocytes, 233
dissection, 333 Lesser horn of hyoid bone, 83f Lumbar regions, 3f, 6, 6f Melanin, 56
histology, 362f Lesser omentum, 316, 316f Lumbar spinal nerves, 182f, 184f Melanocytes, 56
inflammations of, 336 Lesser sciatic notch, 100f Lumbar veins, 265f, 266, 267f of hair matrix, 60f
nephrons, 334–336, 335f Lesser trochanter of femur, 103f, 103t Lumbar vertebrae, 84 Melatonin, 226
rat, 14f, 15 Lesser tubercle of humerus, 97t, 98f regional features, 86f Membranes, formed by epithelial
stones, 336 Lesser wing of sphenoid bone, 81f, 81t Lunate bone, 99f, 111f cells, 37
tubules, simple cuboidal epithelia Leukemia, 234 Lungs, 10t, 15, 16f, 293f, 294, 295f Membranous labyrinth of inner ear, 204t
of, 39f Leukocytes (white blood cells/WBCs), examining slides, 296, 359f Meningeal layer of dura mater, 167,
Kinetic energy, diffusion and, 29 231, 233f operating model lung, 301–302 168f
Kinetochore, 23f microscopic examinations, 232–233, pleural coverings of, 294, 295f Meninges
Kinetochore microtubule, 23f 363f, 364f rat, 12, 13f brain, 167, 168f
Kinocilium, 207f, 208f normal blood values, 234 sheep, demonstrating inflation in, spinal cord, 181
Knee joint, 101 total counts, 234 296 Mental foramen, 80f, 83f
muscles, 140t, 141f in urine, 336, 337t Lunule of nail matrix, 61, 61f Mentalis muscle, 135f
Kneecap (patella), 68f, 101 Leukocytosis, 234 LUQ (left upper quadrant), 6f Merkel (tactile) cells, 57
Knee-jerk (patellar) reflex, 190, 190f, Leukopenia, 234 Luteinizing hormone (LH), 222f, 222t Mesenteric arteries, 260f, 262t, 263f
191f Levator labii superioris muscle, 135f Lymph nodes, 10t, 358f Mesenteric veins, 269, 270f
testing, 190–191 Levator scapulae muscle, 139f Lymphatic vessels, 10t, 358f Mesenteries
Knuckle (metacarpophalangeal joint), LH (luteinizing hormone), 222f, 222t Lymphatic/immune system, 10t of small intestine, 316, 316f, 318f
99, 112t Life cycle of cell Lymphocytes, 233, 233f, 363f, 364f of stomach, 315–316, 316f
Kyphosis, 85, 85f cell division, 23–24, 23–24f Lysosomal enzymes, Golgi apparatus, Mesentery, rat, 15
interphase, 23 21t Mesometrium, 348f
Labia (lips), of mouth, 314, 314f Ligaments, 10t, 110 Lysosomes, 20f, 21t Mesosalpinx, 348f
Labia majora, 346t, 347f attachment sites, 69t Mesovarium, 348f
Labia minora, 346t, 347f composed of connective tissue, 42 M line, 122f Metacarpal bones, 68f, 98, 99f
Labial frenulum, superior/inferior, 314f tearing of, 116 Macula lutea, 197, 198f Metacarpophalangeal joint (knuckle),
Lacrimal apparatus, 196t Ligamentum arteriosum, 246f Maculae, 207, 207f, 208f 112t
Lacrimal bones, 80f, 82t, 83f sheep, 251, 251f Magnesium ions (Mg2+), in muscle palpating, 99
Lacrimal canaliculi, 196f, 196t Ligamentum teres, 316f contraction, 123–124 Metaphase plate, 24f
Lacrimal caruncle, 196f, 196t Light (I) bands, 121, 122f Magnification in light microscopy, Metaphase state of mitosis, 23, 24f
Lacrimal fossa, 80f, 82t Light ray refraction, 201 total, 367 Metatarsal arteries, 264f
Lacrimal glands, 196f, 196t close/distant vision and, 201 Main (primary) bronchi, 293, 293f Metatarsal bones, 68f, 101, 104f
Lacrimal punctum, 196f, 196t eye reflexes and, 202 Major calyx of renal pelvis, 333, 333f Metatarsal veins, 266f
Lacrimal sac, 196f, 196t Limbs Male reproductive system, 10t, 225, Methylene blue dye, 30f
Lacteal, 316, 317f, 321f lower. See. Lower limbs 343–346, 346f Microfilaments, 20f, 21t
Lacunae, 42, 45f, 46f, 72, 73f upper. See. Upper limbs histology, 362f, 363f Microscope, 365–372
Lambdoid suture, 79, 80f Line, bone marking, 69t rat, 14f, 15 compound, care and structure of,
Lamellae, 46f, 72, 73f Linea alba, 137f Malleolus of leg bones, lateral/medial, 365–370
Lamellar corpuscle, 56f, 57, 58, 357f Linea aspera of femur, 103f 103f, 104, 104t depth of field in, 370–371
Index 381
Microtubules, 20f, 21t, 23 Myelin, 152 Neuron cell bodies, 49f, 151, 152f, Olfactory sensory neurons, 209, 209f,
mitotic spindle as, 23, 23–24f Myelin sheath gaps (nodes of Ranvier), 355f, 356f 357f
Microvilli, 20, 20f, 40f, 42 152, 152f, 356f bipolar, 154f Olfactory stem cell, 209, 209f, 357f
of GI tract, 316, 317f, 355f Myelin sheaths, 152 clusters, in CNS. See Nuclei Olfactory tracts, 165, 165f, 209f
Midbrain, 165, 165f, 166f identifying, 153, 356f clusters, in PNS. See Ganglia Oligodendrocytes, 152
Middle ear anatomy, 203f, 204t of peripheral nerve, 157f, 356f fibers (processes), 151 Omentums, greater/lesser, 316, 316f
Midsagittal (median) plane, 4f Myelinated axons, 356f multipolar, 154f Oocyte, 358f, 363f
Mineralocorticoids, 224t Myelinated nerve fibers, 151, 152, 153f neurofibrils, 151 Optic canal, 81f, 81t, 83f
Minor calyx of renal pelvis, 333, 333f identifying, 153, 356f Nissl bodies (chromatophilic Optic chiasma, 165, 165f, 166f
Mitochondria, 20f, 21t, 125, 125f Myelination of nerve fibers substance), 151, 152f Optic disc (blind spot), 197, 198f,
Mitosis, 23–24, 23–24f by oligodendrocytes in CNS, 152 unipolar (pseudounipolar), 154, 200–201, 201f
daughter nuclei products of, 23 by Schwann cells in PNS, 151, 152, 154f, 356f cow eye, 200f
function of, 23 153f Neurons, 49, 151–162 Optic nerves (II), 165, 165f, 170t,
Mitotic spindle, 23, 23–24f Myenteric plexus (GI tract), 313f, 313t action potential (nerve impulse) 171f, 198f
early, 23f Myocardium, 245, 247f physiology, 155, 156f cow eye, 199, 200f
Mitral (bicuspid) valve of heart, 246, Myofibrils, 121, 122f, 125f anatomy, 49f, 151–153, 152f Optic tracts, 165, 165f
247f Myofilaments, 121, 122f, 125f functional classes, 154, 155f Ora serrata, 198f
Mitral cell (output cell), 209f Myometrium, 348f identifying parts of, 153, 355f Oral cavity. See Mouth
Mixed nerves, 157 Myopia, 201 motor, structure of typical, 152f Oral orifice, 314
Molars (teeth), 318, 319f Myosin, 121 nucleus, 151, 152f Oral region, 2f
Monocytes, 233, 233f, 363f, 364f Myosin filaments, 122f structural classes, 154, 154f Oral vestibule, 314, 314f
Monosynaptic reflex arcs, 190, 190f Myxedema, 226t typical structure, 151, 152f Orbicularis oculi muscle, 132f, 134t,
Mons pubis, 346t, 347f Neurotransmitters, 151–152 135f
Motor (descending) tracts of CNS, 182 Nail bed/folds/matrix, 61f, 62 released in action potential (nerve Orbicularis oris muscle, 132f, 134t, 135f
Motor (efferent) nerves, 157 Nails, 10t, 61–62, 61f impulse), 155 Orbital fissures, inferior/superior,
Motor (efferent) neurons, 154, 155f Na+-K+ (sodium-potassium) pump, Neutrophils, 232, 233f, 363f 81t, 83f
in muscle contraction, 124 155, 156f Nissl bodies (chromatophilic Orbital region, 2f
in reflex arcs, 189, 189f, 190f Nares (nostrils), 292f, 292t substance), 151, 152f Organ systems, 9–18, 10t
structure of typical, 152f Nasal bones, 80f, 82t, 83f Nodes of Ranvier (myelin sheath gaps), of rat, 9, 11–15
Motor unit, 124, 125f, 355f palpating, 84 152, 152f, 356f Organelles, cytoplasmic, 21, 21t
Mouth (oral cavity), 10t, 312f, 314, Nasal cavity, 292f, 292t, 357f Nonkinetochore microtubule, 23f Organs, 9, 37
314–315, 314f Nasal conchae, 81t, 82t, 83f, 292f, 292t Norepinephrine, 224, 224t Orientation of body, anatomical terms,
digestion and absorption in, 321f Nasal meatuses, 292f Nose, 2, 10t, 292f, 292t 3, 3f
digestive functions, 314–315 Nasal region, 2f Nostrils (nares), 292f, 292t Origin/insertion (skeletal muscle), 113,
muscles, 134t Nasal vestibule, 292f Notch, bone, 69t 113f, 124, 126
rat, 11 Nasolacrimal duct, 196f, 196t Nuchal line, inferior/superior, 82f Oropharynx, 292f, 292t, 314f, 315
Movement, body Nasopharynx, 292f, 292t, 315 Nuclear envelope, 19, 20f, 23–24f Os, internal/external, 348f
function of joints in, 109, 112t Navel, 2 Nuclear pores, 19, 20f Osmosis, 29, 32
skeleton as lever system for, 67 Navicular bone, 104f Nuclei Ossa coxae (coxal bones), 99, 100f
types of, 113–116, 114f Near point of vision, 201 basal, 167 Osseous tissue (bone), 42, 46f
Mucosa (mucous membrane), of GI Near vision, 201 cerebral, 151, 167 in compact bone, 67, 72–73, 73f
tract, 40f, 312, 313f, 313t, 314, Neck Nucleic acid digestion, 321f in spongy bone, 67, 70f, 71, 73f
315f, 317f, 360f arteries, 259–262, 260f Nucleolus/nucleoli, 19, 20f, 23–24f, Ossicles of tympanic cavity, 203f, 204t
Mucosal glands of stomach, 316 muscles, 131, 132f, 133f, 134t, 135f, 355f Osteocytes, 46f, 72, 73f
Mucus of goblet cell, 40f 137f, 138t, 139f of neuron, 152f, 153 Osteon (Haversian system), 72, 73f
Multiaxial joints, 111f, 113 tooth, 319, 319f Nucleus, 19, 20f Otic region, 3f
Multiaxial movement, 112, 112t veins, 265f, 266–267, 268f of cardiac muscle cell, 250f Otolith membrane, 207, 208f
Multipolar neurons, 154, 154f, 355f Nephron loop, 334, 335f of fat cell, 43f Otoliths, 207
Muscle attachment sites, 69t, 126 Nephrons, 334–336, 335f of neuroglial cell, 152f, 355f Outer collar of the perinuclear
Muscle contraction, 121, 123 cortical, 334, 335f of neuron, 151, 152f, 153, 355f cytoplasm, 152, 153f
observing, 123–124 juxtamedullary, 334, 335f of Schwann cell, 153f, 356f Oval window, 203f, 204t
Muscle fibers, skeletal, 121–124, Nerve(s), 10t, 157, 358f of skeletal muscle cell, 47f, 121, Ovarian arteries, 260f, 262t, 263f
122f, 123f, 355f. See also Skeletal nerve endings in skin, 57–58 122f, 123f Ovarian ligaments, 347, 348f
muscles structure, 157 of smooth muscle cell, 48f Ovarian veins, 265f, 266
Muscle, skeletal. See Skeletal muscles Nerve fibers, 151, 356f. See also Axons of squamous epithelial cells, 39f, 41f Ovaries, 10t, 224t, 225, 346, 347, 347f,
Muscle spindle, 357f (nerve fibers) Nystagmus, 208 348f
Muscle tissue, 9, 37, 47 Nerve impulses, 151, 155, 208f histology, 358f, 363f
cardiac, 47. See also Cardiac muscle in muscle contraction, 124 Obturator artery, 264f microscopic study, 349
rat, 11f, 12 physiology of, 155, 156f Obturator foramen, 99, 100f rat, 14f, 15
skeletal, 47. See also Skeletal transmission of, 151–152, 155, Obturator nerve, 185t, 186f Ovulation, 347
muscles 156f Occipital bone, 80f, 80t, 81f, 82f Oxidase enzymes, 21t
smooth, 47, 48f. See also Smooth Nerve plexuses basilar part of, 82f Oxygen
muscle tissue GI tract, 313f, 313t Occipital condyle, 80t, 82f cell membrane transport and, 29
Muscular system, 10t, 121, 131–149. spinal, 184, 184f, 185–186, 185t Occipital crest, external, 82f cell’s need for, 291
of head and neck, 131, 134t, 135f Nervous system Occipital lobe, 163, 164f lack of, effects on skin, 284
of hip/lower limb, 140–143, 140t, central. See Central nervous system Occipital protuberance, external, 82f Oxytocin, 223t
141f, 142t, 143f (CNS) Occipital region, 3f
making a muscle painting, 142 components, 10t Occipitomastoid suture, 80f Pain receptors in skin, 57–58
of shoulder/upper limb, 136t, functions (overview), 10t Oculomotor nerve (III), 170t, 171f Palate, 314
137–138, 137f, 138t, 139f peripheral. See Peripheral nervous Oil (sebaceous) glands, 56f, 59, 60f hard/soft, 292f, 292t, 314, 314f
superficial muscles, 132f, 133f system (PNS) Olecranal region, 3f Palatine bones, 82f, 82t
of trunk, 131, 136–137, 136t, 137f, Nervous tissue, 9, 37, 49, 49f Olecranon fossa of humerus, 97t, 98f Palatine process of maxilla, 82f, 82t
138t, 139f See also Skeletal neurons, 151–157 Olecranon process of ulna, 97t, 98f Palatine raphe, 314f
muscles supporting cells, 49, 151 palpating, 99 Palatine suture, median, 82f
Muscularis externa, 312, 313f, 313t, Neural (nervous tissue) layer of retina, Olfaction. See Smell sense Palatine tonsils, 292f, 292t, 314, 314f,
314, 360f, 361f 197, 197f, 199t Olfactory bulbs, 165, 165f, 171, 171f, 359f
of large intestine, 317 Neurofibrils, 151, 355f 209f Palatoglossal arch, 314f
of stomach, 315f, 316 Neuroglia (glial cells), 49, 151 Olfactory cilia, 357f Palatopharyngeal arch, 314f
Muscularis mucosae, 313f, 313t, 317f, oligodendrocytes in CNS, 152 Olfactory epithelium, 209, 209f, 357f Palm of hand, bones, 98, 99f
360f, 361f Schwann cells of PNS, 151, 152 Olfactory nerves (I), 170t, 171f, 209f, Palmar arches, deep/superficial, 261f
Musculocutaneous nerve, 184f, 185t, Neuromuscular junction, 124–126, 210 Palmaris longus muscle, 132f
186 125f, 355f Olfactory receptors, 209–210, 209f Palpebral conjunctiva, 196f, 196t
382 Index
Pancreas, 10t, 15, 16f, 312f, 320, 361f Perineum, female, 346 structure, 21f Prothrombin, 237, 237f
digestive functions, 320 Perineurium, 157, 157f, 356f Platelets, 231, 233, 233f, 363f Prothrombin activator, 237, 237f
histology, 361f Periodontal ligament, 319, 319f blood clotting and, 237, 237f Proximal convoluted tubule, 334, 335f
hyperinsulinism experiment, 225 Periosteal layer of dura mater, 167, 168f Platysma muscle, 132f, 134t, 135f Proximal direction/orientation, 3, 3f
microscopic examination, 225 Periosteum, 70f, 71, 73f Pleura, 294, 295f Proximal radioulnar joint, 110t, 112t
rat, 15 Peripheral nervous system (PNS), 163 Pleural cavity, 5, 294, 295f Pseudostratified epithelia, 38, 40f, 359f
Pancreatic duct, 316 cranial nerves, 170–171, 170t, 171f Plexuses, spinal nerve, 184, 184f, Pseudounipolar (unipolar) neurons,
Pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans), distribution of major nerves, 184f, 186f 185–186, 185t 154, 154f, 356f
225, 361f nerve structure of, 356f Pneumograph, 305 Psoas major muscle, 140t, 141f
Papillae nerves, structure of, 157 Podocytes, 334t, 335f Psoas minor muscle, 141f
dermal, 56f, 57 neuron cell bodies in (ganglia), 151 Polarization, in action potential (nerve Pterygoid processes, 81t
hair, 60f, 61 supporting cells in, 151 impulse), 155, 156f PTH (parathyroid hormone), 223,
taste bud, 210, 210f, 357f Perirenal fat capsule, 331 Pollex region, 2f 223t, 226t
Papillary dermis, 56f, 57 Peristalsis, 315 Polycythemia, 234 Pubic angle/arch, 100f
Papillary muscle of heart, 246, 247f peristaltic movements, 324 Polysynaptic reflex arcs, 190, 190f in females vs. males, 102t
Parafollicular (C) cells, 223 Peritubular capillary beds, 334, 335f Pons, 165, 165f, 166f Pubic body, 100f
Paranasal sinuses, 83, 84f, 292t Permanent teeth, 318, 319f Popliteal artery, 264, 264f Pubic bones (pubis), 68f, 100f, 101t
Parathyroid glands, 10t, 223, 226f Peroxisomes, 20f, 21t as pulse point, 280, 280f joint of, 111f
Parathyroid hormone (PTH), 223, 223t Perpendicular plate of ethmoid bone, Popliteal region, 2f, 3 rami of, 99, 101t
hyposecretion/hypersecretion of, 81t, 83f Popliteal vein, 266, 266f Pubic crest, 100f
226t Perspiration, 59 Pores, sweat, 56f, 59 Pubic (hypogastric) region, 2f, 6, 6f
Parfocal microscopes, 368–369 Peyer’s patches, 317, 361f Portal circulation, hypothalamus/ Pubic ramus, inferior/superior, 100f, 101t
Parietal bones, 79, 80f, 80t, 81f, 82f, 83f PF3 from platelets, 237, 237f anterior pituitary, 221 Pubic symphysis, 99, 100f, 110t, 111f
Parietal layer pH Portal triad, 320, 361f Pubic tubercle, 100f
of glomerular capsule, 334t, 335f of blood plasma, 232 Posterior direction/orientation, 3, 3f Pubis. See Pubic bones
of pericardium, 245 of urine, 336 Posterior (dorsal) columns of spinal Pulmonary arteries, 246f, 247f, 248f,
Parietal lobe, 163, 164f Phagocytes cord, 182, 183f 249, 267, 269f
Parietal pleura, 294, 295f dermal, 57 Posterior (dorsal) horns of spinal cord, sheep, 251f
Parieto-occipital sulcus, 163, 164f neuroglia acting as, 151 181, 183f, 356f Pulmonary capillaries, 248f, 267
Parotid glands, 312f, 319 Phalanges Posterior gluteal line, 100f Pulmonary circuit/circulation, 248,
Passive transport processes, 29–36 of foot, 68f, 101, 104f Posterior inferior iliac spine, 100f 248f, 267, 269f
diffusion, 29–33 of hand, 68f, 98, 99f Posterior pituitary, 221, 222f gas exchange and, 291
filtration, 33–34 Pharyngeal tonsils, 292f, 292t Posterior pituitary hormones, 221 Pulmonary (SL) valve, 247f, 248
Patella (kneecap), 68f, 101 Pharyngotympanic (auditory) tube, Posterior segment of eye, 197 Pulmonary trunk, 246f, 247f, 249,
palpating, 104 203f, 204t, 292f, 292t Posterior superior iIiac spine, 100f, 101t 267, 269f
Patellar bursa, 116 Pharynx, 10t, 292t, 312f, 314f, 315 Posture, effects on blood pressure, 282 sheep, 251f
Patellar reflex, 190, 190f, 191f Phosphatidylserine (platelet factor 3), Potassium ions (K+) Pulmonary veins, 246f, 247f, 248f,
testing, 190–191 237, 237f in action potential (nerve impulse), 249, 267, 269f
Patellar region, 2f Phospholipid bilayer of plasma 155, 156f sheep, 251f
Patellar surface, 103f membrane, 20, 21f in muscle contraction, 123–124 Pulmonary ventilation. See Breathing
Pectinate muscles, 247f Photopupillary reflex, 192 Potassium permanganate dye, 30f Pulp, 319
Pectineus muscle, 132f, 141f Photoreceptors, 197, 197f Prefrontal cortex, 164f Pulp cavity, 319, 319f
Pectoral (shoulder) girdle, 68f, 95, color, 202 Premolars (bicuspids), 318, 319f Pulse, 279
96f, 97t Phrenic arteries, 260f, 262, 262t, 263f Premotor cortex, 164f deficit, 280
palpating surface anatomy of, 98–99 Phrenic nerve, 185, 185t Prepuce (foreskin), 344, 344f Pulse points, 280, 280f
Pectoralis major muscle, 132f, 136t, Phrenic veins, 267f Prepuce of the clitoris, 346t Pupil, 198f, 199t
137, 137f Physical fitness index, 283 Presbyopia, 201 Pupillary reflexes, 202–203
Pectoralis minor muscle, 132f Physiological saline, 33 Pressure receptors, 58 accommodation reflex, 202–203
Pedicle, 85, 85f Pia mater, 167, 168f, 183f adaptation demonstration, 59 light reflex, 192
Pelvic brim, 100f, 102t Pigment granules, 21 tactile localization test, 58–59 Purkinje cells of cerebellum, 355f
Pelvic cavity, 5 Pigmented choroid coat, cow eye, 199, two-point threshold test, 58 Pyelonephritis, 336
Pelvic (hip) girdle, 68f, 99–101, 100f 200f Primary auditory cortex, 164f, 165t Pyloric antrum, 315f, 315t
Pelvic inlet/brim, 101, 102t Pigmented layer of retina, 197, 197f, Primary follicle of ovary, 348f, 349, Pyloric canal, 315f, 315t
in females vs. males, 102t 199t, 357f 349f, 363f Pyloric sphincter, 315f, 315t
Pelvic outlet, 101 Pineal body/gland, 10t, 166f, 167, Primary (main) bronchi, 293, 293f Pylorus, 315f, 315t
in females vs. males, 102t 226, 226f Primary motor cortex, 164f, 165t
Pelvic region, 2f Pinna (auricle) of outer ear, 46f, 203f, 204t Primary olfactory cortex, 165t Quadrants of abdominopelvic cavity,
Pelvis, 99 Pisiform bone, 99f Primary somatosensory cortex, 164f, 165t 5, 6f
arteries, 260f, 264, 264f Pituitary dwarfism, 226t Primary visual cortex, 164f, 165t Quadratus lumborum muscle, 141f
bony, 99, 100f Pituitary gland, 10t, 165, 165f, 166f, Prime mover (agonist) muscles, 126 Quadriceps femoris muscle, 140t,
false, 101 167, 221 PRL (prolactin), 222f, 222t 141f, 142
of females vs. males, 101, 102t hormones, 221–223, 222f, 222t, 223t Process, bone marking, 69t
muscles, 132f, 140–143, 140t, 141f, Pivot joints, 110t, 112t Progesterone, 224t, 225 Radial artery, 261f, 262
142t, 143f Plane joints, 110t, 112t Projection tracts (cerebral hemisphere), as pulse point, 280, 280f
true, 101, 102t Planes, body, 4, 4f 167 Radial fossa, 97t, 98f
Penis, 10t, 332, 344, 344f Plantar arteries, 264f Prolactin (PRL), 222f, 222t Radial groove, 98f
histology, 362f Plantar flexion movement of foot, Pronation movement, 113, 115f Radial nerve, 184f, 185, 185t
rat, 14f, 15 113, 115f Pronator teres muscle, 132f, 136t Radial notch of ulna, 98f
urethra, 332 Plantar reflex, 191–192, 191f Prophase state of mitosis, 23, 23f Radial styloid process, 97t
Perforating (Sharpey’s) fibers, 70f, 71, 73f Plantar veins, 266, 266f Propulsion mechanisms (digestion), Radial tuberosity, 97t, 98f
Perforating (Volkmann’s) canals, 72, 73f Plantaris muscle, 143f 323–324 Radial vein, 267, 268f
Pericardial arteries, 260f, 262t Plasma, blood, 231, 233f Prostate gland, 344f, 344t Radiocarpal joints, 112t
Pericardial cavity, 5 determining pH/color/clarity/ rat, 14f Radioulnar joints, 98f
Pericardium consistency, 232 Prostatic urethra, 332, 344, 344f Radius, 68f, 97t, 98, 98f, 99f
epicardium (visceral layer), 245, 247f normal percentage of whole blood, Protein(s) at elbow and wrist joints, 111f
fibrous, 245 231, 233f keratin, 56, 57t Rami of the pubic bone, 99
parietal layer of, 245 Plasma membrane, 19, 20, 20f, 23f in plasma membrane, 20, 21f Ramus, 69t
serous, 245 cell transport mechanisms and, 29–36 in ribosomes, 21t Rat dissection, 9–15, 11f, 12f, 13–14f
Perilymph, 204t, 205, 205f respiratory gases and, 29 synthesis site, 21t RBCs (red blood cells). See Erythrocytes
Perimetrium, 347f, 348f selective (differential) permeability in urine, 336, 337t, 338 Real image, 201, 201f
Perimysium, 124, 125f of, 29 Protein digestion, 320, 321f, 322, 322f in light microscopy, 367, 367f
Index 383
Receptors, sensory. See Sensory receptors cow eye, 199, 200f Sebum, 59 microscopic structure, 121–124, 355f
Receptors, special sense, 195–212 Rh blood group, 238 Secondary follicles of ovary, 348f, naming criteria, 126
eye, 195–203, 197f typing of, 238–239 349, 349f neuromuscular junction of, 124–126,
in reflex arcs, 189, 189f Rhomboid major muscle, 133f, 139f Sectioned specimens, observing, 4 125f
Rectouterine pouch, 347f Ribosomes, 19, 20f, 21t Sections, body, 4, 4f skeleton in relation to, 67
Rectum, 15, 312f, 317, 318f Ribs, 68f, 88, 88f Segmental arteries, 333f, 334 structure, 124–126
rat, 12, 14f vertebrae and, 87, 88 Segmental movements, 324 as tissue, 47, 47f
Rectus abdominis muscle, 132f, 136t, Right colic (hepatic) flexure, 317, 318f Selective (differential) permeability, 29 types of, 126
137f Right lower quadrant (RLQ), 5, 6f Sella turcica, 81f, 81t Skeletal system
Rectus femoris muscle, 132f, 140t, Right upper quadrant (RUQ), 5, 6f Semen, 363f bones. See Bones
141f Rinne tuning fork test, 206, 206f Semicircular canals, 203f, 204t, 207f components, 10t
Red blood cells (RBCs). See Erythrocytes Risorius muscle, 135f Semicircular ducts, 207, 207f functions (overview), 10t
(red blood cells/RBCs) RLQ (right lower quadrant), 5, 6f Semilunar (SL) valves of heart, 246, joints. See Joints
Red marrow, 71 Rods and cones, 197, 197f, 202, 357f 247f Skeleton, 67–77
Reflex arcs, 189–190, 189f Romberg test, 208–209 aortic, 247f, 248 appendicular, 67, 68f, 95–108
Reflexes, 189–194 Root pulmonary, 247f, 248 axial, 67, 68f, 79–94
autonomic, 189 hair, 56f, 60, 60f Semimembranosus muscle, 133f, 142t, bone markings, 67, 69t
somatic, 189, 190–192 of lung at hilum, 294, 295f 143f bone types, 67–71
Refraction, 201, 201f nail, 61f, 62 Seminal fluid, 344 cardiac, 245
Regions of abdominopelvic cavity, 5–6 of tooth, 319, 319f Seminal gland (vesicle), 344f, 344t construction of, 104
Releasing hormones of hypothalamus, Root canal of tooth, 319, 319f rat, 14f functions, 10t, 67
221, 222f Root hair plexus (hair follicle Seminiferous tubules, 345, 345f, 363f Skin, 10t, 55–66
Renal arteries, 260f, 262t, 263f, 331, receptor), 56f Semitendinosus muscle, 133f, 142t, accessory organs, 59–62
332f, 333f, 334 Rotation movement, 113, 115f 143f appendages, 56f
Renal calculi (kidney stones), 336 Rough endoplasmic reticulum (rough Sense organs, cutaneous, 55 blood supply, 57
Renal columns, 333, 333f ER), 20f, 21t Sensorineural deafness, 206 body temperature regulation by,
Renal corpuscle, 334, 334t of neurons (chromatophilic Sensory (afferent) nerves, 157 10t, 57
Renal cortex, 333, 333f, 335f, 336f, substance), 151, 152f Sensory (afferent) neurons, 154, 155f color, as indicators, 57, 283–285
362f Round ligaments, 347, 347f, 348f olfactory, 209, 209f, 357f effects of venous congestion,
Renal fascia, 331 Round window, 203f, 207f in reflex arcs, 189, 189f, 190f 284–285
Renal hilum, 331, 332f, 333f Ruptured follicle, 348f Sensory (ascending) tracts, 182 functions, 10t, 55
Renal medulla, 333, 333f, 335f RUQ (right upper quadrant), 5, 6f Sensory receptors, 155f microscopic examination, 61, 61f
Renal pelvis, 333, 333f equilibrium, 207 nerve supply, 56f, 57–58
Renal pyramids, 333, 333f Saccule, 207, 207f hearing, 205 structure, 55–59, 56f
Renal tubules, 334, 335f, 336f, 362f Sacral arteries, 262t, 263f special. See Special senses Skull, 68f, 79–84
Renal vein, 265f, 266, 267f, 331, 332f, Sacral canal, 87, 87f vision, 197, 197f cranial bones, 79–83
333f, 334 Sacral curvature, 84f Septum pellucidum, 166f facial bones, 82t, 83
Repolarization, 155, 156f Sacral foramina, 87, 87f Serosa (visceral peritoneum) of muscles covering, 134t, 135f
Reproductive system, 10t, 343–354. Sacral hiatus, 87, 87f alimentary canal, 312, 313f, 313t, palpating bone markings, 83–84
See also specific organs Sacral plexus, 184f, 185t, 186, 186f 314, 315f, 360f Small intestine, 6f, 10t, 15, 16f, 312f,
female, 10t, 225, 346–349, 347f, Sacral promontory, 87, 87f, 100f Serous pericardium, 245 316, 316f
348f, 358f, 363f Sacral region, 3f Serratus anterior muscle, 132f, 137f digestive functions, 316–317, 321f
male, 10t, 225, 343–346, 344f, 346f, Sacral spinal nerves, 182f, 184f Sesamoid bones, of fingers, 99f histology, 360f
362f, 363f Sacroiliac joints, 87, 100f, 101t Sex hormones (gonadocorticoids), 224t mucosa of, 40f
rat, 14f, 15 Sacrum, 84, 84f, 87, 87f, 100f Shaft, hair, 60f, 61, 61f peritoneal attachments, 316f
Residual reserve (RV), 303f, 305 in females vs. males, 102t Sharpey’s (perforating) fibers, 70f, rat, 12, 13f
Resolution of compound light Saddle joint, 110t, 112t 71, 73f structural modifications, 317f
microscope, 368 Sagittal plane, 4 Sheep brain dissection, 171–174, 173f, Smell sense (olfaction), 209–212
Respiration, 291. See also Breathing Sagittal section, 4, 4f 174f lab experiments, 211–212
Respiratory bronchioles, 293, 293f, Sagittal sinus, 167, 168f Sheep heart dissection, 250–252, 251f receptors, 209–210, 209f, 357f
359f Sagittal suture, 79 Sheep kidney dissection, 333 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum, 20f, 21t
Respiratory capacities, 303f Saline, physiological, 33 Sheep pluck, 296 Smooth muscle tissue, 47, 48f
Respiratory gas exchanges, 291, 294f Saliva, 314–315, 319 Short bones, 68 cells, 22f, 355f
plasma membrane and, 29 Salivary amylase, 314, 319, 321f Shoulder of GI tract, 313f, 313t, 314, 315,
Respiratory membrane, 294, 294f Salivary glands, 10t, 312f, 314, 319– arteries, 260f, 262 315f, 360f
Respiratory system, 10t, 291–300 320, 361f bones, 68f, 95 of hair follicles, 61
breathing mechanics, 301, 302f Saphenous veins, 266, 266f joint, 96f, 97t, 110t, 111f, 112f, 112t of ureters, 362f
circulatory system links to, 291, Sarcolemma, 121, 122f, 125, 125f, 250f muscles, 132f, 133f, 136, 137, 137f, Sodium ions (Na+)
306 Sarcomeres, 121, 122f 138t, 139f in action potential (nerve impulse),
conducting zone, 294 Sartorius muscle, 132f, 140t, 141f nerves, 184f, 185t 155, 156f
functions (overview), 10t Satellite cells, 151, 356f veins, 265f, 266–267, 268f in muscle contraction, 125
lower structures, 293–296 Scala media/scala vestibuli/scala Shoulder (pectoral) girdle, 68f, 95, Sodium-potassium (Na+-K+) pump,
lungs, 10t, 294, 295f, 296, 301–302, tympani, 205f 96f, 97t 155, 156f
359f Scalp muscles, 134t, 135f palpating surface anatomy of, Soft palate, 292f, 292t
organs, 10t Scanning lens of microscope, 366 98–99 Soleus muscle, 132f, 133f, 141f, 142t
other thoracic cavity organs and, Scaphoid bone, 99f, 111f Sigmoid colon, 6f, 312f, 317, 318f Somatic reflexes, 189, 190–192, 202
295f Scapula, 68f, 95, 96f, 97t Silver nitrate, 32t Somatic sensory area, 164f
physiology, 301–309 as body landmark, 3 Simple diffusion, 29, 32 Sound localization test, 205
respiratory volume measurement, at shoulder joint, 111f Simple epithelia, 22f, 38, 38f, 39f, 40f, Sound waves, hearing and, 205
302–305 Scar tissue, 42 355f, 360f Sounds of Korotkoff, 281
respiratory zone, 294 Schwann cells, 151, 152, 152f, 153f, Sinus, bone marking, 69t Special sense organs, 10t
upper structures, 291–293, 292f 356f Sinusoids, 362f Special senses, 195–220. See also
Respiratory volume measurement, Sciatic nerve, 185t, 186, 186f Sister chromatids, 23, 23f specific senses
302–305 Sciatic notches, 101t, 102t Skeletal muscles, 47, 121 equilibrium, 203, 207–209
Respiratory zone structures, 294 Sclera, 198f, 199t attachment sites, 113, 113f, 124, 126 hearing, 203–207
Resting membrane potential, 155, 156f cow eye, 200f cells (fibers) of, 121–124, 122f, 123f, smell, 209–212
Rete testis, 345, 345f Scleral venous sinus, 197, 198f 355f taste, 209, 210–212
Reticular connective tissue, 42, 44f Scoliosis, 85, 85f connective tissue wrappings of, 124 vision, 195–203
Reticular fibers, 42, 44f Scrotum, 10t, 343, 344f contraction of, 121, 123–124 Specific gravity of urine, 336
Reticular dermis, 56f, 57 rat, 14f, 15 embryonic development, 23 Sperm, 22f, 345, 346f, 363f
Retina, 197, 197f, 198f, 199t, 357f Sebaceous (oil) glands, 56f, 59, 60f fibers (cells) of, 121–124, 355f Spermatic cord, 344, 345f
384 Index
Sphenoid bone, 80f, 81f, 81t, 82f, 83f Subacromial bursa, 112f Systole, 277, 278f, 279t Thorax
Sphenoidal sinus, 84f Subarachnoid space, 167, 168f Systolic blood pressure, 281–282, 281f arteries, 260f, 261f, 262
Sphygmomanometer, 281, 281f Subclavian arteries, 259, 259t, 260f, 261f muscles, 132f, 136t, 137f, 138t
Spinal cavity, 5 Subclavian veins, 265f, 267, 268f T lymphocytes or T cells, 225 veins, 267, 268f
Spinal cord, 10t, 15, 16f, 181–183, Subcostal arteries, 262t T3 (triiodothyronine), 223t Threshold, 155
182f, 183f Subcutaneous layer (hypodermis), 43f, T4 (thyroxine), 223t Throat, 293
cross-sectional view, 183f, 356f 55, 56f, 60f Tactile corpuscles, 56f, 57, 58, 356f rat, 12
dissection, 182 Subdural space, 167, 168f Tactile localization, 58–59 Thrombin, 237, 237f
gray matter, 181–182, 183f, 356f Sublingual glands, 312f, 319, 361f Tactile epithelial (Merkel) cells, 57 Thumb, 98, 99f, 112t
neuroglia, 151 Submandibular glands, 312f, 319 Talus bone, 101, 104f Thymopoietin, 225
white matter, 182, 183f Submucosa of GI tract, 312, 313f, tibia and, 101 Thymosin, 225
Spinal curvatures, 85, 85f 313t, 314, 317f, 360f, 361f Tapetum lucidum, cow eye, 199, 200f Thymulin, 225
abnormal, 85, 85f Submucosal plexus (GI tract), 313f, Target cells (target) of hormone, 221 Thymus, 10t, 225, 226f
Spinal dura mater, 183f 313t Tarsal bones (tarsals), 68f, 101, 104f rat, 12, 13f
Spinal nerve plexuses, 184f, 185–186, Subscapular artery, 261f Tarsal glands, 196f, 196t Thyrocervical trunk, 261f
185t Subscapular fossa, 96f, 97t Tarsal region, 2f Thyroglobulin, 223
Spinal nerves, 182, 182f, 183–184, Substrates of enzymes, 320 Taste buds, 37, 210, 210f, 211, 357f Thyroid cartilage, 292f, 293
183f Sudoriferous (sweat) glands, 56f, 59 Taste sense (gustation), 209, 210–212, Thyroid gland, 10t, 15, 16f, 222f, 223,
spinal cord and, 181, 182 Sulci, cerebral, 163, 164f 210f 226f
Spinal reflexes, 190–192 Superficial cord reflexes, 191 effects of smell/texture/temperature, hormones, 223t
Spinalis muscle, 139f Superficial direction/orientation, 3 211–212 Thyroid hormone (TH), 223t
Spindle, mitotic, 23, 23–24f Superior colliculi, corpora identifying tongue papillae, 210 hyposecretion/hypersecretion of,
Spindle pole, 23f quadrigemina, 166, 166f sensory areas in brain for, 164f 226t
Spine. See Vertebral column Superior orientation/direction, 3, 3f stimulating, 211 Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH),
Spine, bone marking, 69t Superior pubic ramus, 100f taste buds of, 37, 210, 210f, 211, 222f, 222t, 223t
Spine of scapula, 96f, 97t, 99 Superior sagittal sinus, 167, 168f 357f Thyroxine (T4), 223t
Spinous processes of vertebrae, 84f, Superior vena cava, 246f, 247f, 248, Tectorial membrane, 205, 205f, 357f Tibia, 68f, 101, 103f, 104t
85, 85f, 86f 248f, 265, 265f Teeth, 10t, 318–319, 319f Tibial arteries, 264, 264f
cervical, palpating, 86 sheep, 251f Telophase stage of mitosis, 23, 24f as pulse point, 280, 280f
Spiral organ, 205, 205f, 207f, 357f veins draining into, 266–267 Temperature of foods, taste sense and, Tibial nerve, 185t, 186, 186f
Spirometers, 302, 304f Supination movement, 113, 115f 212 Tibial tuberosity, 103f, 104t
Spirometry measurements, 302–305 Supporting cells (neuroglia) of nervous Temperature receptors, 57–58 Tibial veins, 266, 266f
Spleen, 6f, 10t, 15, 16f, 44f, 358f tissue, 151 Temporal artery, as pulse point, 280, Tibialis anterior muscle, 132f, 140t,
peritoneal attachments, 316f of olfactory epithelium, 209, 209f, 280f 141f, 142
rat, 13f, 15 357f Temporal bones, 79, 80f, 80t, 81f, Tibiofibular joints, 103f, 103t
Splenic artery, 260f, 262t, 263f Supracondylar lines of femur, medial 82f, 83f Tidal volume (TV), 303f, 304
Splenic vein, 269, 270f and lateral, 103t Temporal lobe, 163, 164f, 165f Tissue factor (TF), 237, 237f
Splenius capitis muscle, 135f Supracondylar ridges of humerus, 98f Temporalis muscle, 131, 132f, 134t, Tissues, 9, 37–54
Spongy bone, 67, 73f Supraorbital foramen (notch), 80t, 83f 135f connective, 9, 37, 42, 43–46f
Spongy (penile) urethra, 332, 344, 344f Supraorbital margin, 83f Temporomandibular joint, 84 constructing concept map, 50, 50f
Squamous epithelia, 38, 38f Suprarenal arteries, 260f, 262t Tendinous intersection, 137f epithelial, 9, 37–42
simple, 39f Suprarenal glands. See Adrenal glands Tendon sheaths, 110, 112f muscle, 9, 37, 47, 47f
stratified, 41f Suprarenal veins, 263f, 265f, 266, 267f Tendons, 10t, 42, 44f, 112f, 124 nervous, 9, 37, 49, 49f
Squamous suture, 79, 80f Suprascapular artery, 261f Tenia coli, 318f Titin (elastic) filaments, 122f
Stapes (stirrup), 203f, 204t Suprascapular notch, 96f, 97t Tensile strength of bone matrix, 71 Toes, 2
Stellate macrophages, 320, 362f Supraspinatus muscle, 139f Tensor fascia lata muscle, 132f, 141f bones, 68f, 101, 104f
Stereocilia, 207f, 208f, 362f Supraspinous fossa, 96f, 97t Teres major muscle, 133f, 139f muscles, 140t
Sternal angle, 88f Sural region, 2f, 3 Teres minor muscle, 139f Tongue, 312f, 314, 314f
Sternal (medial) end of clavicle, 96f Surface anatomy, 1–3, 2f Terminal bronchioles, 293, 293f taste buds, 210, 210f, 211, 357f
Sternal region, 2f body cavities, 5–6, 5f, 6f Testes, 10t, 224t, 225, 343, 344f, 345, Tonsillar crypts, 359f
Sternoclavicular joint, 96f body landmarks, 1–3 345f Tonsils, 10t, 292f, 292t, 314, 314f,
palpating, 99 body orientation/direction, 3, 3f histology, 362f, 363f 359f
Sternocleidomastoid muscle, 132f, body planes, 4, 4f rat, 14f, 15 Total blood cell count, 234
133f, 134t, 135f, 137f body sections, 4, 4f Testicular arteries, 260f, 262t, 263f Total lung capacity (TLC), 303f
Sternohyoid muscle, 132f Surface epithelium, 348, 349f, 363f Testicular veins, 265f, 266 Total magnification, 367
Sternum, 68f, 88, 88f Surfactant, alveolar, 293 Testosterone, 224t, 225 Total peripheral resistance, 282
Steroid hormones, 221, 225 Surgical neck of humerus, 95, 98f Tetany, 226t Touch receptors, 57, 58–59
Steroid synthesis site, 21t Suspensory ligaments TF (tissue factor), 237, 237f Trabeculae, 67, 72, 73f
Stirrup (stapes), 203f, 204t lens, 198f, 199, 199t Thalamus, 166f, 167 Trabeculae carneae, 247f
Stomach, 5, 6f, 10t, 15, 16f, 312f, 315, ovaries, 347, 347f, 348f Thick filaments, 122f Trachea, 10t, 15, 16f, 40f, 293, 296f,
315f, 360f Sutures, 79, 110t, 111f Thigh 359f
digestion/absorption in, 321f Swallowing (deglutition), 323 arteries, 264 rat, 12, 13f
digestive functions, 315–316 Sweat pore, 56f, 59 bone, 101, 103f Tracts, nerve fiber, 151, 182
histology, 40f, 315f, 355f, 360f Sweat (sudoriferous) glands, 56f, 59 muscles, 132f, 133f, 140–143, 140t, CNS, 157
mesenteries, 315–316, 316f plotting sweat maps, 59–60 141f, 142t, 143f Transitional epithelia, 38, 41f, 362f
mucosa of, 316–317, 355f Symphyses, 110t, 111f nerves supply, 185t, 186, 186f Transport mechanisms, cell, 29–36
peritoneal attachments, 316f Synaptic cleft, 124–125, 125f, 152 veins, 265f, 266, 266f Transverse colon, 6f, 312f, 317, 318f
rat, 12, 13f Synarthroses joints, 109 Thin filaments, 122f peritoneal attachments, 316f
Straight tubule of testis, 345f Synchondrosis, 110t, 111f Thoracic aorta, 259, 260f, 261f, 262, Transverse plane, 4, 4f
Stratified epithelia, 38, 38f, 41f Syndesmoses, 110t, 111f 262t Transverse processes, vertebral, 84f,
Stratum basale, 56f, 57t Syndrome of inappropriate ADH Thoracic cage, 68f, 88, 88f 85, 85f, 86f
Stratum corneum, 56f, 57t, 61f secretion, 226t thoracic vertebrae, 84f, 86f, 87 Transverse ridges of sacrum, 87f
Stratum germinativum. Synergist muscles, 126 Thoracic cavity, 5, 5f, 15, 16f Transverse section (cross section), 4, 4f
See Stratum basale Synovial fluid, 110 organs in, 295f Transversus abdominis muscle, 132f,
Stratum granulosum, 56f, 57t Synovial joints, 109, 110–116, 110t, rat, 12, 13f 136t, 137f
Stratum lucidum, 56f, 57t 111f Thoracic curvature, 84f Trapezium bone, 99f, 110t
Stratum spinosum, 56f, 57t identifying types of, 112 Thoracic organs, rat, 12, 13f Trapezius muscle, 132f, 133f, 135f,
Stretch reflexes, 190–191 movements allowed by, 113–116, Thoracic region, 2f 137, 137f, 138t, 139f
Striations, muscle, 47, 47f 114f Thoracic spinal nerves, 182f, 184f Trapezoid bone, 99f
Sty, 196t Synovial membrane, 110, 112f Thoracic vertebrae, 84f, 87 Triceps brachii muscle, 132f, 133f,
Styloid processes, 80f, 80t, 82f, 98f, 99 Systemic circuit, 248, 248f regional features, 86f 138, 138t
Stylomastoid foramen, 82f gas exchanges and, 248f, 291 Thoracoacromial artery, 261f Tricuspid valve of heart, 246, 247f
Index 385
Trigeminal nerves (V), 170t, 171f rat, 14f, 15 Venous congestion, effects of, 284–285 Visceral peritoneum, 312, 313f, 313t,
Trigone, 332, 332f Urethra, 10t, 332 Venous palmar arches, deep and 314, 315f, 360f
Triiodothyronine (T3), 223t female, 332f, 347f superficial, 266f, 267, 268f Visceral pleura, 294, 295f
Triquetrum, 99f, 111f male, 332, 344, 344f Ventilation. See Breathing Vision
Trochanter, 69t Urethral orifice, external, 332, 332f Ventral (anterior) columns (funiculi) of eye anatomy, 195–200, 196f, 197f
Trochlea of humerus, 97t, 98f female, 346t, 347f spinal cord, 182, 183f mechanism of, 201
Trochlear nerve (IV), 170t, 171f male, 344f Ventral (anterior) horns, spinal cord, photoreceptors, 197, 197f, 202
Trochlear notch of ulna, 97t, 98f rat, 14f 181, 183f, 356f role in equilibrium, 209
Tropic hormones, 221, 222t Urethral sphincters, 332, 332f Ventral body cavity sensory areas and related association
True ribs, 88, 88f Urinalysis, 336–338 human, 5–6, 5f areas in brain for, 164f
Trunk muscles, 131, 132f, 133f, Urinary bladder, 6f, 10t, 15, 332, 332f rat dissection, 11–15 Visual acuity, 201
136–137, 136t, 137f, 138t, 139f rat, 12, 13f, 14f, 15 Ventral direction/orientation, 3, 3f Visual tests, 201–202
Trunk region of body, 1 transitional epithelium lining, 41f in animals, 3 Vital capacity (VC), 303f, 304
Trypsin, 321f, 322 Urinary system, 331–342 Ventral median fissure of spinal cord, Vitamin D synthesis, skin and, 55
assessing protein digestion by, functions (overview), 10t 183 f, 356f Vitreous humor, 197, 198f
322, 322f kidney structure, 333, 333f Ventral rami of spinal nerves, 184, Vocal folds (true vocal cords), 292f,
TSH (thyrotropic hormone), 222f, nephron structure, 334–336, 335f 184f, 185, 186 293
222t, 223t organs, 10t, 331–332, 332f Ventral roots, spinal cord, 182, 183f Volkmann’s (perforating) canals, 72,
Tubercle, 69t pig/sheep kidney dissection, 333 Ventricles of heart, 246, 246f, 247f, 248f 73f
of humerus, 97t, 98f urine, 336–338 sheep, 251f Voluntary muscles, 47, 47f
Tuberosity, 69t Urine, 336–338 Venules, 258t Vomer, 82f, 82t, 83f
Tunica albuginea, 345, 345f, 348f, abnormal constituents, 337t Vertebra prominens, 86
349f, 362f sample analysis, 337–338 Vertebrae, 68f, 84–87 Water, osmosis and, 29
Tunica externa, 257, 258f, 358f solutes normally found in, 336 bone markings, 69t Water vacuoles in cell cytoplasm, 21
Tunica intima, 257, 258f Urochrome, 336 cervical, 85–86, 86f WBCs (white blood cells).
Tunica media, 257, 258f, 358f Uterine horns, rat, 14f joints of, 111f See Leukocytes (white blood cells/
Tunica vaginalis, 345, 345f Uterine tubes, 10t, 347, 347f, 348f, 363f lumbar, 87 WBCs)
Tunics Uterosacral ligaments, 347, 347f, 348f regional features, 86f Weber tuning fork test, 206, 206f
of alimentary canal, 312, 313f, 314 Uterus, 10t, 15, 347, 347f, 348f structure of typical, 85 Wernicke’s area, 164f
of blood vessel, 257, 258f, 358f rat, 14f, 15 thoracic, 87 Wet mount for microscope, 371–372
Turbinates. See Nasal conchae Utricle, 207, 207f Vertebral arch, 85, 85f White blood cells (WBCs).
Two-point threshold, 58 gravitational pull on macula Vertebral arteries, 86, 260f, 261f, 262, See Leukocytes (white blood cells/
Tympanic cavity of middle ear, 204t receptor in, 208f 269, 270, 270f WBCs)
Tympanic membrane (eardrum), 203f, Uvula, 314, 314f Vertebral column (spine), 3, 68f, White columns of spinal cord, 182,
204t 84–87, 84f 183f
otoscopic viewing, 204 Vagina, 10t, 346, 347f curvatures, 85, 85f White matter
rat, 14f intervertebral discs, 84f, 85 cerebral, 151, 164, 164f
Ulna, 68f, 97t, 98f, 99f Vaginal orifice, 347f joints, 111f spinal cord, 182, 183f
at elbow and wrist joints, 111f rat, 14f, 15 vertebrae, 84–87 Whitefish blastulas, 24
Ulnar artery, 261f, 262 Vagus nerve (X), 170, 170t, 171f, 192, Vertebral facets, 86f Wisdom teeth, 318, 319f
Ulnar nerve, 184f, 185t, 186 210 Vertebral foramen, 85, 85f, 86f Working distance of microscope, 368,
Ulnar notch, 98f Vallate papillae, 210, 210f Vertebral veins, 265f, 266 369f
Ulnar styloid process, 97t, 98f Vas (ductus) deferens, 344, 344f, 345f Vesicouterine pouch, 347f Wrist (carpus), 2, 98, 110t
Ulnar veins, 267, 268f rat, 14f, 15 Vesicular (antral) follicle, 348f, 349, joint, 111f
Umami, 210 Vasa recta, 334 349f, 358f muscles, 136t, 137, 138t
Umbilical region, 2f, 5, 6f Vasa vasorum, 258f Vestibular apparatus, 207
Umbilicus, 5 Vascular layer of eye, 197, 199t Vestibular fold, 292f Xiphisternal joint, 88f
Uniaxial joints, 111f, 113 Vasodilation, oxygen and, 284 Vestibular glands, greater, 346t, 347f Xiphoid process, 88, 88f
Uniaxial movement, 112, 112t Vastus intermedius muscle, 140t Vestibular membrane, 205, 205f, 357f
Unipolar (pseudounipolar) neurons, Vastus lateralis muscle, 132f, 140t, 141f Vestibular nerve, 207f Yellow marrow, 70f, 71
154, 154f, 356f Vastus medialis muscle, 132f, 140t, 141f Vestibule
Upper limbs, 68f, 95 Veins, 257–259, 258f, 258t, 265–267, of female genitals, 346t, 347f Z disc (Z line), 121, 122f
arteries, 260f, 261f, 262 268f, 358f of inner ear, 203f, 204t, 207f Zona pellucida, 348f, 358f
bones, 95–99, 97t, 98f, 99f factors affecting blood flow, oral, 314, 314f Zygomatic arch, 80t, 83
muscles, 132f, 133f, 136t, 137–138, 284–285 Vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII), 170t, Zygomatic bone, 80f, 82f, 83, 83f
137f, 138t, 139f hepatic portal circulation, 269, 270f 171f, 203f, 208f Zygomatic bone paranasal sinuses,
nerve supply, 184f, 185t major, of body, 265–267, 268f Villi, 314, 316, 317f, 360f, 361f 82t
veins, 267, 268f microscopic examination, 259, 259f Virtual image in light microscopy, Zygomatic process, 80f, 80t, 82f
Upper respiratory tract, 291–293, Venae cavae 367, 367f Zygomaticus muscle, 132f, 134t,
292f sheep, 251f Visceral layer 135f
Ureteric orifices, 332f superior/inferior, 246f, 247f, 248, of glomerular capsule, 334t, 335f
Ureters, 10t, 15, 16f, 331, 332f, 362f 248f, 265–267, 265f, 267f, 269f of pericardium (epicardium), 245, 247f
Anatomy and Physiology
Laboratory Safety Guidelines*
1. Upon entering the laboratory, locate exits, fire extinguisher, fire blanket, chemical
shower, eyewash station, first aid kit, containers for broken glass, and materials for
cleaning up spills.
2. Do not eat, drink, smoke, handle contact lenses, store food, or apply cosmetics or lip
balm in the laboratory. Restrain long hair, loose clothing, and dangling jewelry.
3. Students who are pregnant, are taking immunosuppressive drugs, or have any other
medical conditions (e.g., diabetes, immunological defect) that might necessitate
special precautions in the laboratory must inform the instructor immediately.
4. Wearing contact lenses in the laboratory is inadvisable because they do not provide
eye protection and may trap material on the surface of the eye. Soft contact lenses
may absorb volatile chemicals. If possible, wear regular eyeglasses instead.
5. Use safety glasses in all experiments involving liquids, aerosols, vapors, and gases.
6. Decontaminate work surfaces at the beginning and end of every lab period, using
a commercially prepared disinfectant or 10% bleach solution. After labs involving
dissection of preserved material, use hot soapy water or disinfectant.
7. Keep all liquids away from the edge of the lab bench to avoid spills. Clean up spills of
viable materials using disinfectant or 10% bleach solution.
8. Properly label glassware and slides.
9. Use mechanical pipetting devices; mouth pipetting is prohibited.
10. Wear disposable gloves when handling blood and other body fluids, mucous
membranes, and nonintact skin, and when touching items or surfaces soiled with blood
or other body fluids. Change gloves between procedures. Wash hands immediately
after removing gloves. (Note: Cover open cuts or scrapes with a sterile bandage before
donning gloves.)
11. Place glassware and plasticware contaminated by blood and other body fluids in a
disposable autoclave bag for decontamination by autoclaving, or place them directly
into a 10% bleach solution before reuse or disposal. Place disposable materials such
as gloves, mouthpieces, swabs, and toothpicks that have come into contact with body
fluids into a disposable autoclave bag, and decontaminate before disposal.
12. To help prevent contamination by needlestick injuries, use only disposable needles and
lancets. Do not bend the needles and lancets. Needles and lancets should be placed
promptly in a labeled, puncture-resistant, leakproof container and decontaminated,
preferably by autoclaving.
13. Do not leave heat sources unattended.
14. Report all spills or accidents, no matter how minor, to the instructor.
15. Never work alone in the laboratory.
16. Remove protective clothing before leaving the laboratory.
*
Adapted from:
Biosafety in Microbiological and Biomedical Laboratories (BMBL), Fifth Edition. 2007. U.S. Government Printing
Office. Washington, D.C. www.cdc.gov/od/OHS/biosfty/bmbl5/bmbl5toc.htm
Centers for Disease Control. 1996. “Universal Precautions for Prevention of Transmission of HIV and Other Blood-
borne Infections.” Washington, D.C. www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dhqp/bp_universal_precautions.html
Johnson, Ted, and Christine Case. 2010. Laboratory Experiments in Microbiology, Ninth Edition. San Francisco:
Pearson Benjamin Cummings.
School Chemistry Laboratory Safety Guide. 2006. U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission. Bethesda, MD.
www.cpsc.gov/CPSCPUB/PUBS/NIOSH2007107.pdf
The Metric System
Metric to English English to metric
Measurement Unit and abbreviation Metric equivalent conversion factor conversion factor
Length 1 kilometer (km) 5 1000 (103) meters 1 km 5 0.62 mile 1 mile 5 1.61 km
1 meter (m) 5 100 (102) centimeters 1 m 5 1.09 yards 1 yard 5 0.914 m
5 1000 millimeters 1 m 5 3.28 feet 1 foot 5 0.305 m
1 m 5 39.37 inches 1 foot 5 30.5 cm
1 centimeter (cm) 5 0.01 (1022) meter 1 cm 5 0.394 inch 1 inch 5 2.54 cm
1 mm 5 0.039 inch
1 millimeter (mm) 5 0.001 (1023) meter
1 micrometer (μm) 5 0.000001 (1026) meter
[formerly micron (μ)]
1 nanometer (nm) 5 0.000000001 (1029)
[formerly millimicron meter
(mμ)]
1 angstrom (Å) 5 0.0000000001
(10210) meter
Area 1 square meter (m2) 5 10,000 square 1 m2 5 1.1960 square 1 square yard 5
centimeters yards 0.8361 m2
1 m2 5 10.764 square 1 square foot 5
feet 0.0929 m2
1 square centimeter 5 100 square 1 cm2 5 0.155 square 1 square inch 5
(cm2) millimeters inch 6.4516 cm2
Mass 1 metric ton (t) 5 1000 kilograms 1 t 5 1.103 ton 1 ton 5 0.907 t
1 kilogram (kg) 5 1000 grams 1 kg 5 2.205 pounds 1 pound 5 0.4536 kg
1 gram (g) 5 1000 milligrams 1 g 5 0.0353 ounce 1 ounce 5 28.35 g
1 g 5 15.432 grains
1 milligram (mg) 5 0.001 gram 1 mg 5 approx. 0.015
grain
1 microgram (μg) 5 0.000001 gram
Volume 1 cubic meter (m ) 3
5 1,000,000 cubic 1 m3 5 1.3080 cubic 1 cubic yard 5
(solids) centimeters yards 0.7646 m3
1 m3 5 35.315 cubic 1 cubic foot 5
feet 0.0283 m3
1 cubic centimeter 5 0.000001 cubic meter 1 cm3 5 0.0610 cubic 1 cubic inch 5
(cm3 or cc) 5 1 milliliter inch 16.387 cm3
1 cubic millimeter (mm3) 5 0.000000001 cubic meter
Volume 1 kiloliter (kl or kL) 5 1000 liters 1 kL 5 264.17 gallons 1 gallon 5 3.785 L
(liquids 1 liter (l or L) 5 1000 milliliters 1 L 5 0.264 gallon 1 quart 5 0.946 L
and gases) 1 L 5 1.057 quarts
1 milliliter (ml or mL) 5 0.001 liter 1 ml 5 0.034 fluid 1 quart 5 946 ml
5 1 cubic centimeter ounce 1 pint 5 473 ml
1 ml 5 approx. 14 1 fluid ounce 5
teaspoon 29.57 ml
1 ml 5 approx. 15–16 1 teaspoon 5 approx.
drops (gtt.) 5 ml
1 microliter (μl or μL) 5 0.000001 liter
Time 1 second (s or sec) 5 60
1
minute
1 millisecond (ms or msec) 5 0.001 second
Temperature Degrees Celsius (°C) °F 5 95 (°C) 1 32 °C 5 59 (°F 2 32)

Lab Manual - Anatomy and Physiology

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Laboratory Manual for

Anatomy & Physiology

Elaine N. Marieb, R.N., Ph.D.

Lori A. Smith, Ph.D.

Cover Photo Credit: Jacek Chabraszewski/Shutterstock

www.pearson.com ISBN-10: 0-13-516802-3

THE CELL THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

BASIC TISSUES AND THE SKIN

13 Neuron Anatomy and Physiology 151

THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM 4 Examining Prepared Slides of Trachea and Lung

Pedagogy and Special Features Also Available

Materials Learning Outcomes

Abdominal: Anterior body trunk region inferior to the ribs

Text continues on next page. ➔

(a) Anterior/Ventral (b) Posterior/Dorsal

Figure 1.1 Surface anatomy.

Antecubital: Anterior surface of the elbow Mammary: Breast

Posterior Body Landmarks Lumbar: Lower back

Body Orientation and Direction

Figure 1.3 Planes of the body.

Body Planes and Sections

(a) Lateral view (b) Anterior view

Figure 1.5 Body cavities.

Epigastric region: Immediately superior to the umbilical

Locating Abdominopelvic Surface Regions

Figure 1.6 Abdominopelvic quadrants. Superficial

Ascending colon of Transverse colon

Key: acromial cervical patellar scapular

1. lower portion of the lower limb 6. anterior aspect of knee

2. referring to the fingers 7. referring to the arm

3. posterior aspect of the knee 8. your backbone, or spine

4. shoulder blade 9. point of the shoulder

5. wrist area 10. referring to the neck

Body Orientation, Direction, Planes, and Sections

Key: anterior inferior posterior superior

(a) (b) (c)

Key: abdominopelvic cranial spinal thoracic

1. surgery to remove a cancerous lung lobe 1. ________________________________________________

2. gastric bypass surgery to reduce the size of the stomach 2. ________________________________________________

3. surgery to remove a ruptured spinal disk 3. ________________________________________________

4. removal of a brain tumor 4. ________________________________________________

8. + Which body cavity would be opened to perform a hysterectomy? ___________________________________________

2 Organ Systems Overview

Materials Learning Outcomes

Rat Dissection and/or Observation

Table 2.1 Overview of Organ Systems of the Body

Organ system Major component organs Function

2. Don the gloves before beginning your obser-

Text continues on next page. ➔

2. Lift the abdominal skin with a forceps, and cut

(a) Thoracic cavity

(b) Abdominal cavity

Text continues on next page. ➔

Inferior vena cava Descending aorta

Ductus (vas) deferens Penis

Figure 2.4 Rat dissection: Deeper organs of the abdominopelvic cavity.

Text continues on next page. ➔

Figure 2.5 Human torso model.

Key: cardiovascular integumentary nervous skeletal

1. rids the body of nitrogen-containing wastes

1. Phase: _ 2. Phase: _

Events: Events:

3. Phase: _ 4. Phase: _

Events: Events: