Corn Silage

It is a palatable forage with relatively consistent quality and higher yields and energy content
than most other forages. Corn silage production requires significantly less labor and machinery
time than other harvested forages because it requires only a single harvest activity. The cost per
ton of dry matter also tends to be much lower for corn silage than for other harvested forage
crops.

Planning for corn silage production

PRODUCTION STRATEGIES

Harvest Decisions

The decision to harvest a field for silage from the outset is common on farms where corn is
grown only for silage or where particular fields are used only for silage production. The
advantage of this strategy is that cultural practices such as hybrid selection, plant populations,
and fertilizer applications can be adjusted specifically for maximizing the potential of this crop for
silage.

Delaying the decision on which fields to harvest for silage is a strategy that is commonly used
on many farms where corn is grown for both silage and grain. The advantage of this system is
that producers are able to salvage fields for silage that may have had a production problem and
may have low and uneconomical grain yields.

Also, producers may use this strategy to adjust the amount of silage harvested based on forage
requirements. This strategy is best adapted to areas where corn production is more risky, for
example, on droughty or wet soils, in areas with marginal precipitation, or in short season areas
where frost is frequently a problem.

The disadvantage of this system is that the corn is usually managed for grain production, and
some silage yield may be sacrificed.

FIELD SELECTION

Selecting soils that are best adapted to corn silage production is a key aspect of profitable
production. Corn silage can be produced on soils where grain production would not be
economical because of the greater returns from the silage harvest.

Nevertheless, some soils are not well adapted to corn silage production because of drainage
problems or low water-holding capacity.

Wet soils frequently delay planting and cause harvest problems. Delaying planting creates
several potential problems: yield potential is decreased, crop maturity is often delayed, and
conflicts arise between corn planting and forage crop harvesting. In this situation, either soil
drainage or other crops should be considered if corn silage production is not economical. Larger
machinery may also be needed to improve timeliness on these soils.

Where the soil water-holding capacity is low, on shallow or stony soils, or in areas that receive
marginal rainfall, other crops may be better adapted than corn silage. Typical substitutes for
corn silage in these situations include forage sorghum, grain sorghum, small grains, or other
forage crops. Often, these crops may not produce a forage with the quality and/ or yield of corn
silage, but their establishment costs are lower and their yields may be less variable. To
determine whether these alternative crops would be profitable, compare production costs
against value of the silage.

Corn silage production may also be limited on erodible soils, unless you implement conservation
measures such as reduced tillage, strip cropping, or the establishment of cover crops
immediately after harvest.

HYBRID SELECTION

Corn hybrid selection is one of the most important management decisions in silage production.
Selecting the correct hybrid can often mean the difference between breaking even and making a
profit.

Selecting hybrids for silage production depends somewhat on whether a field is planned
specifically for silage or whether the field may be harvested for grain (dual purpose).

Silage types should have high forage yields and high digestibility, low fiber levels, and stover
that is highly digestible. The best silage types have high grain yields because grain is so highly
digestible. However, ranking for top-yielding hybrids used for silage may vary based on
differences in fiber digestibility and grain-to-stover ratio. A dual-purpose hybrid should have both
high grain and forage yields. For both scenarios, hybrid selection should start with identifying a
group of hybrids that are adapted to the area in terms of maturity, disease and insect resistance,
and drought tolerance.

Generally, higher silage yields are produced with hybrids that mature slightly later than those
adapted for grain production--perhaps 5 to 10 relative maturity units later. Other factors, such as
feed requirements, harvest timing and the potential of wet soils at harvest may dictate the
selection of earlier maturing hybrids. Growers using a dual-purpose strategy may need to plant
some fields to the adapted maturity to assure ripening and a limited acreage to the later types
for corn silage. Once a group of adapted hybrids is identified, evaluate them on the basis of
yield potential. For those fields that are planned for silage production, evaluate hybrids based on
silage yield performance. Many studies have shown that grain yield is a good general indicator
of whole plant yield, that is, high grain yielding hybrids tend to have high silage yields. However,
within the high grain group, there can be differences in whole plant yield and fiber digestibility,
reinforcing the need to have silage data available on these hybrids. For the dual-purpose
strategy, select hybrids with good grain and silage yields.

The final consideration for hybrid evaluation should be quality. Differences exist among
commercial corn hybrids for digestibility, NDF (neutral detergent fiber), NDF digestibility, and
protein. Most studies have shown that within a group of commercial hybrids, there will be a few
with superior quality, most with average quality, and a few with significantly less than average
quality. Many seed companies are developing forage quality profiles of existing corn hybrids.
Select hybrids with a combination of yield and quality that maximizes livestock production per
acre.
Predicting animal response and relating it to improvements in corn silage quality is complex.
Differences in quality can translate into differences in animal performance. The optimum silage
composition can vary depending on the type of cattle it's fed to and on the other components of
the ration.

For example, a high grain or high starch corn silage may be best in a finishing ration or
in a dairy ration that contains a lot of good quality forage.

But in a dairy ration where corn silage makes up the bulk of the ration, the same high grain corn
silage may not be as desirable as a high energy, low grain silage. The best estimates of animal
performance responses and supplementation costs can be obtained through forage analysis.
One approach to combining yield and quality information is to estimate a value for the feed
production potential of a hybrid. The trade-off between yield and quality in selecting hybrids for
corn silage production is based on the value placed on silages of different nutritional
composition.

The preferred method to determine the value of a forage is to value the nutritional components
in the forage based on market prices of other feeds.

Specifically, corn silage can be valued based on calculated market prices for energy, protein,
and digestibility as measured by net energy for lactation (NEL), crude protein, and NDF. Prices
of corn, soybean meal, and legume hay can be used to determine market prices for these
nutritional components (table 1). The analysis must also adjust for differences in dry matter
content of the feed. This method allows a valuation based on the market value of the nutritional
content of the feed rather than the value of an output product. Differences in forage value
calculated in this way reflect additional amounts of grain and digestibility required to equate
quality differences of the forages.

Once the values of the different hybrids have been determined, gross return per acre can be
calculated by multiplying the value per ton by the yield per acre. Table 2 contains an analysis of
three different corn hybrids and a calculation of value per acre for each. Hybrid A has a higher
percentage of dry matter resulting in a higher value per wet ton than hybrid B. Hybrid B has a
higher protein content, lower NDF content, and higher net energy than hybrid C, resulting in
similar returns, even though dry matter yields were 5% higher with hybrid C. Some research
suggests that differences in cell wall or NDF digestibility may affect feed intake and milk
production. NDF digestibility is not routinely measured, however, and the relationship between
NDF digestibility and milk production is not well documented so it is difficult to include this
quality factor in estimating silage value.
 OTHER CORN TYPES

Several types of corn are available that differ in genetic makeup and may affect silage
characteristics. These include high-sugar (grain less or male sterile), waxy, high-oil, brown-
midrib, tropical, open-pollinated, and sweet corn. In some cases, these types are poor choices
for crop production because of low yield or lodging.

High-Sugar Corn is a male sterile plant with no kernel development that offers yields similar
to or less than normal dent corn. Sugars accumulate in the stalk because of the lack of grain.
Feeding trials have shown similar animal performance from high sugar and normal dent hybrids.
The plants stay greener longer and require a hard killing frost to dry down to acceptable ensiling
moistures in upright silos.

Waxy Corn grain contains all amylopectin starch giving it a waxy appearance. Normal corn
starch contains about 75% amylopectin starch and 25% amylose starch. Limited feeding trial
data for corn silage suggest that waxy corn silage is equal to normal corn for forage quality.

Aside from starch content, waxy corn is very similar to normal field corn although it tends to dry
down slower, which may be an advantage when making silage or high moisture corn.

High-oil Corn has greater energy than normal corn because the calorie content of oil is
approximately 2.5 times greater than that of starch. Feeding trials show higher dry matter intake,
but lower digestibility than silage of normal corn. Lower yields have been associated with
elevated oil levels.

Brown-midrib Corn has lower lignin levels in stalks and leaves as compared to field corn.
Since lignin is indigestible, the lower levels in brown midrib corn plants make it more digestible
than normal corn plants. However, animal performance in feeding trials is inconsistent.

Also, field trials have shown poor early season vigor, increased lodging, delayed flowering, and
poor grain yields.

Tropical Hybrids are used in many areas of the Southeast for late planting or double crop
corn silage. These hybrids have increased insect and disease tolerance which contributes to
their higher yield performance in these situations compared to temperate hybrids. These hybrids
are tall, very late maturing, and have high ear placement. They also tend to have higher ADF
and NDF levels as well as higher NDF digestibility.

Open-pollinated corn is genetically variable and often susceptible to lodging. Yield potential
can be up to 25% lower than for hybrids and forage quality can also be affected. Variable
maturity and moisture among plants is undesirable for silage production.

Sweet corn is often available for ensiling as canning factory waste, stover, and as whole
plants. Canning factory waste consists of husks, cobs, and some ears. This silage is usually
lower in protein and energy than silage made from eared field corn. On a dry matter basis, its
nutritive value equals that of immature field corn.

Sweet corn also yields considerably less than field corn. Sweet corn stover left after removing
the ears for the factory has more nutritive value than stover from mature field corn due to
greater leafiness, and greener leaves and stalks. Whole plant sweet corn silage is made by
allowing the plant to mature before ensiling, and its feed value equals that of field corn with
similar ear-to-stalk ratios.

A disadvantage of sweet corn is its slow grain dry-down rate. This not only delays harvest and
increases the risk of spoilage, but reduces stover quality due to increased lignin and fiber
concentrations.
 PLANTING

TILLAGE
The objectives of tillage are to control weeds, level land, and loosen soil.
A wide variety of tillage systems have been used to produce corn silage successfully.
Traditional tillage systems incorporate nearly all crop residue while conservation tillage systems
leave at least 30% of the soil surface covered by crop residue at planting.

Conservation tillage systems are gaining wide acceptance throughout the country as a valid
method for reducing soil erosion. Other benefits include increased water availability during
drought, improved water quality, and lower costs for fuel, equipment, and labor.

The use of conservation tillage systems for corn silage is often complicated by the need to
spread manure and the increased potential for soil compaction from silage wagons or trucks.
Also, the lack of residue left on the field after silage harvest may prevent some growers from
participating in government programs.

Special considerations for conservation tillage systems.

Select hybrids adapted to the area with good seedling vigor. In short[1]season areas, tillage
systems with more than 75% crop residue require shorter[1]season hybrids (about 5 less
relative maturity units) due to slower crop emergence.

An uneven soil surface, insects, rodents, disease, and cooler soil temperatures tend to reduce
seed germination and emergence. Seeding rates that are 10 to 15% higher can offset the
greater seedling mortality typically observed in conservation tillage plantings. Scout fields to
deter[1]mine pest problems and severity and then take appropriate control measures.

Starter fertilizers placed below and to the side will help the seedling overcome slow early growth
when soil conditions are cool and wet under residue. Cover crops such as rye, wheat, spring
oats, and triticale have all been used successfully to provide some winter cover on the soil and
to take up some of the excess nitrogen not used by the corn crop.

The cover crops can then be either harvested, incorporated, or burned down with a herbicide
the following spring. In short growing season areas, rye cover crops may stunt corn growth
when the rye has been allowed to grow above 12 to 15 inches before being incorporated or
killed with a herbicide.

Cover crops such as rye, wheat, spring oats, and triticale have all been used successfully to
provide some winter cover on the soil and to take up some of the excess nitrogen not used by
the corn crop.

The cover crops can then be either harvested, incorporated, or burned down with a herbicide
the following spring. In short growing season areas, rye cover crops may stunt corn growth
when the rye has been allowed to grow above 12 to 15 inches before being incorporated or
killed with a herbicide.

PLANTING DATES
Early plantings give higher grain and corn silage yields. However, the
advantages of early planting for silage are often not as great as for grain.
High grain moisture at harvest and low-test weight of late-planted corn that may be a problem
for grain producers are not generally a problem in corn silage production.

Planting date studies for corn silage in New York and Pennsylvania recently showed that
delaying planting two weeks until late May had little effect on forage quality but in three of four
years reduced yields by 1.5 tons/acre compared to an early May planting.

Later plantings can predispose the crop to frost before maturity and an increased potential for
drought stress or insect damage in some areas. Grain content and digestibility can be reduced if
delayed planting results in an immature crop killed by frost. Corn planted for silage does not
encounter the costs associated with higher grain moisture at harvest, and there is less risk of
reduced quality due to frost as there is with corn for grain.

Therefore, plant corn destined for grain production first. In areas with longer growing
seasons, corn planted for silage can often be planted into early summer and still produce
profitable silage yields.

In many of these areas corn can be double cropped after barley or wheat with good success
provided adequate moisture is available. In the Southeast, corn can be double or triple cropped,
however later plantings are often subject to increased insect, disease, and drought stress.

PLANT POPULATIONS
Corn silage yields usually increase more given higher plant populations than do corn
grain yields.

Increasing plant populations by 10 to 20% over those recommended for grain will often
maximize silage yields.

Optimum plant populations will vary depending on region, but often populations of 28,000 to
32,000 plants per acre are necessary to reach maximum yields. The effects of increased
population on fiber content, digestibility, and protein concentration are generally small.

SOIL FERTILITY AND MANURE MANAGEMENT

A soil fertility program for corn should maximize yields of high-quality forage
without using excess nutrients, which wastes money and can lead to nutrient
runoff or leaching. Corn harvested for silage removes large amounts of nutrients
(figure 1), resulting in substantial fertilizer recommendations.

Corn silage is often grown in rotation with legume forage crops and on land that has a history of
manure applications.

Therefore, it is essential to consider the nutrient contributions of previous crops and manures to
avoid excessive fertilization and keep production costs down.

These soils may also have high residual levels of phosphorus and potassium from repeated
manure applications.
Consequently, soil testing is an essential aspect of soil nutrient management for
corn silage. Many state and private laboratories can provide soil testing services
and recommendations.

Good soil fertility management can improve the forage quality of the silage. The protein
content of corn silage increases as the availability of nitrogen increases. Low
protein silage is a signal that nitrogen was deficient during the growing season. This deficiency
may be a result of nitrogen rates that were too low, excess nitrogen losses caused by wet
weather, or a weed infestation that competed with the crop for nitrogen.

Research in Pennsylvania has shown that nitrogen rates should be increased by about 20
lb/acre compared to grain based on the feed value of corn silage. Nonprotein nitrogen (NPN)
additions to the silage (described later) can be used to increase protein concentrations above
those needed for maximum yield.

High potassium levels in the silage may be undesirable for some feeding
programs and may be an indicator of excessive potassium availability. This may be
encountered on fields with repeated, heavy applications of cattle manure.

Since corn silage is often produced on livestock farms where manure is available,
appropriate management of the manure resources is critical to maximize profitability.

Because of the lack of crop residue on corn silage fields, manure applications should be
managed to minimize potential runoff problems by using cover crops or incorporating
the manure where necessary.
 IRRIGATION
In many areas of the United States corn crops need irrigation to supply enough water for
maximum production. Irrigation must supplement evapotranspiration demands of the corn crop.

The term evapotranspiration refers to the water lost from the soil surface through
evaporation and the water used by a plant during transpiration.

Efficient irrigation management depends on knowing how much water is needed during the
various stages of corn growth and when to apply it. Figure 2 illustrates the changing water
needs throughout the life of the corn plant. Maximum evapotranspiration will range from
0.15 to 0.35 inches per day depending on environmental conditions.

Insufficient water at any time during plant growth will reduce silage and grain
yields. The extent of yield losses depends on the stage of plant development.
Water stress during vegetative development reduces plant height and leaf area,
although the effects on yield are less than when water stress occurs at later
stages. Water stress during grain filling increases leaf loss and lodging, shortens
the grain filling period, and lowers kernel weight. Since silage quality is
influenced by the amount of grain in the silage, adequate water must be present
during tasseling, silking, and pollination.

WEED CONTROL
Appropriate weed control programs should be used to control weeds for a variety of reasons.
Competition from weeds reduces yield, digestibility, and protein content of silage.

North Carolina trials found a steady decline in digestibility based on the percentage of
johnsongrass in the silage (figure 3). Severe infestations of some weeds such as horse nettle
and hemp dogbane can produce toxic compounds in the silage.

Furthermore, weed seeds present in the silage may be spread in the manure, spreading
troublesome weed problems to other fields or farms.

Harvesting corn for silage can also provide opportunities for weed control that are not possible
following grain harvest. For example, perennial weeds such as quack grass can often be killed
with a timely fall herbicide application following harvest.

Scouting corn silage fields for problem areas immediately after harvest can aid in
an effective weed control program. For detailed information on setting up a weed
control program, contact your county Extension agent or crop consultant.

HARVEST TIMING
Corn should be harvested for silage at a moisture content that will ensure good storage in the
silo. Harvesting within the ranges shown in table 3 will promote good packing and will minimize
losses due to heating or runoff.

Silage ensiled too wet may ferment poorly and seep. Seepage removes nutrients,
particularly soluble nitrogen and carbohydrates, and can damage the silo.

Silage that is too dry will have air pockets that prevent anaerobic fermentation
and allow molds to develop. In addition, the kernels become harder and less
digestible.

As harvest is delayed from full dent to black layer (no milk line) crude protein
levels decline, fiber levels either remain constant or decline, and digestibility
remains relatively constant.

In dry, overmature corn silage the stover is less digestible and contains lower amounts of
vitamins A and E. Often, adding water to a dry forage becomes impractical because of the
amount of water needed. For example, using the equation below, a 4000 lb load of silage at
45% dry matter would require 137 gallons of water to get it to 35% dry matter.

Harvest timing can be estimated using the kernel milk line (figure 4). When the
milk line is to 73 of the way down the kernel, silage moisture will often be in the
range of 65%. Silage moisture varies depending on region, growing season, and
hybrid so this technique should be used only as a rough estimate of moisture
content. Whenever possible, measure the moisture content with a commercial forage
moisture tester or in a microwave oven (see sidebar) before harvesting. Other considerations
for timing the harvest of corn silage are that as the corn plant matures, the composition of the
plant changes.

More mature corn silage will have more, drier grain with harder seed coats, more starch and
less sugars, and less digestible fiber than earlier harvested corn.

Therefore, harvesting early will yield more digestible stover and less starch (from
lower percentage of kernels), while harvesting later (73 to milk line with some
brown leaves) will mean about the same whole plant digestibility but now the
energy is coming from an entirely different source (starch from the kernels) that
changes rumen dynamics. The desired feeding program may influence the maturity and
storage facility you choose for your corn silage (See "Feeding Silage").

Harvest Height
Harvest height is typically set at 4 inches. Increasing the height to improve silage
quality is usually not profitable, since the improvement in quality rarely offsets
the yield loss.

In a Wisconsin study, increasing the harvest height from 6 to 18 inches reduced yields
up to 0.6 tons per acre while reducing the NDF from 59.9 to 59.4% (table 5).

In another study, increasing the harvest height from 4 inches to 16 inches reduced yields
by 0.4 tons per acre and only reduced the NDF from 47.6 to 46.9%. When high nitrates are
suspected, increasing the harvest height to 6 to 8 inches may be justified since nitrate
levels are highest in the lower portion of the stalk.
 DROUGHT·STRESSED CORN
When corn is so drought stressed that it may not resume growth, it should be ensiled.
Corn in this condition usually has few ears and has leaves that have turned brown and
are falling off. Be careful not to harvest prematurely because corn with ears and some
green leaves may still be able to resume growth and accumulate dry matter later in the
season.
 The net energy content of drought damaged corn often is 85 to 100% of normal, and it
sometimes contains slightly more crude protein. If drought stress is moderate, corn can often
have higher than average energy in drought years because of a high grain content and high
stover digestibility. 10 One concern with drought stressed corn is the potential for high nitrate
levels in the silage.

High nitrate levels are found most frequently where high nitrogen rates were
applied or when a drought-stressed crop is chopped within three days following a
rain. Ensiling crops that are suspected to have high nitrate levels is preferred to green
chopping since the fermentation process will decrease nitrate levels by about 50%.

When in doubt, have the forage analyzed before feeding. High nitrate feedstuffs can
be diluted by feeding with another feedstuff. Drought can also affect the whole plant moisture
content. When drought slows plant growth and delays maturity, the moisture
content will be higher than suggested by the appearance of the crop.

When a drought occurs at the end of the season, moisture levels may be lower than normal.
Consequently, measuring the moisture content of drought-stressed corn before
ensiling is recommended.
 STALKLAGE
Corn plant residue following grain harvest can also be used as a forage. About 40 to 50% of the
energy of the corn plant is in the leaves, stalks, cobs, and husks.

Corn residue makes acceptable silage (stalklage) if moisture content is brought to about 65% by
adding water or wet forages and if chopped between 1/8and 1/4 inch theoretical length of cut
which should be fine enough to pack tightly.

Grain and protein supplementation is often required, which make the economics of feeding
stalklage less attractive other than as a maintenance feed. For the highest quality stalklage,
plan in the spring to harvest and handle high moisture corn, since the feed quality of stalklage
declines as grain harvest is delayed.

Also, less water will need to be added to silage at harvest. Hybrids vary in the feeding quality
and moisture content of stover after grain harvest but there is little data available to compare
hybrids.

Holstein replacement heifers have shown adequate gains using stalklage as the forage in
rations (table 6).

HARVESTING
In well-planned operations, silo structure type is based on cost and unloading considerations.
Machinery for harvesting then should be sized based on required fill rates of silos and on
distance of fields from silos.

RATE OF FILLING
In general, the faster the silo is filled the better.

Rapid filling;

1. minimizes the risk of feed losses due to inclement weather and advancing
maturity of the crop

2. reduces labor and overall ensiling costs

3. improves fermentation by minimizing exposure of the chopped forage to

oxygen.

Slow filling encourages fungal growth which can result in unstable silage at the time of feed out.
When silage is stored in small-diameter upright silos (12 ft) or small-diameter silage bags (8 ft),
the rate of fill may range from 50 to 200 tons per day. The filling rate of large-diameter upright
silos (30 ft), large-diameter silage bags (10ft), and bunkers silos (1000+ tons) can range from
100 tons to 500 tons per day.

FIELD EQUIPMENT
The ideal capacity of field harvesting equipment will depend on the acreage or total tons of
forage to harvest. In general, tractor-drawn forage harvesters are used for silage
capacities up to 2000 tons. Self propelled forage harvesters are more common
when chopping more than 5000 tons of forage.

Travel time is an important component of moving forage from the field to the silo. Forage is
generally moved with one of two types of wagons (high-dump or self-unloading) or by truck.
Self-unloading wagons 13 & 5 T 0 RAGE--- require an additional tractor or truck to move the
forage from the field to the silo.

This type of system is typically used when hauling less than 2 miles. Self-unloading wagons are
required when using upright silos and certain models of silage baggers. High-dump wagons and
truck hauling are preferred when forage must be transported farther than 2 miles.

Large hydraulic cylinders on the dump wagon raise the loaded wagon box and dump the forage
into a truck. This operation proceeds more quickly since the wagon does not have to be
disconnected from the tractor-chopper unit.

A consideration with the use of high-dump wagons is the need for an additional 20 hp of tractor
power to pull the wagon across average fields. Trucks can efficiently transport forage over long
distances and unload rapidly at the silo; however, a greater capital investment is necessary.

The purchase cost and capacity of several harvest systems are shown in figure 5.
 FILLING AND PACKING EQUIPMENT

Once the forage arrives at the silo, it should be transferred and packed quickly to
exclude oxygen and promote the onset of fermentation. Forage should be
delivered to the silo daily until the silo is full. Delaying silo filling over a weekend
is strongly discouraged as this will lead to significant forage losses during
ensiling and unstable silage at the time of feed out.

Techniques for packing vary depending on the silo type. Upright silos rely on the weight of the
silage to supply the packing pressure.· Silage bags require special bagging equipment that is
adjusted to provide even tension to form a firm tube of silage.

Uneven tension results in loosely compacted silage and inefficient use of the silage bag. When
ensiling forage in bunker silos, compact it in progressive wedges (figure 6) using a wheel tractor
with a front end loader or blade to move and pack silage.

This technique minimizes exposure of silage to air before covering. Crawler-type tractors do not
provide enough downward compaction pressure and are not recommended. Tractor size should
be dictated by the overall needs on the farm and the size of the silo. The amount of time spent
compacting the silage affects fermentation.

Running the tractor across the surface many times leads to better fermentation than when the
forage is only leveled off with minimal compaction. Ideally, allow 5 minutes packing time per ton
of wet forage.
 STORING
SELECTING A SILAGE STORAGE STRUCTURE

Major considerations in selecting a silo type are speed offloading and unloading, volume of
storage needed, and structural cost. Other considerations may include silo longevity, initial
investment cost, and potential to purchase feed or share with a neighbor.

Characteristics of the major types of silage storage structures currently used and their costs are
outlined in tables 7 and 8.
SILO PLACEMENT
Once you've decided which type of silage storage structure to purchase, you'll need to
determine where to place it. When evaluating sites, look for places that are;

1. convenient for both loading and unloading

2. in an area where expansion is not limited, and

3. positioned to collect effluent and avoid environmental concerns.

SILO CAPACITY
Data presented in the appendix (figure 1 and table 1) can be used to estimate the storage
capacities of silos of different types and dimensions.

The storage capacity of the bag system is estimated at 1.2 tons of wet silage per linear foot (10
ft diameter bag), 1 ton per linear foot (9 ft diameter bag), and 0.8 ton per linear foot (8 ft
diameter bag) when forage is ensiled at 40% dry matter.

In addition, data are available in appendix table 2 which account for variation in the density of
the silage stored in bunker silos and its effect on silo capacity. Good packing practices can
substantially increase the capacity of horizontal silos, reducing the cost per ton of stored silage.

MINIMIZING SILAGE LOSSES

The most important practices for minimizing silage losses are to

• harvest at an appropriate dry matter,

• fill the silo quickly with appropriate packing,

• seal it well,

• feed at an appropriate rate, and

• maintain a firm silo face.

Dry matter loss during ensiling is an important factor to consider when placing a value on the
cost of a selected storage system. Figure 7 illustrates typical storage dry matter losses for
various silo systems. The capacity of the silo has a significant effect on dry matter losses during
storage feed out due to the relationship of "exposed" surface area to volume (see figure 8)-the
smaller the silo, the higher the loss.

Excess moisture content at harvest can cause considerable loss of nutrients in effluent which
hurts the fermentation process and the nutritive value of the silage. The minimum dry matter
content required to prevent effluent loss from upright silos of different sizes vary depending on
the silo height and width (figure 9).
If corn silage is harvested and stored above 75% moisture, dry matter losses during storage can
exceed 10 to 15%. The loss of effluent from corn silage stored in bunker silos is minimal if the
moisture content is less than 75%.

Absorbent materials such as beet pulp and alfalfa hay cubes can be added to wet silage at 5 to
15% of the wet weight of silage or 50 to 150 pounds (depending on moisture of silage) per ton
to eliminate loss of nutrients as effluent.

Covering and sealing forage can prevent substantial losses of dry matter during ensiling (see
figure 10). In addition, the resulting silage has a higher digestibility.

It has been estimated that covering a bunker silo with plastic can return $8 for every dollar spent
due to reduced losses and increased animal productivity. Use 4 mm plastic if storing
silage less than 3 months and 6 mm plastic if storing longer. Place 15 to 20 tires
per 100 square feet to hold down the plastic.

The average losses of dry matter associated with harvest, storage, and feeding vary depending
on moisture content (table 9). Consideration of total losses can be helpful when considering
cropping decisions and how much feed will need to be & S T 0 R A G purchased off-farm. The
amount of field tonnage needed to obtain 1 ton of feedable silage can be calculated for different
combinations of harvest storage and feeding losses using the following formula and numbers
shown in table 9.
At feed out, removing silage from the whole silo face at a rate of at least 4 to 6 inches per day
reduces losses due to poor aerobic stability.

Calculate the number of cows to feed or the amount of dry matter to feed per day
in order to use 6 inches of silage each day using the equations on page 20. Slow
feed out rates allow more time for losses due to the growth of yeasts, molds, and
aerobic bacteria. This, in turn, decreases dry matter intake .

For example, when a corn silage that had been exposed for four days was fed to dairy
cows, their dry matter intake dropped 38%, from 60 lb to 37 lb per day. Feed out rate is a
function of the number of animals being fed, the amount of silage fed in the diet, and the
silo design. Thus, silo design and size should be matched with the feeding rate in order
to minimize silage losses during feed out.

Silo face management is also important in managing aerobic deterioration in silage. Loose
silage is more porous and allows greater air infiltration, increasing the rate of aerobic growth.
Figure 11 illustrates the dramatic differences in dry matter losses associated with different levels
of silo face management. Maintaining a firm face and cleaning up loose silage that has fallen to
the floor of the silo on feed out will help minimize aerobic losses.

Keeping an even, clean face on bunker silos is an important management factor. To remove
silage from a bunker, use the edge of the bucket on a front-end loader to pull the silage down
the face of the silo (figure 12). Then scoop and load. This method will minimize infiltration of
oxygen into the silo face and eliminate loose and unpacked silage at the bunker floor. Silage
should never be scooped from the face as this allows more air to enter, resulting in unnecessary
spoilage.
SILO GASES
During silo filling and for about 2 weeks after, take special care when entering or
working around a silo.

Protect yourself and your livestock from injury and death due to silo gas.
The fermentation of green plant material produces nitrogen dioxide (see figure 13). After more oxidation
and contact with water--such as the moisture in the lungs--nitrogen dioxide turns into highly corrosive
nitric acid.

Low concentrations of nitrogen dioxide will cause a burning sensation in the

nose, throat, and chest. Heavy concentrations can cause death within seconds.

Even brief exposures to moderate concentrations can cause extensive lung

damage and pneumonia. Carbon dioxide is produced in quantity in the silage
fermentation process. It is odorless, colorless, and tasteless and is 53% heavier
than air; thus, it also settles into low spots. It is not toxic, but it displaces the air,
lowers the oxygen level and causes a person to gasp for air and become
asphyxiated (death from a lack of oxygen).

Follow these precautions to reduce the danger of silo gas:

1. Silo gas forms shortly after filling and persists for 2 to 3 weeks. Stay clear of the silo
for at least 3 weeks, and even after this time, run the forage blower for 15 to 20 minutes
with the door closest to the top of the silo open before entering the silo.

2. Beware of bleach-like odors or yellowish-brown fumes at the silo base, the telltale
signs of nitrogen dioxide.

3. Ventilate silo feed rooms with open windows and fans during the 3-week danger
period. Keep the door between the silo feed room and barn closed tightly to protect
livestock.

4. Properly adjust the distributor so that silage will be well-distributed in the silo and will
not require anyone entering the silo during or after filling.

5. Keep children and visitors away from the silo area during the danger period.

6. If you should experience even slight throat irritation or coughing around a silo, move
into fresh air at once. See your doctor immediately if you suspect you've been exposed
to nitrogen dioxide.

7. If you must enter a silo during the 3-week danger period, wear an approved, self-
contained breathing apparatus and ventilate the silo for 20 minutes before entering. You
should also be attached with a lifeline to someone outside the silo.

Fermentation process
Plant sugars are fermented by anaerobic bacteria to organic acids which reduce the pH of the
plant material. This process preserves the crop during long-term storage.

The efficiency of fermentation and amount of fermentation loss is influenced by a number of

factors: the ability to achieve and maintain anaerobic (without oxygen) conditions in the silo, the
amount of fermentable sugars in the crop, the quantity and type of bacteria present on the crop,
and the quantity and type of fermentation acids produced.

High quality corn silage results when lactic acid is the predominant acid produced during
fermentation. Lactic acid is the most efficient fermentation acid and will drop the pH of the silage
the fastest.

Under proper ensiling conditions corn silage will normally ferment rapidly and achieve a stable
pH of 4.0 or below within the first week after ensiling.

The major chemical and microbiological changes that occur during the fermentation process can
be divided into four distinct phases: aerobic, anaerobic fermentation, storage, and feed out.

AEROBIC PHASE
The phase of fermentation begins at harvest and continues until the oxygen is depleted, shortly
after ensiling. During this stage, plant sugars in the freshly chopped plant material are broken
down to carbon dioxide, water, and heat in a process known as respiration.

Aerobic microorganisms (yeast, molds, and aerobic bacteria) present on the chopped plant
material also use plant sugars during this initial phase and are a significant source of
respiration. Increased growth of yeasts and molds during this phase can
predispose the silage to heating and spoilage during the feed out phase.

Respiration hurts silage quality because it uses highly digestible energy, reduces the amount of
material available for the beneficial lactic acid bacteria, and produces heat. Temperatures
above 100°F can produce heat-damaged protein (ADIN) which is unavailable to
the animal.

Under normal ensiling conditions the temperature of the ensiled material will peak
at 15° to 20°F above the ambient temperature at the time of ensiling. If the
temperature of the silage exceeds this level, extensive respiration has occurred.

Another important chemical change that occurs during the aerobic phase is the
degradation of plant proteins to nonprotein nitrogen (NPN), peptides, amino
acids, and ammonia by plant cell proteases. The extent of proteolysis will depend on the
rate of pH decline, temperature and moisture content of the ensiled crop. In corn silage, the
NPN level can increase from 20% of total nitrogen in the pre-ensiled forage to
over 50% within 24 hours post-ensiling.

Proteolysis is not desirable, particularly for high-producing dairy cows, because excess soluble
nonprotein nitrogen results in poorer efficiency of nitrogen utilization and lower milk production.
Likewise, elevated levels of ammonia nitrogen in silages have been associated with
lower dry matter intake. The aerobic phase reduces silage quality and should be
minimized. Under good management practices the aerobic phase will last only a
few hours. With improper management

i.e., harvesting the crop too dry, poor compaction, poor chop length, slow filling,
and/ or not covering the silo this phase may continue for several weeks.

ANAEROBIC FERMENTATION PHASE

Once the oxygen has been depleted, the anaerobic fermentation phase begins. During this
phase a succession of different populations of anaerobic bacteria ferment sugars. The sugars
are converted primarily into lactic acid, but also acetic acid, ethanol, carbon dioxide, and a few
other minor products. The production of acid lowers the pH of the ensiled crop which inhibits the
growth of other microbes.

The principal bacteria for ensiling are the lactic acid bacteria (LAB). LAB are divided into two
broad categories. The homofermentative LAB produce only lactic acid while the
heterofermentative LAB produce acetic acid and carbon dioxide as well as lactic acid.
Homofermenters are more desirable than heterofermenters because their fermentation is more
efficient, resulting in less loss of dry matter and energy.
Initially, the heterofermentative LAB are predominant. These organisms remain active until the
pH of the ensiled material drops below 5. As the pH of the ensiled forage reaches 5, the
homofermentative LAB become predominant.

These bacteria are extremely acid tolerant and grow quickly. Since they produce only lactic
acid, the silage pH drops more rapidly. The bacteria remain active until the silage reaches a
stable pH of 4 or below, or until the fermentation sugars are depleted. When the natural
population of LAB is very low, acetic acid bacteria may proliferate.

These bacteria are less desirable than LAB since they produce mainly acetic acid which slows
the drop in pH, increases dry matter losses, and can reduce dry matter intake in beef and dairy
cattle. In corn silage the active anaerobic fermentation process generally lasts less than a week.

The rate of fermentation depends on the quantity and type of LAB present on the crop at
ensiling and the moisture content of the silage. Wetter forages ferment faster than drier ones.

STORAGE PHASE
During the storage phase the pH of the ensiled material remains relatively stable and there is
minimal microbial and enzymatic activity if the ensiled crop is kept anaerobic. The major
factor affecting silage quality during the storage phase is entry of oxygen into the
silo.

Oxygen increases yeast and mold growth, which results in dry matter loss and
heating in the ensiled forage. The amount of top spoilage is directly related to the
density of the silage and the amount of exposed surface area.

The worst-case scenario would be an uncovered silage pile put up too dry and
poorly packed. Aerobic losses under these circumstances can approach 20%.
Other causes of excessive storage loss are cracks in silo walls, poorly sealed doors in upright
silos, and rips in plastic covers or bags.

FEEDOUT PHASE
The feed out phase begins once the silo is opened and continues until the silage is consumed.
Once silage is re-exposed to oxygen, yeasts and molds become active again. They convert
residual sugars, fermentation acids, and other soluble nutrients into carbon dioxide, water, and
heat.

Feed out losses can represent up to 30% of the total dry matter loss in the ensiling process.
Generally, the first signs of aerobic deterioration are heating and an off odor, followed by fungal
growth on the surface of the silage and/ or in the feed bunk.

By the time fungal growth appears, substantial amounts of dry matter and nutrients have
already been lost. Besides the loss of highly digestible nutrients, some molds can produce
mycotoxins which can cause illness or reduced performance in livestock.

Higher levels of aerobic microorganisms present in the silage will cause the silage to deteriorate
faster when re-exposed to oxygen on feed out. The level of aerobic microorganisms present in
the silage is largely determined by their presence on the crop before harvest and their level of
growth during the initial aerobic phase.

Although many yeasts and molds can survive the low pH levels typically achieved in silage, the
acidic environment restricts their growth. Thus, a pH of 4 or less helps make the silage
aerobically stable during feed out.

The type and amount of fermentation acids produced during the fermentation will also affect the
degree of aerobic stability of the silage. A typical fermentation profile for well-fermented corn
silage is listed in table 10.

Some acids produced during fermentation are more toxic to yeasts and molds than others.
Butyric acid is the most toxic followed by propionic and acetic acid. Lactic acid is the least
effective at suppressing the growth of yeasts and molds. Thus, the aerobic stability or bunk life
of silages produced by the most efficient homofermentative lactic acid fermentation is often
poorer than malfermented silage containing elevated levels of butyric and/ or acetic acid.

The level of residual sugar remaining in the silage after fermentation can also influence aerobic
stability. Yeasts and molds grow approximately twice as fast on sugars as they do on
fermentation acids. Silages produced from immature corn silage will generally have higher
levels of residual sugars and are more prone to aerobic deterioration on feed out.

The ambient temperature has a major influence on the aerobic stability of silage. Microbial
growth rates increase exponentially with temperature up to approximately 130°F.
This means silage fed out during warm weather deteriorates faster than silage fed
out during cooler weather.
 SILAGE ADDITIVES
A wide variety of silage additives are being marketed to improve corn silage.

The principal additives are

(1) bacterial inoculants,

(2) nonprotein nitrogen sources such as anhydrous ammonia and urea,

(3) enzymes, and

(4) organic acids such as propionic acid.

Each of these four major groups affects ensiling differently. Consequently, knowledge of how
these products work is an essential part of determining which silage additive, if any, would be
advantageous. Choice of an additive should be based on meeting a particular goal or solving a
particular problem in ensiling as well as increasing profitability. Additives should never be
considered as substitutes for good silo management but as tools for improving silage quality
beyond that obtainable by good management.
BACTERIAL INOCULANTS
The most common silage additive is the bacterial inoculant. Most inoculants contain
homofermentative lactic acid bacteria and supplement the natural lactic acid bacteria on the
crop to guarantee a fast and efficient fermentation in the silo. Each product usually contains one
or more strains, usually of the following species: Lactobacillus plantarum, other
Lactobacillus species, Pediococcus species, or Streptococcus (or Enterococcus)
faecium. These bacteria grow rapidly under a wide variety of conditions and
produce mostly lactic acid when growing on the main sugars in the crop.

When the inoculant bacteria dominate the silage fermentation, they change the end-products
formed during ensiling. While naturally occurring lactic acid bacteria produce acetic acid,
alcohol, and carbon dioxide in addition to lactic acid, inoculant bacteria produce a much greater
proportion of lactic acid.

This shift in fermentation products lowers silage pH and reduces dry matter loss
during ensiling by approximately 2%. Some inoculants can improve animal performance
by increasing intake, weight gain, milk production, and/ or feed efficiency.

These improvements are likely due to increased digestibility, but other factors may contribute as
well. Reduced levels of acetic acid and alcohol improve the palatability of the
silage and help improve microbial growth in the rumen. Inoculated silage may
also increase retention of dietary nitrogen in cattle.

These additives have had little effect on heating and spoilage of silage at feed out
(bunk life or aerobic stability), a common problem in corn silage. Manufacturers
are looking for microorganisms that will consistently improve bunk life. Currently,
however, you should not expect significant improvements in bunk life from using
an inoculant unless a manufacturer can provide independent research data to
verify such claims.

Inoculants are inexpensive, and consequently small gains in dry matter recovery from the silo
and small improvements in animal performance can easily provide the financial incentive for
their use. Unfortunately, these products don't always work, particularly in corn silage.

A recent survey of research results found that inoculants affected fermentation approximately
40% of the time in corn silage in contrast to 70-75% in grass and legume silages. And
significant improvements of animal performance occurred only 20% of the time in corn silage.
The poorer results with corn silage appear to be due to higher natural levels of lactic acid
bacteria on corn at ensiling.

When the natural population is much higher than the number of bacteria supplied by the
inoculant, it is more difficult for the inoculant to dominate fermentation and improve silage
quality. At the present time, the factors affecting lactic acid bacteria numbers on corn at
harvesting are not known. Evidence suggests that populations increase on the plant as it
matures while freezing and thawing may reduce populations.

Inoculants vary in their effectiveness, so choose products with independent

research data to back their claims of lowered pH, increased dry matter recovery,
better aerobic stability, or improved animal performance.

Because of the high natural levels of lactic acid bacteria on corn, select an inoculant that
supplies at least 100,000 bacteria/ g crop and has been developed for use on corn. If possible,
apply the inoculant at the forage harvester to mix the product more thoroughly with the corn and
give the inoculant an early start.

NONPROTEIN NITROGEN
Anhydrous ammonia is commonly used in making corn silage in some regions of the United
States. A more costly means of applying ammonia is through aqua-ammonia. An alternative to
ammonia is urea, which is not as popular and is more expensive.

The primary reasons for using these additives are to increase the crude protein content of the
silage and to increase silage bunk life. The addition of ammonia immediately raises crop pH.

Urea also increases pH as urea is broken down to ammonia and carbon dioxide by plant
enzymes. Ammonia plus the high pH kill many of the yeasts, molds, and bacteria that cause
heating and spoilage. This should improve bunk life if the silo remains well sealed prior to
feeding.

Typically, these additives have little effect on the final pH in corn silage because normally there
are plenty of sugars for the lactic acid bacteria to ferment. Because the crop starts out at a
higher pH, ammonia treatments increase both the total amount of acids produced and the
amount of acetic acid relative to lactic acid. These changes inhibit mold and yeast growth.
However, this shift in fermentation can decrease dry matter recovery.

Ammonia improves dry matter and fiber digestibilities by breaking down hemicellulose and other
components in plant cell walls. This should improve animal performance but research trials have
yielded mixed results.

Research with urea on corn silage has typically found small but consistent improvements in
weight gain, milk production, and feed efficiency compared with silages supplemented with urea
at feeding. Research trials with anhydrous ammonia, however, have found results ranging from
positive effects on animal performance to a significant number of cases with negative effects.

Typical application rates for either urea or anhydrous ammonia raise the crude protein content
of corn silage by 5 percentage points. This requires varying amounts of additive depending on
the moisture content of the silage. For example, 6.5 lb/ton anhydrous ammonia is needed if the
silage dry matter is 33%, while approximately 8 lb/ton anhydrous ammonia is needed if the
silage dry matter is 40%.

The decision to use urea or ammonia hinges on the primary goal for using such an additive. If
the primary objective is raising the crude protein content of the silage, urea has a more
consistent, positive effect on animal performance. If reducing heating and spoilage is the main
objective, anhydrous ammonia is more effective. Precautions must be taken to apply
anhydrous ammonia safely.

ENZYMES
Enzymes are one of the newest classes of silage additives. Enzymes reduce fiber content by
degrading cell walls and carbohydrates. These additives usually contain a variety of enzymes
including cellulases, hemicellulases, pectinases, and amylases.

Some inoculant products have enzymes included in their formulation although enzyme
concentrations in inoculant products are often much lower than in straight enzyme products.
Enzyme additives are marketed primarily for hay crop silages with the goal of making a more
mature grass or legume silage feed like an immature one.

These products reduce fiber content in grass but are less effective in legume silages. There is
insufficient evidence to indicate their effectiveness in corn silage. Enzymes work most
effectively when the moisture content is greater than 55%. The upper limit for moisture content
is determined by when seepage occurs in a particular silo type (see table 3).

The reduction in fiber affects dry matter recovery either negatively or positively
depending on the moisture content of the crop. When the crop is at or near a
moisture content where seepage or effluent is produced, the breakdown of fiber
causes more seepage losses and reduces dry matter recovery.

In drier silages, the loss of fiber helps compress the crop which reduces dry matter recovery. In
drier silages, the loss of fiber helps compress the crop which reduces oxygen levels and
increases dry matter recovery.

Despite the reduction in fiber content, improvements of animal performance with straight
enzyme products have been reported in only a small percentage of research trials. The current
enzyme products apparently degrade fiber that is readily digested by ruminants.

As these products develop, improvements in animal performance should be seen.

Overall, enzymes currently do not appear to be a useful additive for making corn
silage. First, high fiber content is not usually a problem in corn silage.

Second, if corn silage is made at the appropriate moisture range for enzymes, increased
seepage losses are likely, especially in upright silos. Finally, there appears to be little
opportunity for recovery of the additive's cost in corn silage.

PROPIONIC ACID MIXTURES

Propionic acid and mixtures of propionic acid with other acids such as acetic are
used to reduce spoilage and increase bunk life. Both propionic and acetic acids
inhibit the growth of yeasts and molds. Propionic acid is a stronger inhibitor;
however, it is considerably more expensive than acetic acid. As a result, mixtures
of the two acids help reduce the cost of the additive.
These products may be added at ensiling, typically at rates of 0.2 to 1.0% of fresh
weight. Do not apply these products at less than the recommended rates as this reduces their
effectiveness.

Often these additives are used when emptying a silo in situations where the
silage is heating in the silo and/ or in the feed bunk. In such cases, the product is
sprayed on the silage face.

This will not prevent spoilage losses in the silo during feed out, but it will reduce the rate of loss
and help keep the silage cooler in the feed bunk. When a silage is overheating during feed out,
it is also important to use it faster, if possible, to minimize spoilage.

SILAGE EVALUATION
Quality of corn silage is determined by energy content and intake potential as
well as content of protein and minerals. Methods used to evaluate corn silage quality include
chemical methods such as fiber analysis, biological methods such as fermentation with rumina} microbes,
and instrumental methods such as near infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS) which predicts nutrients
rather than measuring them directly.

All methods require that the sample being analyzed is representative of the silage that is being offered to
the animal. Therefore, representative samples must be obtained from the silo and the samples must be
handled properly prior to analysis.

Corn silage samples should be sealed in a plastic bag and sent to a laboratory as soon as possible to
reduce spoilage. Care should be taken to avoid exposure of the sample to high temperatures. Samples of
fresh forage which are taken when the silo is being filled must be dried immediately to reduce losses due
to respiration of sugars, which can dramatically increase the concentration of the remaining nutrients.

Do not freeze samples as the fiber content becomes artificially increased during thawing due to the
condensation of soluble protein with other compounds.

METHODS FOR DETERMINING ENERGY CONTENT

The energy content of corn silage is primarily determined by the amount and
digestibility of fiber. Grain content also affects energy content, although it is
possible for a corn silage with less than 30% grain to have a higher energy
content than a corn silage with more than 50% grain due to differences in stover
digestibility. Starch digestibility affects energy content for dry corn silages but is less of a factor for
corn silage with greater than 60% moisture. As determining digestibility using animals (in vivo digestibility)
is too time consuming and expensive for routine use, several techniques are used to estimate digestibility
and energy content.
 Total digestible nutrients (TDN)
describes the energy content of feeds as the sum of the digestibilities of different nutrients.
However, because animals use the available energy differently depending on the feed and on
the animal's production status, the TDN system overestimates energy derived from
forages relative to grain. Appendix table 4 presents commonly used energy
estimates.

The Net Energy System

accounts for the variation in digestible energy usage by assigning feeds three net
energy values: net energy for maintenance (NEm), net energy for gain (NEg), and
net energy for lactation (NEL). Digestible energy used for maintenance and for milk
production is used more efficiently than digestible energy used for gain. While equations convert
TDN energy values to NE values, the same equation is usually used for both forages and
grains, which decreases accuracy.

The Acid Detergent Fiber (ADF)

content of silage is the most common method used by commercial feed testing
laboratories to predict energy content. As ADF decreases, the digestibility and
therefore the energy content increases. This method offers low cost and rapid
turnaround, which are requirements for balancing animal rations. ADF contains lignin
(totally indigestible) as well as cellulose (poorly digestible) and pectin (highly
digestible). The relationship between ADF and energy content is not absolute, however, since
ADF accounts for less than two-thirds of the variation in energy content in corn silage. The
inaccuracy of this method is caused by significant variations in the digestibility of the fiber in
corn silage.

In Vitro Digestibility Methods

use fermentation by ruminal microbes in test tubes or artificial rumens to
determine digestibility. In situ digestibility methods allow forage digestion inside the rumen
of a cow or steer. These methods offer greater accuracy of energy prediction because they
account for variation in fiber digestibility but are more time consuming and expensive than ADF
determination.

Due to cost and complicated procedures of in vitro techniques, they are used
primarily for research purposes such as hybrid comparison. However, near-
infrared reflectance (NIRS) equations accurately estimate in vitro values, allowing
ranking of commercially available hybrids.
 SILAGE COMPOSITION

Energy Content
The results of each method can be used directly to rank hybrids for digestibility but must be
adjusted for specific feeding situations to accurately predict digestibility and energy content. The
length of time that feeds reside in the rumen and are fermented varies depending on several
factors including animal species and level of intake.

Digestibility increases as fermentation time increases. In general, animals with high dry matter
intakes such as those that are rapidly growing or producing large quantities of milk, have shorter
ruminal retention times and digest food less efficiently than animals with lower dry matter
intakes.

Consequently, the energy content of corn silage varies depending on the animal to which it is
fed. For instance, a steer at maintenance intake with a ruminal retention time of over 40 hours
will obtain more energy from the same feed as a high-producing dairy cow with a ruminal
retention time of 30 hours or less.

Accuracy of energy prediction also decreases as corn silage dry matter increases because
many corn kernels pass through the gastrointestinal tract undigested, reducing starch
digestibility. These factors coupled with the environmental effects cause energy content of corn
silage to vary from 62 to 74% TDN or approximately 0.64 to 0.75 mcal/lb NEL.

Corn silage in vitro NDF digestibility ranges from 30 to 60%. This variation is primarily due to
environmental conditions during crop growth. However, corn hybrids have been found to differ
by up to 5 units in NDF digestibility and NDF digestibility has been found to decline with
advancing maturity.

Variation in NDF digestibility has great consequences to forage utilization in three different
areas: it affects the energy density of the ration, dry matter intake, and microbial protein
production. Energy density of the ration is affected because a certain amount of fiber is required
in the ration for normal, healthy rumen function.

Therefore, less energy from this fiber 32 will reduce energy density and energy intake. Feeds
with high fiber digestibility have a lower filling effect and allow greater intake than feeds with low
fiber digestibility. Differences in fiber digestibility also affect the amount of protein available to
the animal.

Intake Potential
High fiber diets fed to ruminants limit intake due to the filling effect of the food. Fiber (NDF) is
fermented and passed from the rumen slowly compared to nonfibrous feed components such as
sugars and starch. Less digestible fiber is retained in the rumen longer than highly digestible
fiber.
 Therefore, the filling property of a forage is related to its NDF content and NDF digestibility. A
low NDF content and high NDF digestibility of corn silage are desirable to maximize forage and
dry matter intake. The NDF content of corn silage varies by hybrid and climate, and decreases
with nitrogen fertilization and maturity at harvest.

It is a major factor determining corn silage intake for lactating dairy cows in early lactation. To
ensure adequate chewing and salivation, nutritionists generally balance rations of high-
producing cows for an optimum amount of fiber to maximize energy intake. If too much fiber is in
the ration, intake will be limited and more body condition will be lost.

If there is too little fiber in the ration there will be excess formation of fermentation acids and
inadequate buffering, intake will be limited and again more condition will be lost. Because of
this, meeting the animal's fiber requirements takes precedence over attempting to meet the
animal's energy requirements.

Corn silage with a low NDF content can be included in the ration at higher levels than corn
silage with a high NDF content.

Protein
Crude protein is a mixture of true protein and nonprotein nitrogen. Less than 30% of the total
protein in corn forage is available to the animal as absorbable true protein as much of it is
degraded by fermentation in the silo and in the rumen to nonprotein nitrogen.

However, much of the ammonia produced in the fermentation process is available to the animal.
Some of the crude protein is totally unavailable to the animal. This fraction is called bound
protein or heat-damaged protein. Although it is usually negligible, this fraction can be substantial
for silages that have heated extensively in the silo and must be adjusted for when balancing
rations.

Crude protein levels of untreated corn silage range from less than 6% to over 10% of dry matter
depending on environmental conditions, fertilization, hybrid, and maturity.

Feeding Silage to Dairy Cattle

Corn silage is used for feeding all dairy cattle on the farm: growing animals, dry cows, and
lactating cows. It must be supplemented with protein, minerals, and sometimes energy to meet
the animal's nutrient requirements.

Although corn silage is occasionally used as the only forage for dairy cattle, it is usually fed with
a complimentary forage such as alfalfa which is higher in crude protein but lower in energy.
Corn silage feeding strategies vary depending on animal age, level of production, and
physio[1]logical status as well as the other forages being fed, if any.

Because of its high grain content, feeding strategy for corn silage fed to high producing cows
differs from most other forages. Corn silage quality factors that are important to consider when
balancing rations are energy content, NDF content, NDF digestibility, length of cut, starch
content, and starch digestibility.

HEIFERS AND DRY COWS

Corn silage is an excellent dry cow forage as it is palatable and can be limit fed or
mixed with lower energy forages. However, the amount of corn silage fed to dry cows
and heifers must be restricted due to its high energy content.

Dry cows require rations balanced from" 0.57 mcal/lb NEL early to over 0.72 mcal/lb
NEL depending on their body condition and time until calving. Increase the ration
energy density 2 to 3 weeks before calving as fetal energy requirements increase and
the cow's dry matter intake decreases.

Fat cows should receive rations of lower energy density than thin cows. Feeding
unrestricted quantities of corn silage throughout the dry period will result in fat cows
which tend to have lower dry matter intakes and higher incidence of metabolic problems
such as ketosis and fatty liver following calving.

Corn silage contains low calcium compared to other forages. This is an advantage
because high calcium intake in the dry period contributes to milk fever following calving.
Corn silage can be fed to replacement heifers beginning at approximately 6 months of
age.

Energy requirements of growing heifers decreases from 69% TDN at 3 to 6 months of

age to 61% TD N for heifers over 12 months of age. Feeding unrestricted quantities of
corn silage to heifers will result in fat animals with lower potential milk production due to
fatty infiltration of the udder.

Restricting feed intake presents a problem for group-housed heifers because more
aggressive animals may receive more than their share, resulting in uneven body
condition among the heifers in the group.

As protein requirements of growing heifers ranges from over 16% at 3 to 6 months of

age to about 14% for heifers over 12 months of age, corn silage must be supplemented
with protein when fed to heifers.

A solution to restricted feeding of corn silage to heifers is to feed a combination of corn

silage and a higher protein, lower energy forage such as a legume silage.

LACTATING DAIRY COWS

The high energy requirements of lactating dairy cows increase the difficulty of
balancing rations that meet animal needs for both energy and fiber. The effectiveness of
corn silage fiber at stimulating rumen movements and chewing is primarily determined
by its length of cut.
 Coarsely chopped corn silage will stimulate more chewing and salivation per pound of
fiber than feeding the same silage that has been finely chopped. If fiber is more effective
at stimulating chewing and salivation, less is needed in the ration to provide the same
amount of buffering from saliva.

Although coarsely chopped corn silage is more effective at stimulating chewing it will
not pack as densely in the silo, will have fewer corn kernel coats broken, and will have
larger pieces of cob which will allow sorting and possibly refusal by cows than more
finely chopped corn silage.

Length of cut should be adjusted to provide larger silage particles while minimizing the
number of large cob particles and unbroken corn kernels. Wetter corn forage can be
chopped coarser than drier corn forage.

Dry corn kernels require a finer chop to break seed coats than wetter corn kernels.
Kernel breakage will maximize starch digestibility. In addition, wet corn forage chops
more consistently than drier corn forage.

The chopper knives shred dry leaves rather than cut, decreasing the uniformity of
particle size and allowing animals to sort further. Corn silage contains up to 35% starch
and needs to be supplemented differently than most other forages to high-producing
cows due to this high starch content.

Excessive starch can lead to digestive upsets and low energy intakes due to excess
accumulation of fermentation acids in the rumen. To optimally supplement forages, one
must consider the starch content and ruminal fermentability of grains as well as forages.
Low-starch forages such as alfalfa should be supplemented with a grain such as high-
moisture corn or barley, which will be highly fermented in the rumen.

This will increase the fermented organic matter in the rumen and allow more efficient
utilization of degraded forage protein. Corn silage is high in starch which is usually
highly digested in the rumen. Therefore, supplementing corn silage with a starch source
such as high moisture corn that is highly digestible in the rumen is likely to cause
digestive upset.

To increase energy intake, corn silage should be supplemented with a grain source that
partially bypasses ruminal fermentation yet has high whole-tract digestibility such as
dried ground corn. When corn silage is fed in combination with alfalfa, less bypass
starch is needed as the fraction of alfalfa is increased.
 Feeding Silage to Beef Cattle
Energy and protein provision represents the majority of the volume and cost of beef
rations. Corn silage may be a logical feed ingredient alternative in providing adequate
energy in beef cattle feeding programs.

COW/CALF

The biological cycle of the beef animal results in tremendous diversity in nutrient
requirements, particularly energy, among the various classes of beef cattle. The cycle
begins with the cow/calf production phase which includes both purebred and
commercial production.

Within this production phase the nutrient requirements of the cow vary from very low
during the mid-gestation dry period to high requirements during early lactation and
rebreeding. As calves are weaned at approximately 7 months of age, those entering the
reproductive herd are fed at moderate energy levels until near calving.

The offspring intended for the slaughter market are typically placed on high-
energy, high-grain finishing rations. Table 12 provides the energy requirements of
beef cattle at these various production stages with energy content of corn silage
for comparison.

A ration management strategy that is often utilized to meet the animal's energy
requirement is to combine high-energy corn silage with low-quality, low-cost
roughages.
Cow/calf production in North America typically follows an annual cycle of calving in the
spring and weaning the calf crop the following fall. Cows are sustained from calving to
weaning on grazable forages, predominantly grass pastures.

Following weaning, cows are in midgestation and their energy requirements can be met
through the fall and early winter with low-quality roughages such as crop residues.
Subsequently, nutrient requirements increase as cows enter late gestation followed by
lactation and rebreeding.

This period is the logical time for corn silage feeding as energy requirements are high
and the cows are often in confinement or can otherwise be "bunk fed." Corn silage can
be added into rations at this time to obtain suitable cow body condition.

Management of body condition via dietary energy levels during late gestation through
breeding season is important for successful lactation and rebreeding.

Cow body condition management has become especially important in recent decades
as the beef industry has incorporated larger, European continental breed into herds.
These cows require greater levels of metabolizable energy (table 12), which often can
not be provided by conventional wintering forages.

GROWING AND FINISHING RATIONS

Corn silage makes an excellent feed for growing cattle following weaning.
Rations are often formulated with sufficient energy to allow 1.5 to 2.0 pounds of
daily gain. Typical rations may contain 60% corn silage with 30 to 35% hay and 5
to 10% supplement.

Addition of grain to corn silage-based rations such as this may reduce fiber
digestibility due to sustained lower rumina! pH. Because corn silage is fine
chopped and moist, an insufficient amount of saliva may be mixed with the
consumed ration.

Feeding coarse-chopped or long hay with corn silage will encourage rumination
and saliva production for a more healthy rumina! environment. Corn silage is also
routinely included in beef finishing rations. These rations require only a minimum
level of forage to provide rumina! stability.

Corn silage is an excellent forage for finishing rations as it is finely chopped and
has a high moisture content, making it very mixable with other ration ingredients.
Energy is widely considered the limiting nutrient in finishing rations, therefore
energy provided by corn silage is of principal importance.

The high level of grain in finishing rations results in a very poor rumina!
environment for fiber fermentation. The stover fraction of corn silage therefore is
probably very poorly digested when fed in finishing rations.

Consequently, the grain content of corn silage is an important factor in the

nutritive value of silage for finishing rations.

IMPORTANT COMPOSITION CONSIDERATIONS

Energy values of corn silage fed in forage-based rations appear to be reasonably well
predicted by fiber (NDF and ADF) content. Research has demonstrated a wide range of
differences in fiber content of corn silage. These differences are a function of grain
content and of the fiber concentration in the stover fraction.

Differences in corn silage fiber content affect differences in digestibility. Since many
beef cattle operators are more accustomed to feeding dry feeds, the dry matter content
of silage is often overlooked. Subtle changes in the dry matter content will drastically
change the as-fed amounts of silage to be fed.

Similarly, changes in dry matter content should be reconciled by changes in the

purchase price of the silage if the beef producer is buying the silage. Producers should
be aware of changes in dry matter content and implement formulation and price
changes accordingly.

Mycotoxins in corn silage

Mycotoxins are toxic substances produced by molds growing on grain or feed.
Mycotoxins can cause illness or death to livestock and humans. While the vast majority
of molds that can grow on silage are harmless, a few species produce mycotoxins.

The primary mycotoxins found in corn silage are aflatoxin, deoxynivalenol (DON or
vomitoxin), zearalenone, T-2 toxin, fumonisin, and ochratoxin. Mycotoxin-contaminated
silage fed to cattle is rarely fatal. More commonly, contaminated feed reduces growth
rate, lowers feed conversion and reproductive rate, impairs resistance to infectious
diseases, and reduces vaccination efficacy.

TOXIC LEVELS
Establishing the toxic level for specific mycotoxins in cattle is difficult and only limited
data exists. Various classes of livestock are more susceptible than others. Cattle are
generally more tolerant than other livestock species.

Mycotoxin-contaminated feed poses a greater health risk to young or pregnant animals

and animals that are stressed. The only regulated toxic feeding level for a specific
mycotoxin is for aflatoxin.

The maximum dietary level for aflatoxin has been set by the Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) for cattle to be no more than 200 parts per billion (ppb) for
breeding cattle, 300 ppb for finishing cattle, 20 ppb in feeds for lactating dairy cattle.
Never use contaminated feeds that exceed these levels. 37 D N G---

The toxic levels for the other primary mycotoxins found in silage are much less defined
and significant controversy exists among researchers working in this area. This
controversy largely stems from the methods used to determine the toxic effect. The
toxic effect of a mycotoxin can be defined in either acute or subacute (chronic) terms.

The acute level is the level that will produce a clinical (pathological) illness when the
animal is given a single dose over a relatively short period of time. While the subacute
or chronic effects have generally been established through field observations of animals
receiving contaminated feedstuffs over longer periods of time.

The subacute toxic level for a particular mycotoxin is difficult to establish since some
mycotoxins are partially degraded by rumen microorganisms. Feeding practices that
influence rumen fermentation, such as frequency of feeding, diet composition, level of
intake, and duration of feeding, may have an impact on the tolerance level of the
animal.
 Likewise, most cases of mycotoxin contamination involve more than one source of
mycotoxin. It has also been suggested that there are associative effects when multiple
sources of mycotoxin are fed.

Thus, clinical studies which have established the acute toxic level of a purified
mycotoxin may actually underestimate the toxic level found in contaminated feedstuffs
fed in field situations.

The guidelines in table 13 offer some practical recommendations for establishing the
tolerable levels of specific mycotoxins when fed to cattle. The acute levels given are
those established by clinical studies which have clearly demonstrated a toxic effect. The
subacute (chronic) levels indicate the mycotoxin level in the diet which may reduce
performance.

INCIDENCE OF MYCOTOXINS

It is suggested that the incidence of certain mycotoxins are related to geographical

location. Mycotoxins produced by Aspergillus, such as aflatoxin, are more prevalent in
the southern United States.

Mycotoxins produced by Fusarium, such as DON, T-2, and Zearalenone, may be more
prevalent in the northern United States and are associated with cool, moist conditions
and diseases such as ear or stalk rot in corn.

However, aflatoxin contamination has been reported in corn silage in Wisconsin and
other northern states and Fusarium mycotoxins have been reported in North Carolina
and other southern states.

Since molds are spore-forming organisms, they have the unique ability to survive even
the most unfavorable growth conditions. They will grow wherever there is a suitable
substrate, pH, and adequate amounts of water, oxygen and heat. Mold growth and
potential mycotoxin production can occur on the growing corn plant, during the initial
aerobic phase of the ensiling process, on the exposed surfaces of the silo during
storage and feedout, and in the bunk once fed.

Certain agronomic practices are associated with higher incidences of mycotoxin-

producing fungi. No-till or minimum till cultivation, corn on corn cropping patterns,
delayed planting, heavy applications of manure, and fertility imbalances have all been
implicated.

Likewise, corn plants subjected to insect, wind, or hail damage are more prone to mold
growth and potential mycotoxin contamination.
 MYCOTOXIN TESTING
Analytical techniques for mycotoxin testing have improved over the past decade.
Several commercial laboratories are available and many state universities have
diagnostic laboratories which provide screens for a large array of mycotoxins.

Cost of analysis has been a constraint, but can be insignificant compared with the
economic consequences of production and health losses related to mycotoxin
contamination. As with any analytical analysis, the results are only as valid as the
sample is representative.

Since molds can produce very large amounts of mycotoxin in small non-uniform
locations, representative sampling is critical. Samples should be delivered to the lab as
quickly as possible since mycotoxins can form in the collected sample if allowed to heat
or if exposed to oxygen.

Acceptable levels of mycotoxin should be conservatively low due to non-uniform

distribution, uncertainties in sampling and analysis, and the potential for more than one
source in the diet.
 PREVENTION AND TREATMENT
Prevention is the most cost-effective and safest way to avoid problems associated with
mycotoxins. Since mold contamination begins with the growing plant, sound agronomic
practices which minimize the incidence of insect and disease levels will reduce the
potential contamination in the silage.

Often environmental factors out of the producer's control such as wind and hail damage,
drought, or early frost, will dictate the use of the crop for silage. Under these conditions,
the mold level on plants will be elevated and this increases the potential risk for
mycotoxin production.
 The key to the prevention of mold growth during the ensiling process is the elimination
of air as quickly as possible, and managing the silo to minimize air infiltration into the
ensiled mass during storage and feedout. Employing sound silage management
practices including rapid filling, harvesting at the correct moisture level, adequate
compaction, covering exposed surfaces, and rapid feedout will go a long way in
minimizing mold growth and potential mycotoxin contamination in silages.

The use of some silage additives may be beneficial in reducing the risk of potential
mycotoxin production if they are shown to reduce mold growth. Ammonia and/ or
propionic acid appear effective in this regard.

Certain bacterial inoculants may also be beneficial since they have been shown to
increase the rate of pH decline in the silage and extend aerobic stability of the silage on
feedout.

At present there is no practical way to detoxify mycotoxin-contaminated silages. If

unacceptably high levels of mycotoxins occur, dilute or eliminate the silage from the
diet. The addition of absorbent materials, such as clays (bentonites) or anticaking
agents (hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicate), to contaminated rations has helped
in some cases and may warrant consideration

. Avoid feeding moldy clumps of silage or visibly moldy silage, particularly to pregnant
animals or young stock.

Buying and selling silage

Buyers of silage should be sure to test the forage prior to sale. Price should be set
based on dry matter content and nutritional value. Often other transaction costs such as
delivery, handling, and storage must also be considered. If the silage is purchased in
the field, harvest costs must be deducted from the "market" price or the agreed upon
value of the forage must be discounted for these costs.

Producers interested in selling silage must first consider whether the prevailing price for
silage will cover their costs of production. Costs of production include the direct cash
expenses such as seed, fertilizer, fuel, chemicals, and hired labor, as well as indirect
costs such as machinery repairs and ownership costs, land rental, and the value of
unpaid labor.

The easiest way to estimate cost of production is to total all costs for the silage
enterprise and divide by the total amount of silage produced. This results in a total cost
per ton of silage. Machinery costs should be prorated based on hours of use.

Thus, if the planter is also used to plant soybeans, then only a portion of its annual cost
should be allocated to corn silage.
Sellers of corn silage should have a forage test available for prospective buyers. This
documents the nutritional value of the silage, which often results in a higher price. There
are also alternative marketing strategies for corn silage.

The first is to store the purchased crop on the farm until later in the spring when forage
supplies are tight. The silage should command a higher price at that time.

Sellers should be careful to market their crop prior to the availability of new crop hay,
however, and should also be sure that any price premium received at that time of year
covers storage and interest costs.

Another alternative is to sell silage earlier in the year with the provision that the crop will
be stored on the farm and delivered as needed to the buyer. Again, the seller should
make sure that hauling and storage costs are included in the price of the silage.

Some producers take this system a step further and deliver complete rations to buyers,
mixed to their specifications. Both types of transactions should include a written
contract. Corn silage prices are affected by the availability and price of alternative feeds.
Hay and haycrop silage can be substitutes for corn silage with an adjustment of the
grain portion of the ration.

Consequently, corn silage value depends on hay prices and grain prices. The market
value of the nutritional content of corn silage increases as hay and corn prices increase,
but decreases with soybean meal price increases. This last phenomenon is because
corn silage must be supplemented with protein feeds, while legume hays and silages
need much less protein supplementation.