Chinese tea:

science behind the leaf

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 CONTENTS

Part 1 Guide to Chinese Tea 6

1. Taste of Tea 6
2. How to Assess a Tea 10
3. Terroir 14
4. Botanical Characteristics 17
5. Evolution and Dispersal 20
6. Names of Chinese Tea 23
7. Tea Cultivation 23
8. Tea Flush 27
9. Manufacture 32
10. Storing Tea
11. Brewing Tea

Part 2 Teas in China 68

1. SouthwesternTea Region 68
2. Southern Area of Yangtze River 76
3. Northern Area of Yangtze River 87
4. South of China 90

Part 3 Tea and Human Health 127

1. Stroke 128
2. Renal Stone Disease 130
3. Antimicrobial Activity 132
4. Auditory Function 135
5. Anti-inflammatory Activity 136
6. Cardiovascular Health 137
7. Anti-obesity 142
8. Anti-cancer Activity 147
9. Cognitive Health 150
10. Depressive Symptoms 152
11. Anti-oxidant Activity 155
12. Anti-diabetic Activity 159

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 Acknowledgements

We wish to express our thanks to the below friends and colleagues in encouraging us to
start the work, persevere with it, and finally to publish it.

Bai Zhiwen, Chen Jian, Chen Jie, Chen Lei, Chen Luran, Chen Qi, Chen
Zhengqiao, Chen Zhikun, Cui Xinhua, Danielle Hochstetter, Duan Jinbo, Dong Dekun,
Dong Zhanbo, Dou Wenhao, Fan Junwen, Fang Huihan, Ge Guojin, Geng kunkun,
Guan Jianping,He Puming, Huang Haitao, Huang Xiaoxuan, Jia Xiaoyan, Jie
Guoliang,Jin Yuxia,Li Bo, Li Kai, Li Minni, Li Qiang, Li Run, Li Xin, Li Yingchao, Li
Zebo,Liang Chaoshu, Liang Jinzhao, Lin Sihan, Lin Yimao, Liu Haiyuan, Liu Jiahao, Liu
Jiaying, Liu Xiaoyuan, Lu Minglang, Lu Wen, Luo Yami,Mei Ting, Meng Qing, Mo Bao,
Ou Chansong, Ou Yongxing,Qi Zhongchan, Quan Qiai, Shan Yujie, Shen Chanying,
Shou Junling, Si You, Song Tingting, Su Lijian, Sun Haoran, Sun Shili, Tang Meihong,
Tu Youying, Wang Shunming, Wang Xin, Wu Fei, Wu Jun, Wu Xingyu, Wu Xiuzhen,
Wu Xuewen, Wu Yueqi, Xia Chen, Xiao Jinping, Xie Ming,Xiong Changyun,Xin Guoli,
Xu Hongguan, Xu Ping, Xu Yi, Xuan Yuqi, Yang Enfu, Yang Jinhua, Yang Mingxian,
Yang Xuanke, Yang Yongwang, Yao Yanxiu, You Guohong, You Like, Yuan Wei, Zeng
Ji, Zeng Qingmei,Zhang Guohua, Zhang Linjie, Zhao Jieyi, Zhao Yonglin, Zheng Lujie,
Zhi Rongming, Zhong Xinlong, Zhou Yong, Zhu Wenjun

We are also deeply thankful to SAMPARK for publishing this book.

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 Part 1
Guide to Chinese Tea

1. Taste of Tea

As a popular drink, tea can be served both cold and hot with additional ingredients
including milk, flavors, lemon, honey, or sugar. However, instead of adding such
components, people in China prefer to have their tea neat and enjoy its natural
appearance, fragrance, color and the various flavors resulting from different brewing
conditions. In a general sense, the experience of drinking tea involves the appearance of
tea as an introduction, the aroma as a fascination and the taste representing a voyage.
Tea tasting can be fun, enjoyable and interesting. However, what constitutes
tasting is not always straightforward: the difference between tasting and drinking a cup
of tea is that tasting prompts appreciation, and knowing the right tasting technique and
how to evaluate taste is something that must be learnt. Tasting is a matter of
concentration to seek out the merits and faults, while drinking means to quench thirst
through a more relaxed experience. Almost anyone can learn how to taste tea. If one
wants to appreciate the real taste of tea, a certain amount of time and effect are needed.
Factors such as appropriate timing, the selected tea variety, quality of water, tea set of
choice, the tasting experience, as well as enjoying the whole process are all important.
Developing one’s palate for tea — picking up on the nuances and figuring out what they
prefer and what they dislike — takes time. In fact, it pays to have some guidance to
make the process easier.

How to Taste Tea

When taste tea, one should cut out as many distractions as possible, especially
comments made by others — it is too easy to be swayed. The tea should be evaluated
and a personal opinion registered before any discussion is started. The three “basics” of
tea-tasting are sight, smell, and taste, as perceived by the “eye,” “nose,” and “palate” as
sensory parts of the body.

The sight of tea

The eye is one of the most important sensory organs for professional tasters,
since even the most subtle nuance can provide numerous clues to the identity of a
particular tea. The first step is to assess the color of tea. The colors of dry tea and
liquor are determined by the tea variety, pluck standard and time, place of origin, as well
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as the methods of processing and brewing. There are two major kinds of pigment in
fresh tea leaves: chlorophylls and carotenoids. These pigments condense during
withering and oxidation, causing leaves to darken.The color of tea liquor can have great
variation between different kinds of tea. The basic principle to evaluate is that the
limpidity should be high. The next step is to observe the color and tenderness of
brewed tea leaves. The tenderer the leaves harvested, the less watery or more viscous
the tea liquor actually becomes.
The content of polyphenols in green tea, white tea and yellow tea are highly
similar to that of fresh tea leaves, and the brewed tea liquid has light yellow or yellow-
green color. Black tea is very low in polyphenols as they are mostly converted to
theaflavins and thearubigins during fermentation. These substances attribute black tea
its distinct orange andred-brown color, respectively. In China, black tea is known as
“hong cha”(or red tea) due to the reddish color of its liquor. During the processing of
oolong tea, it is allowed to oxidize for a short period before being exposed to heat, and
therefore it retains a higher polyphenol content compared to black tea. The color of
oolong tea liquor is ranges from yellow to yellow-brown depending on the degree of
polyphenol oxidation. Dark tea or post-fermented tea, which is allowed to slowly
oxidize and undergo microbial fermentation while controlling the moisture and
temperature conditions. The liquor color of dark tea ranges from yellow to amber-like.
In addition, the aging process involves slow oxidation that has a browning effect similar
to the discoloration of a peeled apple that has been exposed to the air.
Brewed tea leaves are wet and called as “ye di” in Chinese. The finest tea has
glossy wet brewed leaves, which are thick and smooth in appearance. Besides, after
brewing, it is easy to observe that the more complete the tea leaves are, the higher the
grade of tea will be. Teas of lower grades have fewer buds, as well as less strong and
glossy leaves.
Natural light is best to study the color of tea. Looking at the finished tea
against a white background, green tea is typically green (e.g., Enshi Yulu), yellow green
(e.g., Xihu Longjing) or grayish green (e.g., Gunpower Tea); the color of yellow tea is
yellow; dark teas vary in color from brown to dark brown;white teas range from white
(e.g., White Hair Silver Needle) to green (e.g., White Peony) and brown (e.g., Gongmei
and Shoumei)depending on the maturity of raw material. Oolong teas range from green
(e.g., Tieguanyin) to yellowish-brown (e.g., Wuyi Rock Tea), which dependson the degree
of fermentation and whether it is baked or not. The color of black tea is usually black,
although a minority of varieties have golden yellow color.

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The smell of tea
The tea-smelling procedure is quite simple: Put one’s nose near the tea liquor or
brewed tea leaves, take a deep sniff, then pause for a thought. A substantial sniff tells us
a lot about the tea, and one should not rush to taste. All smells of tea can be compared
to familiar odors, and one needs time to work out what these are. It is not practicable to
sniff the same tea again for at least two minutes,as each tea activates a unique pattern of
nerve ends in the olfactory bulb, continuously sniffing the same kind of tea will dull the
sense of smell.Yet it is perfectly feasible to smell different teas one after the other, as
they trigger different sensory patterns.
The flavor of tea can be divided into two categories: aroma that consists mainly
of volatile compounds and taste that mainly involves non-volatile compounds. Most
flavorsare smelled rather than tasted. More than 600 volatile compounds have been
reported during tea manufacturing processes. Significantly affected by these processes,
molecules responsible for tea aroma are formed mainly from four precursor groups:
carotenoids, fatty acids, glycosides, and amino acid/sugars (i.e., Maillard reaction
pathway). The volatile aromas constitute essential criteria in the evaluation of tea quality.
The tea aroma is determined by the nature of the plant, the manufacturing
process, and many other factors influencing its formation and release. Among them, the
manufacturing process is a crucial factor, as the aroma compounds differ largely with
the process, even within the same category of teas with different origins. In general, the
aroma profiles of black teas and oolong teas are more complex than those of green
teas. Green tea contains high levels of geraniol, hexanal, and β-ionone, and these give it
its unique greenish aroma. Black tea volatiles mainly depends on the withering and
fermentation steps, with predominantly linalool and its oxides, geraniol and
benzylalcoholoccurring in these stages. The degree of partial fermentation determines
the constitution and concentration of major aromas in oolong tea, such as those
attributed to jasmine lactones, nerolidol, and methyl jasmines. These volatiles possess
jasmine-like floral and fruity fragrances and, importantly, contribute to the oolong tea
aroma.
The orchid-like odor of a tea infusion is regarded as a noble aroma and an
essential sensory attribute for certain premium teas. Such tea leaves are difficult to make
and their quality is not always reproducible. An orchid-like aroma is defined as jasmine-
and magnolia-like floral notes with fruity undertone and found to be closely related to
the flower scent of the orchid Cymbidium faberi Rolfe (hui lan). The epimer of methyl
jasmonate is a key aroma contributor to premium teas.

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The tasting of tea
The procedure is simple. Take a good mouthful and draw air into the mouth
through the tea liquor, this makes a gurgling sound and may look and sound strange to
uninitiated, but it is essential to do it in order to make the liquor cover the whole
tongue.
Taste is classified into four basic categories: sweet, salty, sour, and bitter. Sweet
is perceived at the tip of the tongue, salt is sensed along its posterolateral edges, sour is
detected along the mediolateral edges, and bitter is recognized on the back of the
tongue. Besides these “basics”, humans experience other additional taste sensations in
tea, including astringency and umami. Among them, sweet (e.g., monosaccharides,
disaccharides), sour (e.g., citric acid), bitter (e.g., caffeine, theophylline, theobromine),
astringency (e.g., tea polyphenols) and umami (e.g., L-Theanine) are important tastes of
tea liquor.
Tea contains a huge variety of chemicals, but those associated with taste are
mainly polyphenols, caffeine, and amino acids. The plant produces these chemicals to
help the plant fight against predators and stress.
The main beneficial health effects of tea have been attributed to its high
content of bioactive compounds, particularly tea polyphenols, which make up 30% of
the dry weight of green tea leaves. Chemically, tea polyphenols are water soluble,
colorless compounds and impart astringency to tea liquors. Tea also contains a
significant amount of caffeine (3-5%), which is unaffected by the applied processing
method. Tea plants store energy formed during photosynthesis as starches and sugars,
also known as carbohydrates. The main carbohydrates in tea liquor are
monosaccharides, disaccharides and oligosaccharides, which lead to its sweetness.
Amino acids can make up an average of 6% of the finished tea, withthe most abundant
one being L-theanine, givingthe taste of umami.
The most important chemical constituents that influence the odor andflavor of
tea infusions arepresent in the plant shoots and are released in tea processing steps. In
this regard,green tea, white tea and yellow tea are all subjected to a very low degree of
oxidation, as they are heated soon after picking, thus their mild flavor. In contrast, for
black tea, the leaves are cut and twisted. All polyphenols and enzymes are allowed to
mix together in the air for complete oxidation, which leads to black tea having strong
flavor. Oolong tea generally has a more complex flavor than white and green tea, but
not as strong as black tea. Dark tea undergoes a period of aging from several months to
many years, which alters the smell of the tea and mellows the taste compared to the
more astringent black teas.
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 Due to the chemical changes during the processing of fresh leaves, with the
principal mechanism being oxidation, the chemical composition will be different in
each type of tea, and may also be affected, although to a smaller extent, by the variety,
environment, time of harvesting, which leaves are used, farming practices, effects of
pests and disease. High-quality tea is comprised of whole, intact leaves or those with
buds, while leaves that are broken indicate a lower grade product. Regarding taste, tea is
a bitter beverage by nature and the bitterness should be balanced by other pleasant
flavors. Bad tea has a harsh bitter flavor that lingers at the throat, or leaves the mouth
feeling dry. In good tea, the bitterness transforms to sweetness that leaves the mouth
feeling clean.This creates a phenomenon known in Chinese as “huigan”, which is a
pleasant sweet aftertaste that lingers in the mouth and throat after drinking good quality
tea.
Apart from taste perceptions through the tongue, we can smell flavors rather
than just taste them. Tea emits aroma vapors in the mouth thatautomatically cover the
roof of the nasal passages. Here, the olfactory bulb examines, discerns, and catalogs
them, and then transmits the information to the brain as various so-called flavors. When
tasting a large number of teas, each mouthful should be ejected after due assessment to
prevent polyphenols from affecting the ability of taste and coating the inner surface of
the stomach, which can cause a stomach disorder named ‘drunk with tea’ (cha zui).
Each person has a different and unique perception of smells and
tastesdepending on their genetics and the environment they have been exposed to
throughout their lives.Conveying specific taste characteristics from the mind of one
person to that of another is difficult because the taste opinions of different tasters vary.
Therefore, some of us might prefer what others dislike because we actually enjoy that
specific taste or smell. In addition, whether one is a novice or a master of tea, it is
always down to personal preference when it comes to judging tea.

2. How to Assess a Tea

Both our body and the environment may affect tea tasting experience.There are
a few things the taster needs to know before assessing any teas. The best time to
perform tasting is the afternoon, as this is when all our senses are highly alert. Tasting
should be done in well-lit room, preferably with natural light and one free from smells.
Wearing a perfume, aftershave, deodorant, or hand cream should be avoided. If the
taster has a cold, is tired, has had a bad day, there is too much noise around, or
somebody looks straight at them waiting for feedback on the tea, the tasting
performance may suffer. Research on the human brain has shown that perceptions are
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influenced by expectations, leading to bias when it comes to making a quality judgement
about the teabeing tasted if the origin and price are known. Through blind tasting,
however, such influences can be eliminated.

Tea Cupping Sets (steeping cup, lid, cupping bowl)

The cupping set is a professional tea tool used to evaluate the quality of teas. A
thick white porcelain set will hold the proper temperature for the length of steeping
time. It consists of three parts: a 150mL steeping cup that has a small “teeth” opening
on one side, a lid that fits over the steeping cup, and a 250mL cupping bowl. When
tasting, a group of cupping sets are needed to pair each kind of tea, and a set of clean
spoons for each bowl.

Sensory Evaluation
The characteristics of tea, including color, aroma, taste, appearance, and overall
acceptability, are learnt through sensory evaluation.Many parameters may affect the
sensory and nutritional quality of tea infusions such as the maturity of leaves, the
processing parameters, and the expected sensory quality. Professional tea tasters spend
most of their working lives assessing the dry leaves, wet leaves, and liquor of many teas
one by one in rapid succession. In China, the tea taster is always the tea master. Once
tea has been processed step by step, the tea master will taste the tea to determine if
adjustments are necessary to achieve the desired quality. For passionate amateurs, the
sensory evaluation of tea is a somewhat slower, calmer, more poetic activity if the aim is
to recognize each tea’s unique characteristics. Professional cupping is more elaborate
than daily tea tasting, even if cupping sets are used.
The first subject of evaluation is dry tea leaves. These are poured or scooped
out onto a flat white tray and the color and appearance are observed closely, as well as
any broken particles. Some tasters warm these tea samples by exhaling on them,then
bury their nose in the leaves and breathe in deeply.
Next, 3g of tea is weighed for a 150mL steeping cup. The tea sample is infused
with 150mL of freshly boiled water for 5 minutes with the lid placed on the cup. When
the time is up, the liquor in the covered steeping cup is throughly drained into the
250mL tea tasting porcelain cupping bowl for quality evaluation. If many cupping sets
are to be dispensed, resting the steeping cup in the white cupping bowl will allow the tea
liquor to continually flow while the taster moves on to dispense the next cupping sets.
Before tasting the liquor, the taster lifts the lid and closes to smell the freshly steeped
leaves. The aroma that has been trapped in the covered cup gives a good indication of
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the quality of tea. Subsequently, the steeping cup is titled upside down, so that the
steeped leaves pile up on the lid. The steeping cup is then gently removed, tiltedwith the
right side up, and the lid full of leaves is placed on the cup for evaluation by the taster.
Finally, the tea is tasted with a slurp. For this, a teaspoon is used to bring some
tea liquor to the mouth, and it is slurped along with largeamounts of air, which sprays
the liquor all over the tongue. The taster mustthink about the mouthfeel and never
swallow the liquor, which is believed to impair the sensitivity of taste buds.

Sight
The relevant parameters to check are appearance and color. The following
questions need to be asked: Are the dry leaves more or less uniform? Are there lots of
buds? Are the leaves and buds broken or complete? What is their shape? The answers
will depend on the kind of tea that is subject to evaluation. For example, if the tea
sample is a half ball-style oolong, yet it is loosely rolled and looks like strip-style, one
would associate this tea as a low-quality oolong. Further questions include what color
the dry and steeped leaves are, whether the color is vivid and youthful,or there is brown
that might suggest its age. The color of tea may be green-gold, gold, honey-colored,
apricot-colored, amber-colored, brown, or dark brown. If a green tea is being evaluated,
and the color is more yellow or brown, this should be notedas off-color, which could
mean excessive fixing, improper processing, or the tea being too old.

Smell
Aroma is one of the most important determinants of tea quality. Recognizing
aromas comes with experience.Once the tea liquor and steeped leaves are smelled, one
will begin to recognize the tea style.Then the following questions can be asked: Does
the tea have any distinctive aromas, or they are likened to orchids or cinnamon? Does
the tea smell as youthful or as mature as it appears to the eye? For old white tea or aged
dark tea, is it smooth and harmonious? Is there any off-odor? Words to describe the
aroma include flowery, fruity, chestnut, caramel, or toasty. Broadly, we can divide tea
aromas into three primary categories. Primary aromas are derived from variety and
terroir, and include fruits, floral notes, and milk. Secondary aromas come from
manufacturing practices, with the most common aromas of chestnut, toasty, caramel,
and honey; Tertiary aromas are the consequence of aging, mostly with examples of
herbs, dates, woods, lotus leaves, and fungi.

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Tasting
Tasting is the act of using our tongues to observe the tea, however, once it is
swallowed, the perception of aromas may change because the volatilized aromas are
picked up by the olfactory bulb. Tea samples with high amounts of both chemical and
volatile compounds have a positive association with the sensory attributes of tea,
including overall acceptability. It must also be noted that human organs are fallible, not
least the brain, so keeping an open mind is beneficial. The taster should be prepared to
accept contradictions as well as confirmation;the more experience of tasting different
teas, the better the knowledge of what to expect from each teas.
Subsequently, the taster must answer all the above questions according to what
their palate tells of the sensation. For example, is the liquor astringent, bitter, umami,
smoky, smooth, flowing thick, watery, mouth-filling, silky, bright, brisk, or mellow?
Does it carry hints of toasted nuts, fried beans, honey peach, baked sweet potato? The
possibilities are endless. Regarding the mouthfeel,does it fill the mouth and linger on the
palate or disappear quickly? Is there a sweet aftertaste? Due to the storage stage, is there
any associated stale or other flavors?Our tongues can ‘touch’ the tea and perceive its
texture. The texture of tea is related to a few factors and is almost always sensed in
oolong tea and dark tea. Generally speaking, tea with strong texture is considered high-
quality.

Conclusions
When it comes to describing a specific tea, one should first try to name the tea
category, variety, area of origin, and give some indication of the quality of the tea. Drinking is
the best way to understand a particular tea; it can be difficult to identify a specific kind of tea
having never tasted it. Lots of practice makes a tea master: knowledge will increase with every
tasting session. Tea tasting is not a matter of guesswork, however, getting things wrong is
encouraged because this is the only way to gain experience.

Sample Tasting
The below chart provides six examples from a comprehensive range of Chinese
tea types. When tasting, it is important to keep the options open until the taster has
assessed the sight, smell, and taste of the tea. They should be confident and not afraid
to back their own judgement—it is part of the learning process.

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3. Terroir
Terroir comprises the environmental conditions, especially soil and climate,
under which grapes are grown and what provides wine its unique flavor and aroma. The
word “terroir” is used here to referto a tea plantation’s whole growing environment in a
broader aspect,whichattribute tea its unique characteristics. These include location/
altitude, climate, heat/temperature, sunshine, rainfall, aspect, and soil. It is the variety of
tea tree that determines the basic flavor, the growing conditions have the most
profound effect on the quality of tea.All of these environmental factors are discussed in
detail in this section.

Location/altitude
The location of a tea plantation is a fundamental determinant of whether the
climate in that location is suitable for tea cultivation. In the first chapter ofThe Classic
of Tea, written by the tea saint Lu Yu between 760 and 780 AD, the tea plant was
introduced to originate from Southern China. Nowadays, the tea growing area is located
between the longitudes E94° (Milin, Tibet) and E122° (Taiwan), and latitudes N18°30′
(Yulin, Hainan) and N37°13′ (Rongcheng, Shandong). This area covers more than 20
provinces and regions across China. Most of the tea-planting areas are distributed in the
region of the southern Yangtze River. Interestingly, the bulk of China’s finest teas are
produced in scenic regions where the environment tends to be more suitable for tea
growth than other areas. Forests and mountain ranges protect the tea plants from low
temperature and rain. The relative proximity to forests and large masses of water can
influence the climate through transpiration and evaporation, providing the much needed
humidity in times of drought.
Location also includesthe altitude of the tea plant growing area. As the Chinese
idiom goes, “A higher mountain yields higher-quality tea”, which indicates that
mountain conditions are usually optimalfor tea plant growth, especially the growth of
high-quality shoots. High mountains are generally wrapped in clouds and veiled in mist
with abundant rainfall and diffused light. Tea trees grown in these areas will produce
more amino acids and high-boiling point aroma substances, which make tea tastes
mellow and develop floral aromas.
While mountain areas are highly desirable sites for tea cultivation, one must
remember that every 1000 meters above sea level, the temperature falls by 6 (43°F).
Moreover, the air humidity and the amount of precipitation begin to decline, which is
disadvantageous for tea yield and quality.

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Climate
Climate and weather are the two most important factors influencing the
cultivation of tea plants for high-quality tea. Climate is defined as statistical weather
information that describes the variation of weather at a given place for a specified
interval, whereas weather constitutes the day-to-day state of the atmosphere in a region
and its short-term variations. A grower must select a region with an amenable climate
and hope that nature does not inflict too many weather anomalies.
Although some tea plants survive under extreme environments, most—and all
classic—commercial tea plantations are confined to two relatively narrow climatic bands
between 20° and 30° north, and they require a combination of heat, sunshine and
rainfall.

Heat/temperature
Tea plants prefer a warm climate; the ideal temperature, highest temperature,
and lowest temperature for tea plant growth is 20-30 (68°F-86°F), 40 (104°F), and
-6 (21°F)to -16 (3°F), respectively. The minimum leaf temperature necessary to
initiate shoot extension is apparently about 21 (70°F), and at leaf temperatures above
35 (95°F), the rate of net photosynthesis and growth declines sharply. In order for tea
plants to produce high-quality young shoots, the minimum heat-summation, measured
in “degree-days” with an average of above 10 (50°F) over the growing season, is 900-
1000° (using to calculate). The temperature changes mentioned above depend on the
variety.
When tea trees grow in an environment withhigher diurnal temperature, this is
conducive to the tea quality. Tea trees photosynthesize and accumulate the organic
matter during the day; respiration is weak and material consumption is low at night. This
strategy can accumulate substances effectively, which is helpful to produce tea with
“strong aroma and mellow taste”.

Sunlight
Light is required for photosynthesis, which is the most important biological
process of green plants. Long sunshine durationis essential for maximum yield as long
as the nutrient status of tea is adequate. However, high temperatures combined with
strong sunlight during the middle of the day may lead to reduced rates of shoot
extension and the production of more polyphenols. In such situations, shading can
prevent from the leaf temperature reaching excessively high levels. In general, diffused
sunlight is suitable for the accumulation of amino acid in tea leaves, which yields
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enjoyable flavors such as sweet, sea sedge, fresh, and so forth. Tea tree is a typical weak
light tolerant plant and the nest crop for building photovoltaic agriculture system.

Rainfall
Most of the water for tea tree growth comes from natural precipitation.Roots
expand into wet soil to extract water and nutrients. Tea trees prefer wet conditions and
do not like “wet feet”. Adequate rainfall in a tea plantation area ensures high yield and
quality. The ideal annual rainfall is about 1500 mm. In the growing season, the rainfall
requirement is greater than 100mm. A little rain a few days before harvest will wash the
young shoots, and is therefore ideally followed by sun and a gentle, drying breeze. In
most tea areas, there is sufficient excess rainfall during the rainy season. When the
rainfall is more than the maximum amount of water that can be retained in soil, water
will do harm to tea plant roots. This sensitivity of tea plants to rainfall is probably
associated with their origin in the hot humid monsoon areas of southeast China.
Air humidity can affect water evaporation from soil and the transpiration of tea
tree. The suitable relative air humidity for tea tree growth is 80%-90%. When this is
higher than 90%, it often forms clouds and increases the ratio of diffused light above
the tea plantation, which is good for tea quality. Amidstlowatmospheric humidity, more
water is transpired per unit of dry matter produced. Dry air can restrict the rates of
young shoot extension and also induce the partial closure of stomata, even when a crop
is irrigated and the soil is wet. In mature tea plantations, pruning can play a major role
in minimizing drought stress.

Aspect
The slope aspect of a tea plantation refers to its general topography, that is, which direction
the tea plants face, the angle and height of slope, and how this interrelates with the climate.
China is located in the Northern Hemisphere, and north-facing slopes are
characterized by fewer hours of sunshine, high humidity, low temperature, and more
organic substances in the soil. The quality of tea leaves harvested on north-facing slopes
is better than those on south-facing slopes.
Tea trees dislike water-logging in a tea garden, hence proper drainage is vital. A
sloping tea plantation allows for natural drainage; however, hilltop tea plantations are
too exposed to rain and wind, which deprives the tea trees below of protection from
the elements. Top-grade tea plantations in China are always in hilltop forests, which not
only supply humidity in times of drought, but absorb the excess water from torrential
rains that could wash away the topsoil. Riverside and lakeside slopes provide the
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advantage of reflected sunlight and the water acting as a heat reservoir, releasing heat at
night that has been stored during the day.

Soil
Soil holds water against gravity by capillary forces acting within the soil pores,
and by adsorption onto soil particles. The topsoil is of primary importance to tea trees
because it supports most of their root system. The main roots penetrate several layers
of subsoil whose structure influences drainage. Duringthe dry season, some tea roots
can extract water from a depth of 5 meters. Thus, the effective depth of soil for tea
plantation should be more than 1 meter. Moreover, the level of underground water
should be lower than the distribution of tea tree roots, in order to avoid flooding and
the absorption of nutrients being influenced. For the optimal growth of tea trees, the
temperature of soil should not be less than 20 (68°F) or greater than 25 (77°F).
Soil with gravel and acidic sandy loam, which is loose and has good drainage, is
suitable for the growth of tea trees, which prefer acidic soil and despise calcium. The
most suitable soil pH value for tea tree growth is between 5.0 and 5.5. When the pH
value is higher than 6.0, the young tea tree will be in poor condition and the leaf color
will become yellow. In more serious cases, the buds will die and roots will turn reddish
and then black. When the calcium content in soil is more than 0.5%, the tea tree growth
becomes abnormal and the plant may even die.
The organic matter in the soil ofa tea garden can reflect the level of soil
fertility. The limiting soil nutrients are nitrogen, which is necessary for primary
production in the tea tree’s green matter, phosphate, which directly encourages root
development and delays the plant’s aging, and potassium, which improves the tea tree’s
metabolism and enhancesthe quality of young shoots.
4. Botanical Characteristics

Classification
Tea is a product of the Camellia sinensis plant. Camelliawas most likely named
after Georg Josef Kamel, a pharmacist who collected plants in Asia between 1683-1700.
Later, he described them using his latinized name of Camĕllus, which became the basis
for the genus Camellia. The specific epithet further defines the plant to be distinguished
from related plants of the same genus. In the case of tea, the word sinensis indicates the
plant’s origin as China. It stems from the Greek names for China: “Sinai” or “Sinae”. In
1753, the Swedish naturalist and explorer Carolus Linnaeus included tea in his
groundbreaking work, Species Plantarum. With his binomialnomenclaturethatis still
17
being used today, every plant is assigned two latinized names that uniquely identify it as
a taxonomic entity: a genus and a specific epithet, comprising the species name. For tea,
the species name is Camellia sinensis.
The Camellia genus includes over 260 species, and all Camellia sinensis have the
characteristics including white flowers of about 2.5cm in diameter, multiple stamens,
and yellow anthers. Most of the cultivated varieties belong to one species, Camellia
sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze, including var.sinensis, var.assamica (Masters) Kitamura and
var.pubilimba Chang. Among these three, the small-leaved Chinese variety plant
(Camellia sinensis var. sinensis) and the large-leaved Assamese plant (Camellia sinensis
var. assamica (Master) Kitamura) are responsible for the bulk of global tea production
today. Tea plants easily cross-pollinate, and this has resulted in a wide range of natural
variability between the two varieties.

Morphology
The tea plant is a perennial evergreen, and its aerial portion is grown as an
arbor, semi-arbor or shrub form. The var.sinensis is a small-leaved shrub with multiple
virgate stems, which is pruned to a height of 1-3 meters. Meanwhile, the tea plant
var.assamica is an erect tree with many branches and large leaves. It can reach a height
of 8-12 meters in the wild, but in a tea garden, it is trimmed to just above waist level for
easier harvesting.
The tea tree is composed of roots, stems, leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds,
among which roots, stems and leaves are vegetative organs, and flowers, fruits and seeds
are reproductive organs. The main functions of vegetative organs are to absorb,
transport, synthesize, and store nutrients and water.
At the same time, the main function of reproductive organs is to breed
offspring. Each organ has different morphological characteristics and physiological
functions; different organs affect each other and form a living entity. Leaves, flowers
and fruits are of economic value in all organs.

Buds
The tea leaves develop from buds, which can be divided into vegetative buds
and flower buds. The buds that develop into branches are vegetative buds, while those
that develop into flowers are called flower buds. Vegetative buds are slender and slightly
pointed at the front and villous at the back; flower buds grow in the axilla of leaves and
are short, thick and usually slightly circular in shape. The raw materials for tea making
are single bud, one bud-one leaf and one bud-two leaves.
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Leaves
The leaves are the main vegetative organs of tea plants, with the main functions
of photosynthesis and transpiration. The leaf position on the stem can be erect, semi-
erect, horizontal or drooping, which varies according to the variety. The phyllotaxy of
the tea plant is single-leaf and alternate. The shape is different according to the variety,
it is generally elliptical, and a few are elliptic and lanceolate, with the apex acuminating.
The buds and internodes are more profusely hairy. Old leaves are leathery in texture,
highly polished on the upper surface and deep green in color. The leaves are green,
yellowish green and purple green, which is associated with the synthesis and content of
chlorophyll. Generally speaking, high amino acid content attributes tea with a lighter
color, while purple leaves have high anthocyanin content. There are 7-15 pairs of veins
on a tea tree leaf. The lateral veins curve upward and connect with the upper veins,
forming a close transporting network, which is characteristic of the leaves of tea plants.

Flowers
Camellia have hermaphroditic flowers with a slight fragrance when blooming
from October to November, whose color is generally white, and a small number of
them are light yellow and pink. The whole floral organ is composed of five parts —
flower stalk, calyx, corolla, stamen, and pistil. The corolla has 5-9 pieces and is arranged
in two layers. When the tea fruit — which is a kind of capsule — ripens, the shell cracks
and the seeds fall out.

Fruit
The shape and size of tea fruit are related to the number of seeds in the fruit.
Usually, one fruit is spherical and the grains are kidney-shaped, three fruits are triangular
four are square, and five are plum blossom-shaped. The brown seed is typically thin-
shelled, about half an inch in diameter, semi-globose in shape, or rounded at the back
and wedge-shaped in the front. It contains two large cotyledons that show the
embryonic radicle and plumule when clearly separated. The cotyledons are notable for
their high oil content (up to 20 percent by weight). The fatty acid ester components of
this oil are similar to those of olive oil, for which it is a recognized culinary substitute.

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5. Evolution and Dispersal

Evolution
The evolution of tea trees is mainly manifested in the transformation of tree
types from arbor form to semi-arbor form and shrub form. This process includes the
three types of wild form, intermediate form and cultivated form, and the production of
thousands of genotypes.The introduction, domestication and selection processes in
cultivation have also led to the formation of numerous cultivars. The evolution of tea
traits is irreversible. For example, in the shrubs, the lobular tea trees do not appear to be
characteristic of the arborescent trees, even if they are grown under tropical rainforest
conditions.
In the long process of tea history, the tea tree spread naturally from the center
oforigin to surrounding areas. It spread along the Minjiang River and the Nujiang River
system to the south-central part of the Hengduan Mountains. The long-light and high-
altitude long-light and tropical rainforest climates at low latitudes have resulted in the
fully evolved tea tree and the formation of Camellia taliensis Melchior and Camellia
sinensis var. assamica (Master) Kitamura as the main ancestors of plants in the tea
group.Camellia taliensis Melchior is an endemic wild species mainly distributed in the
areas on the west side of Ai-Lao mountains of Yunnan province, such as Dali, Baoshan,
Dehong, Lincang, Puer, and Xishuangbanna areas, with Yuanjiang being the only
country located on the east side of the Ai-Lao mountains. Camellia sinensis var.
assamica (Master) Kitamura is a widely cultivated tea plant, and its distribution area is
the same as that ofCamellia taliensis Melchior except thatit grows at a different altitude.
According to the similarity between the morphological characteristics of Camellia
taliensis Melchior and Camellia sinensis var. assamica (Master) Kitamura and the type of
hybridization between them, Camellia sinensis var. assamica (Master) Kitamura should
be a product of natural evolution from Camellia taliensis Melchior. It is believed that
the south central and southwestern parts of Yunnan may be the origin of tea tree
cultivation.
The wild-type tea tree is also known as the original type of tea tree, referring to
any tea tree variety that has been preserved for a long time in a certain area. For arbor
and small tree forms, the karyotype is 2A with higher symmetry.The wild-type tea tree
has grown under relatively stable ecological conditions for a long time, and is mostly
mixed with evergreen broad-leaved forests such as Magnoliaceae, Polygonaceae,
Moraceae, and Camellia. It is characterized by being highly conserved, artificial
reproduction rate, low migration success rate, and strong resistance.Most of the
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botanical classifications of this lineage belong to Camellia tachaangensi Zhang, Camellia
taliensis Melchior and Camellia crassicolumna Chang.
The cultivated tea tree is also known as the evolutionary tea tree, referring to
the new type of tea tree created by humans through the selection, cultivation and
domestication of wild tea trees; it is the combined product of natural and artificial
selection. For small trees and shrubs, the karyotype is 2B with low symmetry.Cultivated
tea trees are formed under long-term natural selection and artificial cultivation
conditions. Their variation is highly complex, and their morphological characteristics,
quality, adaptability, and resistance can vary dramatically.The botanical classification of
cultivated tea covers Camellia sinensis var. assamica (Master) Kitamura and Camellia
sinensis var. pubillimba Chang.
The difference between cultivated tea tree and wild tea tree is the adaptation of
the plants to the temperate environment. In this process, the tree form changed from
arbor to shrub, the leaf size became smaller and buds were covered with white hair for
preventionagainst frost damage. Compared to the arbor form, the leaf of shrub-form
tea tree is harder and its waxy layer is thicker, which can protect leaves in winter and
reflect sunlight to reduce the damage caused by UV to organelles in summer
days.Moreover, for easy harvesting and to provide the ability to adapt to new
environments, humans prefer to cultivate the shrub-form tea tree.

Dispersal
There are four routes of tea plant dispersal. Tea trees grown in a superior
environment of low-latitude, high-humidity and optimal temperature achieve many
qualities of superior tea. Wild speciesare distributed in suchconditions with maximum
density and the largest flush volume, while cultivated tea plants belong to Camellia
sinensis var. assamica (Master) Kitamura and the natural hybrids of Camellia taliensis
Melchior and Camellia sinensis var. assamica (Master) Kitamura. In the Xijiang
Hongshui River water system (including Guangxi, Guangdong, Vietnam, Myanmar,
Hunan, Jiangxi, Fujian, etc.), there are both wild-type tea trees and cultivated tea trees.
The northeastern slope of the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau include Guizhou, Sichuan and
Chongqing, where the tea trees are mostly arbor-form and small trees. In Yangtze River
System, tea trees in the river basin are shrub-type medium- and small-leaved teas with
strong resistance, there are no wild-type tea trees, and all of them are classified as
Camellia sinensis.
In case of adjacent geographical locations, similar ethnic customs and frequent
contacts, the tea culture can easily spread to neighboring countries and regions. This
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process is believed to have commenced as early as 2000 years before the migration of
minority nationalities from China to Vietnam, Burma, Laos, and Thailand, which was
the result of incessant internal wars. Consequently, tea was also spread to these
countries. The methods of tea brewing used in some of the mountainous areas of these
countries are still similar to those of ancient China, such as the addition of condiments
during the use of tea as food ingredients and medicine. Subsequently, the tea spread to
Central Asia, West Asia and Eastern Europe through the Silk Road and the Ancient
Tea-horse Route. Lately, the spread of tea to Western Europe was through the Maritime
Silk Route. Finally, the tea gradually spread to the whole world through multiple ways
since the East India Company hired Chinese tea workers in the 18th and 19th centuries,
and Robert Fortune, a Scottish botanist, was dispatched to China to take tea seeds back
to Darjeeling.
Some 280 species of plants in the same genus could not replicate the success of
the tea tree. The reason is that the tea tree has developed the ability to synthesize more
flavor compounds in its long-term evolution than its relatives, including tea polyphenols,
theanine and caffeine. Polyphenols are secondary metabolites produced by the tea tree,
which play multiple essential roles in plant physiology and have beneficial properties on
human health, mainly as anti-oxidation, anticancer, and antimicrobial agents. Theanine is
an amino acid that is responsible for the sweet and fresh flavor in the mouth, and
reducing the stress of the tea drinker. Caffeine is a plant-based stimulant that can
improve various aspects of brain function — including memory, mood, energy levels,
reaction times, and general mental function.
Tea, which comes from the mountains of southeast China, is a gift to the whole
world. There are three billion people drinking tea every day, and sixty countries grow tea
trees around the world. Tea has reflected the continuity of culture, brought the
development of economies, even provoked wars, and has become a part of common
human life and the spiritual world. Behind the brilliance of tea is the great success of
the reproductive strategy of tea plants.
The seeds of tea are large and glossy, which are unlikely to be carried by
animals for long distances. Experiments showed that exposure of tea seeds to sunshine
caused dehydration and the loss of germination ability. Therefore, without human
intervention, most of tea plants would only have a narrow distribution area, particularly
varieties that have not been introduced and utilized. The reason for the widespread
distribution of Camellia sinensis ought to be attributed to the success of introduction
and cultivation by humans.

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6. Names of Chinese Tea
There are many different ways of naming thousands kinds of Chinese teas.
Traditionally, teas have been named after the primary tea varieties used to make the tea
and the location where tea trees were planted. You will see many irregularities in
naming of tea, including characteristics description or marketing, or both together.
It is important to note that there is no laws or rules to govern how a retail
merchan name a product. In some new style teashops and internet vendors, a large
proportion of merchandise are far from the name. Their names are formed with
different concepts. If you want to know more informations behind the name, you must
research the labeling and trademark.
Table: 1.1 Names of Chinese Tea
Name Formation Tea Products
shape Chun­mee, Guapian, Zisun, Yinzhen, Mudan, Maojian,
Shoumei, Biluochun

tea color or aroma Wenzhou Huangtang, Yellow Bud, Shucheng Lanhua

time of processing Spring tea, Summer tea, Dongpian

cultivar name Shuixian, Tieguanyin, Rougui, Dahongpao, Meizhan

method of processing green tea, yellow tea, dark tea, white tea, oolong tea, black
tea, fried green tea, steamed green tea, gongfu black tea

modified form Toucha, Brick tea, Matcha, Cake tea

marketing region Neixiaocha (tea for domestic), Waixiaocha (tea for export),
Bianxiaocha (tea for consumption in border region)
processing region and species Wuyi Rock Tea, Xihu Longjing, Huangshan Maofeng,
Qimen black tea, Duyun Maojian, Dianhong, Pu­erh

7. Tea Cultivation

Propagation
The propagation of tea plants can be classified into sexual and asexual
propagation, the former of which propagates the descendant by breeding, while the
latter utilizes vegetative organs and somatic cells, such as cutting, layering, plant
dividing, and grafting. Tea cultivars are commonly propagated by cutting in China,
which can be beneficial to the management of tea plantations, mechanized
harvesting, and processing of tea leaves. However, sexual propagation is applied in
high-altitude mountainsof relatively lower-temperature areas, due to its advantages
of strong roots and highresistance to stress.
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Seedlings
In China,tea seeds are usually collected for ten days before and after the Frost’s
Descend Day (October 22). Before being sown, seeds need to be stored for a period
under the environmental temperature of 5-7 (41-45°F) and humidity of 60%-65%.
After the processes of presoaking and pre-germination, tea seeds can be sown when
40%-50% of them begin to reveal the radicles. The most suitable season for sowing in
China is autumn to the followingspring.

Cuttings
Like other woody shrubs, tea plants can be asexually propagated from the small
terminal branch sections, known as “cuttings”. Propagation by cutting was first
developed by tea farmers, and this technique has been used for more than 200 years in
China. Until now, it is still the most popular technique of tea pant propagation in the
world. It has the advantage of avoiding genetic non-uniformity resulting from seed
propagation and allows for the dilution of a quality product from a particular favorable
clone. Standard cuttings should be over 4 cm in length with one mature leaf and a
healthy auxiliary bud. Moreover, when used as cuttings, semi-lignified shoots have a
higher efficiency in regenerating roots than fully-lignified shoots. The method and
technology, such as soil sterilization, hormonal treatment, covering by plastic film and
nutrient application, can improve the survival rates and seedling quality. The cuttings
can be generally inserted intopropagation beds with row spacing of 7cm-10cm,where
the distance between plants depends on the leaf size of different tea varieties.

Grafting
Scion grafting has also been traditionally used to replant old tea bushes,
particularly in the southern China tea growing area, such as Guangdong Province and
Yunnan Province. The important considerations when selecting scionsis to have a high
yield and high tea quality. Grafting can be performed in either in April or October when
the temperature is 19-20 (66-68°F), for the successful recovery and growth of grafted
plants. The survival rate of grafted plants can be improved significantly by treatment
with hormones such as IAA (indole-3-acetic acid) and keeping under the shade with
certain humidity.

Soil Tillage
This technique of soil preparation aims to prepare the seedbed for sowing or
transplanting, and for the appropriate growth of crops. The purpose of tillage is to
24
destroys pest shelters, distribute soil nutrients throughout the soil, and control weed
growth. After the tea growth season, shallow ploughing at 10-15cm depth is beneficial
forsoil ventilation and rainfall infiltration.

Irrigation and Mulching

Irrigation is necessary when the water content of the soil is less than 70%.
During high-temperature and drought periods, irrigation not only keeps the roots moist,
but also decreases the temperature in the tea garden.To suppress the growth of weeds,
straw, dry branches and rotten leaves can be used as mulch to cover the soilin the tea
garden.

Fertilization
In every growth phase of the tea tree, the absorption of minerals from the soil
is necessary. Ammonium nitrogen fertilizers, such as ammonium sulfate and urea, are
preferred choices for tea gardens. Fertilizer application should also consider the
conditions of specific tea cultivars, the age of tea trees, and garden practices (including
irrigation, ploughing, and harvesting, etc.). For instance, when the tea trees are young,
the fertilizer should be rich in phosphorus and potassium to enhance the growth of
roots and stems.

Tea Tree Pruning

Pruning is essential to direct the tea tree’s energy into leaf production. The goal
of pruning tea trees is to create a low, wide framework of branches that will produce
many leaves each year. In mature tea gardens, light pruning and heavy pruning should
be done alternately.
The best pruning time is when the plant is dormant or when its growth rate is
the slowest, because this is the time that the carbohydrate reserves within the tea plant
are at a high level. Lightpruning in reference to tea plants comprise skiffing and tipping,
which are usually done after every harvest to keep the surface uniform and to increase
the number of branches and enlarge the plucking surface area. Pruning means to cut
the bush back to between 0.6m-1.2m height, and each year of pruning is followed by a
year of not pruning or very light pruning.

Disease and Pest Control

Unlike in most crops, the tender young shoots are the harvested portion of tea
plants, therefore, pests and diseases that attack these parts are of particular concern to
25
growers. Pests can cause direct crop losses of more than 15% due to feeding injury or
indirect damage, and thus adversely affect the quality of tea. To protect tea plants from
pests and diseases, new techniques are constantly being developed. These include
cultivars with high levels of resistance against pest and disease stress, light trapping
technology, the disruption of sex pheromone communication, and mild pesticides
applied in tea gardens.

Frost Damage
In winter, severe frost damage will occur to the small-leaved variety when the
temperature is below minus 10 degrees and to the large-leaved variety when it is below
minus 5 degrees, and when these conditions last for more than 5 hours. The south of
the Yangtze river tea region often has cold air invasion in February and March. The
earlier bud type tea trees will suffer frost damage causing the new buds to freeze and fall
off, which is commonly known as ‘late spring coldness’. This effectcan be alleviated by
planting windbreaks around the tea plantation, mulching the tea tree canopy and placing
frost proof fans in tea gardens.

Plucking
The most important job in a tea plantation is plucking the leaves. The timing
ofthis activity is one of the most crucial decisions a grower has to make each year,
which will vary according to the tea variety, the location of tea plantation, and the kind
of tea that is to be manufactured.
If the target is high-quality tea, then fine leaves are plucked and smaller
yieldsare acceptable. However, if a larger tea yield is the target, the coarse leavesare
plucked. For White Hair Silver Needle and Kaihua Longding, only single buds are
plucked. Meanwhile, West Lake Longjing, Biluochun, Huangshan Maofeng, Junshan
Yinzhen, and other famous teas are made from the raw material of one bud and one
leaf.Ordinarygreen teas and black teas are usually made by plucking one bud and two
leaves or one bud and three leaves.For oolong tea, it is required to pluck 2-4 tender
leaves at the top when the shoot growth has almost stopped. Different oolong teas also
have different plucking standards: Tieguanyin and Huangjingui require the plucking of
more tender leaves than Rougui and Qilan. Generally speaking, compressed dark teas
require plucking one bud and 4-5 leaves. It is worth noting that the high-quality Pu-erh
Tea and Xiaguan Tuocha are made from more tender leaves than ordinary teas.
There are two plucking methods in China: hand plucking and mechanical
plucking. The former is the traditional method that is commonly used nowadays, and
26
almost all high-quality tea is plucked by hand. Mechanization is more significant in areas
where labour is scarce and/or expensive.

Transportation of harvest
Fresh leaves remain alive for a period of time after being detached from the tea
plant. With the increased respiration rate, there will be a rise in leaf temperature and
water loss, which are unfavorable for finished tea quality. Therefore, in the race against
time to carry the leaves from the tea garden to the factory, all possible measures need to
be implemented to cosset the leaves. Ideally, the garden and the factory should be in the
closest possible proximity, and the leaves should be transported in bamboo baskets
small enough to prevent damage from their own weight. As soon as they arrive at the
tea factory, leaves should be quickly and evenly spread on bamboo mats, trays, or placed
on well-ventilated storage troughs.

8. Tea Flush
Tea flush is a general reference to the tender buds (or shoots) picked from tea
trees, which areused as a raw material for making various kinds of tea, also known as tea
green (Chaqing) or green leaves. In the process of making tea, tea flush will go through
a series of chemical and physical changes to form a specific type of tea. The tea quality
depends on the composition of tea flush as well as the tea making technology, and the
metabolites in tea flush are determined by the plant variety and plucking position.

Characteristics of fresh leaves

Hundreds of kinds of tea exist in China, and all of them can be made from the
same fresh tea shoots. Each kind of tea has its own characteristics, requiring quite
different standards or quality requirements for new flush. In China, tea growers often
use different processing techniques to deal with different types of flush to produce tea.
Tea leaves exhibit various shapes according to the variety and terroir. Based on
the length to width ratio, tea leaves can be divided into two types: ratio below 2.2 named
as round leaf shape and ratio above 2.2 named as long leaf shape.
Ratio (R) = leaf length (mm) / leaf width (mm)
The shape of fresh tea leaves is closely related to the appearance of tea: a
needle-like tea made from long-shaped fresh leaves looks slender, such as Xinyang
Maojian tea, Enshi Yulu tea and Nanjing Yuhuacha; on the other hand, Lu’an Guapian
tea is made from round-shaped fresh leaves, which resemble plump watermelon seeds
or almonds.
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 According to leaf size, mature tea leaves can be divided as follows: oversized
leaf type (more than 14 cm long), large-sized leaf type (10-14 cm long), medium-sized
leaf type (7-10 cm long), and small-sized leaf type (less than 7 cm long). The bulky bud
and leaves of large-sized leaf varieties are suitable for making Silver Needle white tea or
Yunnan black tea. At the same time, the small-sized leaf varieties are suitable for making
curly twisted tea, such as Biluochun tea.
In addition, there is a close relationship of stalks and internodes with tea
quality. For example, yellow big tea and oolong tea must contain stalks, otherwise the tea
aroma will be insufficient. Most of the compounds contained in stalks are water-soluble,
which can be converted into aromatic substances and transferred from vascular tissues
to leaves in the processing period. On the contrary, it is not true that the longer the
stalk, the better the tea; if the stalk is too long, it will cause the problem of difficult
shaping during manufacture and the excessive workload of picking up the stalks for the
next refining step.

Chemical Composition of Fresh Leaves

More than 700 chemical components exist in fresh tea flush, which can be
broadly classified into water, volatile and non-volatile compounds. The tea aroma is
mainly dependent on the volatile compounds present, and the color and taste of tea
mainly rely on the non-volatile components. Non-volatile compounds are more
complex and include polyphenols, amino acids, chlorophyll and other pigments,
carbohydrates, organic acids, caffeine and other alkaloids, vitamins, minerals, and
enzymes. These chemicals in fresh flush are important determinants of quality and thus
the value of the prepared tea products.

Water
The water content in fresh tea flush is about 75-78% of its total weight, which
varies with the tenderness, the time of harvest, the climatic conditions, the garden
practices, and the tea cultivar. The more tender the flush, the higher the water content.
Besides, flush harvested in the morning has higher water content than that in afternoon.
The essence of tea processing is to reduce the water content from more than 75% of
tea flush to less than 6% of the final refined tea product. During processing, the
parameters are set according to the change of water content, such as temperature and
time of fixing, withering, sunning, drying, and so on.

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Aroma
Aroma is one of the critical aspects of tea quality, which can determine the
acceptance or rejection of a tea even before it is tasted. On the whole, teas grown at
higher altitudes tend to have higher concentrations of aroma compounds and superior
flavor. Furthermore, growing tea in a shaded environment may change the aroma
composition. The content of aromatic substances in tender buds and leaves is higher
than that in mature leaves, and spring tea is richer is such components than summer tea.
Tea aroma is a mixture of volatile compounds, of which about 700 have been
identified so far. There are nearly 80 types of aroma compounds in fresh tea leaves
(accounting for 0.002% of the total dry weight), while tea products are enriched with
these compounds (accounting for 0.03-0.05% of the refined tea weight); there are more
than 260 types of these compounds in green tea, more than 400 types in black tea, and
even more in oolong tea. These data indicate that most aroma compounds in tea
products are formed during the manufacturing steps of the post-harvesting stage, which
constitutes an important stage for the improvement of tea quality, especially aroma
quality.
The aroma compounds that have been identified from fresh flush are mostly
hydrocarbons, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, esters, lactones, carboxylic acids, phenols,
oxygen-containing compounds, sulfur-containing compounds, and nitrogen-containing
compounds. Fatty alcohols have a high content in fresh tea leaves, such as cis-3-hexenol
with the odor of freshly cut grass. Aromatic alcohols, such as benzyl alcohol and
phenylethyl alcohol, provide the tea with a floral and fruity character. Terpene alcohols,
such as geraniol, nerol and so on, also have floral and fruity aroma. On the other hand,
aliphatic aldehydes, such as n-butyraldehyde and hexenal, have a strong pungent odor.
Most esters provide a fruity scent.

Polyphenols
Polyphenols are secondary metabolites of tea trees and constitute a major
proportion of the dry weight of tea flush at 18-36%. The polyphenol content is higher
in the summer season and in large-leaved varieties compared to the spring season and
small-leaved varieties.
The polyphenols in tea mainly include the following four groups of
compounds: flavanols, flavones, anthocyanidins, and phenolic acids. Among these,
flavonols (mainly catechins) are the most important for tea quality, with 60-80% of the
total amount of polyphenols in tea flush. The most abundant type of catechins present
in tea flush is epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), which accounts for 50% of the total
29
catechin content. Catechins are water-soluble, colorless compounds that undergo
enzymatic oxidation to products that are closely associated with the characteristic color
and taste of the tea infusion. These compounds are considered to contribute to
astringency in green tea.

Amino Acids
Tea flush contains 26 kinds of free-form amino acids, which account for 2-4%
in dry weight. The most abundant amino acid is theanine, which is apparently unique to
tea and found at levels of more than 50% of the free-form amino acids. High levels of
amino acids in tea flush are related to the taste of green tea and the aroma of black tea.
The amino acid content decreases with the increase in the polyphenol content in flush.
This is why high-quality green tea is made from more tender flush, which features
higher amino acid content and lower polyphenol content. Therefore, a higher amino
acid: polyphenol ratio represents a better quality of green tea. In recent years, China has
cultivated many high-amino-acid tea tree varieties suitable for making green tea, such as
Anji Baicha, with an amino acid content of up to 8%. The level of free amino acids
increase during tea processing. Because of the increased activity of proteolytic enzyme,
proteins are hydrolyzed with the concurrent increase of free-form amino acids.

Enzymes
Enzymes are a kind of special proteins in the cell matrix, which exert biological
activity and are a catalyst for chemical reactions in living organisms. Polyphenol oxidase
(PPO), catalase (CAT), peroxidase (POD), amylolytic enzyme, and protease are the main
enzymes in tea flush. PPO can catalyze the oxidation of tea polyphenols into colored
tea pigments such as theaflavins and thearubigins, which contribute to the color of
black tea "red leaves, red liquor". Amylolytic enzymes can hydrolyze starch into soluble
sugars, and proteases can promote protein hydrolysis to amino acids, and these
biochemical reactions can increase the water-soluble components of tea and improve its
flavor and aroma.

Carbohydrates
The content of carbohydrates (also called saccharides) in tea flush is 20-30% in
dry weight. Monosaccharides (e.g., glucose and fructose) and disaccharides (e.g.,
sucrose) are relatively small molecules, often called free sugars. Other carbohydrates
have large molecules (polysaccharides such as starch and cellulose). The free sugar
content in tea flush is 3-5% in dry weight, and this changes under different conditions.
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Sucrose is the major primary product of photosynthesis under natural conditions,
constituting more than 50% of the total free sugar content. Both monosaccharides and
disaccharides are soluble in water and provide sweet flavor, thus are important for the
concentration and flavor of tea infusion. The cellulose content is negatively correlated
with the tenderness of the tea flush: the more tender the raw material, the lower the
cellulose content, and also the higher the quality of finished tea product. During tea
processing, saccharides can interact with amino acids to produce chestnut, caramel and
other sweet aromas, which all have positive effects on the tea quality.

Pigments
Chlorophyll and carotenoids are the main pigments present in fresh tea flush.
The amount of chlorophyll in tea leaves is about 0.2-0.6% in dry weight. In general, tea
flush with higher chlorophyll content is suitable for green tea. The amount of
chlorophyll decreases during warm and humid conditions (such as the black tea
fermentation step) and it is degraded into pheophytins, which have brown color.
Carotene and lutein are the most important components among 15 kinds of
carotenoids in tea flush. The mature leaves contain more carotenoids than younger
leaves; carotenoids play an important role in the formation of black tea quality and act
as the precursors of black tea aromas.

Alkaloids
Tea is a mild stimulant, mainly because of the presence of alkaloids. The
alkaloids in tea flush are caffeine, theobromine and theophylline, among which caffeine
is more abundant (2-4% in dry weight). The caffeine content is not significantly reduced
during tea processing, although it may decrease during the drying process. The terminal
bud contains the highest concentration of caffein; as the leaf develops and matures, its
caffeine content declines. Fine-plucked tea will therefore produce a tea with higher
caffeine content than coarse-plucked tea. The caffeine contained in large-sized leaf
varieties, summer tea flush, and shaded tea plantation is higher than that in small-sized
leaf varieties, spring tea flush and natural cultivated tea plantation.

Vitamins
Tea flush is rich in vitamins, especially water-soluble vitamin C, the content of which is
greater in tea flush than in matured leaves, but smaller in shaded than unshaded flush.
Vitamin C easily degrades in the process of fermentation due to its strong reducibility,
thereby its content in oolong tea and black tea is less than that in green tea and white
31
tea. The significance of the remaining vitamin C content lies in its solubility in water, as
it is extracted into the infusion during the process of brewing.

Minerals
The total ash content of tea is around 5% of the dry matter. Tender flush
contains more potassium and phosphorus, but less calcium and magnesium than mature
leaves. Tea tree is a plant with a concentration of fluorine and aluminium; the fluorine
content in mature leaves is higher than that in young shoots. The aluminium content in
tea flush is much higher than that in other crops; however, only some of this aluminium
is extracted into the infusion due to its low extraction rate.

9. Manufacture
All kinds of tea are comprised of leaves from the same harvest; they differ only
with regard to their method of manufacture. Given the substantial differences in the
flavors and characteristics between different types of tea, certain varieties containing
specific chemicals or from particular areas have long been considered to have exclusive
suitability for the production of a specific kind of tea. For instance, the Zijuan varieties
from Yunnan province contain higher levels of polyphenols (25%) but feature a lower
amino acid content (2.5%) than the majority of other varieties (15%–18% polyphenols
and 4%–6% amino acids), thus perform well in black tea manufacturing. Meanwhile,
Baiye 1, an optimal variety for green tea production, has a very high amino acid content
(6.3%) and low polyphenol levels (13.7%), hence this variety is highly suitable for
producing Anji Baicha.
The industrialization and standardization of tea-making techniques are topics
that arefrequently discussed in China. The methods of manufacture can still vary greatly
not only from province to province, but also from region to region, and quite
commonly even from grower to grower within the same village. In tea making, the final
tea products much depend on whether traditional values are upheld or innovations are
applied. Nonetheless, regardless of the selected method, the essential principles remain
the same.

Principles of Tea Manufacture

In the process of manufacture, a series of changes occur and new compounds
form. Generally speaking, there are two steps involved in tea processing: primary and
refined. The color, aroma, flavor, and appearance of tea are mainly formed during
primary processing, which plays a key role in the development of tea quality.The
32
classification of Chinese tea is based on the degree of oxidation of polyphenols in tea
flush. Up to now, there are six types of teas:green, yellow, dark, white, oolong, and black
tea.

Removal of Moisture
All tea manufacture processinvolvesthe reduction of water content from 75-
78% in tea flush to 6% in the refined tea product. In the step of withering, moisture
evaporates through the stomata and cuticle. Because of a thinner cuticle, the water loss
is faster from tender flush than that from mature leaves. For example, the water loss
rate from one bud and one leaf is about twice as high as that from one bud and two
leaves, and about three times as fast as that from one bud and three leaves. Water
evaporation is a physical process in the step of drying. Water loss occurs more quickly
fromthe leaf surface layer and mesophyll than that from leaf vein and stems. In China,
the twice-drying method is generally used: the first drying step is followed by a period
of cooling, which is a process of moisture redistribution, followed bya second drying
step.

Activation or Inactivation of Enzyme

Temperature has a great influence on enzyme activity. Different enzymes in tea
leaves have different responses to temperature. The activity of polyphenol oxidase
increases in the range of 15-55 (59-131°F), and inactivation occurs when the
temperature reaches 65 (149°F). Meanwhile, the activity of peroxidase increases along
with the rise in temperature in the range of 15-25 (59-77°F), and it decreases when
the temperature is higher than 35 (95°F). Therefore, it can be concluded that the
fixing step of green tea and oolong tea finishes only when the leaf temperature rises
above 65 (149°F), and the fermentation of black tea should take place at the
temperature of about 35 (95°F). In addition, the enzyme activity in tender shoots is
higher than that in mature shoots, so the temperature should be fixed at a higher value
for tender shoots for longer.

Squeezing of Leaf Cells

All teas except white tea undergo the rolling and kneading process, which is
performed to break the leaf cell wall and squeeze out the leaf sap. On the one hand, it
mixes chemical components to form the tea’s unique flavor and aroma. On the other
hand, leaf sap remains on the leaf surface, so that flavor compounds can be extracted in
higher amounts and more rapidly while brewing.
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Green Tea Manufacture

Table 1.2 Major Changes During Each Processing Step

Processing step Chemical or physical changes

Withering Moisture removal

Emission of grassy odor and transformation of flowery

aroma
Tossing Hydrolysis
Transformation of flowery aroma
Fixing Moisture removal
Inactivation of enzyme

Accelerating the emission of grassy odor

Rolling Break leaf cells and liberate leaf juice to the surface

Shape­making
Fermentation Formation of theaflavins and thearubigins

Sealed yellowing non­enzymatic oxidation of polyphenols

Protein hydrolysis
Wet­piling Oxidation reactions take place

Drying Moisture removal

Transformation of aroma

As early as the Tang Dynasty (618-907 AD), Chinese people adopted steamed
fixing t remove freshly-cut grass-like odor from fresh tea leaves. Duringthe Song
Dynasty (960-1127 AD), pan-fixed green tea was developed. Nowadays, green tea is
produced and consumed in the greatest quantities in China.
Green tea is produced by steaming or pan-firing the leaves immediately after
harvesting, endogenous enzyme action is inhibited and components in the leaves are
basicallyleft unchanged in the product.Although there are no limitations on the
variationsin the green tea manufacturing process, growers prefer small-size or medium-
34
size leaf type cultivars. The tea quality is primarily determined by the choice of tea
variety, time of harvest, tea flush maturity, tea plantation practices, and manufacturing
method.The degree of tenderness of tea flush determines the quality of green tea, and
some famous high-quality green tea are made from one bud and one leaf, or even just
one bud. The general green tea making process should include the following steps: tea
flush-spreading out (or not)– fixing (pan-fixed or steam-fixed)– rolling– drying (in pan,
basket, machine or by sunlight).
In early spring, the tender tea flush is plucked by hand and delivered to tea
factories as soon as possible. On heavy harvest days, the plucked tea flush needs to be
thinly spread out in bamboo trays or directly on the ground indoors for several hours to
lose some water in order to improve tea quality.
The principle of primary processing of green tea is to use high temperature to
inactivate the polyphenol oxidase in fresh leaves, thus inhibit the enzymatic oxidation of
polyphenol compounds and avoid the tea leaves getting red. This process is called
"fixing (Shaqing)", which can preserve the green of fresh leaves and maintain the
characteristics of "clear infusion, green leaves”. According to fixing manner, green tea
can be subdivided into pan-fixed green tea and steam-fixed green tea. The pan-fixed
green tea is more common in China and the fixing temperature is usually higher than
180 (356°F). Enshi Yulu tea is a kind of steam-fixed green tea,witha usual fixing
temperature of 100 (212°F). Fixed leaves become soft and flaccid when the water
content reaches the level of 60%, whenthey are conveyed to be rolled.
After rolling, leaf cells are broken, leaf sap is liberated and rolled leaves show a
twisted shape. In China, tender leaves are generally rolled under light pressure for a
shorter time, but mature leaves are rolled under heavier pressure for longer and even
several times. A roll breaker is always used to loose the compressed tea mass for better
drying. The drying step is usually conducted two times, and the moisture content of the
final product (crude tea) should be less than 6%. Drying can be done in a pan, basket,
or under sunlight. Crude green tea is usually refined involving the steps of sifting,
cutting, grading, re-firing, polishing, blending, and packing.

Yellow Tea Manufacture

Yellow tea is historically unique to China, mainly produced in Sichuan, Anhui,
Hunan, and Zhejiang provinces. One of its varieties can be dated back to the mid-Tang
Dynasty in 618-907. The fresh leaves of yellow tea varieties have a yellow color and are
plucked from albino tea trees and processed with the same technology used for green
tea. Thus, yellow tea varieties use the name of yellow tea, but are usually categorized as
35
green tea to distinguish it from processed yellow tea, which we introduced here.
Processed yellow tea originates from the panfried green tea and was invented in 1570
A.D. during the Ming Dynasty. The elusive yellow teas developed occasionallyin low
number from green tea in areas that were already famous for producing green tea. They
are produced by using a unique procedure known as “sealed yellowing”, in which the
green colored fresh leaves turn into yellow, and the quality of the tea also changes. The
characteristics of yellow tea include three yellows: yellow dry tea, yellow infusion and
yellow brewed leaves.
Table 1.3 Classification of Green Tea
Fixing manner Drying manner Shape Tea Product
pan­fixed pan­dried twisted Chunmee
round Gunpowder tea

flat West Lake Longjing

needle Nanjing Yuhuacha
curled Biluochun
bake­dried twisted Huangshan Maofeng
flat Taiping Houkui
almond­like Lu’an Guapian
sun­dried twisted Raw materials for cooked pu­erh tea
compressed Tuocha
Steam­fixed bake­dried needle Enshi Yulu
twisted Chinese Sencha

According to the tenderness of fresh tea leaves, yellow tea can be classified into
three categories: yellow bud tea, yellow little tea and yellow big tea. Yellow bud tea is
prepared using only buds, yellow little tea is processed using one bud and one or two
leaves, and yellow big tea is manufactured with crude leaves and stems.
After harvesting, the fresh leaves are spread indoors on bamboo mats for about
5 hours. Appropriate withering will reduce water content to 5% in fresh leaves, increase
the concentration of amino acids, and decrease the ratio of polyphenols.
The aim of fixing is to eliminate the enzyme activity, promote the chemical
transformations of components, evaporate water and reduce the grassy taste. Compared
to green tea, yellow tea features more fresh leaves, lower temperature and longer fixing
36
time. The fixing method called “more sealing and less throwing” should be used to
control the processing temperature and completely deactivate the endogenous
polyphenol oxidase activity. A suitable temperature in this step is around 120 (248°F),
which is gradually decreased to 80 (176°F) in 4-5 minutes. At last, there is a weight loss
of almost 30%. During this process, heating to high temperature causes a series of
chemical reactions, such as the auto-oxidation and isomerization of polyphenols, the
partial hydroxylation of starch into simple sugars, the partial decomposition of proteins
into amino acids, and the reconstruction of chlorophyll.
“Sealed yellowing” is a key process to obtain the unique characteristics of
yellow tea. The main factors affecting “sealed yellow” are water content and
temperature. The higher the water content and leaf temperature, the faster the yellowing
process. The preparation of “Mengding yellow bud” tea by this procedure includes
three steps: primary packing, re-packing, and piling. In the first step, higher temperature
(40-55 ) (104-131°F) is needed, and the fixed leaves are packed and set aside for a
period of time. During the re-packing stage, the duration is 50-60 minutes at the
temperature of 30-50 (86-122°F). The last step of piling usually lasts for 24-36 hours
at the leaf temperature of 30-40 (86-104°F). The “sealed yellowing” duration of
different yellow teas can vary considerably because of the different water content. For
“Weishan Maojian”, “Yuan’an Luyuan” tea, and “Dayeqing”, the “sealed yellowing”
duration is between 5 and 6 hours. The whole process of “sealed yellowing” of
“Junshan Yinzhen” and “Mengding yellow bud” tea usually lasts for 2-3 days. If the
“sealed yellowing” duration is insufficient, the tea infusion and brewed leaves can
become blue-yellow, and the taste will be thick and astringent. However, excessive
“sealed yellowing” could pose negative influences on the quality of yellow tea by
causing the tea infusion to become dark yellow.
During “sealed yellowing”, a series of chemical reactions occur because of the
heating and microbial effects. Studies showed that fungi develop early in the process,
followed by a gradual decrease in the number of bacteria, and finally an increase in yeast
towards the end of the process. These microorganisms provide a variety of extracellular
enzymes to decompose macromolecules, such as carbohydrates and crude lipase,
resulting in many health benefits, desirable aroma, color and taste of the yellow tea.
Those changes are responsible for the special sensory characteristics of mellowflavor
and bright yellow color of yellow tea.
For yellow tea, the drying procedure alternates with “sealed yellowing”. Two different
drying methods are used: baked drying and fried drying. The temperature is usually
around at 50 (122°F) for yellow bud tea and 120 (248°F) for yellow big tea. The heat
37
energy in this step does not only evaporate the water, but also forms a series of
components that contribute to the taste and aroma of yellow tea under hot and humid
conditions.
Table 1.4 Classification of Yellow Tea
Tenderness of Tea Flush Tea Products
yellow bud tea (bud) Mengding Yellow Bud, Junshan Yinzhen,
Huoshan Yellow Bud, Mogan Yellow Bud
yellow little tea Weishan Maojian, Beigang Maojian,
(one bud and one or two leaves) Pingyang Yellow Liquid, Yuan’an Luyuan
yellow big tea Wanxi Yellow Big Tea, Dayeqing
(one bud and four or five leaves)

Dark Tea Manufacture

Dark tea is a unique type of tea in China, which was named after the black
appearance of finished tea products. It is fermented by a symbiotic association of
bacteria and fungi. In China, it is usually called ‘Border-Sale Tea, as tea is literally sold
on borders after commonly compressed into forms of bricks in western minority areas
of China. The original dark tea was formed "in the cabin, on the horse’s back” during
transportation. During the Tang and Song Dynasties, steamed green tea was produced
in large quantities. Owing to the exposure to wind, rain and heat along the road, the tea
underwent chemical changes under elevated temperature and moisture, and gradually
reached a quality that is completely different from that of green tea. The volume
production and sales of dark tea in the world is ranked just below black tea and green
tea.
Dark tea is mostly produced in Hunan, Hubei, Yunnan, Guangxi, and Sichuan
provinces. The raw materials for making dark tea and drinking habits vary
geographically, leading to unique product forms and quality characteristics among
places. Dark tea requires tea flush that has high maturity and is older than green tea and
black tea. During its processing, there is a special step called “wet-piling” after fixing
and twisting. The stimulating and astringent substances such as flavonoids, polyphenols
and alkaloids in tea undergo oxidative polymerization and hydrolysis, which makes the
dark tea mellow, lack astringency, and become enriched with special aromas such as
aged-aroma and fungus flower aroma. The infusion color is yellow orange or red
orange, and the brewed leaves are soft.
Dark tea processing is divided into fixing, twisting, wet-piling, and drying steps,
among which wet-piling is the key process for the formation of dark tea characteristics.
38
Because the fermentation process is performed after fixing, dark tea is also known as
“post-fermentation tea”, and because the fermentation process requires
microorganisms, it is referred to as “microbial fermentation of tea”.

Fixing
The fixing principle of dark tea is very similar to that of green tea, as both of
them use high temperature to inhibit enzyme activity. However, because the plucked tea
flush of dark tea is relatively older and features lower water content, it is necessary to
spray some water on the fresh leaves before fixing, which is conducive to even and
thorough fixing.There are two fixing methods: manual fixing and mechanical fixing. The
mature fresh tea leaves lead to a high cellulose content and a thick cuticle, hence high
temperature and quick stir-fry are used for fixing. For manual fixing, iron pans with a
diameter of 80-90 cm are commonly used. The pan temperature is generally 280-320
(536-608°F), the killing time is 2 minutes, and 4-5 kg of fresh tea leaves are used each
time. At present, the roller fixing machine is commonly used, and the operation method
and fixing degree are similar to green tea.

Rolling
Two procedures are involved in the twisting process: initial twisting and re-
twisting. Initial twisting is carried out when tea leaves are still warm after fixing, which
makes the leaves form into a rudimentary strip shape, and the tea sap is squeezed out of
the cells. Re-twisting constitutes curling the tea strips tightly again after wet-piling.

Wet-piling
Wet-piling is a unique and key process in the primary processing of dark tea.
The site of piling should be under a room temperature of above 25 (77°F)and a
relative humidity of about 85%. The preliminary twisted tea dhool should be
immediately piled up to a height of 70-100 cm and covered with a wet cloth to preserve
moisture and heat.The tightness, water content, temperature, and oxygen supply
condition are all factors affecting wetpiling. The key parameters for the appropriate
degree of fermentation are a temperature of about 45 (113°F)and leaves that are
yellowish brown in color with distiller’s grain scent. If the leaves are yellow green in
color and have a rough smell, this means that the piling is insufficient. If the leaves are
colored dark and have a strong sour smell, it indicates excessive piling.
The enzyme activity has been inactivated after fixing, but under a specific level
of humidity and heat, the oxidation of polyphenols still continues as non-enzymatic
39
automatic oxidation. As a result of this process, dark tea flavor turns into pure and
mild. At the same time, sugars decompose into alcohols and organic acids. The smell of
vinasse is a sign of moderate piling.The pile fermentation of dark tea makes large-
molecule compounds in tea decomposeinto small-molecule compounds, which is
helpful for the tea quality through metabolic processes under the participation of useful
microbes, and makes the tea taste mellow and produce deep color liquor.

Drying
The drying methods of dark tea mainly include sun drying and fire drying. Sun drying
is a traditional method that applies sunlight to remove moisture, resulting in a water content of
about 13%. Fire drying refers to the application of pine wood during primary processing,
leading to a final water content of about 10% and the attribution of a characteristic pine odor
to dark tea. Drying dark tea by smoke-baking with pine wood can further improve the quality
of tea, and make tea products high in aromas, mellow in taste and deep red in liquor
color.Different dark tea producing areas have different raw materials and processing
technologies, which leads to differences in the quality characteristics.
Table 1.5 Classification of Dark Tea
Place of Origin Sahape Tea Prodaucts

Hunan Dark Tea basket­wrapped loose tea Tianjian, Gongjian, Shengjian

basket­wrapped compressed tea Qianliang Tea

brick shape Fuzhuan Tea, Heizhuan Tea,

Huazhuan Tea
Sichuan Dark Tea brick shape Jinjian, Kangzhuan, Fuzhuan,
Fangbao
Yunnan Dark Tea twisted Pu­erh Tea
flat round cake shape Seven­son Cake Tea
bowl shape Tuocha
brick shape Pu­erh Fangcha
Guangxi Dark Tea basket­wrapped loose tea Liubao Tea
Hubei Dark Tea brick shape Laoqingzhuan Tea
Shanxi Dark Tea brick shape Jingwei Fuzhuan Tea

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Compressed Tea
In China, compressed dark tea is divided intoTuocha,Chocolate dark tea, Brick dark tea,
and Cakedark tea according to shape. Brick dark tea, also known as border-sale tea, is a
kind of brick-form tea made from older, coarse and rough leaves and branches. Brick
dark tea is produced in Shanxi, Hubei, Hunan, Sichuan, Yunnan provinces, and is
considered as a highly valued product in border areas.
Brick dark tea products can be subdivided into Heizhuan tea, Huazhuan tea,
Fuzhuan tea, Qingzhuan tea, Kangzhuan tea, and Pu-erh brick tea. The steps of making
compressed dark tea include: softeningthe raw material by steaming, piling, bricking-
pressing, and drying. Especially, Fuzhuan tea is a result of a unique process before
drying: fungal fermentation. In this stage, many fungi such as Eurotium spp. and
Aspergillus spp. are cultivated in raw brick tea. When the fungal fermentation is
complete, the surface of Fuzhuan tea is covered by “golden flora”—beneficial fungi.

White TeaManufacture
White tea is the most delicate tea because it is subject to minimal processing.
Traditionally, white tea is neither rolled nor fried, so it is essentially non-oxidized, hence
it is the least processed kind of tea. There are many kinds of white tea depending on
the different plucking criteria, and these are mainly Bai Hao Yin Zhen (Silver Needle),
Bai Mudan (White Peony), and Shou Mei (Long-life Eyebrow). White tea is mostly
produced in Fuding, Zhenghe, Jianyang, and Songxi of Fujian Province in China,
accounting for more than 96% of the annual world production of white tea. Nowadays,
many countries and areas outside China cultivate their own versions of white tea using
other tea plant varieties.
White tea was first recorded by Emperor Song Huizong during the Song
Dynasty, dated around 1105 AD. Bai Hao Yin Zhen was very rare during the reign of
Emperor Jiaqing during the Qing Dynasty and made only from the small buds of the
local variety of tea tree in the area around Taimushan
Mountain in Fuding. White tea was first commercially produced from the white
tea plant Fuding Dabaicha variety discovered in Fuding around 1857. The buds of this
tea tree are much larger than the original variety, and have a relatively thicker covering
of pekoe (downy bud tips) and a much stronger flavor and fragrance. The manufacture
of white tea includes only two steps: withering and drying. It seems very simple but
actually has strict requirements regarding raw materials and processing technology.

41
Tea Flush
Tea flush can be harvested in spring, summer and autumn; however, that obtained
during the spring season is the best. Different kinds of white tea have different plucking
standards. Bai Hao Yin Zhen is only single-bud, Bai Mudan is mainly plucked as one
bud and one leaf or one bud and two leaves, Gong Mei is required to have one bud and
two leaves or one bud and three leaves, and ShouMei basically does not contain buds.
The tea leaves will begin to wilt soon after picking, with a gradual onset of enzymatic
oxidation.

Withering
Withering is a key step in white tea processing, which removesmoisture from
the leaves and allows for a very slight amount of oxidation. This step may be allowed to
take place under the sun or indoors depending on the weather conditions during the tea
season. Tea masters have to constantly keep monitoring the light, humidity, temperature
and air-flow to achieve high quality. The typical color of white tea, leaf shape and sweet
fragrance of the silvery hair that covers the young leaves and buds is actually created
during this step.Nowadays, to boost supply and hasten production, the withering of
white tea is performed mechanically in factories.
During withering, the moisture content in tea leaves is reduced and the leaves
become flaccid and pliable. Chemical changes occur inside the leaves, chlorophyll in
the leaf begins to degrade, caffeine levels slowly rise, flavor and aroma volatiles
develop, and the grassy aroma dissipates. The leaves also begin to break down their
stored carbohydrates as an energy source. The loss of moisture also causes the cell
walls to break down. The temperature increases with the respiration of tea leaves and
activates polyphenol oxidase and peroxidase — triggering a process known as
oxidation. All of the above changes contribute to the characteristics of white tea.
In general, the longer the wither endures, the more new aroma and flavor
compounds develop in the leaves. A sign of moderate withering is that the leaf color
turns dark green or gray green, the leaf margin shows dry shrinkage or is curled up,
and the tip of the bud is lifted. At this time, the water content is 8-10%. In fact, many
tea masters use their sense of smell and touch to determine the completion of the
withering process. The manufacture of quality white tea is strongly influenced by the
weather conditions. Appropriate environmental temperature is the most important
factor, and it is of the major reasons for the rarity and high cost of white tea. An
experienced tea master can make adjustments to the steps of withering and drying by
adjusting environmental humidity and temperature. If the temperature is too hot
while withering, the white tea leaves will turn reddish.

42
Drying
The final step of white tea processing is drying. Baking has to be performeda
reasonable number of times so that the moisture content will reduce to as low as 6%.
By baking at relative high temperature, the oxidation is terminated, and the
isomerization of catechin will reduce the astringency of tea infusion. A sign of
moderate baking is that the hand-twisted leaves are powdered, and the stems are easily
broken.
Compressed white tea is the result of a relatively new style of processing. The
traditional white tea is coarse and loose, which is inconvenient for transportation and
storage, so the compressed white tea has been developed. For compression, loose white
tea is always aged for at least one year. Then, the leaves are steamed to make them
pliable and pressed into cake-shape, brick-shape, and chocolate-like shape. Compressed
white teas are stored at about 40% humidity to slow down fermentation. These teas are
aged for several years to bring on a smooth finish to taste with pleasant woodsy, flowery,
and fruity aromas.
Compression has a great influence on the type and content of aroma
components. The characteristic fragrance types such as jujube and herbal fragrance are
more prominent after compressing, while aged loose tea retains more typical floral and
fruity aromas. The taste and aroma change in different compressed white teas can
considerably vary; Bai Mudan, Gongmei and Shoumei are more suitable for compressed
processing to enhance the quality, as compared with Bai Hao Yin Zhen.
There are about 50 kinds of main aroma components in white tea, including
leaf alcohols, benzaldehyde, benzyl alcohol, or linalool and its oxides. The aroma
components of Bai Hao Yin Zhen and Bai Mudan are similar, whilst both of them are
rich in alcohols with a floral aroma. Shoumei contains more aldehydes, ketones, esters,
and lactones, including ionone, dihydroactinidiolide, and methyl salicylate. Furthermore,
the characteristic aroma components in different grades of white tea are also different;
the characteristic aroma components of Bai Hao Yin Zhenare phenylethyl alcohol, cis-
jasmone, etc.; for Bai Mudan, these areβ-cedarene, β-elemene, etc; and for Shoumei,
they are nerylacetone and ionone.

Oolong Tea Manufacture

Oolong, which comes from the Chinese word Wulong, literally means black
dragon and symbolizes authority and nobility. Oolong tea represents only 2% of the
world’s tea, but it is truly worth discovering.It is a unique traditional Chinese tea with a
flavor and color that is somewhere between green tea and black tea. A Chinese legend
43
 Table 1.6 Classification of White Tea
Classification Tea Products
plucking criteria Bai Hao Yin Zhen, Bai Mudan, Shoumei
cultivar Dabai, Dahao, Shuixian Bai, Xiaobai, Gongmei
manufacturing method Traditional White Tea, New­craft White Tea
place of origin Fuding White Tea, Zhenghe White Tea, Songxi White Tea
shape Loose White tea, Compressed White Tea

about the origin of the name of oolong tea implies that the particular manufacturing
method is important for the aroma quality. As the legend goes, a tea farmer and
hunterhunted a roe deer on the way home after plucking tea leaves. During the chase,
the tea leaves in the basket were continuously bruised. The farmer and his family
noticed that the wounded leaves continuously emitted bursts of fragrance after storage
overnight, and the tea made from the leaves was more fragrant than other teas. The
legend implies a close relationship between oolong tea aroma formation and stress,
which has long been incorporated into the special manufacturing process of oolong
tea.
In theory, fresh tea leaves can be processed into any type of tea. In practice,
however, the tea cultivar strongly affects the quality of oolong tea. That is, it is difficult
to make high-quality oolong tea from leaves of an unsuitable cultivar; specific attributes
of tea cultivars play decisive roles in the quality of oolong tea aroma. On most
occasions, tea cultivars are specially bred for the purpose of oolong tea
manufacture.Such famous and excellent varieties in Fujian include Dahongpao,
Tieluohan, Baijiguan, Shuijingui, Bantianyao, Wuyi Bai Mudan, Rougui, Shuixian,
Beidou, Bairuixiang, Jinsuoshi, Qizhong, Tieguanyin, Huangjingui, Maoxie, etc. The fine
varieties of Guangdong Province include Dongfang Hong (Oriental Red), Mi Lan Xiang
(Honey orchid scented Dancong), Yu Lan Xiang (Mangnolia scented Dancong), Gui
Hua Xiang (Osmanthus scented Dancong), and so on. The oolong tea variety resources
and manufacturing techniques in Taiwan are the same as in Fujian, with famous varieties
including Qingxin Oolong, Shuixian, Foshou, Daye Oolong, Meizhan, and Hongxin
Oolong.
During the oolong tea manufacturing process, gradual dehydration and
moderate bruising clarifies and intensifies a special flavor.The steps of this process for
partly fermented tea include withering, several rounds of shaking and setting
(fermentation or oxidation), fixation, rolling, and drying. Fermentation is the most
important stage to obtain quality oolong tea. In this process, catechin monomers are
44
polymerized to form theaflavins, thearubigins, or further compounds through oxidation.
These chemical components contribute to the color and taste of oolong tea.The quality
characteristics of oolong tea include thick and twisted or round shape, lustrous color,
natural floral and fruity aroma, mellow and sweet flavor; the brewed tea leaves should
have "reddish edge and green center”.

Tea Flush
Apart from the cultivar, the plant anatomy also affects the quality of oolong
tea. For example, mature leaves, stems and trichomes all have different contributions to
tea quality. First, the raw material for processing is carefully harvested. Usually, fully
matured shoots (a dormant banjhi bud with 2-3 leaves) are plucked from 9 am to 4 pm.
If the leaves are too tender, all the leaves will turn red after withering and rotating, but
if the leaves are too mature, the processed oolong tea will be loose in appearance and
lack aroma and taste. Interestingly, the stem is believed to make a strong contribution to
the aroma of oolong tea. Harvesting a combination of leaves and stems also improves
plucking efficiency and increases the utilization ratio of raw materials, conferring a
certain economic value to oolong tea.

Withering
The next step of making oolong tea comprises withering the fresh tea leaves,
which is mostly done in the open air under sunlight. Thus, sunny and windy weather is
favorable for withering. The tea leaves are spread on bamboo mats and are exposed to
sunlight for about one hour. After turning several times, the leaves suffer a total
moisture loss of 10-20% and become soft, then they are moved indoors for next step.
In addition to the moisture loss, the UV radiation from sunlight promotes the gene
expression of intracellular hydrolytic enzymes to an even greater extent.

Tossing
Tossing, also known as “zuoqing” in China, is a unique step for oolong tea
manufacturing. Most famous oolong teas are tossed by hand using a bamboo tray. This
process is executed indoors at a temperature of 18-26 (64-79°F) and a relatively
humidity of 65-80%. The leaves are tossed several times at set intervals. This causes
damage to leaf edges and initiates fermentation. During the tossing treatment of tea
leaves, aroma compounds develop: terpene alcohols, lactones and ketones.On the basis
of aroma changes, the tea master can precisely adjust the time of tossing and setting
treatments. The color substances in oolong tea infusion are theaflavins and thearubgins,
45
which are the oxidative products of polyphenols.

Fixing
The aim of high temperature (180-220 ) (356-428°F) during fixing is to stop
the fermentation at the leaf edge and inactivate the enzymes in the central green part.
Moreover, fixing can evaporate some moisture and soften the leaves, which is conducive
to rolling.

Rolling
Most oolong teas are rolled using a rolling mill. The cell breakage degree depends on
the applied pressure. Minbei oolong tea is rolled two times, whereas Minnan oolong tea
is rolled 3-7 times.

Drying
Drying is usually performed in two stages. First, leaves are spread thinly on the drying
machine and dried quickly at high temperature. Then, after several hours of cooling, a
second drying step is applied at lower temperature and for a longer period.

Table 1.7 Classification of Oolong Tea

Classification Tea Products

Minbei Oolong Dahongpao, Shuixian, Rougui, Shuijinggui, Tieluohan,

Bairuixiang, Bantianyao, Baijiguan

Minnan Oolong Tieguanyin, Benshan, Huangjingui,

Guangdong Oolong Fenghuang Dancong, Fenghuang Shuixian

Taiwan Oolong Wenshan Baozhong, Dongding Oolong, Baihao Oolong,

Dongfang Meiren

Black Tea Manufacture

Black tea, known to the Chinese people as “red tea”, is a fully fermented type
of tea. It was developed at the beginning of the 16th century in Wuxi (Bohea)
mountains, the Fujian Province of China. The first black tea was called Zhengshan
Xiaozhong (Lapsang Souchong), the withering of which was promoted indoors by pine
tree smoking. Gongfu (Congou) black tea manufacture was created in Fujian Province
on the basis of Xiaozhong black tea in 1850 AD. Nowadays, Gongfu black teas are
46
produced in Fujian Province, Anhui Province, Hubei Province, Henan Province, and
Yunnan Province.
There are three kinds of black tea produced in China, namely, Xiaozhong black
tea, Gongfu black tea, and CTC (crushing, tearing, and curling) black tea. The latter is
consumed all over the world, although Gongfu black tea is the most popular one in
China. “Gongfu” is a reference to the patience, skill and time required for its
manufacturing and brewing process. Traditionally, the tea flush for making Gongfu
black tea is produced by the manual plucking of whole buds and leaves. After a lot of
delicate hand processing, higher-quality Gongfu black tea is dried over charcoal.

Withering
The first step in the processing of black tea involves the withering of tea flush.
Upon arrival in the factory, the tea flush is spread as a 15cm deep layer on bamboo
trays, or troughs are left to wither indoors under controlled ventilation with the aid of
warm-air fans. The leaves are left for 12 hours at the temperature of 20-25 (68-
77°F)and turned every 2 hours. There are two aspects of change taking place during
withering, one being physical and the other is chemical. The physical change constitutes
loss of moisture from the tea flush, leading to changes in cell membrane permeability.
The average water content of withered leaves reduces to about 65%.

Rolling
Subsequently, the withered leaves are processed by an Orthodox roller. The aim
of rolling is to break leaf cells and release PPO and POD, and initiate the process of
polyphenol oxidation underexposure to air. The enzyme activities are enhanced by
providing suitable conditions such as temperature and oxygen supply.

Fermentation
The broken tea leaves are transferred to the fermentation room and then
undergo the most complex chemical changes during manufacture. The atmosphere
for fermentation is at 30-35 (86-95°F) and >95% humidity. The fermentation time
dependson the tea variety, tenderness of tea flush, particle size of broken tea leaves,
and fermentation conditions. PPO is the key enzyme responsible for the formation of
theaflavins and thearubigins from catechins. Theaflavins, which are golden in color,
were adopted as a monitoring parameter in the evaluation of black tea quality.
Theaflavins are more abundant in finer black tea than in lower grades.
Therefore, when golden shades are observed in black tea infusion, it is considered a
far better one than those with only hues of red.

47
Drying
When optimum fermentation is achieved, the drying process inactivates the
enzyme and can reduce the water content of fermented leaves. The correct time is very
important, because longer or shorter drying time will cause the deterioration of black
tea quality. Many flavors and aromas are formed during drying,when the moisture is
reduced to less than 6%.
Table 1.8 Classification of Black Tea

Processing Methods Tea Products

Xiaozhong black tea Zhengshan Xiaozhong, Yan Xiaozhong

Gongfu black tea Jinjunmei, Tanyang Gongfu, Zhenghe Gongfu, Qimen

black tea, Dianhong, Xinyanghong
CTC black tea Yunnan CTC black tea, Hainan CTC black tea

10. StoringTea
Do you have to worry about how and where to store tea? Yes. Most types of
tea are not drunk straight off the shelf and actually need to be kept in storage; certain
kinds of tea are even suitable for long-term storage. Tea is fairly absorbent of aromas,
so if poorly stored it will often have a quite noticeable “off ” aroma. Instead, tea should
have a pleasant aromatic fragrance. Tea is like a sponge and tends to soak up moisture
and flavors from the environment. Many chemical changes due to enzymatic and non-
enzymatic or other oxidative reactions may occur and cause the deterioration of quality,
especially in terms of aroma. The tea flavor characteristics depend mainly on the
contents of secondary metabolites, such as amino acids, catechins and caffeine. For
instance, free amino acids infused in tea liquor, especially L-theanine, are known as the
principal contributors to the taste of umami. Catechins and theaflavins are primarily
responsible for the astringent taste of tea infusion. Caffeine tastes unpleasantly bitter;
however, its bitterness diminishes in the presence of catechins and theaflavins. In
addition, the majority of chlorophyll is fully preserved in green tea and white tea, and is
partly preserved in oolong tea, resulting in the characteristic colors of these three kinds
of tea.
Famous high-quality tea is one of the most affordable luxuries in China. Tea
goes through many steps to reach the moment one takesthe first sip, such asthe
plucking of tender tea shoots by hand, careful processing, refining, packing, and
storage. If onebuys a certain kind of tea for everyday drinking (or even for keeping for
48
a few months), common sense dictates to place it somewhere cool and dark. However,
for an enthusiast witha determination to collect tea, there are some very important
factors to consider. The factors causing tea deterioration are humidity, air, heat, and
light. When the moisture content in tea is less than 6%, microorganisms cannot
reproduce and chemical reactions cause slow changes. On the other hand, the oxidation
of polyphenols and vitamins due to air exposure will result in a bad quality for green
tea, yellow tea, and slightly fermented oolong tea. Higher temperatures increase the rate
of oxidation in tea, therefore, a bag of tea stored at relative high temperature will
gradually get “older” compared to the same tea stored at relative low temperature. All
teas are affected negatively by light. Regardless of type or manufacture technique, there
are some general rules for storing all kinds of tea.

General rules
• Organize and label your teas. An organized tea shelf helps to quickly
considerthe options and make choices based both on taste preferences and expiration
dates. The most sensible and common strategy to organize tea is by type. Arrange your
tea into categories such as green, yellow, dark, white, oolong, black, and herbal. When
you buy a new type of tea, make sure to label the container or bag with the purchase
date and harvest season if that information is available from the seller.
• Use a paper bag only for temporary storage. Suppliers sell tea in a wide variety
of bags in terms of quality. Checkthat packaging materials are food safe and opaque,
which avoids contamination by water, air, or grease. Tea should only be kept in a paper
bag for convenience if it is consumed in the next couple of months. Otherwise, make
sure to transfer the tea to a container if it is to be stored for several months.
• Choose an airtight container. After placing tea in a container, keep the lid on
as tightly as possible. Many loose leaf teas are sold in steel containers, so if your tea
came in one of those, continue to use it for storage. The less exposure loose tea has to
outside air, humidity and light, the better. Never store tea in plastic bags or containers.
Plastic absorbs odors and is generally translucent, leaving tea vulnerable to sources of
light. In addition, place oxygen and humidity absorber packets together with the tea to
help with long-term storage.
• Store tea in the right place. Store tea somewhere that is dark, dry and away
from foreign odors. Some articles with strong smell like soap and camphor cannot be
placed around tea. Fluctuations in temperature can damage loose leaf tea flavors, so
store it in a room that has consistent room temperature. For example, drawers and
cabinets are great for storage as long as they are away from heat sources. A drawer
49
offers a shallow space where you can place boxes and loose tea containers without
stacking them, making what you have on hand immediately available. A cabinet typically
has abundant space to stack and store tea containers as well as tea accessories. A drawer
is a good choice for anoccasional tea drinker. However, if you are a tea lover, a tea
cabinet is of superior choice and can be filled up with ease with some experience.

Storing green tea and yellow tea

Green tea and yellow tea belong to non-fermented teas, which contain
abundant catechins and other flavor compounds. Many factors may contribute to the
chemical changes to components contained in green and yellow tea, such as high
temperature, oxygen availability, the presence of light, as well as high level of moisture.
Consequently, tea tastes best within six months after processing.
Green tea and yellow tea should always be kept sealed in an airtight container
and/or in a pouch. If the tea is sealed in a pouch, one should make sure that there is as
little air as possible. However, vacuum-sealed foil bags with the longest shelf life but are
not appropriate for every tea. Loose long leaf tea can sometimes get crushed under a
vacuum condition. Hence, bags should be sealed after removing any excess air. For
famous high-quality green tea, it is necessary to store it in the refrigerator after being
sealed, which will extend the freshness of tender tea to about a year.

Storing oolong tea and black tea

While green tea and yellow tea have a determined shelf life, oolong tea and black
tea can be kept for longer periods of time. The stability of the latter two are also
influenced by storage conditions such as temperature, oxygen and relative
humidity.Therefore,one needs to be sure to store oolong tea and black tea in a way that
protects them from degradation. The aging process mellows the tea and makes flavors
richer. If these teas are stored well, it is possible to taste how aging changes teas over time.
Most aged oolong teas have been re-fired and reprocessed by original tea masters every
year. In addition, round-shape oolong teas are always stored in a vacuum package
preparedwith a dedicated machine, which extracts air out of the bags.

Storing white tea and dark tea

In general, the shelflife of most teas is up to 2 years. Beyond this period, even
if they are kept under the appropriate conditions, their quality will gradually degrade
over time. However, when it comes to white tea and dark tea, these are not true, as they
are entirely different.

50
 After the slow fermentation process during storage, white tea and dark tea will
become more complex over time. The longer they are stored, the richer and mellower
their taste. During storage, there are a series of changes taking place inside these tea
types, whichare valuable for both drinking and collecting. There is a saying about aged
white tea in China: “on-year tea, three-year medicine, seven-year treasure”. The annual
output of white teas is relatively low and high market demands make aged white teas
highlyprized. Dark tea belongs to post-fermented teasthat have to be piled up for a long
time. Unlike other teas thatbecome stale over time, dark tea can mellow and improve
with age like fine wine. Some dark teas are more than 50 years old and sell for many
thousands of dollars in China.
• For long-term storage, slow airflow is needed to encourage the further
transformation of the characteristicsof white or dark tea. If the tea is in a pouch, one
should just leave the pouch partially open, or transfer the tea to a ceramic jar.
• Tea is very sensitive, and it will absorb any smells it is exposed of, which
ultimately affects the flavor. Therefore, the storage environment should be clean
enough without any bad smells.
• For long-term storage, it is necessary to keep white tea and dark tea away
from extremely wet or dry conditions. Moist air will cause mold, whilst very dry air will
slow down the tea’s aging process.
• It is best to leave tea in its original form for long-term storage. When you
break a tea cake apart, put it in a jar, so that the leaves will be exposed to air for slow
oxidation, and the tea will be easily accessed on demand.
• Each kind oftea has its unique aroma and taste. Sometimes an acceptable
flavor in one kind of tea may be an off-flavor in another kind of tea. This off-flavor
differs from tea to tea because the characteristic flavor of different teas varies quite
extensively. White tea and dark tea should never be stored in the same bag or carton.
It can begratifying to store white tea or/and dark tea somewhere safe and
record its changes each year. After several years, one can get an idea of the tea’s gradual
transformation, which will help to understand tea aging in general.

11. BrewingTea
The tea ceremony in China is about tea brewing and serving, as well as
nurturing the body and soul, and purifying the mind.Tea brewing in China is an ancient
mixture of science and art, wherepure tea without added scents is generally used.

Tea Sets
51
 Different kinds of teaware renders many tastes of an infusion from the same
leaves, and each infusion brings a unique flavor. In the selectionof the perfect teaware,
make sure that it not only delights the eye, but is also practical. For example, select a
teapot with a “big belly”, so that the tea leaves have room to expand after water is
added.
Teaware is usually made from porcelain, clay, metal, or glass. In many places in
China, green tea is brewed in glass cups; it pleases the eye to watch the tea leaves
reopen. Gaiwan and Yixing purple clay teapot are essential vessels for brewing Gongfu
tea. Besides, the less ornamentation on the inside of the cup, the better the infusion
characteristics can be revealed.

Gaiwan
Gaiwan,which literally means “covered bowl”, is a classic Chinese tea set for
brewing tea. There are three parts of Gaiwan, including lid, bowl and saucer.It is made
from glazed ceramic or porcelain and can be used to brew any kind of tea. Gaiwan is
known as “universal tea set” in tea world. The greatest advantage is that it can control
the water temperature and brewing time.

Instructions for brewing tea in Gaiwan teaware

• Warm the teaware. Pre-warm the bowl, the tasting cup, and the fairness cup
by adding some boiled water, and then discard the water.
• Add tea. Fill the gaiwan to 20% full when using ball-rolled tea or compressed
tea; or 40% full when using twist-rolled tea.
• Brew tea. Add hot water to the tea leaves and place the lid on the bowl for
steeping. For oolong tea, dark tea and compressed tea, there is an additional important
step of tea awakening. For this, add boiled water to cover the tea, then discard the
rinsed infusion. Lift the lid to the nose and breath deeply, savoring this intoxicating
scent. After awakening, pour boiled water over the leaves and replace the lid to steep for
the recommended infusion time.
• Pour the infusion. Tilt the lid slightly to create an open space for the infusion
to decant. Hold the bowl using the thumb and middle finger on the rim, the index
finger on the top, and forward to decant into a fairness cup. The fairness cup is used for
an equal concentration of flavor between tasting cups.
• Serve the tea. Pour from the fairness cup into individual tasting cups.
• Enjoy and repeat. Sip from the tasting cup and repeat steeping for another
several times, while the steeping time needs extending for each subsequent infusion.
52
Yixing Purple Clay Teapot
Only those teapots made in Yixing city using locally mined Yixing clay can be
called Yixing purple clay teapots. The materials for Yixing purple clay teapots are
initially stone, which has to be grounded, and then aged for years in water to make the
clay. The finished stoneware is usually brown or red in color and is left unglazed.
Quality raw materials and workmanship are the guarantee for the quality and value of
a teapot.
Yixing teapots conduct heat slowly so that they can retain heat for longer, and
they do not burn the hand by touching. After firing, the Yixing teapot is porous
enough to “breathe”, hence it does not smother the aroma, and the low shrinkage rate
of clay makes a closely-fitting lid that heightens the brewing tea flavor. The Yixing
teapot enhances the tea brewed in it with respect to color, smell and taste. Not only
are the Yixing teapots excellent brewing vessels, but also beautiful and unique works
of art. To the Chinese tea connoisseur, they are the “ideal teapots”.
Yixing teapots are used for brewing black tea, oolong tea and aged dark tea,
butthey can also be used for compressed tea. They absorb a tiny amount of tea flavor
into the pores during brewing. For this reason, one pot should brew one type of tea, so
as not to corrupt the flavor that has been absorbed.
When a Yixing teapot is used for brewing Gongfu tea, a little more water
should be poured over the teapot and then the lid should be placed on the pot (one
needs to put a dish or tea tray under the teapot to collect water and prevent it
frompouring all over the table and floor.) This watery wash buffs the outside of the
teapot and helps to develop patina. The ideal teapot should have plenty of space in the
handle for the fingers, so one does not get burnt when the pot is full of hot water.
If you are not sure what teaware fits your tea, you can perform a test. Use the
same measurement of leaf to water and the same time to steep the same leaf in a
Gaiwan and a Yixing teapot. Compare tea the infusions and decide which one is better.

Brewing tea in a Yixing teapot

• Prepare sets. Pour some hot water to pre-warm the outside of teapot before
brewing to avoid cracking, especially in relatively low temperatures. Then, pour water
from the teapot into a fairness cup and tasting cups.
• Rinse the tea. Put it into the teapot and shake slightly to warm the leaves. Fill
the teapot with hot water until it is overflowing. Place the lid on the teapot and pour the
tea infusion immediately. This step is used to awake the tea, especially for oolong tea,
dark tea, and compressed tea.

53
 • Brew tea. Pour hot water into the teapot until it overflows again and then
replace the lid. The opened tea leaves should be left to brew for a while.
• Pour the infusion. Put teapot on a dried tea cloth, pour steeped infusion into a
fairness cup, and then pour into tasting cups from the fairness cup.
• Enjoy and repeat. Taste the tea infusion, smell the aroma, and comment on
the flavor. Add 5-10 seconds to each next steeping time.

Choice of brewing water

Ideally, tea should be made using the stream water where the tea was grown,
because the tea and the water should complement each other. Realistically, for most
usesof brewing tea, purified water, mineral water, mountain spring water, tap water, or
distilled water is usually used. There are significant differences in the yields and
concentrations of polyphenols, caffeine, copper, lead, and fluorine in tea extracts
prepared using tap water, activated carbon adsorbed water, deionised water, distilled
water, reverse osmosis water, or ultra-pure water.
The flavor, chemical compound concentration and antioxidant activity of tea
infusions have been found to be remarkably influenced by the mineral ion content and
pH value of the water used for brewing. The higher the mineral concentration in the
water, the lower the yield of extracted compounds in the infusion. Due to calcium
uptake by the tea leaves, calcium in the mineral water could form complexes with
pectins in cell walls and lead to a decrease in component extraction. The pH values of
different kinds of tea can vary greatly. After boiling, the water pH increases by almost
0.5, resulting from the release of water-dissolved carbon dioxide. Moreover, due to the
extraction of chemicals such as amino acids, tea polyphenols and organic acids, the pH
value of tea infusion is lower than that of the original water. A relatively low pH and
ion concentration is beneficial to preserve the taste of quality tea.
The sensory quality of a tea infusion is also influenced by the water source
containing different concentrations of mineral ions. In one study, the taste and visual
appearance (mainly based on turbidity) were found to be significantly inferior when the
Ca2+ concentration was over 40 mg/L in the brewing water. Increasing the Ca2+
concentration in water was found to weaken the bitter, umami and sweet tastes, and
strengthen the astringent taste of tea infusions prepared from green tea.
Compared to the taste of infusions prepared using purified water and mountain
spring water, tea infusions made using mineral water have reduced umami intensity and
increased astringency. Tap water and distilled water should never be used to steep high-
quality tea, because the chlorine content in tap water will deteriorate the infusion flavor,
54
and distilled water lacks air, which will lead to the tea infusion tasting flat.

Brewing a perfect cup of tea

The art of making and preparing tea is known as Chadao. It is a time-
consuming method, but its symbolism and ritualism demonstrates the important role of
tea in Chinese culture.
The brewing time depends on the type of tea. If one is unsureof the time, they
should check the package for instructions. If the infusion is too strong, reduce the
amount of tea or reduce the brewing time. If you really want to get the best of tea
brewing, it is worth getting familiar with the different stages of boiling water. Never boil
water for a long time, as it slowly loses carbon dioxide and makes the water less acidic.
This gives the brewed tea infusion a different color and flavor,which are not optimal.
Although cold infusion seems to be a promising technology to maximize the
potential health benefits, it requires long infusion times. To overcome this limitation, a
modification involves an infusion step with hot water followed by ice addition, which
replaces the slow exacting and cooling processes.

Table 1.9 Parameters for brewing tea

Tea Class Water Temperature Leaf/Water Ratio (w/w) Brewing Time (minutes)
Green tea 85­90°C (185­194°F) 1:50 2­3
Yellow tea 90­95°C (194­203°F) 1:50 2­3
Dark tea 95­100°C (203­212°F) 1:30­40 1­2
White tea 90­100°C (194­212°F) 1:25 1­2
Oolong tea 95­100°C (203­212°F) 1:20­30 1­2
Black tea 90­95°C (194­203°F) 1:50 2­3

Serving tea
Traditionally, serving tea was a sign of respect to someone with a higher rank in China.
Nowadays, it still serves special purposes, for example at a wedding where it is served by
the bride and groom to their parents to express their gratitude. In modern China, tea is
an important social tool. People go to tea houses by no means drink tea only, but for a
place to meet with people. So, if someone ask you out for a cup of tea, it is actually an
implicit way to invite you to a gathering.

55
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 Part 2 Teas in China

The Chinese people really, really love tea. Tea is enjoyed in the country during all
occasions: after waking up in the morning, to accompany meals, celebrate special
moments, as part of social interactions, and of course to quench the thirst. It is
therefore understandable that the activity people cannot go without when visiting
China, instead of a winery tour or a brewery visit, is a tea tour. The written history of
tea plantation and consumption in China reaches back to an era far earlier in history
than any other country.
China is the third biggest country in the world in terms of land surface; it has
vast territory, where cities in the northern and southern regions are divided by the
Qinling Mountains and the Huaihe River line. The geographical location, climate
characteristics, historical culture, political economy, and other aspects of the north and
south are quite different. The northern part of China is not suitable for tea cultivation,
due to the cold temperatures; therefore, tea plantations generally thrive in southern
provinces where the climate is humid, ranging from tropical to subtropical.
There are four tea growing regions in China, including Xinan, Jiangnan,
Huanan, and Jiangbei. The Xinan growing region is known as Southwestern China in
Yunnan, Guizhou and Sichuan, is the oldest tea region in China, where tea originates. It
has a relatively moderate and stable climate. The word “Jiang” means “river” and “nan”
means “south”. Thus, Jiangnan refers to the Southern area of Yangtze River, which is
consisted of Zhejiang, Jiangxi, Hunan and southern part of Jiangsu, Hubei and Anhui.
There are four distinctive seasons in this region, all with abundant rainfall. Huanan
means south of China; this is the most desirable region for tea trees growth owing to
the climate and soil. The region includes Guangdong, Guangxi, Fujian, Hainan and
Taiwan. Jiangbei refers to the Northern area of the Yangtze river, this region including
Shandong, Gansu, Shaanxi, Henan and the northern parts of Jiangsu, Hubei, an Anhui.

1. Southwestern Tea Region: Yunnan

Yunnan, a mountain and plateau region on China’s southwestern frontier, is the
most diverse province in the country, both in terms of the extraordinary variety of
peoples and in the splendor of its landscapes. The combination of superlative sights
and many different ethnic group has made Yunnan the trendiest destination for the
considerable growth in exploding domestic tourist industry. The province contains
snow-capped mountains and tropical environments, thus supporting an unusually wide
range of species and vegetation types.
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 Yunnan is bordered by the Tibet Autonomous Region to the northwest, the
Sichuan provinces to the north, Guizhou to the east, and the Zhuang Autonomous
Region of Guangxi to the southeast. To the south and southeast it adjoins Laos and
Vietnam, and to the southwest and west it shares a long border with Myanmar. This
province has abundant rainfall, mild climate and fertile land. Additionally, it has
scattered cloud-wailed mountains and crisscrossed with meandering rivers, all of which
provide ideal conditions for tea cultivation.
Yunnan is the homeland of tea tree, which is a treasure land of China for
developing the tea industry. It’s also the province that is the largest area of wild tea tree
communities and ancient tea plantations with the largest amount of old tea trees and
wild tea trees. All the tea-producing areas of the province are located at elevations from
1,200 to 1,900 meters. The annual mean temperature ranges from 15-21 (59-70°F),
effective annual heat cumulation is between 4,500 to 7,000 , and the annual rainfall is
1,200 mm to 1,800 mm. The monsoon season coincides with the hottest months, and
there is a very high effective rainfall. There are sufficient sunny days and tea trees have a
long growth period in the dry season which starts in November and ends in April. The
tea-growing areas are generally covered with red soils with pH value ranging between 4
to 6. Therefore, Yunnan is a particularly suitable area for growing tea trees.

Pu-erh City
Pu-erh City (formerly known as Simao), is situated in southern Yunnan, in a
small basin among the mountains at an elevation of 1500 meters above sea level. Pu-erh
is an important tea-processing and trading centre since Tang Dynasty (between 618 and
907 AD). Pu-erh tea is named after the city. It is produced without polluting fertilizers
and pesticides, and it depends on forest ecosystem services such as nutrient recycling.
Pu-erh Traditional Tea Agrosystem was designated as Globally Important Agricultural
Heritage Systems by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) in 2012. This
system has typical tea forests as well as modern tableland tea plantations, rich
biodiversity and agricultural diversity, all of these have to be preserved from modern
threats such as population growth, irrational harvesting and over-exploitation.
Pu-erh tea is a high valued quality product in the Chinese and Southeast Asian
markets. Its history relates closely to the transportation of tea from Yunnan to other
regions. It was originally compressed for more efficient transit, and it acquired its dark
color and flavor on the journey to its final destination. There are two types of Pu-erh
tea: Sheng Pu-erh (raw or unfermented type) and Shu Pu-erh (ripe or post-fermented
type). Additionally, It is also divided into two categories based on appearance: loose tea,
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and compressed tea. Loose tea refers to tea those leaves retain their original form and is
easier to observe the appearance and color. Compressed tea can be classified into cake
tea, bowl tea and brick tea. Cake tea is the most common compressed tea shape,
generally comprising cakes that are 357 g in weight. Bowl tea and brick tea often have
lighter units ranging from 100 g to 250 g. Bowl tea (or tuo tea) is bowl-shaped tea
looking like a bowl in appearance.
Akin to wine or other regionally specific foods and beverages, Pu-erh tea is a
geographically indicated product. This tea can only be produced and fermented using
sun-dried green tea from the large-leaf subspecies Camellia sinensis var. assamica in
southern Yunnan. Unlike other teas and similar to wine, Pu-erh tea can be mellow and
improve over time. The best Pu-erh teas are always available from smaller brands who
can focus on quality rather than quantity.

Table 2.1 Quality characteristics of Pu­erh Tea

Characteristics Sheng Pu­erh Shu Pu­erh
Leaves color turquoise or dark green brown, red brownness or
dark brownness
Soup color yellow green, bright yellow, red ruby red, wine red or dark
yellow or orange red red
Taste the flavor turns from bitterness to smooth, soft and sweet
sweetness after drinking
Brewed tea leaves green or yellow green; the dark brownness or dark in
Microbes are often usedare
leaves with meat or and
complete cheese
withyto develop deeper, are
color; leaves more complex
broken
flavors. Shu Pu-erh tea is produced in a special way to encourage microbial
fermentation in Sheng Pu-erh tea. In this process, the leaves undergo fermentation and
then prolonged storage under high humidity. Good Shu Pu-erh is thick and luscious as a
latte with a rich, glutinous rice soup sweetness, and it’s usually cheaper than comparable
quality aged Sheng Pu-erh.

Lincang City
Enjoying the reputation of “the great natural greenhouse”, the city of Lincang
locates along the Lancang River. It neighbors Pu-erh to the east, Dali to the north and
Baoshan to the west. Famous for its picturesque landscape, mild climate, colorful
cultures and customs of multiple ethnic minorities, Lincang is a hot tourist destination.
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The city has a long history of growing and drinking tea, and the area is known as an
important habitats of wild tea trees and the home of Yunan black tea.
The black tea produced in Yunnan is generally called Dianhong. “Dian” is the
abbreviated name for Yunnan, while “hong” means red - the color of the tea liquor.
There are various types and grades of Dianhong tea. Higher quality Dianhong is
characterized by a large amount of young buds, also referred to as “golden tips”, as
compared to other Chinese black teas. These tips result in a brassy, golden orange color
and render a gentle, sweet aroma without bitterness. Cheaper grades become browner in
color, and darker, when brewed and can taste quite bitter if prepared incorrectly. The
cheapest type is mostly with black leaves and very few golden buds. This tea is almost
exclusively for the foreign market to be blended with other cheaper teas, and has a
bitter, strong taste.

Xiaguan Town
Xiaguan on the southern shore of Erhai Lake and near the old city of Dali, is
well-known for the production of Tuocha. This region had an ideal climate with clean
water and snow-covered high mountains, which makes it possible to grow quality tea
here. Tuocha was first produced in 1902 and has a characteristic bowl shape that was
said to be easy for transportation.
It helps avoid mildew and increase surface exposure to air, so that it fermented
slowly and smoothly. The tightly-packed shape produces a refreshing and energizing
liquor with a strong raw Pu-erh taste. Xiaguan Tuocha can be stored for a long time,
however, the specific storage time depends on the tea quality, technique used, and
storage conditions.

Sichuan
Sichuan is located in the upper Yangtze River valley in the southwestern part of
China and is the second largest provinces of the country. It is bordered by the
provinces of Gansu and Shaanxi to the north, the territory of Chongqing municipality
to the east, the provinces of Guizhou and Yunnan to the south, the Tibet Autonomous
Region to the west, and the province of Qinghai to the northwest. The capital city,
Chengdu is located near the centre of the province. Central Sichuan is a basin area
which called Tianfu Zhiguo, meaning “Heavenly Kingdom”. It has a humid and mild
climate, plenty of natural resources, and fertile soil, making it one of the most
prosperous and economically self-sufficient regions of China.
Ya’an City
This city lies in the mountainous western fringe of the Sichuan Basin, below
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the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. The city is a communications centre near the intersection of
two main routes — one running west to Kangding and to the Tibet Autonomous
Region, and another running north-south from Chengdu to the southwest. The city is a
traditional market for tea grown in the surrounding area.
The earliest records of tea cultivation reach back to around 53 BC, when the
Buddhist scholar Wu Lizhen planted seven tea trees on Mengding Mountain in the
territory of Ya’an City. During the Song Dynasty, these bushes were fenced off and
named as Imperial Tea Garden. The tea plantation on Mengding Mountain has since
become well-known in China; it is also known as Mengding Ganlu. Ganlu is translated
as “Sweet Dew,” which refers to the sweet taste of the tea. This famous green tea
predominantly uses tender tea buds grown in early spring and has been atribute tea
since the Tang Dynasty. Its tightly curl green tea leaves are partially covered with white
pekoe. When brewed, the tea leaves are steeped in a glass with water at 75-85 (167-
185°F) for one minute for the first brewing. For subsequent steeping, the steeping time
and temperature gradually increases. The liquid is yellow and green, clear and bright.
Brewed leaves are even, bright and vivid.
Mengding Mountain is renowned for its misty climate and tea production area,
which lies within the entire range of neighboring mountains. There are other famous
teas in this area, such as Shihua, Yuyechangchun, and Huangya. Among them,
Mengding Huangya is a kind of yellow tea, whose name means “Mengding Yellow
Buds”. It is produced similarly to green tea but with some additional processing. The
color of Huangya is unique yellow and its appearance is even, flat and straight. When
brewed in a glass cup, this tea lies on the water surface; it then absorbs water and sinks.
Its taste is subtle with nutty and fruity notes. The traditional processing of Mengding
Huangya was listed as an intangible cultural heritage of Sichuan Province in 2011.
Ya’an City is also the birthplace of Tibetan tea, which is a type of dark tea. The
name of Ya’an Tibetan tea is because it is made in Ya’an and sold to the Tibetan area.
The landforms of western Sichuan include a vast plateau landscape with grasslands and
glacial mountains, where the Tibetan culture thrives. In ancient times, Tibetan tea was
transported to Tibet via the Tea Horse Road, which is an economic and cultural
exchange route for people in Sichuan, Yunnan, and Tibet. As the Tibetan folk saying
goes, “it is better to go three days without grain, than one day without tea.” The Tibetan
diet contains plenty of cheese and fat; therefore, Tibetan tea has been considered a
necessity for people since ancient times, owing to its natural components. This tea was
added to the 2nd batch of the national intangible cultural heritage list in 2008.
Tibetan people enjoy various kinds of tea including butter tea, milk tea, and
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sweet tea. Among them, butter tea is the most common and is the oldest type of
Tibetan tea. Neverthless, no matter what kind of tea is brewed by Tibetan people, they
like to add a small amount of salt.

Zhuyeqing
Zhuyeqing tea, also known as “Bamboo Leaf Green,” is a type of green tea
from Emei Mountain, which has been a UNESCO World Nature and Culture Heritage
Site since 1996, predominantly owing to its Buddhism culture and natural views.
Zhuyeqing tea is seen to assist in the Buddhism culture, as it is said to assist Buddhist
monks in keeping their focus during meditation, and relieving fatigue. Tea plantations
are scattered on the hillside within an elevation of 600-1500 m. It is harvested before
Qingming Festival, at the beginning of April. Zhuyeqing leaves are long thin strips in
shape, green in color, similar to a bamboo leaf. The temperature of brewing this tea is
near 90 (194°F); therefore, boiling water should be avoided. The tea is refreshing and
mellow in taste, with lingering sweet aftertaste.
Queshe is called “Queshe” because its long thin stripe shape like a sparrow’s
tongue. This tea is a premium bud tea roasted from young buds. Its aroma is extremely
unique and rich. It is one of rare and expensive type of green tea with unique flavor.
When brewing, it is best to use a glass cup. The buds stand like sword and are beautiful.
Bitan Piaoxue is a type of jasmine-scented green tea with a unique taste and
corresponding descriptive name. This tea is produced from tender basic tea, which is
yellow-green in color, twisted and curved in shape, and include dry jasmine. Its name
means “Snowflakes flying on green serene lake”, so named because the jasmine flowers
resemble snowflakes flying when brewed in a glass cup of water. This tea is made by
pouring hot water into a glass container and scattering a small handful of tea leaves into
it. In less than a minute, the water will be tinted green, and the leaves will slowly sink.
Meanwhile, the white jasmine petals continue to float and go ‘round’ in the water. The
rich aroma is strong and tends to scent an entire room and you will experience snow
flying in green in summer. The liquor tastes of sweet jasmine with a hint of vanilla note,
making this tea like a work of art.

Chuanhong Tea
Chuanhong tea is a black tea invented in the 1950’s and became one of the
most representative teas in Sichuan Province. Gaining a lot experience from traditional
workshops and modern factories, Chuanhong tea is processed using the most scientific
techniques. This tea looks like elegant and soup is bright red with a sweet scent.
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Guizhou
Located in Southwest China, Guizhou province is a picturesque place with
abundant natural and cultural scenic locations. The topography is affected by the
uprising of the Tibet mountains, resulting in its current terrain, which is higher on the
west and lower on the east. Guizhou has a subtropical humid monsoon climate, which is
frequently cloudy and rainy. Its capital city, Guiyang, is considered a ‘world’s summer
resort’ because of the moderate temperature. There seasonal changes are not
substantial, resulting a mild summers (not too hot) and winters (not too cold). There are
no similar places to Guizhou in China. This province has a rare landscape that is most
suitable for tea plantation. Guizhou’s well-balanced and acidic soil distributes countless
wild tea trees and the largest tea plantation in China.
Owing to its unique characteristics, including rich fragrance, mellowness, and
pure and bright color, Guizhou green tea is incomparable with any other tea. It is
cultivated in Duyun City, which has a combination of ecological advantages which
include a high altitude, relatively low sunshine hours, and a low pollution level. Duyun
Maojian green tea boasts a bright color, symmetrical shape and a fresh taste. The buds
are covered with white hair, and the tender, young shoots are picked for processing,
where rolling and kneading cracks the cell walls of the buds and leaves, easily releasing
the flavor. Emerald tea is another well-known green tea, and is named as such for
similarity in appearance of emeralds. The tea trees grow at higher altitudes, with little
sunshine, which ensures a bright green color, chestnut aroma, tender flavor and sweet
aftertaste. Emerald tea is often referred to as “green gold” by the local people of
Guizhou. The matcha green tea industry in Tongren City has been booming in recent
years.
The matcha green tea industry in Tongren City, Southwest China's Guizhou
province, has been booming in recent years. Tongren City is home to the largest
integrated workshop for matcha tea refining in Asia, and awarded the title "China's
Capital of Matcha" in 2018 by China International Tea Culture Institute. Its matcha
products are sold both at home and abroad.
Zunyi City, in northern Guizhou Province, is a city at the intersection of
Guizhou, Sichuan, and Chongqing. It features stunning waterfalls, caves, abundant
bamboo, and Danxia landform. Given its mild climate with plenty of rainfall, Zunyi also
has the largest tea garden in this province, which produces the excellent quality Zunyi
black tea. This tea is highly underrated and few people have ever heard of it. The
processing techniques are fairly complicated and the buds and leaves are picked from
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semi-arbor form tea trees, and it is most effectively produced in the early spring, before
the time of China’s Tomb Sweeping Festival which falls to around the beginning of
April. This tea is tasty with an long-lasting flavor; the infusions give a soft, mellow
mouthfeel with a hint of caramel and sweetness aftertaste. Meitan Cuiya is a flat green
tea with 60 years of history and is one of the “well-known trademark” in China. It is
made from high-quality fresh and tender tea leaves and undergoes 20 complex
processes, including spreading, fixing, shaping, and drying. The leaves appear straight
and flat. The aroma is long-lasting above a bright green liquor.

2. Southern Area of Yangtze River

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Zhejiang
Zhejiang is one of the most prosperous of China’s provinces and is among the
foremost in farm productivity. Because of its hilly topography, only about one-fifth of
its land surface is arable. Here, tea is grown in the well-watered hilly areas. After a series
of systematic rehabilitation and development programs, improved methods of tea
cultivation and processing were introduced and new plantations were established.
Globally, Zhejiang Province is the most well-known place of origin of green tea, for
quantity and quality.

Hangzhou
Hangzhou is the capital city of Zhejiang Province, located in central East
China, near Shanghai. It is one of the most beautiful cities in China, renowned for its
historic relics and natural beauty. Hangzhou is also entitled “Capital of Tea” for its tea
culture.
Xihu Longjing tea has been given the reputation of the “Green Queen” and the
“Golden Card” of Hangzhou City. This green tea has topped the list of the Ten
Famous Teas in China, and is characterized by its yellow green color, delicate aroma,
mellow taste, and beautiful appearance. The tea has been grown in the region for well
over 1000 years. Xihu Longjing tea, grown on the hills around West Lake, is named after
its production region in the Longjing Village in Xihu district of Hangzhou City. West
Lake is an iconic, symbolic region in Hangzhou and is regarded as one of the most
beautiful sights in China.
Xihu Longjing tea is one of China’s products with protected geographical
indication products, with the exact producing region being a determinant of its quality
and price. It is believed that the terroir around West Lake has a large influence on why
the tea is so special. The five main production regions are Shifeng (Lion’s Peak),
Longjing (Dragon Well), Yunxi (Cloud Dwell), Hupao (Tiger Run), and Meijiawu (Mei
Family Dock). Tourists can visit the plantations to fully appreciate the homeland of
Longjing tea and the significance of this super precious and valuable tea in Chinese
culture. The roasting production technique of Xihu Longjing tea was listed as a Chinese
national-level intangible cultural heritage in 2008. It has also been given to foreign
leaders as a state gift.
The commercial value of Longjing tea varies according to the cultivars, harvest
time, processing technique, and producing area. Expensive Longjing tea can be ten
times of a cheap one. The best tea leaves are harvested from Camellis sinensis cv.
Longjing 43 variety in the spring growth period before the Qingming Festival.
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 When brewed, the taste of this tea is smooth (never bitter), and it leaves a mild,
lingering aftertaste. The aroma of the genuine product is fresh, complex and featuring a
note of baked mung beans or chestnut, as well as a distinctive accent of bouquet.
Making a cup of Longjing tea is a very simple process: put 3 grams of tea in a glass cup,
and then pour 150 mL of 85 (185°F) water into the cup. Drink the tea while it is hot,
the leaves sink to the bottom as they absorb water.
There are health benefits of Longjing tea, from the high levels of theanine,
catechins, ascorbic acid, and low level of caffeine. The theanine helps to soothe the
mind while still allowing someone to feel alert. The high level of catechins helps
scavenging free radicals, which can cause a oxidation of our body cells. It can stimulate
central nervous system, excite mind, promote thinking and improve working efficiency.
Jingshan tea is grown on Jingshan Hill in Yuhang District in Hangzhou City.
This green tea type became famous along with the construction of Jingshan Temple
during the Tang Dynasty. In the Southern Song Dynasty, a host of Japanese monks
began to study Zen Buddhism in the Jingshan Temple. They returned home with an
understanding of Zen Buddism as well as knowledge of teas, including Jingshan Tea,
which they shared with their compatriots. This also constitutes the origins of Japanese
Sado, where an increasing number of Japanese visitors each year, come to seek the root
of the Japanese Sado.
Qiandao Yuye is a type of green tea from Chun’an Country in Hangzhou.
Literally meaning of Yuye is “jade leaves”, which is a precious gift from Qiandaohu
(also known as One Thousand Islands Lake). Qiandao Yinzhen inherited its name from
its silver-like appearance. When brewing in a glass cup, one can marvel at the display of
all the buds standing vertically in the cup.
People in Zhejiang province are very proud of their green tea tradition. In the
early 19th century, some tea producers in Fujian province moved to Hangzhou escaping
from war. They started producing black tea by using local cultivars in their new
settlement for domestic consumption. The tea was subsequently named after the area
which the people came from, the Jiuqu River (the River with Nine Bends) in Wuyi
Mountain region, and later called Jiuqu Hongmei (Red Plum from the Nine Bends) by
local people. This tea is made from the “two leaves and a bud” of Longjing cultivars
around mid to late April. The dry leaves of Jiuqu Hongmei are tightly twisted. The
liquor is amber like in color, clear and smooth texture, a sweet, fruity taste, with the
aroma of orchid and plum.
Each year, many kinds of tea activities are held in Hangzhou including
conventions and exhibitions. Tea also play a very important role in the lives of local
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people. In the early morning, people will go to Hupao Spring to fetch pure and sweet
water. Xihu Longjing tea and Hupao Spring water is a perfect match. Many local people
enjoy their tea at specially designed tea house, which scatter on the streets and around
the West Lake. Tea house are also cultural establishments often displaying calligraphy
and paintings, and offering traditional music concerts.

Huzhou
Huzhou City is locates in the northern region of Zhejiang Province; it is
adjacent to Jiangsu and Anhui province and stands on the south bank of the Taihu
Lake. In Anji Country of southwestern Huzhou, as well as in nearby regions, Anji
Baicha is produced. “Anji” refers to the place where tea is grown, and the word
“Baicha” means white tea. White tea is normally refers to the Fuding white tea, such as
Baihao Yinzhen, which appears white because it is covered by white hairs. On the other
hand, Anji Baicha is processed like green tea, but it is called “white tea” because the
young shoots harvested in early spring are white. Additionally, the higher the grade of
tea, the whiter the tea buds.
Under certain environmental conditions, such as low temperature or abnormal
light intensity, the albino tea cultivars generate green to off-white leaves which are
chlorophyll deficient. Compared to normal green cultivars, albino tea is rare, and has the
unique flavor and has a distinct leaf color. Notably, it has a very high content of amino
acids in its leaves (twice that of common cultivars), which is the critical contributor to
the quality of green tea. The high levels of amino acids, and low levels of chlorophyll,
catechins and caffeine, contribute to the qualities of Anji Baicha, which induce reduced
astringency and bitterness, along with a strong umami taste.
For the best brewing results, a transparent grass cup is recommended, so that
one can watch the leaves stretch and open in the process. Put 3 grams of tea in a cup
and infused with 85 (185°F) water for 2-3 minutes. Anji Baicha can be infused at least
3-5 times, for further use, the time and temperature should be slightly increased for each
infusion. Cooler temperature and shorter infusion times yield a more mellow and fruity
flavor, while hotter water and a longer steeping duration produce a sharper flavors. Ii is
recommend to use the spring water for brewing; however, the steeping times, quantity
of leaves, and water temperature can be adjusted for according to personal preferences.
Another well-known green tea in Huzhou City is Guzhu Zisun tea, also called
Huzhou Zisun or Changxing Zisun. Guzhu Village is where this tea is produced and the
name Zisun means “purple bamboo shoot”, so called because the tea is slightly purple
in color, and its slim, narrow shape resembles bamboo shoots. The production of this
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tea dates back to at least the Tang Dynasty (618-907 AD). Lu Yu is regarded as “the
Sage of Tea” for writing the book Cha Jing (or “The Classic of Tea”), which is known
to be the greatest treatise on tea in the world. In Chapter one, it is noted that new
flushes in purple are superior to green, and the shape of bamboo shoots is considered
higher quality than an open or flat shape. In addition to writing the first book about tea,
Lu Yu built the first Tribute Tea Factory for the emperor in Guzhu Village.
Ningbo
Ningbo City is one of eastern China’s most important port cities, as well as a
well-known cultural and historical site which is linked with the ancient Maritime Silk
Road. Moreover, it’s a popular destination for tourists, both from China and overseas.
The city is surrounded by mountains, forests, beaches, lakes, and waterfalls.
Wanghai tea (sea-gazing tea) is processed under strict supervision for a
guaranteed quality. It is specially made with tender raw tea leaves grown around the
mountain summits of Ninghai Country, Ningbo City. It has beautiful appearance: it is
tender, glossy and green. The slightly sweet flavor lingers for a refreshing aftertaste. The
brewed tea leaves are bright light green.
Yuyao City is famous for “Cloud and mist curl up, the four-season pleasant
climate”. In 2001, a remarkable finding dramatically changed the history of tea; nearly a
dozen roots of the tea (Camellia sinensis) plant was exhumed in a Neolithic settlement
at the foot of Tianluoshan or Snail Hill, Yuyao City. Based on this find, tea culture in
China was no longer confined to the previously known historical period but stretched
thousands of years back in time to the 4000 BC, of the late Stone Age. Tianluoshan is
only seven kilometers northeast the contemporaneous Neolithic site of Hemudu. The
ancient Hemudu people were a matriarchal society of agrarians, cultivators of
domesticated rice and crops who raised dogs, pigs, and buffalo. The ancient tea roots
were found in rows arranged in two locations at a depth of one meter below ground
and covering an area of about ten square meters. Two of the roots displayed a fresh
brown color and stood upright as they were originally planted. All the roots were tested
positive for the key ingredient — theanine, a rare amino acid found almost exclusively in
the plant Camellia sinensis.

Shaoxing
Shaoxing City is listed by the national government as one of China’s historical
and cultural cities. The natural scenery here is totally charming and varied with a
landscape of numerous green hills and unpolluted rivers. This city is known as the “City
of Bridges”, “City of Calligraphy”, “City of Tea”, or “City of Scholars”.
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 Dafo Longjing or “Big Buddha Dragon Well,” was named after the Dafo
Temple in Xinchang County, Shaoxing City. The county has a deep-rooted culture of
Buddhism and tea. The processing method of this pan-fried green tea is similar to Xihu
Longjing. The plucking standard for Dafo Longjing is one bud to one or two leaves.
After harvesting, they are placed on bamboo trays and withered for two hours. This
technique allows the evaporation of some moisture and renders the leaves soft. After
frying, the leaves are in green and slightly yellow color, and with long, flat, and elegant
appearance. When brewing, the green leaves gradually become larger and can be
observed as they swell and fall to the bottom of the glass cup. It is infused with orchid
and chestnut aromas and has a sweet aftertaste.
Lvjiancha (Green Sword Tea) is a type of green tea, which is grown and
produced in Zhuji City, where the dense forests, the climate, temperature, and humidity
are suitable for tea growing. The goof geographical environment and excellent water
resources contribute to the growth of Lvjiancha. It has excellent quality and was
identified as Famous Trademark of China and Top 10 Famous Teas in Zhejiang. This
tea produces a clear slight green liquid and has a smooth mellow taste.
Zhucha (Gunpower Tea) is a special green tea for exporting and produced in
Pingshui region of Shaoxing. After harvested, the tender young shoots are withered and
steamed, then rolled into tightly small pellets. Zhucha can stores longer than other green
teas, owing to the rolling process.

Taizhou
Taizhou is a city located at the middle of the east China seacoast of Zhejiang
Province, and is famous for its magnificent natural scenery and rich cultural landscape.
Tiantai Mountain situated in Tiantai County, Taizhou City, and is known for being the
cradle of the Tiantai Sect of Chinese Buddhism, including the Japanese and Korean
Tiantai Buddhist Sects.It is also known as the home of the South Sect of Taoism.
Yunwucha (Cloud Mist Tea) is grown on the mountain of Tiantai. An an old
Chinese saying goes, “Clouds and mist means good tea”. Such environment provides
both moisture and shade to the tea plants, and the unique flavor and aroma are
attributed to the terroir of tea plantation. Tiantai Yellow Tea is a very unique yellow
variety, bred by local species and named Zhonghuang No.1, which means the first
yellow tea in China. This kind of tea got its name after the yellow color of young shoots
which are harvested in spring. Because of the processing method (like Longing tea),
Tiantai Yellow Tea actually is belong to the green tea category.

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Jinhua
Jinhua City has a long history, and its mountains and rivers are well-known for
their beauty. Wuyang Chunyu green tea is produced in Wuyi county, which called the
hometown of Chinese organic tea. “Wuyang” is the ancient of Wuyi county and
“Chunyu” means spring rains. Wuyang Chunyu picked by hands in the early spring,
which is earlier than other Chinese green teas. This organic green tea has needle-like
shape, covered by pekoe on the surface, and presents light green color. With the floral
aroma, Wuyang Chunyu tea tastes pure and mellow when brewed. The liquor is slightly
yellow, and the brewed buds and leaves are clear and vivid. Wuyang Chunyu green tea
was honored as a China Famous-branded Product in 1999 and Ten Famous Teas in
Zhejiang Province in 2004.

Wenzhou
Wenzhou, a port city in southeastern Zhejiang Province, is situated on the
south bank of the Ou River. Wuniuzao tea is produced in Wuniu Town of Wenzhou
City, where “zao” refers to early budding time. The famous spring green tea harvest is a
major source of income for farmers in China. Wuniuzao is the earliest tea species
usually picked in February, and almost one month earlier than other green tea cultivars.
Additionally, tea that goes to the market earlier obtains a higher price, so farmers prefer
to plant tea trees with early beginning date of tea plucking. Pingyang Huangtang or
Pingyang Yellow Soup is a kind of famous historical yellow tea produced in Pingyang
County, Wenzhou City. The color of this tea is yellowish green and its soup is apricot-
yellow. These precious leaves produce a soothing and refreshing taste and long-lasting
orchid-like smell.
Lishui
Lishui City in Zhejiang is characterized by abundant resources and a
wonderful natural environment in Zhejiang. As one of the richest ecological systems
in China, it has earned the reputation of “Zhejiang’s Green Valley” and “Nature’s
Showcase of Rare Flora and Fauna”.
Huiming Tea is produced in Jingning She Autonomous County and won a
first-class certificate and gold medal at the Panama Pacific International Exposition in
1915. Therefore, this green tea is also called “gold medal Huiming tea”. It is a
specialty of Jingning and national geographical indication product of China. The
Huiming tea is curled, green, and covered with hair. Many people who have tasted
Huiming tea praised it as “the first cup is light, the second is fresh, the third is
mellow, and the forth is aftertaste”.
Jinguanyin produced in Longquan is the only oolong tea in Zhejiang
province.The Jinguanyin cultivar is a Tieguanyin tea clone which is set on a Huangjingui

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tea root; therefore, Jinguanyin combines the mellow taste of Tieguanyin with the
osmanthus scent of Huangjingui.

Quzhou
Quzhou City has been a natural transportation center since ancient times. It is
situated on the upper stream of Fuchun River, which is the headstream of Qiantang
River, the mother river of Zhejiang Province.
Kaihua Longding is a delightful green tea with delicate flavor, which is
produced in Kaihua County, and Longding Lake. “Long” means “Dragon” and “ding”
means “top”. Kaihua County is located at the juncture of Zhejiang, Anhui, and Jiangxi
Provinces. It is named “Gold Triangle of Green Tea” and nicknamed the “Amazon Rain
Forest of China.” The mountain area where tea plantation is has the cloudiest and
foggy weather conditions in Zhejiang Province. Kaihua Longding tea is rich in amino
acid, aromatic substances, and other components for its quality. After brewing, its tea
liquor clear and light yellow green with long lasting fragrance.

Anhui
Anhui is a landlocked province in Southeast China. It stretches over the
Yangtze and Huai River, and is bounded by six provinces, including Jiangsu, Zhejiang,
Jiangxi, Hubei, Henan, and Shandong. Hefei City is the capital with many attractions,
owing to 2,000-year history. Huang Mountains, which have an elevation of
approximately 1,800 meters (6,000 feet) and beloved by poets and artists for inspiration
from its asymmetrically branched pines, strangely shaped rocks, fogs, and cloud
formation. The mountains have become one of the most popular tourist destinations in
China and the site was pronounced a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1990.
The climates of the north and the south are quite different. Many types of
high-quality tea are produced in the southern region where the temperature and
humidity are relatively higher with plenty of rainfall, which is good for growing of tea
trees.

Huangshan City
There is an old Chinese saying which states “famous mountains produce
famous tea.” Huangshan City was established and named for the famous scenic Huang
Mountains. This city includes three districts and four counties. Huangshan District is
important in green tea production area, which is best-known for producing Huangshan
Maofeng and is also the place of producing Taiping Houkui. Qimen Black tea originate
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from Qimen County.
The green tea Huangshan Maofeng has been produced since 1875. It is
translated as “Yellow Mountain Fur Peak” due to the buds and leaves covered with hair
and a shape resembling the peak of Huangshan Mountain. The best Maofeng tea was
picked only one bud and one small leaf in the early spring before the Qingming Festival.
The unique processing technique makes this tea yellow-green with a slight upturn in the
leaves.It has a remarkable orchid fragrance and a fresh, sweet taste, evoking a strong
nostalgia for the early of spring for consumers. Huangshan Maofeng is one of Ten
Famous Teas in China and has often been served as a Chinese national gift to foreign
guests on diplomatic occasions since 1949.
Taiping Houkui green tea is one of China’s most notable classic teas. Taiping is
the old name of Huangshan district, while Houkui means monkey chief. The terroir
where this tea is planted fas cloudy climate and sufficient sunshine, which results in
goodness for both tea trees and hand-made producing method, which give Houkui a
unique shape and flavor. The fresh leaves picked are defined by a specific standard, of
two equally long leaves enclosing a bud. The initial processing is fixation through pan-
fired and then subjecting the leaves to a rolling procedure while still under heat. A
special processing feature for Taiping Houkui is the flat-pressed shape, which bring this
tea an appearance with unusually long and straight.
Specifically, the rolled leaves are placed between two grids and a roller goes
over them. As early as 1915, Taiping Houkui won the golden award in the Panama
Pacific International Exposition in San Francisco.
Steeping Taiping Houkui should be done in a tall fairness glass cup or a tall
cylindrical glass cup to watch the leaves infused slowly and sway. With a dosage of 150
mL of 80 (176°F) hot water on 3 g tea leaves is recommended, with an infusion time
of 2 minutes. This classic Taiping Houkui tea has a sweet, nutty, and apricot-like flavor,
as well as lingering aftertaste in the mouth; it can be steep several times without losing
much flavor.
Qimen Black tea, also known as Keemun is produced in the Qimen County of
Huangshan City. Keemun is made from the leaves of Camellia sinensis var. sinensis,
mostly used in China for producing green tea. That’s why Keemun has a different flavor
and less caffeine than Assam tea. This tea offers complex and fruity notes, so tasters
compare it to the flavor of burgundy wines. The appearance of Keemun is slender and
elegant. After brewing, the beverage is brilliant red in color and has mellow and
textured, with a long-lasting taste. Its fragrance is orchard-like and called “Qimen
fragrance” in the international market.
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Lu’an City
Lu’an Guapian green tea and Huoshan Huangya yellow tea are both from
Lu’an City. The former is an exceptionally unique green tea that is produced in the
Dabie Mountains. The name “Guapian" means “melon seed” in Mandarin Chinese
because the leaves have a flat and narrow oval shape, resembling a melon seed. Unlike
other famous green teas that use buds and leaves, Lu’an Guapian is the only tea in the
world that uses only leaves, with no stems or buds. “Lalaohuo” is the critical process for
making shape and flavor, where two skilled workers need to carry a drying cage contains
the leaves, up and down continuously several hundreds, over a charcoal fire oven in a
sealed room. It is sweet with a mellow and a light chestnut overtone, with a long
lingering flavor. Moreover, the lighter the taste of the tea, the higher the quality.
Huoshan Huangya is a famous yellow tea and produced in Huoshan County,
Lu’an City. This tea originated from Tang Dynasty, when it was cake tea. Huangya in
Chinese means “yellow bud,” which made only from buds, resulting in a high-quality
yellow tea. The finished tea leaves are straight and the color is yellow-green and look
like a sparrow tongue. The color of the tea infusion is clear and yellow. It tastes fresh
and has a sweet aftertaste.

Jiangxi
Jiangxi Province is located on the south bank of Yangtze River in the central
region of Southeast China. Gan River, which runs through the whole province from
south to north and flows into Poyang Lake, is the largest freshwater lake in China.
Jiangxi is famous for its porcelain tea vessels and green teas, which are not only loved by
domestic people, but also appreciated by international tea lovers.
Not a person can be unaffected by the precipitous Lu Mountains and beautiful
countryside views of Wuyuan. The Lu Mountains have been listed as a World Cultural
Heritage by the United Nations for it’s fairyland and network of waterfalls. Wuyuan is a
beautiful and small county, where is cool in summer and warm in the winter. Jingdezhen
City, is famous for its fine porcelain-manufacturing center, which is said to be “white as
jade, bright as a mirror, thin as paper and sound as chime.”
The teas produced in Jiangxi include green teas and black teas. Among them,
Lushan Yunwu tea and Wuyuan Mingmei tea have impressive reputation. Lushan
Yunwu tea grows in the mist all year round and “Yunwu” means cloud and mist in
Chinese. Bathed in heavy mist, the Yunwu tea is of better taste and aroma than other
green teas. The Wuyuan area has the perfect conditions for growing tea and and boasts
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many tea plantations built around the mountain ridges and river valleys. The finished
Mingmei tea are creased dark green strips. When brewed, the leaves spread out and dye
the infusion a light green color. Both Lushan Yunwu tea and Wuyuan Mingmei tea are
rich in mineral substance.

Hunan
The name Hunan is formed from the Chinese words hu (meaning “lake”) and
nan (meaning “south”), referring to the land to the south of Dongting Lake. In the hilly
regions of central and southern Hunan, the soils for the most part are red clays that are
strongly acidic and fit for growing tea bushes. Hunan has a long history of tea
production in China and is one of its largest producers. Some of the famous teas from
Hunan are: Guzhang Maojian, Anhua Heicha, and Junshan Yinzhen.
Guzhang Maojian is a type of green tea from a remote tea plantations in the
high mountains of the Guzhang County, which has gained great both at home and
abroad. This is a relatively rare tea with a slightly sweet, fruity and smooth taste. It is
renowned for its tender silver tips and chestnut characteristics. Its long history can be
traced back to being a tribute to the royal court.
The name of Anhua Heicha literally means “dark tea from Anhua County,”
Yiyang City. It has a number of variations depending on the grade of the tea leaves
used and on the compressing techniques. Aged Anhua Fu Tea is populated with a
specific type of spore, called “golden flower.” This is a kind of human-friendly fungi,
which distinguishes dark tea from other types in its quality, color, and flavor. The flavor
is smooth and medicinal, with a pleasant and mellow scent, slightly nutty character and
lingering sweetness. The metabolites of the golden flower can effectively reduce the
level of fat and cholesterol, as well as help with digestion and weight control.
Qian Liang Cha is a cross-section of a long pillar of tea, wrapped in palm and
woven bamboo. “Qian” means one thousand, and “Liang” is an ancient Chinese unit of
measure equaling 31.2 modern grams. It is pressed around the time of mid-Autumn
festival and nine people to process and press a single pillar.
Junshan Yinzhen is a type of yellow tea made from buds. It originated from
Junshan Island in Dongting Lake. The formation of the unique quality of Junshan
Yinzhen is closely related to the terroir. The island has fertile soil, a very humid climate,
and a forest coverage of approximately 90%. The yield of this tea is a small quantity,
with a painstakingly complex skill required of the process the annual output. The shape
of finished tea is straight, fat, and tidy. After brewing, the tea sticks up like needles
dancing in the water, with a sweet flavors reminiscent of sweetcorn and aromas that are
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subtle, floral, and fruity.

Hubei
Hubei Province is situated in the middle reaches of the Yangtze River and to
the north of Dongting Lake. There are many lakes in the territory; therefore, Hubei is
also known as the province of thousands of lakes. Historical ruins, mysterious primeval
forest, and majestic mountains are all among the scenic spots in Hubei. The climate of
Hubei is subtropical with plenty of rainfall. Much of this rainfall is caused by the
summer monsoons, which pass down the Yangtze valley from west to east. The ideal
climate conditions are what make Hubei one of the most important tea producing and
exporting region in China.
Qingzhuan tea is a type of dark brick tea originated in Yangloudong Town of
Chibi City, Hubei Province. Yangloudong is an ancient town from the Ming Dynasty
and has played a very important role in the history of the Chinese tea industry
development. Merchants from Russia, Britain and Japan gathered here, forming an
international tea market with more than 200 tea houses and a population of over 40,000
people. Qingzhuan tea is suitable for long preservation if stored in proper conditions,
and therefore called “portable antique.” This tea is necessary for nomadic people’s daily
life as they are mainly on a meat-based diet lacking vegetables and fruits, which easily
leads to vitamin deficiency and causes various illnesses.
However, drinking Qingzhuan tea can supplement dietary nutrition and
vitamins, and help the body digest greasy food.
Enshi Yulu tea is a rare, traditional, steamed green tea, made from fresh thick
leaves with slim and tender buds. This tea is produced in Enshi Tujia and Miao
Autonomous Prefecture that are never bothered by extreme summer heat and cold
winters. Steamed green tea was very popular during the Tang Dynasty (618-907); it was
this time that the technique was required by the Japanese who called this tea Gyokuro.
Enshi Yulu has the characteristic of “three green colors”because its dry tea leaves, tea
liquor, and brewed tea leaves are all in green in color. This tea contains plenty of
nutritions. It is especially rich in selenium, an essential trace element that helps prevent
cancer, heart disease and other pathologies.

3. Northern Area of Yangtze Region

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Shaanxi
Shaanxi Province is one of the birthplaces of Chinese primitive human beings
and the national culture. It has also been an important political, economic, and cultural
center of several dynasties in both national and global terms. Shaanxi comprises three
distinct natural region — the northern upland plateau, the central part of Wei River
valley, and the mountainous southern region. These exhibit different geographies,
historical culture, and climatic conditions. Among them, the central and southern
regions produce teas are separated by the Qin Mountains — the major environmental
barrier between Northern and Southern China.
Jingyang Fu Brick tea, also called Fu Zhuan tea in Chinese Pinyin, is a
traditional Chinese dark tea produced in Jingyang County. The shape of Fu Brick tea is
a brick-like and the aroma and functional effects are similar to Fuling (Poria cocos),
hence it is called Fu Brick tea. It is one of the border-sale teas in the history, which was
a welcomed product for people in nomadic areas and along the ancient Silk Road. The
tea mass is pressed into brick-like shapes for easy transportation. As a result of pressing,
some Golden Flowers or Jinhua were found in the tea brick.
The Golden Flower bacteria can secrete amylase and oxidase, which can
catalyze the transformation of starch in tea into monosaccharide, the oxidation of
polyphenol compounds, resulting in an enhanced fragrance and taste. Moreover, the
Golden Flower bacteria can produce statins, which have hypolipidemic and anti-
inflammatory effects, which aids in decreasing the incidence of major coronary and
cerebrovascular events.
Nomadic, who mainly eat meat and cheese, have a diet locking vegetables and
fruits. Consumption of this tea over the long term can supplement vitamins and amino
acids. It has a unique flavor and many functional benefits, such as soothing stomach
discomfort and helping with weight loss, Jingyang Fu Brick tea is drawing more and
more attention in the world.
In the mountainous southern region of Shaanxi Province, Ankang City and
Hanzhong City produce some kinds of green tea.

Gansu
Gansu province is locates in North-Central and Northwestern China. Longnan
City is situated in the southeast of Gansu Province, neighboring Shaanxi Province to
the east and Sichuan Province to the south. Lofty mountains and deep river valleys
interweave with hills and basins, and pleasing climate giving this area the unique and
complex landform. Longnan enjoys a monsoon climate and varies greatly in different
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regions because of different geographic features. Longnan is also one of the main
producing areas of Chinese herbal medicine planting base in China. The tea trees
planted in mountainous areas reach altitude of 800 meters and are small-leaf local
cultivars. The high altitude gives tea leaves high level of exposure to the diffused
sunlight, rainfall, fresh air and pure water. These features give this high-mountain tea
unique characteristics, such as dark green color, slightly sweet taste, floral aroma,
enduring brewing, and long lasting aftertaste. Even if one is unfamiliar with the
differences between good tea and bad tea, the tea from Longnan high mountains can be
trusted for its quality.

Henan
The name of Henan Province comes from its geographic location, meaning
“the south of the river,” which indicates that the province lies south of the Yellow
River. It is the cradle of Chinese civilization and has been the political, economic, and
cultural center of the country for more than 3,000 years. Xinyang City is the only city
which produces tea in the Henan Province. It is situated in the far south of the Henan
plain, in the basin between the Dabie Mountains to the south, and the Huai River to the
north, and it neighbors Anhui to the east and Hubei to the south. This city features
pleasant weather and high-quality air due to large forest coverage. It boasts a variety of
scenic areas from mountains to spring resorts and lakes, with the most famous
attraction being Jigong Mountains, a national natural scenic area that is one of the Four
Summer Resorts of China.
Xinyang Maojian green tea is among the most famous traditional teas and is
produced in Xinyang City. The tea plantations are scattered across the mountainous
regions at an altitude of approximately 800 meters. Xinyang Maojian tea has a shorter
harvest period than other green teas because of the cooler climate. The tea gardens are
covered by heavy snow in winter, which can enhance the quality of young shoots in the
upcoming spring. This tea is valued for its floral and slightly roasted meat scent, robust
flavor, and long-lasting sweet aftertaste. Owing to the high quality, Xinyang Maojian has
been honored with the title “King of Green Tea” and regarded as one of the Ten
Famous Teas in China.

Shandong
Shandong is a northern coastal province of China, overlooking the Korean
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Peninsula and Japanese Archipelago across a vast stretch of sea. The name Shandong,
which means “East of Mountains,” was first used during the Jin Dynasty in the 12th
century. The Taishan Mountain was regarded as the holy place where many emperors
offered sacrifices to heaven, and Laoshan Mountain was said to be the home of
immortals. Shandong is further north and colder than the rest of China’s tea
plantations; therefore, most of tea gardens within this province are lies along the
seaside.
Laoshan District is the most northerly tea growing areas of China, close to the
Yellow Sea. The extreme climate of the north endures a cold winter and frosty early
spring, therefore, tea trees are protected in greenhouse over the winter. When the
weather warms, the covers of the greenhouses are removed and the tea trees can grow
in the natural environment exposed to the sunlight and other elements. The result in a
deeply sweet and delicate tea, unlike any other in the world. Classic Laoshan green tea
leaves are small wiry, twisted, and rolled. The dry leaves smells of chestnut, seaweed,
with a hint of vanilla aroma. The taste is thick, pungent, savory, nutty, toasty, with a
slightly metallic finish. Moreover, tea plantations are cultivated by using traditional
chemical-free farming techniques including growing rows of soybean between rows of
tea to recycle nitrates back into the soil. In addition to green tea, local tea farmers have
been producing Laoshan black tea and even Laoshan oolong tea in recent years.
Rizhao Xueqing green tea comes from Rizhao City. This city also faces the
Yellow Sea in the east. It has a warm temperature and humid monsoon climate, with
sufficient sunlight, plenty of rainfall, and clear water. Rizhao City is one of the three
coastal green tea cities in the world; the other two cities are Shizuoka in Japan and
Boseong in South Korea. Rizhao
Xueqing is very unique, owing to its deep green color, thick leaves, mellow
taste, long-lasting fragrance. It has a longer and later harvest time; therefore, this tea will
keep well for more than one year, and if kept at an even, cool temperature, much
longer.

4. South of China

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Fujian
The province of Fujian (meaning “Happy Establishment”) Province on the
southeastern coast of China, is situated opposite the island of Taiwan. Fujian is the top
tourist destination for the beautiful sea views and green mountains. The region is one of
the most picturesque in the world, with wooded hills and winding streams, orchards, tea
gardens, and terraced rice fields on the gentler slopes. As a start of the maritime Silk
Road, the pleasant climate and superior location provides Fujian with a large tourism
market. Fujian is an excellent tea-growing province and supplies both oversea market
and domestic market.

Wuyishan
Wuyishan, or Wuyi Mountains, is locates at the junction of the Fujian and
Jiangxi Province. Included in UNESCO’s World Natural and Cultural Heritage in
December 1999, Wuyishan features the country’s largest uninterrupted forest. In
addition to beautiful scenic spots, Wuyishan is where the Daoism culture and Lingnan
culture began; these and other historical and cultural heritages attract tourists at home
and abroad. Wuyishan is a typical Danxia landform with many cliffs. The rocks in
Wuyishan are mainly quartzite, conglomerate, red sandstone, and shale. The surface soil
is formed by weathered acidic rocks with rich humus, which is why the Wuyi Rock tea
has a unique flavor.
Wuyishan is the birthplace of oolong tea and black tea in the world. Partly-
fermented teas are called oolong tea, which means “black dragon” in Chinese. A more
likely explanation for the name is that when the leaves are brewed in hot water they look
like little black dragons. There are many legends about oolong tea. But the exactly when
the process for oolong tea was discovered is unknown. It is believed that oolong tea was
first invented in Wuyishan in sixteenth century, where oolong teas are still renowned.
Wuyishan has hundreds of varieties of oolong teas, but none as famous as
Dahongpao (or Big Red Robe). Dahongpao was honored as “King of Wuyi tea”, which
grows defiantly in the gaps between rocks that endow it with the highly prized mineral
character taste or “rock note”. Inside the Dahongpao scenic area, six mother trees of
Dahongpao are hanging off the cliff, and the harvest from mother trees has been
forbidden since 2006. Making tea is a sophisticated ritual or ceremony and it has
become an integral part of Wuyishan tea culture. At the start of each harvesting season,
a shrine is set up before the mother trees, where tea famers come and pray for a good
harvest. Nowadays, asexually propagated Dahongpao tea plantations have been
developed in the whole region of Wuyishan. Shuixian (Narcissus) and Rougui (Cassia)
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are two additional Wuyi Rock teas with a special aroma and flavor that are highly
appreciated by people. Shuixian is mellow and delicate, with lingering fragrance in the
mouth after tasting. The main feature of Shuixian tea is its mellow taste. “Laocong”
means “old bush”, and Laocong Shuixian generally refers to the variety of Shuixian tea
trees with an age of at least 50 years. Its leaves are larger than those of other oolong tea
varieties. Its difficult to harvest Laocong tea leaves because the trees are very tall,
requiring the use of stairs. The older the tea tree, the more mellow the taste of tea.
Rougui has a spicy and strong fragrance, which is all natural just like those of other teas
and is not the result of additives. These special features come from both the variety and
the processing method. Rougui tea has many other nicknames according to the area
where the tea trees are grown. For instance, “Rou” in Chinese Pinyin means “meat”,
and this nickname was given after the meat of animals. “Niu” means “cow” or “bull”,
and the tea from trees grown in Niulankeng is called “Beef tea”. “Matou” stands for
“the head of a horse”; therefore, Matouyan Rougui means “Horse meet tea”. The word
“yan” means “rock”, referring to the unique characteristics of Wuyi oolong tea.
“Hutou” means “the head of tiger”, so “Hutouyan” Rougui translates as “Tiger meat
tea”. Teas grown in Yingzuiyan are called “Eagle meat tea”, because “Yingzui” means
“the mouth of eagle”. Beef tea and Horse meat tea are high-quality and very expensive
types of Rougui tea.
Wuyi Mingcong tea, also called Wuyi famous tea bush, is a variety of tea that
has been grown for a long time. Its varieties include Tieluohan (or Iron Arhat),
Baijiguan (or White Cockscomb), Shuijingui (or Golden Water Turtle), and Bantianyao
(or Celestial Waist). Terroir matters enormously for Wuyi Rock tea. Beside these
varieties, according to the growth place of the tea trees, Wuyi Rock tea can be
categorized into three types. Zhengyan (or Original Rocks) is the highest category of
terroir in Wuyishan and is one of the most enviable tea growth places in China. Tea
trees grown in Zhengyan have a more mellow flavor, which accentuates the minerality
of this tea. Banyan (or Half Rocks) is just outside the traditional scenic spot of
Zhengyan. Zhoucha (or River Tea) is grown on the river banks. Among these three
types, Zhengyan tea is the best for its much-prized characteristic mineral taste.
The processing of oolong tea in Wuyishan differs from that in other regions,
giving this tea a unique fragrance and long-lasting aftertaste. After harvest, fresh tea
laves require almost four months of processing, including baking for more than a
month before they are ready to be sold.
Black tea was first developed in Tongmu Village of Wuyishan in the sixteenth
century. It happened once that some soldiers camped in a tea factory and lied on the
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fresh tea leaves on the ground. When the soldiers left, the workers realized it was too
late to process the leaves in the usual way. For this reason, they lit open fires of pine
wood to speed up the drying step. This led to the creation of Zhengshan Xiaozhong (or
Lapsang Souchong as it is commonly referred to in the West). Tongmu Village locates in
the north of Wuyishan National Nature Reserve, surrounded by high mountains and
moistened by the clouds and fogs. Lush forests, rich vegetation, clear and flowing
streams combine, not only to establish the marvelous scenery, but also to make this land
particularly suitable for tea plantation.
In 1607 Zhengshan Xiaozhong was shipped to Europe by Dutch traders and
later transported to North America. The term of “black tea” was not used at that time,
so the new term “bohea” was used to distinguish all high-quality dark and leafy tea
coming from Wuyishan area from other green tea. “Lapsang” in Fuzhou dialect means
“smoked variety” and “Souchong” was used to describe the black teas from this region.
Lapsang Souchong thus became the new name for this tea.
Owing to the high elevation and low temperatures, the only cultivar that can
survive under these extreme conditions is the caicha. As the oldest cultivar of
Wuyishan, it is a kind of short, small bush with thin branches. This plant is regarded as
an ancestor of many other varieties. Another black tea made from caicha is Jinjunmei,
which was developed in 2005 and became well-know due to its unique characteristics. In
traditional Chinese culture, the name is very important. It is not only a symbol, but also
an introduction of its unique internal quality and external image. “Jin” means “gold,”
which not only means precious and rare but is the color of dry tea and tea soup. “Jun”
means “good horse” which refers to the phenomenon that when brewing in cup, the
buds roll up and down like galloping horses. “Mei” translates as “eyebrow,” which is a
symbolic meaning of “longevity” in traditional Chinese culture.
The production output of authentic Jinjunmei is very low because this tea
made only from buds, and it is therefore very expensive. Without using pinewoods in
processing, there is no smoky aroma. Authentic Jinjunmei is not completely golden.
Maybe this is different from many people’s expectation of this tea. But this is true.
However, tea soup is bright, golden color, with a sweet aftertaste and mixed aromas of
fruit, flowers, and honey. In addition, some Jinjunmei on the tea market are made from
tea variety of Meizhan, which has a very unique aroma.

Fuding
Lying in the northeast of Fujian Province, Fuding City neighbors Zhejiang

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Province in the north. The long coastal line and lush mountains endow Fuding with a
great deal of excellent attractions. The Taimushan is a famous tourist spot which is
well-known for its steep mountains, spectacular rock formation, secluded caves and
foggy climate. Fuding together with its neighboring areas is one of the main
producing areas of white tea, black tea, and blooming tea in China. This city is the
origin of Chinese white tea and hence has been named as “the hometown of Chinese
white tea”.
The area has different grades and quality of white tea, which depending on the
year when it was harvested. Baihao Yinzhen is top grade, followed by White Peony and
Shoumei. Sometimes white tea is compressed, but most often it is sold in a loose form.
Storage in this loose form can expose the tea to air, which circulate easily through the
leaves, which is good for further aging.
White tea is indeed worth storing for a long time, and aged white tea can be
very expensive. There is a saying about white tea: one-year old tea is only tea, it will
become medicine three years later, and seven-years later will turn into treasure. The
color of new white tea (one that is less than 3 years old) liquor is light yellow, while aged
white tea has a warmer yellow or amber color. The longer white tea is preserved and the
higher the maturity it reaches through transformation, the softer and mellower the
flavor of tea infusion will have. It is worthy to note that the tea should be stored under
appropriate conditions. If the tea smells sour, moldy, burnt, and so on, this will be the
result of improper storage, and such tea will be no longer worth drinking.
Because of the processing method that excludes rolling, the cell walls of white
tea leaves are not broken. At the same time, compared to other kinds of tea, it is hard to
abstract compounds contained in white tea leaf cells. Therefore, high temperature of
95-100°C (203-212°F) is recommended for brewing white tea, no matter whether new
or aged and in loose or compressed form. Loose white tea leaves are much less dense
than those of other kinds of tea, which means that the amount of tea leaves used needs
to be increased. For aged compressed white tea, rinsing once is necessary for awakening
the leaves before drinking. Shoumei can also be boiled in a kettle and one can add dried
tangerine peel when suffering from a sore throat. To prepare this tea, simply boil a
kettle of water, add 8 g leaves and simmer for some time. It provides a truly full
mouthfeel, yet it is clean and offers a naturally sweet, herbaceous lingering aftertaste.
Blooming tea is made with great skill by hand in Fuding. The artisans use green
tea buds (sometimes other kinds of tea) and carefully wrap them around in a flower
presentations, which are sewn together with cotton thread and dried. Different flowers
can be wrapped in tea buds, including marigold, jasmine, rose, lily, chrysanthemum,

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globe amaranth. Boiling water will fully unfurl the balls in 4-5 minutes and bring a
display of a blooming flower in the cup. Therefore, glass cups or teapots are the best
choice because they allow the taster to fully experience the blooming process. Blooming
teas are highly welcomed not only for this “blooming” feature that easily catches
attention, but also for their wonderfully balanced taste from tea leaves and herbal
flowers.
Bailin Gongfu is a type of black tea produced in Bailin Town of Fuding City,
and is one in the trilogy of Minhongs, i.e., classic black teas from Fujian. The other two
are Zhenghe Gongfu from Zhenghe County and Tanyang Gongfu from Tanyang
Village of Fu’an City. The leaves of Bailin Gongfu are twisted and black in color with
golden tips. Owing to its rich, sweet flavors and subtle aftertastes like fermented honey,
Bailin Gongfu is a kind of tea that can be enjoyed at any time either in the traditional
Chinese Gongfu tea manner or in Western style. The aroma of Zhenghe Gongfu is
floral and fruity, with notes of molasses and gentle undertones of chocolate. As early as
1915, Tanyang Gongfu won the Gold Medal at the Panama Pacific International
Exposition for its charming characteristics. The appearance of this tea is tight and even,
and the taste is sweet and mellow with longan fragrance.

Fuzhou
Located in the eastern part of Fujian, Fuzhou is the capital city of this province.
This city is famous for a favorable climate for the growth of many species, and the most
important city producing jasmine tea in China. The area is mostly mountainous with 10%
water and 10% farmland. The mountains and hills are the foundation for the landscape
with a combination of tea and jasmine plantations. Tea and jasmines trees grow in
different environments, which, together with the complex topography, have shaped
vertical landscapes from the mountaintop to the river. The Jasmine-tea system is a main
source of livelihood to the local community as it involves the provision of diversified
agriculture. It is no surprise that the cultivation site was designated as Globally Important
Agricultural Heritage Systems by FAO in 2014.
Jasmine originated in the ancient Roman Empire and reached the Persian Gulf
through the Maritime Silk Road during the Han Dynasty (206 BC - 220 AD). After
arriving in India, it became a Buddhist holy flower and was subsequently spread to
Fuzhou by Indian Buddhism. During the Song Dynasty (960 - 1279), tea farmers began
infusing green tea leaves with jasmine flowers. To date, this region has developed a deep
knowledge of the cultivation and production of jasmine tea.
The processing of jasmine tea is different from other herbal teas and is more
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complicated. To make this kind of tea, tea leaves are harvested in spring and then stored
until the summer when jasmine flowers are ready to bloom. Only these jasmine flower
buds can be harvested and then stored in a cool place until nightfall when the flower
petals open and release their enticing fragrance. The key process is called “scenting”,
which means laying just-opened jasmine buds together with tea. The tea leaves absorb
the fragrance of jasmine flowers in about four hours until the flowers become wilted.
These are replaced with fresh flowers, and the process is repeated several times. For
top-grade jasmine tea, this scenting process can be repeated up to nine times. The
flowers are usually separated out from the tea before being dried and packaged. Some
tea makers may choose to leave a few jasmine flowers in the final product.

Anxi
Anxi is a small but very renowned county for its world-class tea, especially the
Tieguanyin. Tieguanyin belongs to the oolong tea and is one of the Ten Famous Teas in
China. The name of Tieguanyin is originally referring to a specific cultivar. It is
produced from the Tieguanyin cultivar while offering a lush, yellow-gold liquor that is
fruity and has a depth of flavor.
Tieguanyin was invented during the Qing Dynasty and has been highly popular
for centuries. Initially, Tieguanyin would be heavily fermented and baked like Wuyi Rock
tea, and this type is called Nongxiang. However, there are three types of Tieguanyin that
can be classified according to the different baking methods adopted during the refining
process of primary tea, including Qingxiang Tieguanyin, Nongxiang Tieguanyin, and
Chenxiang Tieguanyin.
The traditional processing method endows Nongxiang Tieguanyin with a
mellow flavor, long-lasting aroma and sweet aftertaste, resulting in its large share in the
market of Tieguanyin. In this type of tea, the contents of polyphenol derivations
responsible for the astringency of teas are reduced after baking. The flavors of “fire”
and “honey” makes this tea distinctly different from other kinds of Tieguanyin.
The most common question of tea tasters about Tieguanyin is a
straightforward but salient one: Why does this tea offer such intense aroma? Anyone
who tries the Qingxiang Tieguanyin for the first time will be surprised by its strikingly
intense flavor. It is hard to believe that such aroma and flavor can be natural and
produced by the process alone. The shoots must be harvested when the leaves are
mature, which is performed also for older branches. These mature leaves are rich in
polyphenols and their corresponding twigs contain more precursor compounds of the
desirable aromas. The sweet aftertaste of Qingxiang Tieguanyin will linger in the mouth
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after a few sips. The abundance of volatile compounds remains relatively stable
throughout baking (Nongxiang), whereas they almost fully diminish during long-term
storage (Chenxiang).

Zhangping
Zhangping Shuixian is a famous and rare tea that was first cultivated by
Zhangping tea farmers. This tea is the only type of compressed oolong tea made from
the Shuixian cultivar. It is a semi-arbor cultivar with strong growth ability, which is
thought to be first found in Zhangping Zhuxian Cave. In the local dialect, “Zhu” is
pronounced like “Shui”, which is how the name was given. It is worthy to note that this
cultivar is the same as Wuyishan Shuixian but different from Fenghuang Shuixian in
Guangdong. The academic name of Shuixian is Huacha No.9 in Fujian and Huacha No.
17 in Guangdong.
The fermentation of Zhangping Shuixian is lighter than that of other oolong
teas. The specific process involves hand-pressing the tea leaves to small square-shaped
cakes in a wooden mould, then wrapping in paper, and finally slow baking over charcoal
fire to reach a moisture content of almost 6%. The taste is mellow, fresh, delicate, and
flexible, and the fragrance is strong and long-lasting, with a natural flower-like orchid
aroma.

Guangdong
Guangdong is the most economically prosperous and southernmost of the
mainland provinces, connecting Hong Kong and Macau. Its capital is Guangzhou
situated at the head of the Zhu River Delta. The climate in Guangdong is very humid
all year-round and ranges from subtropical at high elevations to almost tropical near the
ocean. The annual rainfall is approximately 1,500 to 2,000 mm, decreasing with the
distance from the coast to the northwest but increasing with altitude and exposure to
the prevailing summer monsoon winds. The area is characterized by abundant moisture,
moderate to high temperatures, and variegated physiography supporting the
development of tea plantations.

Chaozhou
Fenghuang Dancong grows in a highly mountainous region of Chaozhou City.
The word Fenghuang means phoenix, which refers to the name of the mountain where
Dancong is grown, while the word Dancong refers to the morphology and means single
bush or single clump. Most tea bushes emerge from the ground as a cluster of branches;
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however, the uncommon Dancong variety grows as a single trunk that branches off
higher up on the stem. The production of Fenghuang Dancong is very limited due to
the unique geographical location. In addition, Dancong bushes are allowed to grow
wild, so harvesting them is a difficult task requiring a ladder, and the flavor is much
influenced by the combination of cultivar, terroir and processing techniques.
There are broadly at least 10 distinct aroma cultivars, each with their own
unique flavor. Dancong teas are noted for their ability to naturally imitate the flavors
and fragrances of various flowers and fruits, such as orange blossom, orchid, gardenia,
grapefruit, almond, ginger flower, etc. The “Shanyun” or “mountain feel” comes from
the terroir of tea plantations. Fenghuang Mountain is densely wooded with a rich layer
of nutritious soil containing various minerals. The rocks here consist primarily of shale
that is easily eroded, adding mineral contents to the tea. The plentiful rainfall, thick layer
of soil and remoteness from the modern world all contribute to the Dancong tea’s
unique features.
The Cantonese people, especially those from the tea-growing region of
Chaozhou, are also ingenious oolong tea drinkers. They have perfected the art of
Gongfu tea ceremony using the Yixing Zisha tea pot — known in China as the
Chaozhou Gongfu Style. The initial steeping time in the tea pot or gaiwan is 30 seconds,
which is gradually increased by increments of 15 seconds for subsequent steeps. This
oolong is worthy of exploring to get a full appreciation; one will be amazed by the
flavor and pleasant aftertaste of Dancong tea.

Yingde
Yingde City lies in the central northern part of Guangdong Province and has
subtropical monsoon climate. It has been a tea producing area since the Tang Dynasty
and was one of the Chinese regions to resettle the foreign Chinese. These people set up
a farm, and the technology of tea processing has since been perfected to an advanced
state, which makes the quality of Yingde tea outstanding. The most famous tea in the
area is black tea, especially Yinghong No.9 black tea and large-leaf broken black tea,
which have their export bases here within China. Yinghong is the short term for Yingde
black tea and No.9 is the name of the cultivar used to produce this tea. The liquor of
Yinghong No.9 black tea is bright red like a piece of amber. The taste is smooth and
sweet with a fruity flavor and a candy-like finish. The aroma resembles a flower mixed
with chocolate, caramel, and orange.

Guangzhou
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 Different areas have their own tea etiquettes and traditions, which also vary
from city to city. In Guangzhou, having Zaocha (this means morning tea) is a typical
morning activity for local residents. Whether rich or poor, or young or old, locals will go
to a morning tea house to drink tea or to have dim sum (a Cantonese term referring to
small Chinese dishes) for breakfast. There are several reasons why people in Guangzhou
love to drink Zaocha in tea houses. Besides the elegant environment for friendly
gatherings or business negotiations, the main reason is of course the celebration and
enjoyment of delicious tea and delicate dim sums.
Guangzhou morning tea can be traced back to over 150 years ago to the Qing
Dynasty. Later, tea houses appeared on a gradually increasing scale with the
advancement of economic prosperity. Nowadays, the commonly consumed morning
teas are traditional Tieguanyin tea and Pu-erh tea, and dim sums have become more
delicate and diverse. Classical dim sum usually include buns, dumplings and rice rolls
with a variety of ingredients such as beef, chicken, pork, shrimp, or vegetables. It is
prudent to be early in Guangzhou for Zaocha, otherwise strangers may need to share a
table. This phenomenon, however, has become commonplace in Zaocha. Besides, the
traditional culture of having Zaocha has now outgrown the city and has turned into a
custom in other cities in southern China.

Guangxi
Guangxi is known as the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, which has a
large Zhuang minority population. It is bounded by Yunnan to the west, Guizhou to the
north, Hunan to the northeast, and Guangdong to the southeast. The climate here is
subtropical and the terrain offers unique mountainous karst landforms. These factors
undoubtedly make this region famous for its overall beauty and picturesque landscape.
Guilin and the surrounding region is among the most scenic areas in China and a highly
popular tourist destination for travelers.
Tea trees are widely distributed throughout the province, from the
northernmost region of Quanzhou to the southernmost region of Bobai, and from the
eastern part of Cangwu to the western part of Napo. In terms of tea tree growth
conditions, southern Guangxi is the most suitable region, while northern Guangxi is
considered suitable. The genetic resources of tea trees in the entire province are
extremely rich. In the 1980s, the Guilin Tea Research Institute of Guangxi conducted
surveys and collections of tea tree genetic resources in 62 counties and cities in eight
regions of Guangxi. They discovered more than 70 local tea tree genetic resources,
including over 30 wild large tea tree resources and five rare resources, and found a
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thousand-year-old ancient tea tree in Lingyun County, Guangxi. Local tea varieties in
Guangxi include Liubao, Guiqing, Lingyun White Tip Tea, Yaji Tea, White Bull Tea, and
Longji Big Leaf Tea. Among them, Lingyun White Tip Tea was designated as a national
superior variety in 1984.

Liubao Town
Liubao tea is one of the most famous dark teas in China. It has been produced
in the Liubao township since the 18th century by wet piling green tea to ferment. Like
pu-erh tea, Liubao tea is also called “drinkable antique” because of the similarity of
their processing methods. This tea appears dark and glossy. It is partly processed into
tea cakes and tea bricks via compaction, while some are rolled and compressed into
large and small baskets, allowing slow natural fermentation. The liquor is dark red and
sweet with the fragrances of betel nut and litchi, and has sweet aftertaste. In traditional
Chinese medicine, it is believed that Liubaocha can eliminate excess dampness during
Meiyu (monsoon) season in southern China. Like most dark teas, this tea is a
particularly excellent digestion aid, which is suitable for consumption before, after and
during meals.
Liubao tea has 16 major types of fruity flavor and various aromas, which only
appear during natural fermentation and mark different production years. The best
Liubao tea is aged and includes golden fungus spores. Even cooking will not make this
dark tea taste bitter. Putting the tea in a teapot to boil will draw more flavor and
nutritions out of the leaves. The boiled liquor is characterized by red color, strength and
mellowness. Just as Guangxi is the center of some ethnic minorities in China, Liubao
tea has various package styles, such as wicker basket, bamboo basket, cloth basket, and
so on.
Liubao tea has a long history and was given as a tribute to Qing emperor
Jiaqing. Many Guangdong laborers who emigrated to Southeast Asia in the 19th century
drank this tea to counter humid and hot weather.
Liubao tea was carried by ships across Zhu River, finally setting off on its
overseas voyage from Guangzhou, Guangdong Province. Because of the higher content
of functional compounds than other teas, this tea is now highly popular all over the
world.

Liubao Tea Tree Varieties

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 The tea trees commonly grown in Wuzhou City belong to the Liubao Tea
population, which is a local variety in Guangxi. Historical records show that Liubao Tea
is a mid-leaf variety of the sexual reproduction series, originally from Liubao Town,
Cangwu County. It is primarily found in counties such as Cangwu, Hexian, Mengshan,
and Zhaoping in Guangxi. Liubao Tea is known for its bright red color, mellow and
refreshing taste, pure aroma, and long aging process.
With the ongoing technological development, people have come to realize the
significance of superior varieties in production. The demand for excellent varieties has
been on the rise due to the advantages of uniform traits, even germination, regular
canopy, suitability for tea garden mechanization, increased yield, improved quality, as
well as strong resistance to adversity, pests and diseases. Therefore, the breeding of
high-quality tea tree varieties for Liubao Tea production is of utmost importance.

Biological Characteristics of Liubao Tea Trees

According to the standard definition, any tea tree used for Liubao Tea
production is a variety or lineage of Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze in Cangwu County,
Guangxi, which belongs to the Theaceae family and the Camellia genus in the plant
classification system. These plants are perennial evergreen shrubs, small trees, or
standard-sized trees. Shrub-type tea trees do not have a distinct main trunk and grow to
a bushy form. In their natural state, they can reach a height of 1.5 to 3 meters, while
cultivated tea trees are approximately 0.8 meters tall. Small tree-type forms have a more
pronounced main trunk but the branches are not high above the ground. Tree-type
forms are tall with an obvious main trunk, reaching a height of 3 to 5 meters in their
natural state, with some able to grow up to 10 meters in the wild having a trunk
diameter exceeding 1 meter. The main roots of cultivated tea trees reach a depth of 50
to 100 cm, with the lateral and fine roots mainly distributed in shallow depth between 5
to 40 cm, while deeper roots extend below 50 cm to absorb nutrients that other plants
cannot. Tea trees exhibit strong regenerative ability, with vigorous branching
characteristics. Seedlings initially show single-axis branching, which changes to multiple-
axis branching as they mature, and they can sprout multiple times throughout the year.
Well-managed tea trees can have a lifespan of several decades, or even over a
century, and naturally grown tea trees can thrive for up to several centuries. The life
cycle of a tea tree typically involves five major developmental stages, including seed
stage, seedling stage, juvenile stage, adult stage, and aging stage.
(1) Seed Stage: This stage spans the development of a fertilized egg into seed
until the tea seedlings germinate. Ripe seeds are characterized by brown or purplish-
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brown seed coat, dark brown outer seed coat and full and crisp cotyledons, which start
to split from the back.
(2) Seedling Stage: This stage, which lasts for 2-3 years, begins with seed
germination and continues until the tea seedlings emerge from the soil, develop 3 to 5
leaves, and the apical bud becomes dormant for the first time, or from the regeneration
of the nutrient body to the formation of a complete plant.
(3) Juvenile Stage: This period is from the first dormancy to the formal
production of the tea tree, lasting for about 3 to 4 years. Proper shaping and pruning
are essential during the juvenile stage to cultivate sturdy main branches and create a
dense branching tree structure, laying the foundation for high yields.
(4) Adult Stage: This stage begins when the tea tree enters formal production
and continues until the first rejuvenation and renovation. During this period, the tea tree
exhibits rapid metabolism, vigorous growth and high vitality. It is the most valuable
stage during the life of a tea tree. Attention should be paid to a proper combination of
harvesting and care, crown development, and fertilization and pruning management.
(5) Aging Stage: This covers the period from the first rejuvenation to gradual
overall aging, culminating in the death of the plant. The duration of aging varies greatly
due to changes in ecological conditions and the influence of cultivation techniques.
Typically, it extends to over 100 years, with the economic production lifespan usually
ranging from 40 to 60 years. Notably, pruning and reharvesting can rejuvenate aging tea
trees and slow down the aging process.

Key Technical Points in the Processing of Liubao Tea

Critical points for the pile fermentation of compressed Liubao tea: Depending
on the moisture content of the tea leaves, it should be determined whether to add water
to reach a certain level of moisture before steaming. The tea is steamed in a steamer for
a few minutes until the leaves become soft. Afterwards, the tea is allowed to cool
slightly, then pile fermentation is performed. The tea is piled to a height of 60 to 80 cm.
After 2 to 3 days, the pile is turned once to release heat, then the pile temperature is
monitored daily. When the temperature rises to a certain level, the pile is immediately
turned to release heat. It has been proven that controlling the pile temperature within a
certain range results in better quality. After 10 to 15 days, the tea leaves turn reddish-
brown or dark brown in color, emit a mellow aroma, and are ready for re-steaming,
pressing and aging.

Key points for the pile fermentation of loose Liubao Tea: Generally, cold-water
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pile fermentation is applied for loose Liubao tea. The moisture content of tea leaves
must reach a certain level, and the tea is piled to a height of 50 to 70 cm. The day after
adding water for pile fermentation, the pile is turned once, and then the pile
temperature is diligently checked daily. When the pile temperature exceeds a certain
level, the pile is turned immediately to release heat. Water is added again 5 to 7 times as
needed until the moisture content of the tea leaves drops below 15%, at which point
they can be set up for aging.
Pile fermentation is considered as a core process in developing the unique
qualities of Liubao tea. Its purpose is to promote the fermentation of raw tea leaves
through a certain degree of fermentation, resulting in the characteristic features of
black, mellow, pure aroma, and ‘bright red soup’ color. This essentially involves a series
of chemical changes, primarily driven by tea polyphenols, under the influence of
humidity, heat, microorganisms, and enzymes.
Research on the practical production of Liubao tea has shown that temperature
and moisture are the principal factors influencing microbial activity during pile
fermentation. In a given environment, tea leaves with higher moisture content tend to
be the first to develop mold. Moreover, within the same pile of tea, sections with higher
moisture content are also more prone to molding. According to the Key Technical
Points for Compressed Liubao Tea, it is generally packed into bamboo baskets, which
have the following specifications: a height of 57 cm, a diameter of 53 cm, round mouth
and square bottom. Before re-steaming, the weight of tea that should be put into the
steamer is calculated based on the capacity of the bamboo basket (usually containing 30
to 60 kg) and the moisture content (16% to 18%). Then, the tea is re-steamed in the
steamer in three portions until soft and slightly cooled before pressing it into the basket.
The pressing is controlled to ensure a balance between tight and loose packing. After
compressing three layers, the basket is covered and allowed to air dry naturally and age
during storage.
Please note that the information provided here pertains to the specific process
of growing and processing Liubao tea, hence the details may vary for different types of
tea or according to regional practices.

Special Technical Points for the Processing of Liubao Tea

(1) Double Steaming and Double Pressing: This process for Liubao tea is a
traditional hot fermentation technique relative to modern cold-water fermentation.
Specifically, tea leaves are steamed using boiler steam, slightly cooled after steaming until
the leaf temperature drops to around 80°C, and then subjected to pile fermentation.
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This technique quickly provides the high-temperature and high-humidity conditions to
accelerate tea leaf fermentation, the conversion of tea polyphenols, and hasten the
attainment of the desired reddish-brown color, mellow aroma and other quality
attributes. When building the pile, it is essential to press the edges tightly while keeping
the center loose. This constitutes the first steaming and pressing stage.
For packaging, the semi-finished tea after the initial pile fermentation is
subjected to re-steaming until the leaf temperature drops below 80 . The tea is then
placed in baskets and machine-pressed while keeping the edges tight and the center
loose. Each basket is layered three times and the top is sealed, which marks the end of
the double steaming and double pressing process.
(2) Cave Aging: Research has shown that various microbial populations
participate in the production of Liubao tea during the critical processes of pile
fermentation and aging. These microbial populations are closely related to the unique
geographical, climatic and soil conditions of Wuzhou City. As a result, these microbial
populations, which are non-replicable and non-transferable, play a decisive role in the
quality formation of Liubao tea. Traditional cave aging, which maintains constant
temperature (20-26 ) and humidity (70-80%) all year round, allows the dominant
microbial populations in Liubao tea production to be preserved and purified. This helps
maintain the quality of Liubao tea over the long term and imparts distinct geographical
characteristics to this tea.
(3) Wooden Board Dry Storage: Based on the experience of tea professionals,
the storage location for Liubao tea does not require excessive airflow (i.e., ventilation).
In general, Liubao tea in a relatively complete fermentation state, after being left to air
for a period of time to remove the pile odor, should not be stored in overly ventilated
environments. In fact, over-ventilation can be detrimental to stored tea. Meanwhile,
although proper aeration is essential, excessively high ventilation is not favorable either.
Tea warehouses are typically constructed using boards made from wood that
has been boiled in tea soup, which play a crucial role in providing an environment
conducive to tea storage. First, wood is an organic porous material that regulates
temperature and humidity. When the air is humid, it can absorb moisture and reduce
environmental humidity; at the same time, when the external humidity is low, wood
releases moisture to prevent the air from becoming excessively dry, maintaining the
activity of microorganisms within the wooden board storage. Second, wood has a
specific porous structure, along with a large surface area, exhibiting strong adsorption
properties: it can adsorb tea aromas and transfer them between different batches of tea,
ensuring the stability of tea aroma. Additionally, wood that has been boiled in tea soup
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and dried contains substances from the tea soup adhering to its porous surface
structure. This provides sufficient nutrients and space for microbial attachment and
reproduction, an essential effect of the aging process of Liubao tea.
As seen above, the proper balance of ventilation is crucial for tea storage. The
use of wooden board warehouses helps create a microenvironment that is favorable for
tea aging, providing stable temperature and humidity and a place for the development
of characteristic microbial populations.

Quality Management of Liubao Tea Processing

For the consistent quality of Liubao tea, it is important to establish a robust
product quality inspection and hygiene management system with traceable quality safety
management. Liubao tea processing companies should have dedicated departments for
these purposes, and their employees must possess the relevant professional knowledge
and qualifications.
At the key production stages, such as the procurement of fresh leaves and raw
tea materials, processing, storage, and transportation, quality control measures need to
be implemented and recorded. Fresh leaves, raw tea materials, additives, and products
must be assessed by quality inspectors by batch before proceeding to the next
production process, packaging, storage, and distribution. Comprehensive records must
be maintained for the procurement, processing, storage, transportation, warehousing,
distribution, and sales of fresh leaves and raw tea materials, and the original records
should be preserved for over three years. Each batch of products should have a
processing batch number or series number that should be used continuously until the
final sale. Additionally, proper sales records should be kept.

Changes in the Components of Liubao Tea during Processing

Modern processed Liubao tea, especially that produced using post-fermentation
methods, has a dark brown appearance, bright red and concentrated infusion, smooth
and mellow taste, and pure aged aroma. The aging process considerably influences the
aroma, taste and mouthfeel of Liubao tea, making the storage time a crucial factor
affecting market price. Research has shown that different storage periods have varying
effects on the quality of Liubao tea and its inherent components, such as tea
polyphenols, amino acids, catechins, theaflavins, and thearubigins.
The analysis of the contents of the above components in Liubao tea extracts
stored for different durations (1 year, 2 years, 3 years, 4 years, 5 years, 7 years, 8 years,
and 10 years) revealed that the content of catechins increases with prolonged aging,
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ranging from 0.19% to 0.42%. Besides, the content of theaflavins ranges from 1.26% to
3.24%, and the content of thearubigins ranges from 9.49% to 16.29%. Among these,
the content of catechins, theaflavins and thearubigins increases with aging, while the
content of polyphenols and total soluble sugars decreases as the aging period is
extended. Notably, the thearubigin content significantly rises with the aging process.
Researchers have also conducted a study on Liubao tea samples from the same
manufacturer and storage location but with different storage durations (2012, 2009,
2006). They found that older Liubao tea samples had lower tea polyphenol content,
indicating that tea polyphenol content decreased with storage time. This reduction was
attributed to the influence of environmental factors (such as temperature and humidity)
during the storage process, leading to oxidation, hydrolysis and degradation processes
affecting the tea polyphenol content. Caffeine, which primarily contributes to the
bitterness of tea infusion, also exhibited a decreasing trend with the length of storage
period. During the tea fermentation process, caffeine combines with polyphenols in tea
leaves, forming unique, flavorful polymeric compounds. This binding reduces the
astringency associated with polyphenols. Furthermore, the content of water-soluble
extracts in Liubao tea increased with the storage duration, with older tea samples
containing higher levels. The quantity of water-soluble extracts plays a role in defining
tea quality and influences the thickness and intensity of tea infusions; therefore, it
serves as a vital indicator for tea quality evaluation. The longer the storage period, the
higher the levels of water-soluble extracts in Liubao tea, resulting in denser and more
flavorful tea infusions.

Healthy Compounds in Liubao Tea

As a typical and unique dark tea variety, the health benefits of Liubao tea have
attracted increasing attention from researchers. Undoubtedly, an objective understanding
of Liubao tea as a healthy beverage can be attained by studying the effective
components, functional active ingredients, quality characteristics, and health benefits of
this kind of tea.
Due to the unique processing techniques of Liubao tea involving secondary
fermentation, double steaming and double pressing, its chemical composition and
content markedly differ from other types of tea and even from other varieties of dark
tea. Under appropriate storage conditions, aged Liubao tea exhibits not only a golden
flowery but also a distinctive betel nut aroma. Moreover, the material composition of
Liubao tea varies significantly depending on the storage conditions and the duration
of aging.
Research on the physical and chemical properties of Liubao tea has investigated
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the water extraction contents of Liubao tea of different production stages, including the
raw materials, post-fermented and aged Liubao tea (2 years, 5 years and 7 years), as well
as ripe Pu-erh tea and green tea tips. The water extraction contents were found to be
53.61%, 54.36%, 55.82%, 56.74%, 58.83%, 43.91%, and 47.12%, respectively, for these
groups, indicating that Liubao tea had a higher water extraction content compared to
ripe Pu-erh tea and green tea tips. With the years of aging, the total amino acid content
in Liubao tea decreased from 3.67% to 3.09%, which was higher than ripe Pu-erh tea
but lower than green tea tips. The soluble sugar content decreased slightly with aging,
but the change was not significant, and green tea had a higher soluble sugar content
than black tea.
The chemical composition analysis of Liubao tea water extracts showed that
the total phenol content accounted for approximately 18.2% of the total dry weight of
the tea leaves. The total soluble sugar content was 1.2%, the total flavonoid content was
2.2%, the total free amino acid content was 2.4%, and the caffeine content was 1.9%.
Compared to the water extracts of green tea, Liubao tea water extracts had relatively
lower levels of tea polyphenols, flavonoid compounds and caffeine, while they had
relatively higher levels of free amino acids and soluble sugars.
The characteristic components of Liubao tea differ significantly between post-
fermented tea and fresh tea leaves. The average content of water-soluble extracts in
Liubao tea is approximately 32%, whereas that in fresh tea leaves is higher at 46.41%,
constituting a notable difference. The content of tea polyphenols in Liubao tea extracts
ranges from 49.24% to 60.12%, while that in fresh tea leaves is much higher at 82.18%.
This is because during the post-fermentation process of Liubao tea, a series of
oxidation, polymerization and condensation reactions occur, leading to a reduction in
polyphenolic compounds in the final product. Liubao tea extract has a maximum total
amino acid content of 7.54%, whereas that in the extract of fresh tea leaves is 6.33%,
which is approximately 12% lower. The content of soluble sugars in Liubao tea is
approximately 3.8%, while fresh tea leaves contain 2.39%. This trend is similar to that in
Pu-erh tea. In Liubao tea, the content of total polyphenols, total flavonoids, caffeine,
and free catechins in fresh tea leaves is higher than after post-fermentation, while that
of total soluble sugars, total free amino acids, and theophylline content significantly
increases during the fermentation process.

Quality Evaluation Standards

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 Brewing and tasting Liubao tea should begin with the selection of tea leaves.
Some Liubao tea enthusiasts prefer lightly fermented types (represented by early
processed teas), while others lean toward heavily fermented ones (represented by
refined teas). However, for a more detailed evaluation, it is important to note that lightly
and heavily fermented Liubao teas have significant differences in appearance, infusion
color, aroma, taste, and aftertaste. Therefore, they cannot be simply compared to
determine their quality, as it would be more of a simplified than a scientifically rigorous
approach.
Liubao teas made using these two different processing methods should rather
be evaluated separately. Notably, the definition of a "good" Liubao tea depends on the
preferences of the drinker because individuals have their own likes regarding tea
varieties and flavors. For example, some prefer traditional while others favor modern
Liubao tea flavors; there are even those who enjoy related tea derivatives like Liubao
flower teas, tea fruits, tea candies, or tea rice drinks. Therefore, tea quality primarily
depends on the personal choice of the drinker, as a Liubao tea that suits one's taste
might not fit someone else’s.
However, standardized quality evaluation criteria do exist, especially for Liubao
teas produced according to specified standards. These criteria are used for both
subjective and objective evaluations. Subjective evaluation involves using everyday tea
brewing tools and methods to assess the tea, while objective evaluation utilizes
standardized assessment instruments and follows sensory evaluation protocols.
According to the evaluation guidelines, one can first appreciate the dry tea
leaves before brewing. Different types of tea leaves have specific requirements for
appearance, and the quality in this aspect directly reflects the quality of the raw tea
material and is closely related to the tea processing method. Different shapes of tea
leaves have different evaluation standards. For high-quality loose Liubao tea, the dry
leaves should be robust, tightly rolled appear shiny. After being aged in suitable
conditions for several years, dry leaves of Liubao tea can take on a reddish-brown or
brown color, sometimes even forming a natural "bloom" on the surface. Furthermore,
as Liubao is a unique type of dark tea, similar to other dark teas, transformations of
polyphenols, aldehydes, alcohols, lipids, and other compounds in the tea leaves occur
when the tea is stored under the right conditions for an extended period.
Notwithstanding, Liubao tea exhibits unique quality characteristics; aged Liubao teas
may have aromas such as betel nut, woody, medicinal, ginseng, orchid, and other
fragrances.

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After brewing, the color of the tea infusion is of utmost importance when assessing the
quality of Liubao tea. Typically, the infusion can be light red, orange-red, orange, bright
red, deep red, dark red, or even wine color. Aged Liubao tea undergoes color changes,
becoming progressively brighter and clearer when stored under suitable conditions.
When evaluating the infusion color, the aroma of the tea is equally important. After
steeping, Liubao tea can produce fragrances such as aged aroma, betel nut, medicinal,
ginseng, woody, and smoked pine, among others. Aroma evaluation includes both hot
and cold smelling. However, the sensitivity of sense of smell can vary among
individuals, meaning that some evaluators may detect aromas that others might not.
Thus, olfactory sensitivity is a decisive factor in aroma evaluation.
Besides aroma, the most important criterion for assessing tea quality is taste.
Newly produced Liubao tea that has not reached a certain level of aging may have a
slightly astringent and bitter taste yet with noticeable sweetness in the aftertaste. In
contrast, Liubao tea stored for an extended time under suitable conditions undergoes
transformations, in which compounds like lipids, amino acids and vitamins may be
degraded or converted into water-insoluble substances. This leads to a purer, more
robust, smooth, and sweet taste. High-quality aged Liubao tea should exhibit
characteristics such as mellow, smooth, thick, sweet, lively, and pleasant. If the tea
infusion tastes moldy, off, peculiar, harsh, scratchy, sour, or exhibits other undesirable
flavors, this suggests the subpar quality of tea.
After brewing, the assessment of leaf appearance is a further critical factor in
evaluating the quality of Liubao tea. This mainly comprises the tenderness, color and
uniformity of brewed tea leaves. When the tenderness is appropriate, the tea leaves
contain more leaf buds, are soft, tender, and have elasticity. Tea leaves with lower
tenderness might have more stems, larger and coarser leaves, and lack elasticity. The
ideal leaf color for Liubao tea is black-brown with a glossy appearance, followed by
copper-brown. Undesirable signs of leaf appearance include uneven coloration,
carbonization, rotting resembling mud, or unexpanded leaves. In conclusion, Liubao tea
can be assessed based on the quality of dry tea leaves, infusion color, aroma, taste, and
the appearance of brewed leaves, encompassing the main criteria for a comprehensive
evaluation of the quality and characteristics of Liubao tea.

Sensory Evaluation of Liubao Tea – Methods and Steps

While standardized criteria exist for tea evaluation, the actual implementation
of tea tasting relies on the tea taster's expertise. Sensory evaluation can assess the shape,
color, aroma, and taste of tea leaves using the taster's senses of sight, smell, taste, and
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touch. This method is essential for determining the quality and grade of tea leaves and
plays a crucial role in guiding tea production, improving tea processing techniques,
enhancing tea quality, setting grading and pricing, and promoting tea trade. In the case
of Liubao tea, the quality of aged tea can profoundly impact development in the tea
industry.
However, the accuracy of sensory evaluation depends on environmental
conditions, the equipment utilized, and the correctness of the evaluation method. The
evaluation process can be broken down into the following steps: leaf assessment,
brewing, aroma assessment, infusion color assessment, taste evaluation, and leaf bottom
assessment.

1. Leaf Assessment (External Evaluation):

- This step involves examining the dry tea leaves based on their appearance,
shape, color, uniformity, and searching for the presence of any foreign materials.
- For this step, the tea leaves should be evenly distributed in a tea sample tray.
- When analyzing the shape of the tea leaves, they are rotated to ensure the
even distribution of leaves based on their weight, size, length, and width.
- The tea leaves are evaluated based on their appearance and uniformity.

2. Aroma Assessment (Odor Evaluation):

- This step involves assessing the tea aroma by smelling.

- A specialized tea evaluation cup is used to hold the tea for this task.
- The aromas evaluated may include the intensity and clarity of scents like aged
aroma, betel nut aroma, smoked pine aroma, medicinal aroma, and more.
- Aroma evaluation can be further divided into hot and cold smelling.

3. Infusion Color Assessment:

- The color, depth, brightness, and clarity of the tea infusion is assessed.
- The above step is done by observing the tea infusion in the evaluation cup.
- It is noted whether the infusion appears bright or contains a glossy sheen.
- It is checked whether the infusion is clear or cloudy.

4. Taste Evaluation:
- The taste and mouthfeel of the tea is judged, including its viscosity, purity,
intensity, bitterness, astringency, richness, sweetness, smoothness, and overall palatability.
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 - The tea should be brewed at an appropriate temperature, generally around
50 , to avoid overwhelming the taste buds.
- A tea spoon can be used to take a small sip and then let the tea wash over the
palate.
- The various aspects of the taste are noted along with how they develop on the
palate.
5. Leaf Bottom Assessment (Internal Evaluation):
- After completing the previous assessments, the leaves left at the bottom of
the cup are examined for aspects like color, tenderness, uniformity, and fermentation
level.
- For this step, the leaves must have fully expanded within the cup.
- The overall appearance and condition of the leaves are observed.
It is important to follow the above sensory evaluation steps systematically to
ensure accurate assessments of Liubao tea. Sensory evaluation not only helps to grade
and price Liubao tea but also enhances the appreciation and understanding of its unique
characteristics.

Brewing Method of Liubao Tea

To enjoy a good cup of Liubao tea, it is essential to harmonize several aspects
associated with brewing: the tea leaves, water quality, the utensils, and the tea-drinking
environment. Furthermore, one must employ the proper brewing methods to
authentically showcase the unique characteristics of Liubao tea.
Over time, the methods of tea brewing evolved from Tang Dynasty's tea
preparation techniques, to Song Dynasty's powdered tea, to the use of loose tea leaves
after the abandonment of compressed tea during the Ming Dynasty. These brewing
methods have changed significantly throughout history, transitioning from a medicinal
beverage to boiled tea, and finally to the contemporary methods of using teapots, lidded
bowls, elegant glass cups, and tea-brewing machines.

Teapot Brewing
- Prepare a teapot with a capacity of 200 to 250 milliliters and 10 to 15 grams
of Liubao tea.
- Preheat the teapot by rinsing it with boiling water and then add the tea leaves.
- "Rinse" or "wake up" the tea by pouring boiling water over it and discarding
this water two times before the official steeping begins. This step removes dust and
impurities, cleans the tea leaves, and enhances their aroma.
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 - Pay attention to steeping time. The first few infusions should be brief to avoid
overly strong and dark liquor ("soy sauce" liquor). The steeping time and number of
infusions should be adjusted according to individual preferences and the quality of tea.

Gaiwan Brewing:
- Prepare a covered bowl with a capacity of approximately 250 milliliters and 5
to 15 grams of Liubao tea.
- Preheat the covered bowl by rinsing it with boiling water and then add the tea
leaves.
- "Rinse" or "wake up" the tea with two quick infusions and discard them to
remove dust and impurities.
- Control the steeping time and ensure that the liquor is fully filtered with each
infusion, so as to avoid compromising the quality of subsequent brews.

Elegant Glass Cup Brewing:

- Prepare an elegant glass cup with 15 to 20 grams of Liubao tea.
- Place the tea leaves in the inner chamber of the cup.
- "Rinse" the tea with two quick infusions.
- Observe the color of the tea liquor through the glass cup and adjust the
steeping time based on personal preference.

Boiling Tea (Traditional Method):**

- This method dates back to ancient times when tea leaves were boiled directly.
Nowadays, modern tea-making appliances like tea-brewing machines or electric kettles
are used for this purpose.
- Prepare Liubao tea either in tea bags or to directly add as tea leaves to the pot
or kettle.
- Boil water and add it to the tea machine or kettle.
- Add the tea to the machine or kettle and determine the steeping time.
- Distribute the tea evenly among drinkers when ready.
Different methods allow one to brew Luibao tea according to their preferences.
Regardless of the method, the following points should be remembered: rinse the leaves, and
control steeping times and the number of infusions to reveal the unique qualities of Liubao
tea. Boiling tea is a traditional method and will be chosen by those seeking a traditional tea-
drinking experience. While all methods have their unique characteristics, the choice should
ultimately depend on personal preference.
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 Key Points for Brewing Liubao Tea
Mastering the basics of brewing Liubao tea is essential to ensure that the color,
aroma, and flavor are perfectly presented in the tea soup for all occasions, such as a
gathering with friends.
The choice of appropriate teaware is fundamental to the proper brewing of
Liubao tea. While various teapots and lidded bowls are suitable for this purpose, purple
clay pots and Nixing pottery pots are among the more popular choices. These pots
possess excellent breathability and heat retention due to the presence of pores inside,
preserving the aroma and aged characteristics of Liubao tea. Therefore, the ideal
options for brewing comprise purple clay and Nixing pots.
In addition, covered bowls are suitable for their ability to reveal the genuine
taste of Liubao tea. Their simple and elegant style best showcases the intense red color
of aged Liubao tea, making them the most commonly used brewing vessels in modern
tea culture. However, using a covered bowl requires the mastery of some unique
brewing techniques to avoid burning oneself.
Apart from purple clay and Nixing pots, large tea pots with style such as Yixing
barrel pots are also suitable for brewing Liubao tea. Since Liubao tea benefits from
using larger teaware to emphasize its color, aroma and flavor qualities, large pots,
especially those made from earthenware, complement the rich history and deep aged
characteristics of Liubao tea. These are also ideal for brewing many servings for larger
groups of people.
When brewing Liubao tea, the water temperature is of paramount importance,
which should be at boiling point. Low water temperature will result in weak tea aroma,
undesirably mild taste and low fragrance, negatively affecting the overall quality of the
tea, especially for well-aged teas. To enhance and maintain the temperature inside the
pot, it should be rinsed with boiling water before brewing. However, prolonged or
excessive boiling should be avoided as it may deplete the water oxygen level, affecting
the tea's flavor.
Furthermore, the quantity of added tea leaves should be moderate. While the
amount of tea leaves varies depending on the number of drinkers, for a gathering of
three to five people, a general guideline is to use 10 to 15 grams of Liubao tea or
approximately 2/5 of the teapot or the container's capacity. The exact amount may vary
based on the tea vessel and individual preferences. Loose tea leaves can be used in
slightly greater quantities, while the amount of compressed tea may be slightly less. The
amount should be adjusted to suit one’s taste.
To bring out the pure aroma and balanced flavor of Liubao tea, it is essential to
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"rinse" or "awaken" the tea. After the initial quick infusion with boiling water, the tea
soup should be immediately poured out, and the teapot or covered bowl should be
opened to let the tea "breathe." Thus, the purity of the aroma can be assessed to
identify any unwanted odors. If the aroma is not sufficiently pure, another rinse should
be performed until it becomes satisfactory. This "awakening" step can be performed
one to three times, but it should be swift and performed with high water temperature,
usually within 3 to 5 seconds.
The brewing time should be adjusted according to the specific tea leaves used.
Generally, compressed tea can be steeped for a slightly shorter period, while loose tea
can be steeped for a bit longer. The brewing time should be adjusted based on the
amount of tea leaves used and the number of infusions. For the initial infusions, high
temperature and quick steeping are necessary, and the brewing time can be gradually
extended as the number of infusions increases. To achieve the desired strength of tea,
one should pay attention to personal preferences and adapt the brewing time. Also,
water temperature and the number of infusions must be considered to fine-tune the
brewing time for the best quality.
In the "awakening" process, the tea leaves absorb heat and moisture, making
the subsequent extraction process quicker. Therefore, the first infusion should be
relatively short, then the infusion time may be adjusted in subsequent infusions to
control the tea soup concentration and flavor, in order to ensure that Liubao tea is
brewed to perfection.

Hengxian
Guangxi is considered the home of Chinese jasmine. Jasmine cultivation in
Hengxian County is notable both for its high quality and quantity, and it dates back to
over four hundred years. Hengxian is not a vast place; however, the planting area of the
China Jasmine Garden is huge and can even seem endless. There are more than 50
different varieties of jasmine, with the color of the flower as white, pink, yellow, and so
on.
The jasmine flower can be used as an ingredient in perfumes and tea; the
neutral flavor of green tea makes it easier to absorb jasmine scent. Farmers in Hengxian
are skilled at infusing green tea with jasmine aroma. The picking of jasmine for scenting
tea is a sophisticated process; the flower type is relatively small, and it must be picked
before the flowers bloom.

The blooming of jasmine begins in April and lasts until September. The flowers
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open at night and close in the morning, so it is also important that scenting is done
overnight. The entire process is laborsome and often exhausts the tea workers, but the
results give farmers satisfaction and think that the hardship is worthwhile. The process
may look easy to a layperson but the ideal conditions such as timing are controlled by
tea-making masters who learn the craft for many years. After tasting a cup of high-
quality jasmine tea, the clear tea soup flows between the lips and teeth, and will fill the
mouth with a beguiling sweet fragrance.

Taiwan
Taiwan is a charming land, which has ideal conditions for growing tea due to its
location: mountainous terrain and a temperature that never falls below 10 (50°F). This
region has built a reputation for the production of the world’s finest teas, where farmers
live in harmony with the local geography and climate. These plants grow slower due to
the colder temperature, stable climate and smaller amount of sunshine caused by
mountain fog. This leads to more minerals being available for each tea leaf, and the
leaves having a lusher green color. Tea production in Taiwan is focused rather more on
quality than quantity. Just as fresh wine is different to any other wine, Taiwan tea is
markedly different to teas from other parts of China.
The first tea trees were planted by immigrants from Fujian province. In 1855,
Lin Fengchi took Qingxin oolong tea trees from the Wuyi Mountains and planted them
on Dongding Mountain. This area is now famed for its tea and is covered almost
entirely by tea plantations. In this mountain, tea trees are exposed to a cool environment
and shaded by mist. This terroir produces tea that is less bitter, and has a rich, unique
character that is fruity and floral with a long finish that lingers in the mouth. This is
what explains the essence of Dongding oolong tea.
One of the most famous and rarest oolong teas form Xinzhu County is
Dongfang Meiren (Oriental Beauty). This tea encourage the accourence of a common
pest, the tea green leafhopper, to feed on leaves, stems, and buds. At the site of the bite,
the tea juice is released, which causes a fermentation sheet to occur long before harvest.
Dongfang Meiren is highly appreciated by connoisseurs for its deep reddish gold liquor
and fruity, honey-sweet and smooth taste.
Another tea from Taiwan, Jinxuan oolong is a hybrid cultivar and is registered
as Taicha No.12. The reason why Alishan Jinxuan oolong is also called Alishan Milk
oolong is the light fragrance of milk and cream that comes out when this tea is brewed.
The term Alishan is the name of a mountain in Taiwan, which is famous for growing
tea because of its high elevation. The height influences the quality of the tea. Jinxuan
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oolong is lightly fermented and roasted, and produces a lovely golden liquor and silky
smooth flavor. In fact, the famous milky aroma is often described as “elusive”, and the
tasting spectrum varies from peach, floral and slightly grass notes to savory flavor. This
tea can do well with Gongfu style brewing and shorter infusions to bring out the subtle
differences.
Taiwan is throughly immersed in its tea culture, which is an important part of
daily life for entire families. Tea is sold on every street and served in tea houses at a
variety of social occasions. Almost all tea produced in Taiwan is consumed locally, and a
lot of pu-erh tea is imported from Yunnan. Taiwan is also famed for its tea contests:
hundreds of teas are compared by the most highly respected professionals to choose a
champion tea. Tea farmers compete for honor and reputation, and such awards will not
only bring value in themselves, but the inevitable increase in price.
Most teas are drunk in Taiwan while using Gongfu brewing equipment. A
special brewing equipment that can be found nowhere else is the sniffer cup, which is a
slim cup designed to let the drinker smell the aroma of the tea. Tea is first brewed in
Gai Wan or Zisha teapot with 120-150 mL capacity. It is simmered in boiling water for
10-15 s intially, and then the brewing time is adjusted according to individual taste. If
the liquor is tasteless, one can also change between teas. Advantage: This is the most
commonly used brewing method, which is not only suitable for drinking alone, but also
for sharing with two to three friends while chatting, for a more fragrant taste under this
relaxed and cheerful atmosphere. Disadvantage: It is a challenge for tea lovers. This tea
tastes rather light if the brewing time is too short, and will be bitter if the brewing time
is too long; hence, brewing time is of utmost importance.

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Part 3 Health
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Tea is a pleasant, popular, socially accepted, economical, and safe drink that was initially
used in medicine, later as a beverage, and is now a potential industrial and
pharmaceutical raw material. The bioactivity and health effectson health are the main
reasons why tea has become one of the most widely consumed beveragesin the world.
In ancient China, tea was believed to have various physiological and therapeutic
effects, such as causing less sleep, calming down, clearing sight, relieving headache,
quenching thirst, dissipating fever, detoxification, helping digestion, reducing obesity,
diuresis, as a pectoral for chest diseases, invigorating, strengthening teeth, et
al.Interestingly, tea drinking also changes the manner in which people consumed water.
In ancient times, when people felt thirsty they would simply drink natural, unprocessed
water that might contain pathogenic microbes. Since then, the use of boiling water to
make tea infusions has helped people avoid a variety of infectious diseases.
The invention of tea is so ancient that the original discovery can no longer be
traced. According to Chineselegend, approximately 5000-6000 years ago, King Shen
Nong (known as the father of agriculture and medicine) decreed that his subjects
should boiled water before drinking for health reasons. One day, as Shen Nong boiled
water under a tea tree, a light breeze blew some of the tea leaves into the container of
boiling water. Upon drinking the infusion,the king marveled at its delicious taste
andimmediately felt invigorated. Thus,tea had been invented.
Not only was tea widely accepted as a beverage in ancient China, it was also
used as a medicine to detoxify or to cure diseases,and recognized as a tonic to maintain
fitness and human health. According toShen Nong’s Herbal Classic (Ben Cao Jing), tea
acts as “an antidote to herbal poisons, as a cure for swelling and abscesses in the head,2
and as a sleep inhibitor.”
In Chinese traditional medicine, tea is used alone or in combination with other
herbs to treat a variety of disorders. Prior to the Tang dynasty (A.D. 618-907), tea was
an imperial drink reserved only for the rich. However, owing to the health-promoting
effects of tea observed during 300-year period, the tea industry underwent rapid
development, and the beverage became widely available to the general Chinese
population and a component of daily life. It also changed from being a purely medicinal
beverage to a social drink consumed by family and friends. Tang poet, Lu Tong,
described the pleasant physical and spiritual emotions associated with tea. In the so-
called “The seven cups of tea,” he wrote that tea could moisten the lip and throat, break
loneliness, and penetrate one’s barren entrails.Moreover, tea could inspire one to the
realm of immortals, riding a sweet breeze and wafting away.
It is oft-quotedthat “The tea industry in China was developed in the Tang

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dynasty and flourished in the Song dynasty.” By the Song dynasty (A.D. 960-1279), tea
had become a necessity of life for all citizens including high officials, the intelligentsia,
and common people. According to historical records, tea planting was widespread in
southern China during the Song dynasty,and its distribution covered approximately
three-fourths of the territory of China in the twelfth century, indicating the popularity
of tea consumption during that period.
The famous medical and pharmacological scientist Li Shizhen completed the
Compendium of Materia Medica (Ben Cao Gang Mu) in 1578 during the Ming dynasty.
Therein, tea was described as “Tea, bitter and cold in nature, capable of lowering
excessive internal heat.” in this monograph. Drinking of tea was considered beneficial
to health. In the book TeaManual (Cha Pu) writtenby Zhu Quan duringthe Ming
Dynasty, the author concluded that “Drinking genuine tea helps quench the thirst, aids
digestion, checks phlegm, wards off drowsiness, dispels boredom and dissolves greasy
foods.” Since then, the understanding that tea is beneficial to human health has been
well recognized not only in China but also around the world.
The transition of tea usage in traditional Chinese medicine to modern medicine
began in the 1980s. In a general spirit of “returning to nature,” there has been a wealth
of research assessing the effective components of tea that might prevent or control
various diseases. Additional, tea consumption continues to increase as a result of
accumulated scientific evidence regarding its beneficial effects on human health.
Modern medical research has found that tea displays a wide spectrum of bioactivity and
therapeutic effectiveness in a number of experimental disease models.According to the
database of Web of Science, more than 1000 papers worldwide have been published in
academic journals each year since 2020. Moreover,many substantial and encouraging
findings have been verified during the past 40 years, which together provide a solid
foundation for the development of the tea industry and the promotion of tea
consumption throughout the world.
In short, tea consumptionhas been an inherited life style for thousands of years
in China. Tea culture is a treasure of the Chinese civilization and an important
component in Chinese medicine. While the proceeding section is not a thorough
literature survey on the effects of tea on various human diseases, the overall effects of
tea on some chronic diseases have been discussed herewith.

1. Stroke
Stroke is a disease that occurs when part of the brain cannot obtain sufficient
blood and oxygen, resulting in the damage or death of brain cells. Stroke can be caused
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by a clot obstructing the flow of blood to the brain (ischemic stroke) or by the
ruptureof blood vessels which prevents blood flow to the brain (hemorrhagic stroke).
Stroke is the second leading cause of deathin developed and developing
countries. In the United States, a person experiences a stroke every 40 seconds, and a
person dies of stroke every four minutes. In addition, stroke is a major cause of serious
long-term disability worldwide, which depletes health resources and leads to significant
economic burden. Therefore, Primary prevention of stroke is a major public health
priority. In 1989, it wasproposed that tea consumption may contribute to stroke
prevention. Subsequently, various experimental and population-based studies were
conducted to explore the relationship between tea consumption and stroke risk.
The beneficial effects of tea on stroke have a strong biological basis. High
blood pressure is the most predominant risk factor for all stroke types. Evidence from
human studies suggests that the risk of developing hypertension could be significantly
reduced by regularly consuming green, oolong tea and black tea. Moreover, tea
consumption could favorably modulate plasma lipid profile and decrease plasma
glucose, further reducing the risk atherosclerosis formation and diabetes, which are
major risk factors of stroke. Tea ingesting also can decrease body weight, which might
reduce the risk of stroke.
A cohort study of half a million participants from 10 geographic areas
demonstrated that a higher consumption of tea, especially green tea, was inversely
related to the risks of total stroke and different stroke types, including ischemic and
hemorrhagic stroke. A meta-analysis of 14 prospective cohort studies demonstrates a
significant inverse association between tea consumption and risk of total stroke,
especially ischemic stroke, in a dose-response manner. An increase of 3 cups/d in tea
consumption was associated with 13% and 24% decreased risks of total stroke and
ischemic stroke, respectively. However, tea intake was not significantly inversely
associated with hemorrhagic stroke. The relationship persisted and remained statistically
significant among most subgroups stratified by characteristics of designs and population
characteristics. Two large prospective studies of green and black tea consumption
confirmed a reduction in stroke risk associated with high tea consumption. Results from
a cohort of 82 369 Japanese men and women showed a significant 20% reduced risk of
total stroke among those who consumed ≥4 cups/d of green tea. In a cohort of 74961
Swedish men and women, consumption of ≥4 cups/d of black tea, was associated with
a significant 21% lower risk of total stroke, when compared with no consumption. In
both studies, the association between ischemic stroke and intracerebral hemorrhage
appeared similar.In a large prospective study of Japanese men and women aged 40-79
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years with a median follow-up of 18.5 years, stroke survivors who consumed ≥7 cups/
day of green tea had ≈60% lower risks of all-cause mortality than those who rarely
consumed green tea. This result suggests that green tea consumption may be beneficial
for the secondary prevention of cardiovascular diseases(CVD). Tea consumption is
associated with greater survival after acute stroke and the result did not change with
additional adjustment such as age and sex.
While black and green tea showed beneficial attributes in lowering the risk of
stroke, and the observed protective effects were more remarkable for green tea than for
black tea. This may be attributed to the presence of polyphenolic compounds in both
tea types. Catechins, a major category of polyphenols in tea, exert a wide spectrum of
beneficial effects against cardiovascular diseases, including anti-oxidative, anti-
inflammatory, anti-endothelial dysfunction, anti-hypertensive, and lipid-lowering effects.
A recent study found that drinking coffee or tea alone is associated with a
reduced risk of stroke and dementia. Moreover, people who consumed 2-3 cups of
coffee and 2-3 cups of tea dailyfaired the best, with a 28% lower risk of dementia and
32% lower risk of stroke than those who didn't drink either.
In conclusion, observational epidemiological research strongly supports the
hypothesis that tea consumption (green tea, black tea, or Oolong tea) at the level of 3
cups/day, reduces the risk of stroke, stroke volume, and mortality.

2. Renal stone disease

Renal stone disease is a global healthcare problem that involves the presence or
formation of concretions in one or both kidneys. Kidney stones vary in size and are
most often composed of calcium oxalate. A smaller stonemay travel down the urinary
tract and exit the body. However, a larger one may become stuck, thereby causing pain.
Stones can be removedusing shock wave lithotripsy, ureteroscopy, percutaneous
nephrolithotomy, and other surgical procedures. However, this disease is characterized
by high recurrence rate after stone removal and increasing incidence of new cases. The
cost of stone removal is much higher than the cost of prevention. As a result,
approximately $5 billion is spent annually in the United States on the management of
kidney stone disease. Interestingly, the interval required for recurrent stone formation is
shorter than that of new stone formation. Therefore, recent research on kidney stones
has focused on strategies to prevent the formation of new and recurrent stones. A
simple strategy to prevent kidney stone formation is sufficient hydration and increased
water intake to enhance urinary output.
While concerns have been raised regarding the consumption of green tea and
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the potential risk of developing kidney stones, green tea did not induce kidney
stones.Moreover, by drinking just one cup tea daily, an 8% and 14% decrease risk of
developing kidney stones was observed in females and males, respectively.Green tea
ameliorates kidney stone formation by affecting calcium oxalate crystal formation.
Therefore, the flat crystal conformation minimizes clumping which facilities breakage
and easy exit form the body via the urinary tract without additional complications.
Black tea contains the highest oxalate content (approximately 6mg per 1 g of
black tea) compared to other types of tea. Upon consumption, oxalates enter the
digestive tract, bind to calcium and are excreted from the body via stool or urine.
However, overconsumption of black tea results in elevated calcium oxalate
concentration in urine, leading to the development of kidney stones. Ingestion of
approximately 1500 mg of oxalate per day may cause kidney stones. However, an
average person consumes generally safe levels of approximately 150-500 mg oxalate
each day.
A recently published meta-analysis of three studies evaluated the potential
protective effect conferred by increased tea intake. The findings indicated that daily tea
consumption ≥ 240 mL was related to a 16% reduced risk of renal stone disease. The
protective effect of tea consumption appeared to begin at a daily intake level of
approximately 250 mL. Another study showed that tea consumption was associated with
a lower risk of renal stone disease when considering both the amount of tea consumed
and time. Tea consumption ≥ 20 cup-years was related to a 20% reduced risk of renal
stone disease, while tea consumption < 20 cup-years was not. It appears that the
protective effect of tea consumption on renal stone disease is not only dose-but also
time-dependent. Considering the type of tea, a lower associated risk of renal stone
disease was found to be significant in individuals who consumed oolong tea and
borderline in those who consumed green tea. It is noteworthy that oolong tea and green
tea are known to contain lower levels of oxalates than black tea as oxalates are injurious
to renal tubular cells and are risk factors for crystal formation in the kidney. Although a
lower oxalate content could partially explain the inverse association between oolong tea
and renal stone disease, the exact mechanisms underpinning these associations remain
unclear.
Increased fluid intake is known to be associated with a reduced risk of renal
stone disease. Therefore, a daily fluid intake of 2.5–3 L or urine output of 2.5 L is
recommended. Since the recommended fluid intake far exceeds the amount of tea
consumed, the effects of tea on renal stone disease may be related to factors other than
fluid intake. The mechanism underlying the inverse association between tea and renal
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stone disease may be related to the effects of caffeine and epigallocatechin gallate
(EGCG) on the dilution of urine, calcium oxalate monohydrate (COM)-binding protein,
and anti-oxidative properties of tea. Caffeine intake causes increased urine output, and
the dilution of urine associated with tea consumption may contribute to a lower risk of
renal stone disease. COM stones are the most common type of renal stones in clinical
calculi. Caffeine and EGCG are the two main components in tea leaves that may be
potential modulators that alter the expression of COM crystal receptors, and
subsequently, decrease the risk of renal stone disease. In addition, tea consumption has
been shown to decrease the excretion of urinary oxalate and inhibit free radical
production induced by oxalate, possibly owing to the antioxidative properties of
EGCG.
The ultimate goal of kidney stone management is to reduce new stone
formation and prevent recurrence after surgical removal. Tea is one of the most
popular beverages consumed worldwide. Studies have shown that greater tea
consumption over time may be associated with a lower risk of renal stone disease.
Despite evidence from these studies, more in-depth information, and knowledge on the
preventive effects of tea against renal stone formation are required. Moreover, other
risk factors associated with renal stone disease, including sex, hypertension, diabetes,
and lifestyle habits such as smoking, alcohol consumption, and exercise should be
considered.
3. Antimicrobial activity
Antimicrobial activity of tea refers to the ability of tea polyphenols to act
against, and inhibit the progression of harmful microorganisms, such as bacteria, fungi,
and viruses. Medical books written as early as the Song Dynasty (960–1279 A.D.) in
China mention that green tea in combination with ginger could effectively cure
dysenteric disorders. Antimicrobial activity of tea was further demonstrated in the
laboratory more than 100 years ago by McNaught, a major in the British Army Medical
Corps. He showed that brewed black tea killed Salmonella typhi and Brucella melitensis
and recommended that the water bottles of troops be filled with tea to prevent
outbreaks of infections caused by these agents. Modern medical research has
demonstrated that tea and tea products are active against a wide range of
microorganisms, implying that tea may be useful for the treatment of some infectious
illnesses.
It is evident that tea and its constituents may potentially be used as
antimicrobials. The role of tea polyphenols in the growth inhibition of various
infectious microorganisms has been thoroughly reported in numerous earlier reports.
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The inhibitory effects of tea polyphenols on the development and growth of bacterial
spores were also examined. EGCG, the main component of tea polyphenols, showed
strong activity against both Bacillus stearothermophilus and Clostridium
thermoaceticum. Tea polyphenols regulate gene expression in Escherichia coli and
inhibit cellular division in some species of bacteria. Additionally, they have been shown
to inhibit the replication of human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1), the major
causative agent of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, in the human body by
targeting various steps in the HIV-1 life cycle.
The antibacterial effects of catechins, a major polyphenolic group found in
green tea, have been reported in Clostridium and Bacillus spores. The results showed
that low concentrations of catechins inhibited the growth of the bacterial spores,
although a long exposure time was required. Conversely, the effects of purified catechin
derivatives were varied, and GCG and EGCG were found to be the most potent.
The gut microbiota exert various physiological functions such as macronutrient
metabolism, micronutrient biosynthesis, gut barrier functions, and regulation of the
gastrointestinal immune system. When gut bacteria release inflammatory factors and
invade the intestinal barriers, the mutualistic balance of the host-microbial relationship
is disrupted. In life sciences, the gut microbiota is widely and diversely correlated with
many disease models, physiological status, and food intervention effects.
There have been some reports on tea intake and its associated effects on the
gut microbiota. Green and Fu brick tea consumption may increase the proportion of
Bifidobacterium species in the colon. In the genus class, black tea stimulated Klebsiella,
enterococci, and Akkermansia and reduced the abundance of bifidobacteria, Blautia
coccoides, Anaeroglobus, and Victivallis in the model gut microbiome. Another study
reported that oolong, black, and green teas modulated populations of Alistipes,
Rikenella, Lachnospiraceae, Akkermansia, Bacteroides, Allobaculum, and
Parabacteroides.
Helicobacter pylori, first discovered in 1982, was found to be an important
factor in the pathogenesis of peptic ulcer disease, gastritis, and gastric malignancy. An in
vitro study to assess the activity and minimum inhibitory concentrations of Chinese
Longjing tea and two tea catechins, EGCG and EC on Helicobacter pylori, was
conducted. The results showed that EGCG and EC inhibited H. pylori growth. In
addition, EGCG was considered as the active ingredient in Chinese tea most
responsible for anti-H. pylori activity.
Tea polyphenols also act synergistically with selective antibiotics and are
beneficial against multidrug resistance. The synergistic activity of tea extracts with
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chloramphenicol and other antibiotics, such as methicillin, nalidixic acid, and
gentamycin, against various strains of enteropathogens has been reported. The
susceptibility of Candida albicans to catechin was evaluated under varying pH
conditions and the synergism between catechin and antimycotics was evaluated. The
results indicated that combined treatment with catechin allows the use of lower doses
of antimycotics and induces multiple antifungal effects.
Through a similar mechanism, EGCG has been reported to inhibit hepatitis C
virus and other unrelated viruses, including human immunodeficiency virus, influenza
virus, chikungunya virus, and herpes simplex virus. EGCG is a relatively non-toxic
potent inhibitor of both herpes simplex virus type 1 and herpes simplex virus type 2
infection and EGCG derivatives, such as EGCG-fatty acid monoesters, were found to
be effective in the prevention of emerging fatal viruses, such as Ebola virus, SARS
virus, and MERS virus. EGCG demonstrates increased affinity for viruses and cellular
membranes and interacts directly with the virion surface, preventing cell entry.
Polyphenols are natural, economical, simple, and environmentally friendly
compounds. There is increasing focus on important polyphenolic compounds, their
general properties in human health, antiviral activities, and their role in enhancing
immunity to combat several emerging infectious diseases including COVID-19. The
antiviral effect of polyphenols may be due to interactions between the phenyl ring and
viral protein and/or RNA, or via their capacity to interfere with host cell defense by
regulating mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling. Notably, the antiviral effect of
polyphenols was not significantly affected by viral mutations owing to their binding
capacity to the viral envelope lipids or sugar moieties.
Several studies have indicated the role of catchins in preventing infectious
diseases. Regular consumption of green tea has been shown to decrease influenza
infection and some cold symptom rates. The consumption of tea extracts including
catechins and theanine has been reported to enhance systemic immunity and prevent
the occurrence of upper respiratory tract infection and influenza symptoms in healthy
adults. In addition, gargling with tea catechins protects against influenza infection and
common cold. A study has also shown that consuming green tea supplements twice
daily for 3 months resulted in a significant decrease in cold or influenza symptoms by
approximately 23%. Moreover, green tea consumption per day or per week was in
reverse to the instance numbers of influenza A or B among school children in Japan.
EGCG is potent inhibitor of both Herpes Simplex Viruses-1 and Herpes Simplex
Viruses-2 infection and it was found to be relatively non toxic. EGCG derivatives such
as EGCG-fatty acid monoesters were found to be as an innovative approach to the
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prevention of viral infections including emerging fatal viruses, such as Ebola virus,
SARS virus and MERS virus. In fact, this action is probably due to their increased
affinity for viruses and cellular membranes.
Green tea is the most consumed beverage in Asian countries, where the
morbidity and mortality rates of COVID-19 are significantly lower than those in
Europe, North America, and Latin America. Green tea and its major catechin, EGCG,
demonstrated broad-spectrum antiviral effects on some pathogenic human viruses,
including RNA viruses and those causing respiratory diseases. Green tea catechins have
anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative properties that are beneficial in reducing the
severity of COVID-19. A study demonstrated that green tea could inhibit both wild-
type and variant SARS-CoV-2 S-mediated infections. The inhibitory effect on virus
infection was highly potent, as green tea at a 320-fold dilution remained significantly
effective. Given its low toxicity, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anti-SARS-CoV-2
variant properties, the use of EGCG is likely to minimize the spread of SARS-CoV-2,
ameliorate symptoms and reduce disease severity. However, the clinical significance and
application of EGCG as a viral entry inhibitor requires further validation, particularly in
clinical studies evaluating anti-SARS-CoV-2 effects.

4. Auditory function
Age-related hearing impairment (ARHI) is the most prevalent sensory
condition in elderly individuals. Auditory function declines with age due to both central
auditory system degradation and issues with the peripheral hearing organs. In general,
peripheral hearing deteriorates more quickly and severely in males than in females and is
more pronounced at high versus low frequencies. However, degeneration of the central
auditory system occurs earlier than that of the peripheral hearing organs.
A retrospective cohort study was conducted on 265 subjects aged >55 years.
Oolong tea consumption was a factor that was investigated based on responses to
medical and food consumption questionnaires. Results showed that before adjusting for
other factors, pure tone thresholds (PTAs) were not significantly different between
“non-tea drinkers” and “oolong tea drinkers.” However, the mean pitch pattern
sequence (PPS) score was higher for “oolong tea drinkers” than that for “non-tea
drinkers” Further, multivariate linear regression analysis showed that oolong tea
consumption was positively associated with PPS score, but not with PTAs after
adjusting for age, sex, waist circumference, and other variables. In subgroup analysis for
PPS score by sex, oolong tea drinking showed a significant positive association with PPS
score in males but borderline significant association with PPS score in females, after
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adjustment for other risk factors.

5. Anti-inflammatory Activity
Acute inflammatory responses are immediate, auto-regulated and involves the
influx of defensive cells, such as leukocytes (neutrophils, monocytes, and eosinophils) to
the site of injury. Chronic inflammation results from failure of regulatory cellular
mechanisms that modulate inflammatory responses and is a critical determinant in the
initiation and progression of various forms of cancer and other disorders.
Generation of nitric oxide and prostaglandins by inducible nitric oxide synthase
(iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 is considered one of the most prominent molecular
mechanisms involved in inflammation and cancer. Green tea exhibits anti-inflammatory
effects by inhibiting iNOS expression. Based on extensive epidemiological data, green
and black tea polyphenols play a significant role in the suppression of inflammation by
inhibiting various transcription factors such as tumor necrosis factor-α, granulocyte-
macrophage colony-stimulating factor, and cyclooxygenase-2. Nuclear factor-kappa B
(NF-κB), a central modulator of inflammatory responses, is activated as a host defense
mechanism against infection and stress. (-)-Epicatechin (EC) derived from tea may help
reduce vascular inflammation and diabetic complications by decreasing NF-κB levels.
A study assessing the inhibitory effects of green tea polyphenols (GTPs) on
biomarkers of inflammation in UV-exposed skin provided further mechanistic evidence
for the anti-carcinogenic effects of GTPs. Treatment of human skin with green tea
extract may reduce UV-induced p53 expression and the number of apoptotic
keratinocytes, suggesting that green tea extract may be a suitable everyday photo-
chemopreventive agent. The in vivo observations of that study provided insights into
the possible protective mechanisms involved in the anti-inflammatory effects of GTPs.
In a study of green tea intake in patients with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, patients
consumed green tea with varying concentrations of catechin or a placebo for 12 weeks.
Intake of green tea with a high concentration of catechins was associated with a
reduction in fat content in the liver and lower levels of inflammation. In another study,
GTE attenuated inflammation in gingival epithelial keratinocytes by downregulating
inflammatory cytokines in a dose-dependent manner. These results support the
potential use of GTE as an oral anti-inflammatory drug for the treatment and
prevention of inflammatory diseases.
A study examining the effects of black tea on exercise-induced inflammation in
a human exercise model showed that black tea may translate beyond disease and
potentially improve recovery of inflammation after exercise.
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 While the exact molecular mechanism underlying the role of tea polyphenols in
inflammation remains unclear, drinking a sufficient amount of tea might be helpful in
the prevention of inflammation, which is also responsible for various other diseases.

6. Cardiovascular Health
Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are ailments of the heart and blood vessels and
include coronary heart disease (CHD), cerebrovascular disease, hypertension, and heart
failure. These disorders are directly associated with diet and lifestyle, which are
responsible for the elevated occurrence of high blood pressure, high cholesterol levels
and high atherosclerosis.
Regular tea consumption decreases the risk of cardiovascular complications. A
meta-analysis of observational studies demonstrated that 1 cup/day of green tea was
associated with a 10% decrease in the risk of developing CHD. A large population-
based, prospective cohort study also found that those who consumed 3-5 cups/day of
green tea had a 41% lower CVD mortality compared with non-green tea drinkers in the
general Japanese population.
Epidemiological studies have suggested that both black and green teas may
protect against CVDs. A study from Japan reported that the risk of total and CVD
mortality was 55 % and 75 % lower in men and women who consumed seven or more
cups of green tea per day, respectively, compared to individuals who consumed less than
one cup. To examine the relationship between tea consumption and the risk of CVD
mortality , 76,979 individuals (aged 40-79 years; free of stroke, CHD, and cancer), were
assessed using questionnaires. The results showed that consumption of green tea,
oolong tea, and total caffeine was associated with a reduced risk of CVD mortality.
A population-based prospective cohort study was conducted to examine the
association between green tea consumption and CVD-related mortality, cancer, and all
causes in 40,530 persons in northern Japan. This study found an inverse relationship
between green tea consumption and CVD-related mortality. Numerous studies have
been performed regarding the potential beneficial effects of green tea on CVD risk
profiles, including reduction in body fat, serum LDL-cholesterol, total cholesterol,
triglycerides, and blood pressure. Therefore, the physiological effects of tea and its
components on cardiovascular disease risk factors are of interest.

Hypertension
Hypertension is defined as either a sustained systolic blood pressure (SBP) of
greater than 140 mmHg or a sustained diastolic blood pressure (DBP) of greater than
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90 mmHg. Hypertension results from increased peripheral vascular smooth muscle
tone, which leads to increased arteriolar resistance and reduced venous system
capacitance. In most cases, the cause of increased vascular tone is unknown.
Hypertension affects one billion people worldwide and approximately 25.2 million
adults in mainland China. Although many of these individuals are asymptomatic,
chronic systolic or diastolic hypertension can lead to cerebrovascular incidents (strokes),
congestive heart failure, myocardial infarction, and renal damage. The incidence of
morbidity and mortality significantly decreases when hypertension is diagnosed early
and properly treated. There is a continuous, consistent, and independent association
between blood pressure (BP) and cardiovascular mortality. More importantly, the risk of
death due to cardiovascular disease increases progressively throughout the BP range,
including that of pre-hypertensive BP.
Observational studies have indicated that habitual tea consumption may confer
protective effects to the cardiovascular system, with a significant reduction in the
incidence of hypertension. Habitual tea consumption, defined as daily consumption of
moderate-strength green tea or oolong tea of 120 mL/day or more for one year, was
found to significantly lower the risk of hypertension in a cross-sectional study in
Taiwan. In a community-based study of Chinese adults aged 60 years and older, habitual
tea consumption was independently associated with a lower BP level, even in a
normotensive population or participants without antihypertensive treatment. Non-
habitual tea drinkers had a higher risk of hypertension than habitual tea drinkers, and
there was a progressive reduction in the risk associated with a higher frequency of tea
consumption.
Another cross-sectional study in Western Australia showed that green tea and
black tea intake were both associated with significantly lower SBP and DBP in older
women; consuming 1 cup (250 ml) green/black tea per day was associated with a 2.2
mm Hg lower SBP and a 0.9 mm Hg lower DBP. In a study in Norway, SBP decreased
with increasing black tea consumption. Additionally, when comparing those who drank
five or more cups/day of tea with those who drank less than one cup/day, the
regression coefficients for SBP were −3.1 and −4.0 mm Hg in men and women,
respectively. Although the reported reduction in BP was small, even a slight reduction in
BP at the population level can lead to important clinical and public health-related
outcomes. The results of a published overview showed that 2 mm Hg reduction in
DBP can result in a 17 % lower prevalence of hypertension, a 6 % lower risk of CHD,
and a 15 % reduction in the risk of stroke.
The reduction in SBP and DBP was slightly better in trials involving
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participants that consumed green tea (GT) catechins daily (< 500 mg). Conversely, some
trials reported that there was no significant improvement in SBP or DBP in patients
after consuming a daily dose of 400 mg catechins. The number of different
components in tea may have affected these results. For example, due to the caffeine
content of GT (around 25 mg caffeine per 100 ml), it may be possible that high GT
consumption increases norepinephrine secretion and raises BP. These findings suggest
that daily consumption of GT at a dose of 400–500 mg catechins is most beneficial for
lowering BP. Commercial GT bags have a catechin content of approximately 153 mg
per bag (1.5–2.4 g). Therefore, three servings of GT bags may provide sufficient
catechins to beneficially affect BP. In addition, γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) in tea may
block nicotine-induced contraction of the isolated ileum and prevent BP elevation
caused by vagal or splanchnic nerve stimulation.

Atherosclerosis
The prevalence of atherosclerosis has increased dramatically worldwide over
the past several decades. Atherosclerosis is a multifactorial disease characterized by
excessive cholesterol deposition, proliferation of smooth muscle cells, and intimal
thickening resulting in thrombus formation and stroke. Atherosclerotic plaque
destabilization and rupture can lead to serious damage and even death from acute
coronary syndromes. Atherosclerosis is now recognized as a serious public health
problem. The endothelium, formed by endothelial cells located at the interior surface of
the blood vascular wall, is an effective protective barrier between circulating blood and
tissues. However, the abnormal accumulation of lipids leads to endothelial dysfunction
and endothelial cell death that precedes atherogenesis. The relationship among tea,
flavonoid intake and atherosclerosis has been studied. A decrease in carotid plaques and
atherosclerosis was associated with high flavonoid intake.

Endothelial dysfunction
Endothelial dysfunction is a critical event in the pathogenesis and clinical
manifestation of atherosclerosis. Therefore, endothelial function may serve as an
indicator for cardiovascular health and can be used to evaluate new therapeutic
strategies. The endothelium refers to the inner lining of all blood vessels and functions
as a selectively permeable barrier between blood and tissues. It plays a crucial role in
regulating vasomotor tone, platelet activity, leukocyte adhesion, and vascular smooth
muscle cell proliferation by releasing several factors, including nitric oxide (NO), which
is one of the most important molecules released by the endothelium and a vital
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regulator of arterial wall tone. Endothelial dysfunction is caused by the loss of normal
endothelium-dependent and NO-mediated vasodilation in arteries. Endothelial
dysfunction is considered an early biomarker for the development of CVD and related
cardiovascular events. In humans, ultrasonography is used to measure the flow-mediated
dilatation (FMD) of the brachial artery. FMD is a noninvasive technique that measures
NO-dependent vasodilation of the artery in response to shear stress induced by
increased blood flow.
Several studies have examined the effects of black or green tea, or tea
flavonoids on FMD of the brachial artery. Recent studies have demonstrated a
significant improvement in FMD after the consumption of black and green tea, and
both teas appeared to have similar effects. In another study, FMD and nitro-mediated
dilation (NMD) were quantified by ultrasound in twenty-one healthy women before, and
2h after the consumption of black and green tea (2h of FMD and NMD), in
comparison to the control (hot water). Intake of green and black tea led to significant
increases in FMD, ranging from 5.4% to 10.2%, and from 5% to 9.1% at baseline and
2h after consumption of 500ml green tea and black tea, respectively. Additionally, no
FMD effect was found with hot water, and NMD did not vary among any of the
groups. A recent population study found that FMD-assessed endothelial function
increased from 4.4% to 8.1% after consumption of 450ml (6g of green tea) beverage,
with no significant effects shown with caffeine or water controls. In addition, a meta-
analysis showed that moderate consumption of tea substantially enhanced endothelial-
dependent vasodilation.
Experimental studies have also reported that isolated flavonoids found in tea
can augment the NO status. A recent randomized, placebo-controlled, crossover trial in
healthy men, oral administration of dietary flavonoids present in green tea, including
quercetin and (–)-epicatechin, boosted NO production and reduced endothelin-1 (ET-1)
concentrations, thereby improving endothelial function and lowering BP.
A double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover design study demonstrated that
acute EGCG supplementation (single 300 mg dose of EGCG) could improve brachial
artery FMD in humans with coronary artery disease (CAD).
Consumption of tea was associated with fewer cardiovascular events, possibly
through the well-established improvement of vascular endothelial function. A possible
underlying mechanism could be the improved bioactivity of nitric oxide, an
endothelium-derived vasodilator. Interestingly, a previous study found that black tea
protected against postprandial transient decline in endothelial function and increase in
BP. Based on these direct effects of tea on endothelial function, we hypothesized that
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tea would improve postprandial blood flow and glucose homeostasis in obese insulin-
resistant volunteers.
Theaflavin-3,3-digallate (TF3) can inhibit acetylcholine-dependent contraction
and enhance endothelial function by reducing the stress on the endoplasmic reticulum;
therefore, consumption of black tea extract for 7 days had a decreasing effect on SBP.

Antioxidative effect
The oxidative modification of LDL plays a crucial role in the development of
CVDs. Tea catechins improve blood lipid profiles by inhibiting the main enzymes
involved in lipid biosynthesis. A wide spectrum of beneficial effects of catechins on
vascular function have been demonstrated through anti-oxidative and anti-
inflammatory properties, and favorable modulation of plasma lipid profiles.
Tea polyphenols could act as possible cardioprotective candidates owing to
their potent antioxidant capacity. They induce antioxidative effects by scavenging
reactive oxygen species (ROS) and chelating metal ions. It has been found that free
radicals play a key role in the occurrence of cardiovascular disorders by causing
oxidative stress. Owing to the repetitive induction of cellular oxidative stress, cellular
resistance to consequent exposure to ROS is induced. This can be inhibited by the
galloyl group of tea polyphenols which modify kinase activities in multiple signal
transduction pathways in cardiovascular-relevant cells, and play a crucial role in the
prevention and treatment of cardiovascular diseases.
Green tea also has anti-inflammatory effects. Inflammation is a known risk
factor for hypertension. Antioxidants in tea may reduce the vascular sclerosis that
occurs with aging. Population changes in diet and lifestyle are the primary means of
combating CVDs. Accumulating evidence suggests that health-promoting lifestyle
modification, which is a cost-effective approach for hypertension control, can improve
BP control and even reduce the need for medication. As one of the most effective
measures for preventing hypertension, dietary changes have been introduced to reduce
BP and significantly impact the prevalence of hypertension. Nevertheless, a diet rich in
functional foods containing antioxidant polyphenols, such as different kinds of tea,
combined with physical activity and lifestyle changes may offer primary prevention
against CVDs.
Tea is an inexpensive ubiquitous beverage. Tea consumption may attenuate
hypertension, endothelial dysfunction, and antioxidative effects. This activity may be
attributed to tea polyphenols and support their potential value in the prevention and
treatment of CVDs. Further detailed investigation with standardized tea polyphenols is
needed to demonstrate reliable vascular benefits under the common pathological
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conditions of vascular and metabolic diseases. In addition, a better understanding of the
bioavailability of polyphenols is required. Nevertheless, tea and its polyphenols may be
potent and reliable sources of protection against cardiovascular diseases.

7. Anti-obesity
Obesity, and its associated physiological threat, is a well-known global concern
that is prevalent in developed nations and shows increasing incidence in the developing
world. The primary cause of obesity is an imbalance between nutritional intake and
energy expenditure, despite the fact that numerous genetic and environmental factors
have been hypothesized to predispose individuals to weight gain. Physicians and other
healthcare professionals consider lifestyle and pharmacotherapy interventions as
treatment modalities of obesity. The complex etiology of obesity underpins the need
for novel intervention strategies with simpler pharmacotherapies that are more patient-
friendly to address this problem.
There are many dietary and, to a lesser extent, pharmacological strategies that
have been shown to modify energy balance in a manner that results in successful weight
reduction. Such therapies typically affect one or more aspects of the energy balance,
including appetite, nutrient absorption, and thermogenesis. Diet-based therapies for
weight loss are among the most common complementary and alternative medical
modalities. Tea contains a large variety of components that exhibit anti-obesity and anti-
oxidant effects on metabolism and fat oxidation. Epidemiological evidence and several
randomized controlled intervention trials have shown an inverse relationship between
habitual tea consumption and levels of body fat and waist circumference.
Obesity contributes to the development of various other disorders in adults,
including insulin resistance, diabetes, hypertension, cancer, cardiovascular disease, and a
weakened immune system. Consequently, obesity reduces quality of life, leading to
increased mortality risk. Owing to the increase in obesity-related diseases, cellular and
molecular processes underlying fat metabolism have been extensively studied in recent
years.
Tea is brewed from the processed dried leaves of Camellia sinensis. Like other
natural products, the leaves of this plant contain an array of phytochemicals that vary in
concentration according to harvest season, age of the plant, climate, environmental
conditions, and processing conditions.
Anti-obesity mechanisms of tea include increased energy expenditure,
decreased pre-adipocyte differentiation and proliferation, and reduced nutrient
absorption.

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Energy expenditure
Green tea extract has been shown to increase energy expenditure and enhance
metabolic rate and fat-burning ability. Additionally, green tea has been used for
slimming and control of obesity for a long time. Polyphenols of green tea are
considered to be the main constituents responsible for the decreased absorption of
lipids and proteins in the intestine. The ingestion of constituents from green tea
extracts have been shown to activate pathways to decrease gluconeogenesis and fatty
acid synthesis, suggesting that green tea contributes to a decrease in obesity and
cardiovascular disease risks. In a study assessing the influence of a green tea catechin
beverage on body composition and fat distribution in overweight and obese adults
during exercise-induced weight loss, the findings suggested that green tea catechin
consumption enhances exercise-induced changes in abdominal fat and serum
triglyceride levels.
Interestingly, the effects of a thermogenic beverage on 24 h energy metabolism
in humans were studied. The study evaluated whether consumption of a beverage
containing active ingredients would increase 24 h energy metabolism in healthy, young,
and lean individuals. Evidence indicated that consumption of a beverage containing
green tea catechins, caffeine, and calcium increased 24 h energy expenditure by 4.6%,
however, the contribution of individual ingredients could not be distinguished.
Caffeine is known to independently stimulate energy expenditure in a dose-
dependent manner at doses as low as 100 mg. Studies comparing catechin+caffeine
mixtures to an equivalent amount of caffeine only mixtures have failed to show a
significant increase in energy expenditure. In another study, the effects of full-strength
oolong tea (612 mg catechins+270 mg caffeine) and half-strength oolong tea (306 mg
catechins+135 mg caffeine) was compared to a caffeine-containing control (270 mg
caffeine) and caffeine-free control (water) in young men. The results showed greater 24-
h energy expenditure ( 3%) for both the full-strength oolong tea and caffeine
treatments relative to water. No differences were observed between the full-strength tea
and caffeine control conditions.

Alterations in fat metabolism

Another potential mechanism by which tea induces antiobesity effects may be
related to changes in fatty acid oxidation and metabolism. In the human body, adipose
tissue is present in both visceral and subcutaneous fats.
Adipose tissue is a dynamic endocrine organ that is present throughout the
body, forming different contiguous or non-contiguous depots. It serves as the body’s
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main energy reserve during periods of excess energy and enables fat mobilization
during phases of food deprivation. Apart from the regulation of the body’s energy
balance, factors secreted from adipose tissue play key roles in the modulation of
metabolic processes, insulin sensitivity, and immunological responses. An increase in
adipose tissue mainly involves two processes including increase in fat cell size (adipocyte
hypertrophy) and increase in fat cell number (adipocyte hyperplasia). The adipocyte life
cycle refers to the formation of mature adipocytes and involves the proliferation of
preadipocytes, fat cell differentiation (adipogenesis), lipolytic activity, and apoptosis of
preadipocytes or mature adipocytes.
Many studies have indicated that tea extracts and their respective bioactive
components may directly affect adipose tissue. White tea is the least processed form of
tea and contains high levels of EGCG and several other polyphenols, such as
epicatechin (EC), epigallocatechin (EGC), epicatechin gallate (ECG), and caffeine.
White tea extract solution effectively inhibits adipogenesis and stimulates lipolysis
activity by modulating the different stages of the adipocyte life cycle and inducing anti-
obesity effects without toxic side effects.
Due to the high prevalence of obesity, complementary treatments involving
brown adipose tissue activation and white adipose tissue growth have been proposed.
Dietary polyphenols can stimulate the growth and thermogenesis of adipose tissue.
They have also been shown to prevent body weight gain and decrease the systemic
inflammation induced by high-fat diets. Ingested dietary polyphenols that reach the
colon are metabolized by the gut microbiota, and function by regulating their
composition and generating metabolic pathways. The gut microbiota are involved in the
production of short-chain fatty acids and secondary bile salts that regulate energy
metabolism. Alterations to the gut microbiota composition, as observed in obesity, can
be attenuated by polyphenols. The gut microbiota may mediate white adipose tissue
browning and adipose tissue activation in the presence of polyphenols.
Oolong tea has beneficial effects on health, such as anti-obesity activity and
improvement of lipid metabolism, in which its consumption moderately reduces body
weight and decreases body fat content. The suppressive effect on body weight depends
on the reduction in carbohydrate absorption and suppression of intestinal absorption of
dietary fat by inhibiting pancreatic lipase. As a result, continuous consumption of
oolong tea may prevent many obesity-related diseases without adversely suppressing
appetite or physical fitness.

Effects on triglyceride accumulation

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 Obesity and high levels of LDL cholesterol are the main contributors to
cardiovascular disease, and its associated high global mortality and morbidity rates.
Some drugs used to reduce LDL cholesterol levels have negative side effects on liver
function. Green tea polyphenols reportedly decrease plasma cholesterol concentrations
by upregulating low-density lipoprotein receptors to improve the uptake of LDL
cholesterol from blood circulation.
Many studies assessing the reduction in cholesterol levels induced by tea have
been conducted in Japan since the 1980s. It has been shown that tea catechins not only
inhibit cholesterol absorption by intestinal epithelial cells and decrease the solubility of
cholesterol in bile acid, but also activate lipoprotein lipase to reduce the levels of
cholesterol and triglycerides in the blood via the hydrolysis of triglycerides in
triglyceride-rich lipoproteins. Tea catechins also improve the balance between high-
density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL) and LDL cholesterol (LDL-C). Total cholesterol
(TC), LDL-C, and triglyceride (TG) levels in the plasma were lower in healthy patients,
whereas HDL levels in hyperlipidemic patients were higher after oolong tea intake.
Black tea extract improves body mass indices and reduces visceral fat areas in
pre-obese individuals. In patients with borderline hypercholesterolemia, three-month
administration of black tea extract lowered total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein
cholesterol, and triglyceride levels without any adverse effects. Gallic acid, an active
component of black tea, quickly decomposes into pyrogallol in high-temperature
solutions. Compared to the hot water extract of black tea, the cold ethanol extract of
black tea showed greater effects in reducing body weight and body fat without
dampening fat cell homeostasis and insulin sensitivity.
Pu-erh tea is a post-fermented tea that is unique to China. A rigorous
randomized double-blind placebo-controlled study showed that after taking Pu-erh tea
extract, the BMI and waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) of patients with metabolic syndrome
(MS) were significantly decreased compared to before treatment, and abdominal obesity
was effectively alleviated. Decreased serum TC, TG, and LDL levels and elevated HDL
levels were noted in patients with MS. These findings indicated that Pu-erh tea could
improve dyslipidemia. Additionally, fasting and postprandial blood glucose levels were
significantly decreased, demonstrating that blood glucose levels could also be effectively
controlled. All observed indicators in patients with MS were beneficially adjusted.
Leptin is a peptide hormone produced by fat cells that plays a role in regulating
body weight. Leptin crosses the blood-brain barrier and activates the leptin receptor,
which inhibits associated insulin-stimulated metabolic pathways. Therefore, treating
adipocytes with leptin reduces insulin stimulation of carbohydrates and lipid
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metabolism, as well as insulin stimulation of protein synthesis. Green tea extract
effectively increased leptin and reduced low-density lipoprotein in women after six
weeks of treatment, although there were no significant changes in other biochemical
markers related to overweight, such as total cholesterol, triglyceride, and BMI.

Reduced nutrient absorption

A decrease in nutrient absorption in the gastrointestinal tract has been
proposed as a potential mechanism underpinning the anti-obesity effects of tea.
Variations in total energy intake and diet composition are important for the
regulation of metabolic processes. Furthermore, dietary fat promotes more effective fat
storage in the body than dietary carbohydrates. Consistent with these suggestions, high-
fat diets may increase body weight and cause adiposity in humans. Thus, inhibiting
digestion and absorption of dietary fat or promoting fat oxidation is conducive to
treating obesity. Usually, dietary fat is not easily absorbed from the intestine unless it is
hydrolyzed by pancreatic lipase. Therefore, gastric and pancreatic lipases serve as key
enzymes for the absorption of dietary fat. The absorption of dietary fat from the
intestine is also dependent on the concerted action of other digestive lipases and bile.
Polyphenols showed strong inhibitory activity against pancreatic lipase, leading to weight
loss.
Known obesity treatment agents are classified as appetite suppressants, energy
consumption stimulants, or fat absorption inhibitors, such as orlistat and sibutramine.
Most drugs for obesity treatment are appetite suppressants that inhibit appetite by
regulating neurotransmitters in the hypothalamus. However, these agents have side
effects, including heart disease, circulatory disease, neurological disease, and inconsistent
drug effects. Therefore, it is necessary to develop improved anti-obesity drugs. The
antiobesity effects of traditional beverages have been reported by several groups.
Over the last decade, a number of intervention trials have shown reductions in
body weight and fat after the chronic consumption of tea. The effects may also be
influenced, at least in part, by concomitant caffeine intake and different types of tea.
Furthermore, the influences of dose, method of intake (e.g., empty, or full stomach,
supplement, brewed beverage), duration of intake, participant gender, degree of
adiposity, and potential positive interaction with physical activity merit further inquiry in
both mechanistic studies and randomized controlled intervention trials.

8. Anti-cancer Activity
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 Cancer is the name assigned to a collection of related diseases. In all types of
cancer, cells begin to continuously divide and spread into surrounding tissues.
Cancerous tumors may be malignant, and break off and travel to distant places in the
body through the blood or lymph system to form new tumors far from the original
tumor site. Cancer cells are often able to evade the immune system, a network of
organs, tissues, and specialized cells that protect the body from infections and other
conditions.
Cancer cells differ from normal cells in several ways, allowing them to grow
out of control and become invasive. One important difference is that cancer cells are
less specialized than normal cells. Unlike normal cells, cancer cells can divide without
stopping. In addition, cancer cells are able to ignore signals that direct normal cells to
stop dividing or undergo apoptosis, which is a mechanism of programmed cell death
wherein the body removes unwanted cells.
Existing treatment approaches and surgical techniques have not effectively
managed this dreaded disease to date. Therefore, chemoprevention is considered a
valid approach to reduce the incidence of cancer. There is convincing epidemiological
and experimental evidence that plant-derived polyphenolic compounds have cancer
prevention properties. Based on evidence obtained from in vitro, in vivo, and
epidemiological studies, tea has received considerable attention in recent years for its
efficacy in reducing the risk of cancer. In addition to inhibiting mutagenesis and
proliferation, tea is relatively non-toxic, inexpensive, and can be taken orally or
included in daily diet. Future clinical studies should focus on examining the efficacy
of tea and its constituents in chemoprevention as alternative to pharmacological
agents.
Many epidemiological and experimental studies have demonstrated the
effects of diet on health. Several reports have focused on polyphenols and their
health-promoting properties. Various studies using cell lines, animal models, and
human epidemiological trials have shown the potential of dietary polyphenols as
chemopreventive agents. These phenolic compounds may inhibit various stages of
carcinogenesis by affecting molecular events during initiation, promotion, and
progression. Tea polyphenols are known to bind to proteins, such as proline-rich
salivary proteins. At low concentrations, this binding may specifically affect certain
enzymes and membrane receptors, resulting in different biological activities. The
mechanisms of carcinogenesis involve multiple stages of biochemical and molecular
alterations in target cells. The mechanisms reported for the chemopreventive activity
of tea polyphenols include anti-oxidation, detoxification, antigenicity, suppression of
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growth of implanted tumor cells, regression in growth of experimental tumors, cell
cycle arrest, and induction of apoptosis.
EGCG, the most abundant and biologically active polyphenol in green tea,
induc apoptosis and suppresses cancer cell proliferation by modulating multiple signal
transduction pathways. Co-treatment of EGCG and EGCG and EC, and EGC and EC
synergistically induced apoptosis in the human lung cancer cell line PC-9, mediated by
enhanced incorporation of tea polyphenols into cells. Furthermore, co-treatment with
EGCG and sulindac, EGCG, or tamoxifen significantly enhanced the induction of
apoptosis by EGCG. These results strongly indicated that green tea is a more effective
and practical cancer-preventive agent than EGCG alone, and that drinking green tea
enhances the cancer-preventive activity of sulindac and tamoxifen, resulting in smaller
doses of these drugs and fewer adverse effects.
The MDA-MB-468 human breast cancer cell lines were used as an in vitro
model of estrogen receptor negative breast cancer and found that treatment of EGCG
resulted in dose-dependent and time-dependent inhibition of cellular proliferation and
cell viability in MDA-MB-468 cells. A nested case-control study involving 297 incident
breast cancer cases and 665 control subjects has shown the importance of genetical
determined factors in evaluating the role of green tea intake in the development of
breast cancer. There was no association between intake frequency of green tea and risk
of breast cancer among all women with low-activity angiotensin-converting enzyme
(ACE) genotype. Whereas there is a statistically significant decrease between intake
frequency of green tea and risk of breast cancer among women with high-activity ACE
genotype. EGCG exerts a significant role in suppressing ovarian cancer cell growth. It
showed dose-dependent growth inhibitory effects in each cell line and induced
apoptosis and cell cycle arrest.
The inhibitory effects of tea on tumorigenesis in the digestive tract, including
the oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and colon have been reported in
many studies. A cohort study of 18244 Chinese men followed up for up to 12 years
maintained that tea catechins may prevent gastric and esophageal cancers. Another
cohort study of 72943 individuals implied a decreased risk for the development of
gastric cancer in women, but not in men, who drink more than five cups of tea per day.
A large population-based prospective study showed that regular consumption of green
tea was inversely associated with colorectal cancer risk, particularly among women who
maintained such habits over time. The longer the duration of lifetime tea consumption,
the lower the risk of colorectal cancer. The risk of colorectal cancer also decreased as
the amount of tea consumed increased.
Jasmine tea is made from green tea leaves that undergo an additional heating

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process and are further scented with jasmine flowers. A large study focusing on jasmine
tea consumption found no evidence for a protective effect on upper gastrointestinal
cancers, however, cumulative lifetime consumption showed a significant positive dose-
response relationship with esophageal squamous cell carcinoma risk. Hot food
consumption has also been consistently associated with an increased risk of esophageal
cancer, particularly when consumed in large amounts. In this case, consumption of
jasmine tea exerted a protective effect.
Most of the evidence for the protective effects of tea is based on studies using
green tea. Further studies are needed to investigate the potential effects of black tea, as
a large proportion of the world’s population consume black tea daily. In terms of global
tea production, 78% is black tea, which is usually consumed in western countries. Black
tea contains dimeric flavanols and polymeric polyphenols known as theaflavins (TFs)
and thearubigins (TRs). TFs are the most effective chemopreventive agents for
cutaneous inflammatory and carcinogenic responses. In a population-based case-control
study, black tea intake was associated with a reduced risk of skin squamous cell
carcinoma. Studies in culture systems have shown that black tea extract and TFs are
capable of inhibiting the growth of androgen-sensitive prostate carcinoma cell line
(LNCaP) via modulation of relative proteins, leading to apoptosis.
The important relationship between tea consumption and carcinogenesis is
complex. Although the induction of apoptosis seems to be rather specific for cancer
cells, certain human studies have shown no beneficial effects. In a cohort study in the
Netherlands, black tea consumption did not affect the risk of colorectal, stomach, lung,
and breast cancers. In another cohort study in Japan involving more than 25,000
stomach cancer patients, no association was observed between the risk of gastric cancer
and green tea consumption. In contrast, a decreased risk of different types of cancer or
diminished recurrence of lung or breast cancer was reported after the consumption of
tea. In a case-control study in Shanghai, China, frequent consumption of green tea was
shown to be associated with a lower incidence of esophageal cancer, especially among
those individuals with no history of smoking or alcohol consumption. In a prospective
cohort study in Iowa, USA, tea drinking was shown to be associated with a lower risk of
digestive tract and urinary tract cancers in women. A case-control study in southeast
China, which assessed 130 patients with histologically confirmed incidental prostate
cancer and 274 age-matched patients without cancer, showed that the risk of prostate
cancer declined in relation to an increase in the frequency, duration, and quantity of
green tea consumed. This reduction was statistically significant, suggesting a preventive
effect of green tea on prostate cancer.
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 Epidemiological studies support the view that tea plays a protective role in
cancer development. Studies conducted in Asia, where green tea is frequently consumed
in large amounts, tended to show a beneficial effect on cancer prevention. A prospective
nine-year study of 8,552 Japanese adults observed that consumption of 10 or more
cups of green tea a day delayed cancer onset by 8.7 years in females and 3 years in
males, compared to patients who consumed fewer than 3 cups a day.
Research on tea drinking and human health including in vitro investigation,
clinical investigation, epidemiological investigation, research on the metabolism and
transformation of the active components of tea in the human body, and research on the
improvement of the bioavailability of the active components of tea have been
conducted. In recent decades, particular attention has been paid to the improvement of
the bioavailability of tea components in the human body, which mainly includes
applications in nanotechnology, structural modification of catechins, and the synergistic
action of tea components with anticancer drugs. However, some of the apparently
contradictory results that have been reported from different laboratories point out the
importance of experimental conditions (dose, cell type, and culture conditions) for
efficient interpretation of in vitro studies. The possible harmful effects of excessive
consumption of tea and tea at a very high temperature must also be considered. Various
factors are important for the promotion of good health, such as the type of tea and the
method of its preparation, since these aspects directly affect the pharmacokinetics and
ultimate disposition of polyphenols within tissues. Based on many epidemiological
observations and numerous laboratory studies, tea consumption is likely to reduce
diverse forms of cancer risk in certain populations. Moreover, the absorption,
distribution, and metabolism of key tea components in humans must be further
investigated.

9. Cognitive health
Cognitive dysfunction is a complex process involving various risk factor
interactions. Globally, population aging is the most powerful driver of increases in age-
related disorders, including dementia, Alzheimer’s disease, and late-life cognitive
disorders, with a profound impact on societies worldwide. The causes of dementia and
pre-dementia syndromes remain unknown. However, patients with dementia exhibit
pathological changes in the brain, leading to cognitive decline. Experts have estimated
that the number of people affected by dementia worldwide will double every 20 years to
81.1 million by 2040. Moreover, dementia prevalence increases rapidly with increasing
age, reaching 24.19% among individuals aged 80-89 and 37.36% among individuals aged
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90 and older. Given the limited therapeutic value of drugs for the treatment of
dementia, preventing the onset of dementia and delaying its progression is becoming
mandatory. Consideration should be given to vascular, metabolic, and lifestyle-related
reversible risk factors associated with the development of dementia and late-life
cognitive disorders, for the prevention of these diseases.
At present, the prevention and control of neurodegenerative diseases are
extremely difficult, partly because of the many potential factors involved. The brain is
mainly affected, thus potential therapeutic agents must demonstrate potent anti-
oxidative activity, chelating ability with ions during the pharmacological control process,
and the ability to penetrate the blood-brain barrier. Researchers are presently involved in
the identification of modifiable protective and risk factors that could be targets of
future multi-faceted prevention programs. The importance of diet-associated factors
has been recognized over the past decade. Research has started in the last century in
pursuit of the possible influence of tea on memory and cognitive function in humans.
Tea is traditionally regarded as a natural “cognitive enhancer, ” and drinking
strong tea to maintain alertness and concentration is a common practice in Chinese
culture. In recent years, both in vivo and in vitro studies have suggested that tea
consumption is associated with a lower risk of developing cognitive disorders. Scientists
are investigating whether its relaxing and alerting effects are a direct biological outcome
of the compounds in tea or whether they come from the context in which the drink is
consumed; preparing your brew, choosing your favorite cup, sitting down for a brief
respite from the world, or a combination of both.
The short-term effect of tea consumption on attention is supported by data
from experimental studies. In addition to the well-known short-term cognitive effects of
tea drinking, it is theoretically plausible that regular tea drinking may also benefit
cognitive health in the long-term.
The possible neuroprotective mechanism of green tea is attributed to the anti-
oxidative stress, modulation of cell signaling pathways, and metal chelator activity of tea
polyphenols. Green tea contains more polyphenols than black or oolong tea. This
discrepancy among the diverse types of tea is due to the unique degree of fermentation
during processing.
Caffeine is the best-known psychoactive stimulant, and both caffeine
consumption and plasma caffeine levels can improve sustained attention and mood,
reduce fatigue, improve motor skill performance in tasks, improve handwriting, and
improve attention in visual search tasks (at a dose of 200-250 mg). Caffeine also
modulates neuronal activity and improves alertness during prolonged driving. Caffeine is
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quickly absorbed (30-40 min, half-life = 3-6 h), and its effect on cognitive function is
not limited to a particular type of tea. In particular, studies have suggested that
caffeine, as an antioxidant, reduces oxidative stress and protects against disruption of
the blood-brain barrier.
In addition to caffeine, L-theanine (L-T) improves attention at a dose of 200
mg/100 ml water. The principal constituents of black tea are caffeine and l-theanine.
Black tea improved the speed of attention allocation and visual search and increased
alertness. The amount of caffeine and L-theanine in one cup of tea varied. It is
estimated that 200 ml of black tea contain 35-61 mg of caffeine and 4.5-22.5 mg of L-
theanine. Some studies have shown that caffeine does not always produce beneficial
effects, especially at doses of less than 100 mg. Surprisingly, low doses of black tea
[caffeine (50 mg) and l-theanine (15 mg)] enhanced cognitive performance.
Some studies have investigated both frequency and types of tea intake and
suggested that high-frequency tea consumption and all types of tea consumption may
confer protective functions against cognitive decline in middle-aged and older people.
The influence of tea on cognition was examined in 2031 people aged 70–74 years from
Norway. The cognitive ability score of the black tea group was significantly higher than
that of the non-tea drinking group.
A review of more than 100 studies found that green tea may impact the brain
in three ways; it can influence psychopathological symptoms, such as reducing anxiety,
improve cognition by benefiting memory and attention, and attenuate brain function,
specifically memory. Moreover, the review concluded that “it would be desirable” for
more Westerners to consume at least 100 milliliters of green tea each day “to protect
neurocognitive function.”

10. Depressive Symptoms

Tea is generally considered a relaxing drink, whereas coffee is considered an
energizing drink. Although both drinks contain caffeine, l-theanine is present only in
tea. Drinking a cup of tea during times of stress is a part of daily life for millions of
people worldwide.
Depression is a common but serious mood disorder. It causes severe symptoms
that affect how you feel, think, and handle daily activities, such as sleeping, eating, or
working. Depression is underdiagnosed and undertreated, especially for those who were
undergoing adverse events such as COVID-19 pandemic. Given the increased risk of
disability and mortality associated with depression, it is vitally important to consider
preventive interventions that improve the health and quality of life of older adults and
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reduce the burden on families and societies. Potentially useful interventions that prevent
depression include cognitive and behavioral interventions, such as mindfulness-based
therapy and lifestyle interventions.
Many risk factors contribute to the occurrence of depressive symptoms. Stress
is well established as a factor that can cause depressive symptoms or contribute to the
severity of depression. Inflammation is also involved in central and peripheral
hormonal secretion; it interacts with neurotransmitters and is related to
pathophysiological processes such as neurodegeneration. Epidemiological studies on
patients and community dwellers have shown that inflammatory proteins are associated
with depressive symptoms.
Tea is a widely consumed beverage in China and is believed to have significant
health-promoting effects. Researchers have recently become interested in how tea
consumption may promote mental health, and some major biochemical mechanisms
have been proposed. Caffeine, an important component of tea, is known to increase
alertness and promote mood. Tea catechins, especially EGCG, exert antidepressant-like
effects and prevent reduction in brain dopamine concentrations. L-theanine, one of the
major amino acids in green tea leaves, can block the binding of L-glutamic acid, leading
to lower post-stress cortisol and greater subjective relaxation. Lastly, theaflavins and
thearubigins, the main polyphenolic compounds in black tea, may protect against
oxidative stress.
Consumption of tea as a source of caffeine is associated with increased
alertness and information-processing capacity. However, those who drank coffee daily
had no reduced risk of depression, which somewhat contradicts the explanation that
caffeine mediates the inverse association between tea drinking and depression. An
interesting hypothesis is that the inverse relationship between daily tea intake and
depression is due to the biological activity of compounds other than caffeine in tea.
In a double-blind crossover designed study, the antagonistic effect of caffeine
against theanine-induced stress reduction was tested using green tea with low caffeine
content (LCGT) in a group of middle-aged individuals. Standard green tea (SGT) was
used as a control. The results of the trial showed that salivary α-amylase (a digestion
enzyme to be used as a tool in measuring the autonomic nervous system) levels were
considerably lower in participants who consumed LCGT than in those who consumed
SGT, suggesting that caffeine reduced the anti-stress effects of L-theanine. This study
also found that sleep quality improved significantly with LCGT compared to SGT, as
sleep disturbances have been shown to act as precursors to the development of
depression. This finding corroborates other studies reporting the ability of L-theanine
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to improve sleep duration and sleep quality, particularly when ingested together with
GABA, an amino acid found in high quantities in teas processed under certain
conditions. It is worthwhile to note that although caffeine may reduce anti-stress effects
of tea, some studies show that certain tea compounds, such as polyphenols,
theobromine, and L-theanine, can enhance mood and cognitive effects of caffeine and
alleviate negative psychophysiological effects of caffeine. This finding may confer added
benefits to university students, among whom 92% reported to have consumed caffeine
in the past year in a geographically-dispersed sample of United States university
students.
Human trials have explored the mechanisms underlying neuroprotective effects
and quality of tea. Several experimental studies have shown that green tea is an anti-
inflammatory agent that ameliorates the overproduction of proinflammatory cytokines
and mediators. These effects have been largely attributed to the presence of the most
prevalent polyphenol in green tea. Green tea catechins, such as ECCG, also exert anti-
inflammatory and neuroprotective effects in laboratory experiments. The anti-
inflammatory properties of flavonoids from green tea are associated with a lower risk
of depression.
Many studies have suggested that l-theanine has a tranquilizing effect on the
brain. A laboratory study on acute stress showed that oral intake of l-theanine lowered
the stress response in human participants. Clinical trials have shown that L-theanine
ameliorates stress-related symptoms and depressive disorders. Evidence from human
electroencephalographic (EEG) studies shows that L-theanine significantly increases
activity in the alpha frequency band, which indicates mental relaxation. The
supplementation of L-theanine in its pure form at dosages between 200 and 400 mg/
day have been shown to reduce acute stress and anxiety in people undergoing acute
stressful situations.
Epidemiological studies suggest that higher tea consumption is associated with
a lower risk of depressive symptoms in older Chinese individuals, even after adjusting
for socioeconomic status, lifestyle, health status, and social engagement. In addition, the
protective role of tea consumption was particularly strong in males and the younger
elderly. In a large population-based study of older Chinese adults, daily consumption of
one or more cups of green, fermented, or floral tea was associated with up to 50%
lower odds of having depressive symptoms. The association between green tea intake
and depressive symptoms seemed more pronounced in older men, while the association
between floral tea and depressive symptoms was more pronounced in older women.
The effect of tea consumption on depressive symptoms was largely explained
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by its association with socioeconomic, psychosocial, lifestyle behavioral, and health-
related factors. For example, healthier and socially active individuals with higher
socioeconomic status tend to have more opportunities to consume various types of
teas. Among the Chinese, tea is often consumed as a social or leisure activity, and this
social or leisure activity itself, as well as the process of preparing and drinking tea, may
contribute to maintaining better mental health. Advocating traditional life habits, such as
tea drinking, could be a promising way to promote healthy aging in China in the coming
decades.

11. Anti-oxidant Activity

Free radicals are chemical species possessing an unpaired electron that can be
considered as fragments of molecules and which are generally very reactive. Free
radicals are the natural byproducts of many biological processes within and among cells.
They are also produced by exposure to various environmental factors, tobacco, smoke,
and radiation. Free radicals attack healthy cells, spilling cytoplasm and subjecting the
cells to infection, genetic damage, and mutations. For example, the superoxide radical
and hydrogen peroxide are known to be generated in the brain and nervous system in
vivo, and several areas of human brain are rich in iron, which appears to be easily
mobilizable in a form that can stimulate free radical reactions.
An imbalance between antioxidants and free radicals results in oxidative stress,
leading to cellular damage. Antioxidants are chemical compounds responsible for
scavenging free radicals such as reactive oxygen species and reactive nitrogen species
that are generated in the body. They have a strong ability to terminate oxidation chain
reactions by removing free radical intermediates, and also inhibit other cellular oxidation
reactions. They attain this by getting oxidized themselves thereby protecting the body
against the deleterious effects of harmful diseases.
Tea and tea extracts exhibit antioxidative effects through various pathways.
First, antioxidants in tea can scavenge free radicals by directly acting on active oxygen
species. Second, tea components, especially the abundant tea polyphenols, chelate metal
ions such as liver iron, preventing their participation in Fenton and Haber-Weiss
reactions, a hydroxyl radical-forming process. Third, tea antioxidants increase the level
of plasma antioxidants such as glutathione. Fourth, tea bioactives suppress the activity
of superoxidase by chelating plasma zinc and copper, the important cofactors of
superoxidase. Fifth, tea bioactives increase the biological activity of antioxidases
including catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and glutathione peroxidase
(GSH-Px).
Green tea is considered a dietary source of antioxidant nutrients. It is rich in

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polyphenols, and it also contains carotenoids, tocopherols, ascorbic acid, minerals such
as Cr, Mn, Se, or Zn, and certain phytochemical compounds. These compounds could
increase significantly the green tea polyphenol antioxidant potential.
Gatechins are the major polyphenolic antioxidant compounds present in tea
with ability to donate proton or hydrogen, due to high conjugation in their molecular
structure that make them potential antioxidant candidate. In vivo studies showed that
green tea catechin increase total plasma antioxidant activity. Intake of green tea extracts
increases the activity of superoxide dismutase in serum and the expression of catalase
in the aorta; these enzymes are implicated in cellular protection against reactive oxygen
species. This action is combined with direct action on oxygen species by a decrease in
the nitric oxide plasma concentration. Malondialdehyde, a marker of oxidative stress,
also decreases after green tea intake. These results suggest that catechins could have a
direct (antioxidant) or indirect (increase of activity or expression) effect. Since catechins
can act as antioxidants in vitro, they might prevent the oxidation of other antioxidants,
such as vitamin E. However, ingestion of green tea catechins does not modify the
plasma status of vitamins E and C in vivo. Nevertheless, one study reported that
catechins increase vitamin E concentration in low-density lipoprotein and in this way
could protect low- density lipoprotein against peroxidation.
The tolerance of tableted green tea and its effect on the antioxidant status
indices were assessed. Twenty-five patients with different gastrointestinal pathologies
were included in the study and divided into treatment and control groups. The tolerance
of tableted green tea was good in the treatment group, who showed better dynamics of
quality-of-life indices, especially in scales of body pain and social functioning. There
were no significant differences in biochemical analysis between the groups, which may
indicate the safety of this product. Analysis revealed that the treatment group showed a
decreased level of all antioxidant status indices, as reflected in a significant decreasing of
the lipid peroxidation index from 4.63 to 4.14.
Taking green tea catechins is effective in reducing atherosclerosis risk associated
with oxidative stress. Green tea catechins are rapidly incorporated intolow-density
lipoprotein (LDL) particles and play a role in reducing LDL oxidation in humans. In a
randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind, crossover trial, 19 healthy men ingested
green tea extract (GTE) in the form of capsules at a dose of 1 g total catechin, of
which most (>99%) was the gallated type. At 1 hour after ingestion, marked increases
of the plasma concentrations of (−)-epigallocatechin gallate and (−)-epicatechin gallate
were observed. Accordingly, the plasma total antioxidant capacity was increased, and the
LDL oxidizability was significantly reduced by the ingestion of GTE. The gallated
156
catechins were incorporated into LDL particles in nonconjugated forms after the
incubation of GTE with plasma in vitro. Moreover, the catechin-incorporated LDL was
highly resistant to radical-induced oxidation in vitro. An additional human study with 5
healthy women confirmed that GTE intake sufficiently increased the concentration of
gallated catechins, mainly in nonconjugated forms in LDL particles, and reduced the
oxidizability of LDL.
The physiological efficacy of green tea polyphenol infused with milk (GTPM)
on skin integrity in correlation with antioxidative status in healthy adults was studied.
Forty-four healthy voluntary subjects were recruited and assigned to two groups, who
drank 240 ml of mineral water mixed with either an experimental (GTPM) or placebo
package (2 packs per day) for the following 6 months. The experimental group then
switched to the placebo package, and vice versa, for a further 6 months, with one
month of washout period in between. Administration of GTPM significantly increased
the antioxidant index and antioxidant enzyme activities when compared with the
placebo group, whereas a concomitant decrease in the levels of lipid peroxidation were
noted. Moreover, GTPM intake notably improved skin integrity and texture by
markedly lowering skin wrinkles and roughness in elderly subjects. GTPM proved to be
an effective antioxidant by lowering oxidative stress and thereby ameliorating skin
texture and integrity.
Ingesting oolong tea or caffeine acutely increases energy expenditure, and
oolong tea, but not caffeine, stimulates fat oxidation. During a 14-day session of study,
12 non-obese males consumed oolong tea (100mg caffeine, 21.4 mg gallic acid, 97 mg
catechin and 125 mg polymerized polyphenol), caffeine (100mg), caffeine (100mg), or
placebo at breakfast and lunch. Caffeine and oolong tea increased fat oxidation by 20%
without affecting energy over 24-h. The decrease in the respiratory quotient by oolong
tea was greater than that by caffeine during sleep. The effect of oolong tea on fat
oxidation was salient in the post-absorptive state. These findings suggest a role of
unidentified ingredients in oolong tea to stimulate fat oxidation, and this effect is
partially suppressed in a postprandial state. Two weeks of caffeine or oolong tea
ingestion increased fat oxidation without interfering with sleep. The effects of subacute
ingestion of caffeine and oolong tea differed from the acute effects, which is a
particularly important consideration regarding habitual tea consumption.
A hypothesis was tested that green tea prevents diabetes-related tissue
dysfunctions attributable to oxidation and concluded that green tea and antioxidant
vitamins improved several diabetes-related cellular dysfunctions but worsened matrix
glycoxidation in selected tissues, suggesting that antioxidant treatment tilts the balance
157
from oxidative to carbonyl stress in the extracellular compartment.
Intake of the catechin epigallocatechin gallate and caffeine has been shown to
enhance exercise-induced fat oxidation. Matcha green tea powder contains catechins and
caffeine and is consumed as a drink.
A three weeks study showed continuous intake Matcha green tea effects
exercise-induced metabolic responses by enhancing fat oxidation during moderate-
intensity exercise in adult females, seemingly independent of body composition.
Fourteen women consumed three green tea extract (GTE) or placebo capsules
the day before and one capsule 90 min before a 20-min Intermittent sprinting exercise
(ISE) cycling protocol followed by 1 h of resting recovery.There was a significant
increase in fat oxidation post-exercise compared to at rest in the placebo condition.
After GTE ingestion, however, at rest and post-exercise, fat oxidation was significantly
greater than that after placebo. Plasma glycerol levels at rest and 15 min during post-
exercise were significantly higher after GTE consumption compared to placebo.
Compared to placebo, plasma catecholamines increased significantly after GTE
consumption and 20 min after ISE. Acute GTE ingestion significantly increased fat
oxidation under resting and post-exercise conditions when compared to placebo.
Catechins in green tea have been shown to reduce a risk of coronary heart
disease in epidemiological studies. Also, it has been reported catechins have
hypolipidemic and antioxidant effects. Five healthy female subjects consumed ground
green tea (1.5g/3times/day) for 2 weeks after a washout period of 1week, when they
drank water instead of tea. After 2-week tea drinking, the subjects drank water again.
They also filled food and drink-frequency questionnaires during 4 weeks to assess daily
foods consumption to estimate the oxidizability of plasma and LDL. The results
showed cholesterol contents in plasma and LDL decreased 10 mg/dl after ground green
tea consumption. The beta-carotene, alpha-tocopherol, vitamin C and uric acid contents
in plasma did not change after ground green tea consumption. The superoxide
dismutase (SOD) activity in plasma also remained unchanged during this study periods.
These findings indicated that ground tea consumption decreased susceptibility of
plasma and LDL to oxidation and also modulated cholesterol metabolism and might
prevent initiation and progression of atherosclerosis.
Tea consumption is also related to the protection during alcohol intoxication by
preventing the reduction of liver glutathione peroxidase, reductase, and catalase activity,
which would otherwise deplete the cellular antioxidant defense system, especially in
liver.
The antioxidant activities of individual theaflavins with that of each catechin
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were compared using human LDL oxidation as a model. The results demonstrated that
theaflavins in black tea and catechins in green tea are equally effective antioxidants.
White tea consumption for 12 months at a non-pharmacological dose was seen
to reverse the oxidative damage caused by adriamycin in both liver and brain, while the
consumption of white tea for 20 months at a non-pharmacological dose had no effect
on carbonyl or hydroperoxides in these tissues. The long-term ingestion of white tea
protected tissues from acute oxidative stress but did not affect chronic oxidative agents
such aging.

12. Anti-diabetic Activity

As at 2019, there were 351.7 million people of working age (20-64 years) with
diagnosed or undiagnosed diabetes. This number is expected to increase to 600 million
by the year 2035. The largest increase is expected to occur in regions where economies
are moving from a low- to middle-income status. Diabetes is a metabolic disorder
characterized by high blood sugar levels (hyperglycemia). Blood sugar levels are typically
assessed by measuring the level of glucose in small samples after overnight fasting
(fasting blood sugar); levels less than 100 mg/dL (5.6 mM) are considered healthy, 100-
125 mg/dL (5.6-6.9 mM) is considered pre-diabetes, and > 126 mg/dL (7mM) is
considered diabetes. Three out of four people with diabetes live in low- and middle-
income countries and cannot afford the necessary drug treatments, such as insulin and/
or other medicines.
There are two types of diabetes. Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is a metabolic disease
characterized by an insulin secretory defect due to autoimmune destruction of β-cells in
the pancreas. Type 2 diabetes (T2D) is a long-term metabolic disorder characterized by
high blood sugar, insulin resistance, and relative lack of insulin. Type 2 diabetes, which
accounts for the vast majority (around 90%) of diabetes worldwide, is the result of a
lowered sensitivity of the insulin receptors, notably on liver and muscles cells. Insulin
resistance is often initially compensated by β-cell hypersecretion of insulin and
prescription drugs, such as sulfonylureas, stimulate β-cells to increase activity. However,
in the advanced stages, β-cells located in the islets of Langerhans of the pancreas are no
longer able to secrete sufficient insulin. Abnormal insulin sensitivity commonly precedes
the clinical diagnosis of diabetes by up to 15 years.
The occurrence of type 2 diabetes is correlated with lifestyle and dietary
patterns. Notably, greater consumption of sugar-rich foods is associated with increased
levels of type 2 diabetes. There is no cure for type 2 diabetes, though some people with
pre-diabetes and diabetes manage to reach and maintain normal blood sugar levels, thus
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avoiding most of the complications that come with chronic hyperglycemia. This is
sometimes referred to as “reversing diabetes”.
Diabetes roughly doubles the risk for a wide range of vascular diseases and is
associated with premature death from infectious diseases, several types of cancer, and
degenerative disorders. However, causal links remain unclear. These associations might
be due to hyperglycemia or other biological factors, such as insulin resistance, or due to
shared risk factors (e.g., obesity) or a combination of these.

Epidemiological Evidences
Various studies have shown that tea consumption prevents diabetes, especially
type 2 diabetes, which cannot be explained by the presence of magnesium, potassium,
and caffeine. A 10-year follow-up study in the Netherlands involving 918 incident T2D
cases documented from 40,011 participants showed that tea consumption was inversely
associated with the risk of T2D, with an odds ratio (OR) of 0.63 for more than 5 cups
of tea per day. Total daily consumption of at least three cups of tea reduced the risk of
T2D by approximately 42%. A survey involving 8821 adults (51.4% female) conducted
in Poland showed that high tea consumption was negatively associated with metabolic
syndrome, with an OR of 0.79, after adjusting for potential confounding factors.
Among the specific components of metabolic syndrome, tea consumption was
negatively associated with central obesity and fasting plasma glucose levels. A 5-year
follow-up study involving 17,413 Japanese people (6727 men and 10,686 women) aged
40–65 years showed that the consumption of green tea was inversely associated with the
risk of T2D after adjusting for age, sex, body mass index, and other risk factors.
A study of 608 T2D patients in China showed that tea intake could alleviate the
decrease in fasting blood insulin and reduce waist circumference only in interventions
that lasted 8 weeks or more. Data from 18 studies, including 457,922 participants,
showed that a high intake of decaffeinated tea was significantly associated with a
reduced risk of incident diabetes. Daily tea consumption (three cups/day) was
associated with a lower T2D risk. However, further studies are needed to enrich the
related evidence, especially regarding the various types of tea.
The chemical composition of tea varies according to the degree of
fermentation. The major bioactive component in unfermented green tea is EGCG.
However, in semi-fermented oolong tea and fully fermented black tea, the major active
ingredients are theaflavins and thearubigins. EGCG decreases hepatic glucose
production. Furthermore, similar to insulin, EGCG increases tyrosine phosphorylation
of insulin receptors and insulin receptor substrate-1. EGCG also mimics insulin by
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increasing phosphoinositide-3-kinase and MAPK activities. EGCG differs from insulin
in that it affects several insulin-activated kinases with slow kinetics. Furthermore,
EGCG regulates genes encoding gluconeogenic enzymes and protein tyrosine
phosphorylation by modulating the redox state of the cell. These results demonstrate
that changes in the redox state may have a beneficial role for EGCG, or derivatives, as
an anti-diabetic agent. Theaflavins in oolong tea inhibit α-glucosidase activity, resulting
in decreased glucose production in the intestine. Compared to green tea, oolong tea
contains higher levels of caffeine, which increases the expression of glucose transporter
IV. An ecological study using a systematic data-mining approach to investigate the
potential statistical relationship between the consumption of fully fermented black tea
and epidemiological indicators globally, showed that high black tea consumption was
significantly correlated with low diabetes prevalence.

Protective Effects of Tea Against Diabetes

Hyperglycemia-induced oxidative stress has been proposed to cause memory
complications, including cognitive impairment in patients with diabetes. Daily intake of
one cup (150 mL) to four cups (600 mL) of black tea improved oxidative stress
biomarkers and decreased serum C-reactive protein levels in patients with diabetes. Tea
catechins inhibited hyperglycemia-induced plasma protein carbonylation. Oxidative
modifications are a major class of protein post-translational changes that contribute to
cell dysfunction and human diseases, including diabetes. Carbonylation is an irreversible
modification of oxidized proteins. This explains why tea catechins show beneficial
effects against redox impairment linked to hyperglycemic conditions.
As a hallmark of diabetes, chronic hyperglycemia can initiate impairment in
diverse cell types and is considered the main cause of diabetic complications such as
microvascular complications, neuropathy, retinopathy, stroke, nephropathy, and
peripheral vascular disease. The hypoglycemic effect of green tea is mainly due to its
abundant polyphenols, especially catechins, which play a beneficial role in improving
glucose metabolism in diabetes. EGCG is the predominant anti-diabetic active
ingredient. Intake of 1500 mL oolong tea (15 g brewed in 1500 mL boiling water) by
T2D patients for 1-2 weeks decreased the concentrations of plasma glucose and
fructosamine. This cross-sectional study included 35 male volunteers aged between 23-
63 years old and residing in Japan. Men who consumed a 3% concentration of green tea
showed lower mean values of fasting blood glucose and fructosamine than those who
consumed a 1% concentration of green tea. Fasting blood glucose levels were
significantly associated with green tea concentration, which has the potential to reduce
161
blood glucose levels.
Tea consumption improves diabetes-induced cardiovascular disease. The
development of diabetes is a complex process, in which there is an intermediate state
known as prediabetes, characterized by a higher level of blood glucose than normal but
below the level identified as diabetes. Prediabetes is associated with cardiovascular
disease. White tea consumption ameliorated the overall metabolic status of prediabetic
rats and prevented most heart-related deleterious effects by improving glucose tolerance
and insulin sensitivity, increasing the levels of cardiac lactate and acetate, and decreasing
glucose transporter mRNA expression in cardiac tissue. Ingestion of 100 mL of
flavonoid-rich black tea resulted in decreased peripheral vascular resistance (VR) and
attenuation of postprandial insulin response by approximately 29% among a group of
obese and insulin-resistant male adults within 3 h after consumption. The effects of
black tea may be ascribed to its flavonoid content, which has the potential to improve
vascular endothelial function, which can then stimulate postprandial blood flow
responses. It has been suggested that flavonoid content contributes to the anti-diabetic
properties of tea.
Although many studies have shown that tea and tea extracts have antidiabetic
effects, inconsistent results have been reported in in vivo and clinical studies. A double-
blind, placebo-controlled, randomized multiple-dose (0, 375, or 750 mg green tea
extract or black tea extract per day for 3 months) study in adults with T2D not taking
insulin revealed that green tea or black tea extracts showed no hypoglycemic effect in
T2D adults. The chemical composition of teas varies among different tea cultivars and
degree of fermentation during tea processing, which leads to inconsistent antidiabetic
results using teas from various sources.
Diabetes is not a single disease but a complex syndrome characterized by
hyperglycemia resulting from altered carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism. There
remains insufficient data to support the proper cellular and molecular mechanisms
related to the prevention of diabetes in humans by tea constituents. Many factors lead
to inconsistent results regarding the association between tea consumption and decreased
diabetes risk. Therefore, it is important to isolate purified individual bioactive
compounds to test their antidiabetic effects. This will help to clarify the principal
antidiabetic components in tea and support improvements in tea processing.
Bioavailability is an important factor influencing the pharmaceutical effects of tea on
diabetes. Studies on the in vivo adsorption mechanism of antidiabetic components in
tea and the development of methods to improve their bioavailability will be an
important research topic in the future.
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Conclusion
Tea is one of the oldest and most consumed beverages in the world. Known as
the “Divine Healer,” tea originated in China almost 5000 years ago and is currently
cultivated in more than 60 countries worldwide.
Tea is easily available, cheap, and has no side effects at normal consumption
level, thus tea consumption is a potential preventive measure for chronic diseases and
may help reduce healthcare costs at the population level. Tea is also widely consumed as
a social beverage daily. The acceptance of, and affection for tea by people from different
ethnic groups are largely related to its beneficial effects on health.
However, epidemiological investigations involving tea-drinkers and non-tea
drinkers have presented inconsistent or varied results. Despite the recognized beneficial
effects of tea, some side effects related to high doses of tea extracts have also been
reported, which requires further examination. The discrepancies observed in research
studies may be attributed to the difference between the experimental dosage and actual
concentration, difference between sexes wherein efficacy in females is generally higher
than that in males, bioavailability of a compound which depends on many internal and
external factors (for example, the bioavailability of tea polyphenols is relatively low),
and confounding factors, such as smoking and drinking, which are difficult to control in
human epidemiological studies.
To confirm the usefulness of tea-derived compounds for the treatment of
diseases, significant clinical data regarding their bioavailability, safe and efficacious dose,
and mechanism of action in various disease settings will need to be explored. Therefore,
scientists should advocate the medicinal properties and therapeutic value of tea to
consumes.

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Li Wei
zju.liwei@hotmail.com
Dr. Wei Li received his Ph.D. and Master degree in Tea Science from Zhejiang
University, Hangzhou, China, in 2011 and 2006, respectively, and Bachelor degree in
Horticulture from Henan Agriculture University, in 2003. Since Nov. 2006, Dr. Li was a
teacher in Tea R&D Center, Zhejiang Shuren University. Dr. Li concentrate on tea
biochemistry and quality. His recent research include: tea chemistry and health benefits,
tea plantation and manufacture, tea taste, etc. Dr. Li has the certifications of Senior Tea
Craftsman (in 2011) and Senior Tea Sensory Taster (in 2006). Since 2005, he has
published 11 peer-reviewed papers in international journals and conferences and served
as a reviewer of several journals. He was a number of the team won the Second Class
Prize of Scientific and Technological Award of Zhejiang Province in 2012, and Silver
Prize of International Exhibition of Inventions of Geneva in 2012.

Ma Shicheng
zjumasc@aliyun.com
Dr. Shicheng Ma received his Ph.D and Master degree in Tea Science from Zhejiang
University, Hangzhou, China, in 2012 and 2007, respectively, and Double Bachelor
degree in Horticulture and Biotechnology from Shandong Agriculture, Taian, in 2005.
Since 2012, Dr. Ma has been in Wuzhou Liubao Tea Research Association and Wuzhou
Tea Industry Development Service Center as a Director. Dr. Ma focuses on the research
of functional components and industrialization of Tea. His recent research interests
include: making national tea standards, Liubao Tea industrialization development,
researching characteristic chemical compounds of dark tea, yellow tea and white tea, etc.
Since 2007, Dr. Ma has published 20 peer-reviewed research papers and 4 books, and
got 8 patents. Dr. Ma also awarded the National Agricultural Model in 2017 and Person
of the Year in Chinese Tea Industry in 2018.

Glossary of Tea Terms

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 Acidic: A sour and tart taste.
Aftertaste: A term for the flavor and aroma left in the mouth after the tea has
been swallowed. When the aftertaste is attractive, it could be the reason why you prefer
one tea to a similar tea with no particular aftertaste.
Aggressive: The opposite of soft and smooth.
Amino acid: Simple organic compound containing both carboxyl and amino
group and combine to form proteins. The perceived taste of amino acids can range
from sour or umami to sweet and bitter and some of them also taste mildly sweet. The
peculiar and most important amino acid in tea is theanine.
Apricot: A pale orange color. This term if often applied to color of white tea
liquid.
Aroma: The odor of the tea.
Aspect: the topography of a tea garden, including its altitude, the direction in
which the tea trees face, and the angle of any slope.
Astringent: A bold, pungent sensation due to the tannins in the tea that linger
on the tongue.
Autumnal: The liquor from teas grown in cool Autumn weather.
Baggy: An undesirable taint sometimes found in inferior teas which have been
stored in sacks.
Balance: Refers to the harmonious relationship between acids, polyphenols,
amino acids, and other natural elements in tea liquor.
Bakey: An unpleasant characteristic noticeable in the liquors of teas which were
heated to higher temperatures than mandated during processing.
Bent: The appearance of tea is curved and not straight or flat.
Blend: A mixture of two or more teas from different origins to achieve a
certain type of flavor which is unique.
Blind tasting: A tea tasting at which the identity of the teas is unknown to the
taster until after he or she has made notes and given scores.
Blister: A swelling on the surface of tea leaf, caused usually by high
temperature.
Bloom: Dry tea surface is sheen and looks like a film of varnish. It’s a character
of fine tea.
Body: The tactile aspect of tea’s weight, and also refers the tea liquor with the
impression of weight in the mouth.
Brassy: with a bitter taste.
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 Bright: A style and refreshing flavor of tea for the palate.
with a good pronounced color, usually orange or coppery.
Brisk: refreshing, lively.
Burnt: An undesirable trait, which is a degree worse than ‘bakey’.
Chun-mee: A grade of Chinese tea with a naturally curling shape.
Clean: A pure, neutral aroma or flavor.
Coarse: With a harsh and vegetable flavor.
Complexity: A word that refers to many different nuances of smell and taste.
Compressed tea: A traditional way of storing and transporting tea in China in
the form of bricks or cakes.
Congou: The name come from Chinese word ‘Gongfu’, which is a Chinese
character convey the meaning of requiring time and patience. Congou tea is made with
oolong tea in a small Yixing teapot or Gaiwan and served in very small cups.
Coppery: A favorable attribute of tea liquor color, similar to a new penny.
Cream down: The milky deposit which forms in an infusion of black tea in
cooling due to interaction between caffeine and polyphenols.
Crisp: A clean tea liquor, with good acidity showing on the finish, yielding a
refreshing, clean taste.
Dirty: This applies to any tea with an unpleasant off-taste or off-smell, and is
probably the result of poor manufacture or bad storing.
Dull: an infusion which lacks clearness, brightness, or vividness.
Earthy: With an unpleasant taste (usually caused by storing tea in damp
conditions).
Enzyme: A protein produced by living organisms that functions as a
biochemical catalyst.
Esters: Sweet-smelling compounds, formed during fermentation and
throughout maturation, that contribute to a tea’s aroma.
Even: Refers to the shapes are quite same no matter big or small, long or short,
heavy or light.
Fish leaves: The first two leaves formed on a shoot as it grows from a bud. The
first, or small, fish leaf, or janam, is a small scale leaf. The second, or large, fish leaf is
larger, but often smaller than later leaves and is smooth rather than serrated on its upper
edges.
Finish: The final taste that lingers on tongue after consuming the tea.
Flaky: Badly manufactured, proceeding flat or badly rolled leaves.
Flowery: A floral flavor which is mostly associated with high quality.
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 Flush: The word used to describe the state of the crop when there is a large
number of visible, actively growing tea shoots per unit area of the bush surface.
Fragrance of vegetables: Like the fragrance that released after cabbage is
boiled, it is used to commenting green tea aroma.
Fried rice fragrance: Like the fragrance of pop corn which is the fragrance of
tea is gently baked or fried.
Full: This term usually refers to body, as in “full-bodied”. However, tea can be
light in body yet full in flavor.
Gua Pian: A famous green tea grown in Anhui Province. Unlike other green
teas, Lu An Gua Pian is made from one solitary leaf. Gua Pian is also written as Melon
Seeds, which is a transliteration from the Chinese due to the leaf having the appearance
of the seeds of many cucumber family, which are auspicious in China.
Golden: A term used to describe tea containing light tips.
Gōngfū: the art of doing things with diligence.
Gun-power: A type of Chinese tea having the appearance of small pellets.
When the British first arrived in China and were shown the tea they called it gun-
powder on account of its resemblance to the gunpowder pellets used for cannons. This
tea is called Zhucha in China.
Honeyed: Many white tea develop a honeyed character through storing,
particular compressed Gongmei and Shoumei.
Hybrid: A cross between two or more tea varieties from more than one species.
Heaviness: Refers to the teas are tight and heavy while measured by hands.
Light: Pale but with a good aroma and fresh flavor
Malty: The tea with a hint of malt taste.
Maillard Reaction: This is an organic react with amino acids to form a complex
mixture of compounds. This reaction is responsible for the characteristic flavor and
aroma of drying and baking in tea processing.
Mellow: Describes a tea liquid that is round, rich, and full but free from
garishness or stridency.
Mother bush: A bush selected for its desirable characteristics which has been
multiplied by vegetative propagation or tissue culture.
Plain: Lacking character, without freshness or aroma.
Raw: with a bitter flavor.
Rich: well balanced and of high quality.
Roller: The traditional machine consists of a hopper containing leaf under
pressure which moves over a ridged table. Tea produced by these machines is known as
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‘orthodox’.
Round: full flavored
Scented: Teas which are infused with aroma and taste of various flowers or
spices under controlled conditions.
Smooth: A fine tea with a pleasant, well-rounded taste.
Sorting (selecting): The physical separation of manufactured tea from the drier
exit into the various size grade and the removal of unwanted material, particularly stems
and fibre.
Sow-mee: A grade of Chinese tea having a fine curling shape like a young girl
eyebrows, and manufactured from small leaves and a bud.
Straight: The appearance of tea extending uniformly in one direction without a
curve or bend.
Strong: The taste or smell is very noticeable or powerful.
Structure: The structure of tea is literally composed of its solids (polyphenols,
acidity, sugar, and other flavor) in balance, and how positively they form and feel in the
mouth.
Sturdy: The term of sturdy suggests tea is physically strong and solid or thick.
Suspension: A tea liquid in which small pieces of solid are contained, but not
dissolved.
Sweaty: with a undesirable sour flavor.
Tea cream: The milky deposit which forms in an infusion of black tea on
cooling due to interaction between caffeine and theaflavins.
Terroir: This literally means “soil”, but in a tea plant cultivation sense terroir
refers in a more general way to a tea plantation’s whole growing environment, which
also includes altitude, aspect, climate, and any other significant factors that may affect
the life of a tea plant, and thereby the quality of tea tea shoots it produced.
Thin: A term used to describe a tea that is lacking in body and other properties.
Tightly: The appearance of tea is curled and firmed.
Tippy: the tea includes a greater portion of tips (buds). Tippy teas tent to have
a more delicate flavor and aroma, and be more expensive. The opposite of tippy teas
are teas made from a greater portion of large and mature leaves.
Tired: old and badly packed or stored.
Umami: The fifth basic taste (after sweetness, sourness, bitterness, and
saltiness) is a satisfying taste of completeness prompted by the amino acid glutamate,
hence the use of monosodium glutamate as a taste enhancer in Chinese cuisine.
Watery: This term often refers to tea liquor is extreme qualification of thin.
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 Withering: The first stage in black tea and white tea manufacture. The
harvested leaves are partly dried and the degree of drying depends on the
manufacturing process. Important chemical changes occur during this period, which can
last 8 to 20 hours.
Wiry: This term applies to a fine tea with a thin but strong appearance.
Woody: The flavor of tea, reminiscent of freshly cut timber.
Yu-ye: This kind of leaf means while the winter buds are at the beginning of
sprouting but have not been come out in spring, the shape of this leaf just like fish.
Zhu-cha: The Chinese name for Gun-power tea, which is a kind of green tea.

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