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Flight testing the linear aerospike SR-71 experiment (LASRE)

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NASA/TM-1998-206567

Flight Testing the Linear Aerospike SR-71

Experiment (LASRE)
Stephen Corda, Bradford A. Neal,
Timothy R. Moes, Timothy H. Cox,
Richard C. Monaghan, Leonard S. Voelker,
Griffin P. Corpening, and Richard R. Larson
Dryden Flight Research Center
Edwards, California

Bruce G. Powers
Analytical Services and Materials, Inc.
Hampton, Virginia

September 1998
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NASA/TM-1998-206567

Flight Testing the Linear Aerospike SR-71

Experiment (LASRE)
Stephen Corda, Bradford A. Neal,
Timothy R. Moes, Timothy H. Cox,
Richard C. Monaghan, Leonard S. Voelker,
Griffin P. Corpening, and Richard R. Larson
Dryden Flight Research Center
Edwards, California

Bruce G. Powers
Analytical Services and Materials, Inc.
Hampton, Virginia

National Aeronautics and

Space Administration

Dryden Flight Research Center

Edwards, California 93523-0273

September 1998
 NOTICE
Use of trade names or names of manufacturers in this document does not constitute an official endorsement
of such products or manufacturers, either expressed or implied, by the National Aeronautics and
Space Administration.

Available from the following:

NASA Center for AeroSpace Information (CASI) National Technical Information Service (NTIS)
7121 Standard Drive 5285 Port Royal Road
Hanover, MD 21076-1320 Springfield, VA 22161-2171
(301) 621-0390 (703) 487-4650
 FLIGHT TESTING THE LINEAR AEROSPIKE
SR-71 EXPERIMENT (LASRE)

Stephen Corda,* Bradford A. Neal,† Timothy R. Moes,‡ Timothy H. Cox,§ Richard C. Monaghan,¶
Leonard S. Voelker,# Griffin P. Corpening,** and Richard R. Larson††
NASA Dryden Flight Research Center
Edwards, CA
Bruce G. Powers‡‡
Analytical Services and Materials, Inc.
Hampton, Virginia

Abstract results and for the development of computational fluid

dynamics–based design methodologies. The ultimate
The design of the next generation of space access goal of firing the aerospike rocket engine in flight is still
vehicles has led to a unique flight test that blends the forthcoming. An extensive design and development
space and flight research worlds. The new space vehicle phase of the experiment hardware has been completed,
designs, such as the X-33 vehicle and Reusable Launch including approximately 40 ground tests. Five flights of
Vehicle (RLV), are powered by linear aerospike rocket the LASRE and firing the rocket engine using inert
engines. Conceived of in the 1960’s, these aerospike liquid nitrogen and helium in place of liquid oxygen and
engines have yet to be flown, and many questions hydrogen have been successfully completed.
remain regarding aerospike engine performance and
efficiency in flight. To provide some of these data before Nomenclature
flying on the X-33 vehicle and the RLV, a spacecraft
rocket engine has been flight-tested atop the NASA GH2 gaseous hydrogen
SR-71 aircraft as the Linear Aerospike SR-71 H2O water
Experiment (LASRE). A 20 percent–scale, semispan
model of the X-33 vehicle, the aerospike engine, and all He helium
the required fuel and oxidizer tanks and propellant feed KEAS equivalent airspeed, knots
systems have been mounted atop the SR-71 airplane for
this experiment. A major technical objective of the LASRE Linear Aerospike SR-71 Experiment
LASRE flight test is to obtain installed-engine LN2 liquid nitrogen
performance flight data for comparison to wind-tunnel
LO2 liquid oxygen

*Stephen Corda, Aerospace Engineer, Propulsion and Performance O2 oxygen

Branch, (805) 258-2103, stephen.corda@dfrc.nasa.gov
†Bradford A. Neal, Aerospace Engineer, Operations Engineering
PCM pulse code modulator
Branch, (805) 258-3204, brad.neal@dfrc.nasa.gov RLV Reusable Launch Vehicle
‡Timothy R. Moes, Aerospace Engineer, Aerodynamics Branch,
(805) 258-3054, tim.moes@dfrc.nasa.gov SMART signal management for analysis in real time
§Timothy H. Cox, Aerospace Engineer, Controls Branch,
(805) 258-2126, tim.cox@dfrc.nasa.gov
TEA–TEB Triethyl aluminum–triethyl borane
¶Richard C. Monaghan, Aerospace Engineer, Aerostructures
USAF United States Air Force
Branch, (805) 258-3842, richard.monaghan@dfrc.nasa.gov
#Leonard S. Voelker, Aerospace Engineer, Structural Dynamics
Group, (805) 258-3709, len.voelker@dfrc.nasa.gov Introduction
**Griffin P. Corpening, Aerospace Engineer, Propulsion and Per-
formance Branch, (805) 258-2497, griff.corpening@dfrc.nasa.gov The Linear Aerospike SR-71 Experiment (LASRE)
††Richard R. Larson, Aerospace Engineer, Systems Engineering
(fig. 1)1 began during the competition to build the X-33
Branch, (805) 258-3740, dick.larson@dfrc.nasa.gov
‡‡Bruce G. Powers, Aerospace Engineer, Analytical Services and vehicle, a subscale, suborbital, rocket technology
Materials, Inc., (805) 258-3732, bruce.powers@dfrc.nasa.gov demonstrator vehicle for the planned single-stage-
This paper is declared a work of the U. S. Government and is not to-orbit, rocket-powered Reusable Launch Vehicle
subject to copyright protection in the United States. (RLV). The LASRE is a flight-test contribution to the
 The Aerospike Rocket Engine

A natural synergism exists between this lifting-body

shape and a rocket engine configuration called the linear
aerospike, first developed in the 1960’s.2–4 The
rectangular nozzles of the linear aerospike engine easily
integrate into the rectangular base of the lifting body. An
aerodynamic advantage is realized because the
aerospike engines fill in much of the lifting-body base.

Theoretically, a major advantage of the aerospike

rocket engine is the ability of the nozzle to adjust with
altitude changes to the free-stream static pressure,
which results in a higher specific impulse than a
EC97-44295-108 conventional bell nozzle has at low altitudes (fig. 3).5–7
This altitude compensation is caused by the unique
Figure 1. The LASRE in flight. nozzle geometry of the aerospike engine, which has a
central ramp terminating in either a plug base or spike in
the center and is scarfed, or open, to the atmosphere on
the sides.
Lockheed Martin Skunk Works (Palmdale, California)
X-33 proposal. Lockheed Martin subsequently won the The term “aerospike” derives from the fact that the
X-33 competition with a design that utilizes a flat, central spike need not be a real, solid surface; the spike
triangular planform, lifting-body shape (fig. 2) similar can be aerodynamically formed by injecting gases from
to lifting-body designs that had been tested and flown at the engine base. The nozzle exhaust flow is free to
Edwards Air Force Base (California) prior to expand on the open sides and self-adjust to static-
development of the current Space Shuttle. Use of trade pressure changes with altitude. This automatic altitude
names or names of manufacturers in this document does compensation of the exhaust gases allows the nozzle to
not constitute an official endorsement of such products run at more optimum conditions than a conventional
or manufacturers, either expressed or implied, by the fixed-geometry, bell-type nozzle, which is designed to
National Aeronautics and Space Administration. be optimum for only one altitude. The aerospike engine
can also be built from individual thruster segments that
can be turned on and off to provide thrust vectoring to
steer the X-33 vehicle, rather than using the heavier,
conventional technique of gimbaling, or moving, an
entire rocket bell nozzle.

The aerospike concept is not new, and although

several large-scale ground tests of the aerospike engine
were conducted in the 1970’s, no flight data had ever
been collected. Ground testing provided only a sea-level
data point for the ability of the aerospike nozzle to
compensate and adjust to altitude. The question
remained as to whether the aerospike nozzle would
really compensate for altitude during the rocket ascent
and provide better performance. One method to answer
this question is to test the aerospike engine in a wind
tunnel, which has been done to a limited extent. These
wind-tunnel tests involved flowing inert, “cold” gases
through the aerospike rocket engine; the rocket engine
ED97-43938 was not actually fired using combustible fuels. Although
these “cold-jet” tests did provide some important
Figure 2. The X-33 and RLV spacecraft with aerospike altitude compensation data, the missing piece of data is
rocket engines. the performance of the aerospike rocket nozzle at

2
 Aerospike
nozzle

Specific
impulse

Bell
nozzle
Bell nozzle Aerospike nozzle

Sea level High altitude

Altitude 960227

Figure 3. Comparison of flow through conventional bell nozzle and aerospike nozzle.

varying altitudes with a “hot plume” (for instance, hot, Experiment Flight Test Objectives
combusting gases flowing through the nozzle and
interacting with the free-stream air). The LASRE flight test used a linear aerospike rocket
engine mounted in a 20 percent–scale, semispan,
Another way to obtain aerospike engine test data is to X-33–type vehicle. The linear aerospike rocket engine
actually fly an aerospike rocket engine and fire it in has eight linear, single-thruster-combustor segments
flight at various altitudes. The NASA Dryden Flight (four on each side of the engine) fueled by gaseous
Research Center (Edwards, California) had already hydrogen and liquid oxygen. The major technical
performed design work on a proposed external burning objectives were to measure the performance of the
experiment that had many of the salient features installed aerospike rocket engine along the
required to consider flight test of an aerospike rocket representative RLV trajectory, demonstrate the
engine on an airplane. NASA Dryden and Lockheed operation of the aerospike rocket engine in a
Martin Skunk Works had been working on a flight test, representative flight environment, and support the
in support of the National Aerospace Plane (NASP) development of a computational fluid dynamics–based
design methodology for integration of the linear
program, that would externally burn hydrogen on a large
aerospike rocket engine in lifting-body configurations.
plate mounted atop the Mach-3 SR-71 aircraft. This
This flight test also provided a unique opportunity to
design work, coupled with the existing SR-71 legacy of
gain experience with the blending of airplane and space
carrying large external payloads such as the D-21 drone,
vehicle design, operations, research, and test
helped increase the feasibility of flying the aerospike
communities.
engine on the SR-71 airplane. Also, the proposed X-33
ascent trajectory fit within the SR-71 flight envelope to a The Flight Test Team
maximum altitude of approximately 80,000 ft (fig. 4).
The LASRE team is composed of Lockheed Martin
This paper details the LASRE flight-test evolution Skunk Works; Lockheed Martin Astronautics (Denver,
from early configuration development, ground and flight Colorado); Boeing North American/Rocketdyne
checkouts, and flight test planning and preparation to Division (Canoga Park, California); the U. S. Air Force
flight testing. Sample flight test results and analysis are (USAF) Research Laboratory (formerly the USAF
presented in the areas of stability and control, transonic Phillips Laboratory) (Edwards, California); the NASA
performance, structural loads, structural dynamics, and Marshall Space Flight Center (Huntsville, Alabama);
propellant feed system and aerospike rocket engine and NASA Dryden. Lockheed Martin Skunk Works was
performance. Some lessons learned in conducting a responsible for the design, fabrication, and integration
complex and hazardous flight test are also presented. of the LASRE structural hardware and SR-71 aircraft

3
 90 x 103
KEAS
325
350
80 375
400

70 425
450
60

50
Altitude,
ft
40 Representative
RLV trajectory
30

20

Planned hot-fire
10 flight test point

0 .5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5

Mach number
980457

Figure 4. The SR-71 flight envelope with LASRE hot-fire test points.

modifications. Lockheed Martin Astronautics was has two SR-71 aircraft on loan from the USAF and
responsible for the design and fabrication of the operates them as flight research aircraft. The SR-71
propellant feed systems for the rocket engine. aircraft has a rather narrow flight envelope with a
Rocketdyne designed and fabricated the linear aerospike maximum cruise performance of approximately
rocket engine. The USAF provided their Research Mach 3.2 at altitudes higher than 80,000 ft (fig. 4). The
Laboratory test facility and technical support for the SR-71 aircraft has titanium construction and is painted
ground tests. NASA Marshall provided technical black to operate at the high temperatures associated
expertise for liquid propulsion testing and operations. with Mach-3 flight (hence its designation as the
NASA Dryden provided overall technical support and is “Blackbird”).
the flight test lead.
The SR-71 “A” model used in this test has a tandem,
In addition to the technical challenges, the LASRE two-place cockpit configuration with flight controls in
flight test was new and unique in another way. This test the forward cockpit. The aft cockpit is occupied by a
was the first to be conducted under a new way of doing flight test engineer who operates the aerospike engine
business for NASA—using the government and industry controls and emergency systems in addition to
“cooperative agreement.” Under this arrangement, the performing normal radio and navigation duties.
traditional role of government-dictated requirements
and industry-supplied deliverables is replaced by a SR-71 Description and Modifications
cooperative structure in which government and industry
share the responsibilities, costs, and risks of the Modifying the SR-71 airplane to carry the LASRE
endeavor. Without understatement, this shared (fig. 5) and fulfill its role as a true research platform was
responsibility was one of the more challenging aspects necessary. Modifications were made to the aircraft
of this test, especially considering the very different structure, flight test instrumentation, the aircraft fuel
philosophies of the various teammates regarding design system, and the aircraft propulsion system.
methods, test techniques, and risk management.
Structural modifications included strengthening the
Experiment Description fuselage and installing attachment hardware to carry the
LASRE. The experiment is structurally attached to the
The aircraft used to carry the aerospike experiment is top of the fuselage at a single self-aligning ball and at
the Lockheed-built SR-71 “Blackbird” aircraft. NASA two vertical links and one lateral link. This attachment

4
 17.32

7.50

Reflection plane

55.60 55.60

2.50

41.21
Model
2.75 Canoe
1.86 7.53
18.50

107.40
980458

Figure 5. The LASRE pod mounted atop the SR-71 aircraft.

does not affect the normal load paths or stiffness of the experiment.8 The engines were “tuned up” to operate at
basic SR-71 aircraft. The concentrated load points at the the top of their performance capability by adjusting the
attachments required local reinforcement internal to the fuel flow, revolutions/min, and exhaust gas temperature.
fuselage to distribute flight loads into the SR-71 This thrust enhancement was gained at the cost of
airframe. All new structure and existing modified slightly reduced engine life and more frequent
structure used a factor of safety 50 percent greater than inspections of the engines.
the normal aircraft factor of safety to eliminate the need
for structural testing. When LASRE flight testing is Linear Aerospike SR-71 Experiment Hardware
completed, the fittings at the three external attachment The LASRE flight test hardware is composed of four
points can be easily removed. All the internal structural elements identified as the “canoe,” the “kayak,” the
reinforcements will remain. The reinforced areas will “reflection plane,” and the “model” (fig. 6). The
not affect normal SR-71 operations and could be used complete assembly of this hardware is designated the
for future programs. “pod.” The pod is approximately 41.0 ft long and
Plumbing was also installed to supply gaseous approximately 7.5 ft tall at its highest point, the top of
nitrogen from the SR-71 airplane to the experiment for the model. The pod is constructed of common,
purging. The SR-71 aircraft has several liquid low-carbon steel and has a total design weight of
nitrogen–filled Dewar flasks that normally supply 14,500 lbm, including the consumables for the
gaseous nitrogen to pressurize and make inert the experiment. The pod structure was designed with an
aircraft fuel tanks as the fuel is consumed. Two of these additional 50-percent factor of safety over normal
Dewar flasks supply nitrogen gas to purge the inside of aircraft structural requirements to eliminate the need for
the LASRE of oxygen to help mitigate the possibility of structural ground and flight testing. As previously
fire or explosion in the event of a leak of the hydrogen mentioned, the pod is mounted between the twin vertical
gas used to fuel the rocket engine. rudders of the SR-71 airplane at three hard points on the
SR-71 fuselage (fig. 5). The pod is designed to remain
Aircraft propulsion modifications involved installing attached to the SR-71 airplane and cannot be jettisoned
two thrust-enhanced Pratt & Whitney (West Palm or released in flight.
Beach, Florida) J58 turbojet engines to provide an
approximately 5-percent increase in thrust to help The canoe is a long, fairing-like structure mounted
overcome the increased drag of the LASRE directly to the SR-71 upper fuselage. The canoe houses
5
five gaseous hydrogen fuel tanks storing a maximum of within the pod. The aerospike rocket engine is mounted
27 lbm of gaseous hydrogen at 6,000 lbf/in2, two in the aft end of the model. A hypergolic combination of
cooling water tanks, and three 10,000–lbf/in2 helium triethyl aluminum and triethyl borane (TEA–TEB) is
pressurization tanks (fig.7). Water is used to internally used as an ignitor for the rocket, igniting on contact with
cool the rocket engine. The kayak is a structure above oxygen. The model is mounted on a force balance that
the canoe that sets the incidence angle of the model. The permits the measurement of in-flight forces.
reflection plane is a flat plate that is mounted atop the
kayak. The model is a one-half-span lifting-body shape, The design challenge of the LASRE propellant feed
representative of an X-33–type lifting body, mounted on system is fairly unique. Although the system is not
the reflection plane. Within the model rests the liquid representative of an actual main propulsion rocket
oxygen tank storing a maximum of 335 lbm of liquid system, it does have to meet the safety requirements
oxygen, and two additional 10,000–lbf/in2 helium associated with being mounted in a piloted airplane.
pressurization tanks. Although the feed system is similar to a ground facility
system, it is constrained in volume and weight. The
One major safety concern was the very high–pressure volume limitation is dictated by the maximum allowable
gases and combustible gases and liquids contained cross-sectional area that the SR-71 aircraft can carry

Reflection 17.32 ft
plane

7.50 ft

2.50 ft Aerospike
rocket engine

Model
Kayak
Canoe 7.53 ft

1.86 ft

41.21 ft
2.75 ft
980459

Figure 6. The LASRE pod.

LO2 vent

Balance He
Model He TEA–
TEB Engine
Reflection
LO2 plane
Canoe He
Kayak
H2O exit
He He He Engine cooling H2O GH2 GH2 GH2 Controller
GH2 dump

Pod cooling H2O SR-71

Purge LN2
980204

Figure 7. The LASRE pod internal arrangement.

6
through the high-drag transonic Mach region. The A control panel in the aft cockpit of the SR-71
weight constraint is dictated by aircraft performance airplane is used to initiate the controller sequences that
requirements. Therefore, the amount of each of the fire the rocket motor and safeguard the systems. The aft
consumable commodities is limited. In addition to the cockpit control panel also allows the aircrew to monitor
physical constraints of the system, intense schedule critical propellant feed system health parameters, such
requirements existed early in the program. To meet the as tank pressures and temperatures. A backup,
schedule, every effort was made to use off-the-shelf emergency control system also exists, independent of
hardware and minimize development costs and the LASRE controller, that enables the aircrew to dump
component-level testing. and make inert the hydrogen tanks and vent the pressure
in the liquid oxygen tank. The normal test sequence
Buried inside the pod are the tankage, plumbing, consists of a single 3-sec firing of the rocket engine
valves, instrumentation, and controllers required to followed by independent dumping of the remaining
operate the aerospike rocket engine, making the system hydrogen, liquid oxygen, and water.
essentially self-contained (fig. 7). The LASRE
propellant feed system is a pressure-fed system that Figure 9 shows the LASRE system controller
supplies gaseous hydrogen fuel and liquid oxygen to the architecture. The pod systems are commanded by the
aerospike rocket engine. §§In addition to being used as a main controller, which receives inputs from the
purging gas, high-pressure gaseous helium is used as a instrumentation system and the cockpit control panel.
pressurant to move the oxidizer and cooling water. An unusual feature of this architecture is that the
experiment or research instrumentation and
Oxygen sensors were installed in the pod to verify
safety-of-flight instrumentation are on a common
that the nitrogen purge is maintaining the oxygen level
system. Typically, the safety-of-flight instrumentation
at less than 4 percent in flight, the low combustion limit
system is independent of the research instrumentation
for a hydrogen and oxygen mixture. Note that, similarly,
system to avoid losing safety-of-flight information if the
installation of hydrogen sensors was planned for
research instrumentation fails, which would have meant
detection of hydrogen leaks. Unfortunately, efforts to
an unacceptable increase in the size of either the
flight-qualify an existing hydrogen detection system
instrumentation system or main controller for the
were unsuccessful.
LASRE system. Because the main controller was
The aerospike rocket engine is composed of eight designed to be fail-safe (as explained below), separating
single-thruster units, four on each side of the engine the research and safety-of-flight instrumentation
(fig 8). The engine is made primarily from copper and systems was not considered necessary. Control
copper alloys and is internally water-cooled. The engine commands for the hydrogen, liquid oxygen, and water
is not an X-33 flight weight design, but rather a system main valves are sent to a controller that operates
“boilerplate” design. Each thruster is designed to the valves. Health and status words are also returned to
operate at a relatively low combustor pressure of the main controller.
approximately 200 lbf/in2, providing a total thrust of
The system was designed to be fail-safe, which means
approximately 5500 lbf. A 0.3 inch–thick layer of
that for any first failure detected by the main controller,
silicone ablative protects the reflection plane from the
the system is shut down in an orderly fashion and enters
impingement of the rocket engine exhaust. This material
a safe, “abort” mode. Status words issued by the main
degrades with use but is intended to last the life of the
controller identify the cause of the failure and are read
test program.
in real time by special monitoring software and
The LASRE is controlled using a single-channel displayed in the mission control center during the flight
computer, called the main controller, that sequences the test. This monitor, called signal management for
opening and closing of the system valves to fire the analysis in real time (SMART), works by executing a
rocket engine and safeguard the system after firing. This knowledge base of Boolean expressions, called rules, at
main controller also monitors critical system a speed of 100 Hz. When the rules evaluate and verify
parameters, such as the propellant feed system pressures nominal function of the LASRE system, textural
and temperatures. messages are generated with a time tag and shown on a
mission control center display. Rules are developed to
assist in determining expected prefiring conditions for
the rocket engine, postfiring information, and latching
§§Note that the systems used to fuel, control, and fire the LASRE
for any failure aborts. A message log file is also
rocket engine are unique to the integration on the SR-71 airplane and
generated and written to a computer hard disk.
do not mirror what will be done on the X-33 vehicle.

7
 H2O Length (fence to fence): 27 in.
Width between thrusters: 30 in.
O2
Engine weight: 1300 lbm
H2 Engine thrust: 5500 lbf

Plug
Ramp nozzle

Thruster /
Propellants: LO 2 GH2 (pressure fed)
Coolant: Deionized H2O
Fence Ignition: TEA–TEB
Thrusters: 8 (4 on each side)
980460

Figure 8. The LASRE aerospike rocket engine.

LASRE pod

600 pod 20 pod 3 main Main valve

sensors valves valves controller

PCM slave Main controller Cockpit

units control

Ground support
PCM master Telemetry equipment
unit system

SR-71 equipment bay 980461

Figure 9. The LASRE controller system architecture.

8
 Ground Testing rocket system. The hot firings burned hydrogen and
liquid oxygen in the rocket engine.
Ground testing of the LASRE rocket engine hardware
began with tests of a single aerospike engine thruster. Because the LASRE pod was essentially a new,
Twelve main-stage firings, accumulating approximately self-contained rocket engine test stand complete with
112 sec of “hot-fire” test time, were completed using a rocket engine, propellant feed systems, engine system
nonflight article, single thruster at the Rocketdyne Santa controllers, instrumentation, force balance, and so forth,
Susanna Field Laboratory. These single-thruster tests making this complex system functional and safe was a
established the actual operability and performance of formidable task. After more than 1 yr and approximately
the engine design, including verification of stable 40 tests of the rocket engine and propellant feed system,
combustion. During the twelfth and final single-thruster two 3-sec hot firings of the aerospike rocket motor had
test, a “burn-through” occurred in the thruster wall been successfully completed (fig. 10).
because of inadequate water cooling. The cause of this
failure was the buildup of calcium carbonate in the
water cooling channels caused by the improper use of The hardware was then transported from the Research
ordinary tap water instead of deionized water, which Laboratory to NASA Dryden for installation on the
severely degraded the cooling efficiency. This failure SR-71 airplane. Further ground testing was completed at
also showed that the original heat transfer was NASA Dryden with the pod attached to the SR-71
underpredicted, resulting in a reduction of the normal airplane. In addition to cold-flow firings of the rocket
operating combustion pressure for the rocket engine engine, ground tests were conducted to verify the
from 250 to 200 lbf/in2. operability and obtain the performance of the various
emergency systems. These emergency systems tests
Full testing of the complete LASRE pod was included using the independent hydrogen dump and
conducted on a rocket engine test stand at the USAF liquid oxygen vent and executing a cockpit-commanded
Research Laboratory.9 The actual flight hardware was rocket engine shutdown during a main flow.
used for the Research Laboratory ground testing, which
was beneficial in verifying the integrity and proper
operation of the actual flight hardware but risked
damaging this hardware. These ground tests were not to
be a complete ground qualification of the rocket engine
system, but rather a verification that the engine could be
safely fired and that the emergency and backup systems
would keep the SR-71 airplane safe.

These ground tests also provided a valuable training

opportunity by running the ground tests similar to a
flight operation. The SR-71 aft cockpit experiment
control panels were located at the Research Laboratory
control room. The NASA Dryden control room was
staffed and operated like a flight with communications
to the Research Laboratory “SR-71” experiment control.
Data were telemetered from the rocket engine test stand
to the NASA Dryden control room. The many months of
tests and the experience dealing with a myriad of
anomalous situations provided excellent control room Photograph courtesy of the USAF Research Laboratory
training for engineers and fine tuning of control room Figure 10. Ground hot firing of LASRE aerospike rocket
displays prior to an actual flight. engine.
The ground tests at the Research Laboratory included
“cold flows” and “hot firings” of the rocket engine. The Flight Test Preparations
cold-flow ground tests used inert helium and liquid
nitrogen or liquid oxygen to verify the safe operation The LASRE flight test preparation included extensive
and acceptable performance of the system before flight simulation and an incremental, phased, flight test
introducing the higher risk of combustible fuels into the program. The incremental flight test program included

9
flying the SR-71 aircraft with and without the LASRE reducing risk in specific areas. The “rehearsal” flight
pod attached. phase consisted of five flights of the SR-71 airplane
without the pod installed, with the focus on training and
Flight Simulation and Flight Planning flight route planning. The pod was attached to the SR-71
airplane for the “aero” flight phase, which focused on
The NASA Dryden SR-71 flight simulator was
flight envelope clearance and verification of the leak
extensively used for crew training, engineering
tightness of the high-pressure pod tankage. Two of these
analyses, and flight planning. Flying qualities of the
“aero” flights were completed. Envelope clearance
SR-71 aircraft with a 14,500–lbm rocket test stand on its
consisted of maneuvers flown to obtain data for
back were assessed after inputting the aerodynamic
aerodynamics, stability and control, flutter, structures,
model derived from three wind-tunnel entries10 and
and propulsion.
various computational fluid dynamics analyses.
Performance and flying qualities in all phases of flight The “cold-flow” flight phase followed and consisted
were extensively investigated in the simulator. The of several flights during which the rocket engine was
simulator highlighted such things as the detrimental fired in flight using inert substances (for instance,
impact of warmer-than-standard-day temperatures at helium and liquid nitrogen in place of hydrogen and
altitude on the transonic performance of the SR-71 liquid oxygen, respectively). In this phase, the focus was
airplane with the pod attached. on operational and performance checks of the rocket
engine system. Liquid oxygen and TEA–TEB were
In addition to looking at all of the flight
carried in the “liquid oxygen ignition” flight phase, with
characteristics in normal and emergency situations, the
the focus on liquid oxygen and TEA–TEB safety.
effects of firing a 5,500 lbf–thrust rocket engine
Finally, the focus will be on hydrogen and hot-firing
mounted on the aircraft were evaluated. These effects
safety in the “hot-fire” flight phase, when hydrogen will
were investigated assuming the rocket was fired as
be carried and the rocket engine will be hot-fired in
expected and also for a worst-case scenario of a firing at
flight.
the instant that the SR-71 airplane had an engine
flameout or “unstart.” All of these conditions were
Sample Flight Test Results and Analysis
found to be controllable.
The following sections present sample LASRE flight
The flight simulator was also extensively used for test
test results and analyses for several of the engineering
route and airspace planning. Route and airspace
disciplines involved in the test. When possible, the flight
planning was complicated by the conflicting
test results are compared with the analytical or wind-
requirements of wanting to perform the rocket firings
tunnel predictions.
near Edwards AFB, minimize any performance-stealing
turns during the transonic penetration, stay within reach Stability and Control
of the next air refueling, and of course, remain within
the airspace lateral and altitude boundaries. The stability and control investigations identified
some interesting flying characteristics, especially in the
Flight Testing transonic flight regime.10 Longitudinal and lateral-
directional stability and control derivatives for the
In addition to using the simulator, flight preparation LASRE configuration were obtained from the stability
also included “rehearsal” flights, which were actual and control analysis. Acceptable aircraft handling
flights of the SR-71 airplane without the pod attached qualities were verified throughout the flight envelope
during which the aircrew and engineers in the mission and specifically at the planned rocket engine–firing test
control center would rehearse future research missions. points.
These rehearsal flights provided for instrumentation
checkout, control room training, functional checks of Three wind-tunnel tests11 were performed to
the enhanced-thrust J58 engines, airdata checkout and determine the aerodynamic characteristics of the
calibrations, and aircrew training and proficiency. The LASRE mounted on the SR-71 airplane. Aerodynamic
rehearsal flights also enabled researchers to obtain increments were determined with and without the
SR-71 baseline data for structures, aerodynamics, LASRE experiment mounted on the SR-71 airplane.
stability and control, and flutter. Initial plans of the pod configuration had the model
mounted at the front of the canoe, near the aircraft
The LASRE flight test followed an incremental, center of gravity, but this arrangement resulted in
phased approach in which each phase focused on unacceptable transonic pitching-moment characteristics.

10
The pod configuration was changed to have the model The primary effect of the LASRE on the longitudinal
mounted on the aft end of the canoe, and this aerodynamics was in the zero-lift pitching moment and
configuration resulted in acceptable pitching-moment drag. The longitudinal stability and lift curve were only
characteristics. Data from the wind-tunnel tests and slightly changed. No longitudinal dynamic stability
from the real-time flight simulations were combined to analysis was performed. Subsequent parameter
produce a complete aerodynamic database over the estimation12, 13 of flight test data verified the
entire flight envelope. A batch flight simulation was also longitudinal stability and lift curve predictions. The
developed based on this data set. speed stability was examined and found to be better than
the basic SR-71 aircraft.
Test maneuvers were flown during the envelope
expansion portion of the flight program to verify the The transonic longitudinal trim characteristics were
wind tunnel–predicted stability and control predicted from wind-tunnel tests to be significantly
characteristics of the LASRE configuration. These changed, resulting in a limited trim capability caused by
maneuvers included pitch doublets and yaw-roll elevon-hinge moments. At approximately Mach 1, an
doublets at specified Mach and altitude conditions. The increased pitchup trim requirement (compared to the
stability and control derivatives were obtained from the basic airplane) existed. At approximately Mach 1.2, an
flight data using the maximum likelihood parameter increased pitch-down trim requirement existed. These
estimation technique.12, 13 The maneuvers were flown at pitch trim requirements had a flight safety impact
the critical boundaries of the LASRE envelope and at related to the dual hydraulic systems that power the
the planned aerospike rocket–firing test conditions. The elevons used to trim the aircraft. With one hydraulic
flight results verified the transonic and supersonic system inoperative, the aircraft was predicted to be
predictions of the longitudinal stability and elevon elevon-hinge moment–limited in the Mach 1.2 region,
effectiveness derivatives. which could result in the aircraft departing because of a
nontrimmable pitchup condition. Center-of-gravity and
The flight-corrected values of the stability and control airspeed restrictions were therefore developed for the
derivatives and the flight-corrected pitching moment initial flight tests. Additional instrumentation provided
were input into the real-time piloted simulation for hydraulic pressure measurements at the elevon actuators
handling qualities evaluations. These evaluations to give an indication of hinge-moment limiting.
included aerospike rocket firings at the specified test
conditions and emergency situations such as engine and The flight tests showed more subsonic pitchup and
hydraulic system failures. In all cases, the simulations much less pitch-down tendency in the Mach 1.2 region
showed acceptable handling qualities and that the than predicted (fig. 11). Figure 11 also shows the
aircraft responses were within acceptable load factor pitching-moment coefficients for the baseline SR-71
and sideslip limits. airplane, without the pod attached, for reference.

Pitchup
Pitch down
.015

Flight pitching-moment
.010 coefficient with pod on

Basic SR-71
.005 (no pod)
Aircraft
pitching-
moment 0
coefficient
– .005

– .010 Predicted pitching-moment

coefficient with pod

– .015
.2 .4 .6 .8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
Mach number
980462

Figure 11. Comparison of the LASRE pitching-moment coefficients.

11
Although different than predicted, the actual flight the LASRE pod to the SR-71 aircraft. Extensive effort
pitching moments were not found to be objectionable. was made in the wind tunnel to minimize the drag of the
configuration and still meet other requirements.
In the lateral-directional axes, wind-tunnel test data Nevertheless, the wind tunnel–predicted transonic drag
indicated that the dihedral effect was reduced and the of the LASRE configuration was as much as 70 percent
side force derivative was increased because of the higher than the baseline SR-71 drag. Even with this
addition of the LASRE. The directional stability was large drag increase, piloted simulations showed that the
decreased in the subsonic and transonic regions and was SR-71 airplane with the LASRE configuration could
increased in the supersonic region to approximately still theoretically accelerate to Mach 3.2 on a standard
Mach 3. At speeds greater than Mach 3, the directional atmospheric temperature profile and have enough fuel
stability was decreased compared to the basic SR-71 for approximately 3 min at the test condition before
aircraft. The rudder effectiveness was reduced at speeds having to return to base.
less than Mach 1.5.
The simulation did include the J58 engine thrust
Linear analysis was performed over the entire flight
enhancement, which was principally obtained by
envelope, and aerodynamic parameter sensitivity
manually uptrimming the exhaust gas temperatures. The
variations were investigated at selected critical flight
J58 engine thrust was also known to be highly
conditions. The transonic and very high speed
conditions were the most critical conditions, but no dependent on ambient temperature. Piloted simulations
serious degradation of flying qualities was found. showed transonic accelerations to Mach 1.3 on a day
Transients caused by simultaneously having an SR-71 10 °C warmer than the standard day would require an
single-engine failure and firing the aerospike engine additional 11,000 lbm of fuel. This requirement would
were found to be within acceptable sideslip limits certainly limit the maximum Mach and altitude
throughout the entire flight envelope, if the yaw angle of capability of the LASRE configuration. Based on recent
the aerospike rocket-engine thrust relative to the baseline SR-71 flight data, the simulator was also
longitudinal axis of the airplane did not exceed suspected to overpredict the transonic J58 engine thrust.
approximately 25°. The minimum control airspeed was Therefore, with the uncertainties in the wind-tunnel
increased 5 knots more than that of the basic aircraft. drag predictions and the simulator propulsion model,
Crosswind limits were examined and found to be flight test was used to obtain actual performance results.
comparable to the basic aircraft.
The first flight of the LASRE configuration occurred
Parameter estimation of the flight test data revealed on an unseasonably warm October day in which the
that the dihedral effect, directional stability, and rudder ambient temperature at the transonic penetration
effectiveness were further reduced from wind-tunnel altitude was 9 °C warmer than standard day. The
predictions. Despite this reduction, pilot comments transonic penetration consisted of level acceleration at
during flight tests verified previous flying qualities
an altitude of 27,000 ft, which was required for flutter
analyses, indicating that throughout the cleared LASRE
clearance. The aircraft acceleration was considerably
envelope, the flying qualities were virtually identical to
worse than expected. Because thrust was not measured
that of the basic aircraft. After further simulation
updates, transients caused by simultaneous SR-71 on the aircraft, an excess-thrust performance analysis
single-engine failure and aerospike-engine firings were was done. Figure 13 shows flight data compared with
reinvestigated at the test-firing points of Mach 0.9, 1.2, flight-day temperature simulation data. The flight-
and 1.5. The resulting sideslip transients were also measured excess thrust was approximately 0 lbf at
shown to be within limits. Transients caused by engine approximately Mach 1 and was always less than
failure had an initial 2° sideslip at Mach numbers along predicted by simulation. Later flights verified that some
the transonic and supersonic climb profile of the of this difference was caused by inaccurate modeling of
aircraft, revealing that the sideslip transients were the temperature effects on the J58 thrust. Given the
significantly worse than those predicted with the wind- available resources, discerning how much of the
tunnel data (fig. 12). As a result, stability and control performance underprediction was caused by errors in
maneuvers that called for steady heading sideslips of 2° the wind-tunnel drag results or inaccuracy in the
were eliminated for Mach numbers greater than 1.5. J58 engine thrust model was not possible. However,
the LASRE configuration transonic performance was
Transonic Performance
clearly very dependent on ambient temperature; and on
A significant concern with the aircraft performance “hot” days, obtaining desired test conditions may not be
was the large transonic drag incurred by the addition of possible.

12
 6
Prediction using
wind-tunnel data
Prediction using
flight data
5

4
Maximum
allowable
Aircraft sideslip
sideslip, 3
deg

Initial sideslip = 2.0°

0
.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2
Mach number
980463

Figure 12. Comparison of wind-tunnel with flight-derived sideslip from an SR-71 engine out (2° initial sideslip).

6000

5000 Simulation

4000

Flight
3000
Excess
thrust,
lbf
2000

1000

– 1000
.90 .95 1.00 1.05 1.10 1.15 1.20
Mach number
980464

Figure 13. Flight data compared with flight-day temperature simulation data for the LASRE transonic acceleration at
an altitude of 27,000 ft.

13
Structural Loads resulted in the airplane decelerating into uncleared
territory and possibly into an unknown transonic flutter
Flight loads data were monitored in three areas for dip.
flight safety and to verify the predicted external design
loads. The SR-71 twin rudders were instrumented to Figure 4 shows the desired SR-71 research flight
measure rudder bending, which was used to detect loads envelope with the LASRE installed. The low-speed
from pod-generated shock impingement and from portion bounded by 350 KEAS and Mach 0.80, indicated
single-engine trim forces. Bending moments on the by analyses to be safe, was selected as the initial starting
leading edge of the pod reflection plane were measured envelope. The plan was to perform one level
to monitor for transonic structural divergence. acceleration from 350 to 430 KEAS at an altitude of
Measurements at the pod aft attachment links to the 17,500 ft to clear the entire subsonic flight envelope to
SR-71 fuselage were used to determine sideslip limits. Mach 0.92 and to provide a Mach 0.90 climb corridor.
Another constant-altitude acceleration run from 350 to
No unusual loads were encountered on either the 455 KEAS at an altitude of 27,000 ft would clear the
rudders or the reflection plane. Figure 14 shows in-flight transonic envelope from Mach 0.90 to 1.20, but only at
axial loads on the two aft pod vertical attachment links altitudes higher than 27,000 ft. Successful clearance
as a function of aircraft angle of sideslip. The flight would also permit a gravity-assisting shallow dive
conditions are 453 knots equivalent airspeed (KEAS) starting at an altitude of 33,000 ft and ending at an
and Mach 1.53. Extrapolated flight data predicts an altitude of 27,000 ft at speeds from Mach 0.95 to 1.15.
allowable sideslip angle of 3.2° for a nose-left sideslip Enough fuel would remain for a supersonic climb from
and 3.5° for a nose-right sideslip. These flight data, an altitude of 27,000 ft to 37,000 ft at 455 KEAS
along with the J58 engine failure predictions from the (Mach 1.20 to 1.50).
simulator, were used to establish maximum Mach
number flight envelope limitations. If the aircraft achieved Mach 1.20, the drag
coefficient would dramatically decrease, permitting the
Structural Dynamics aircraft to climb normally. Attainment of Mach 1.50 at
The major concern in the structural dynamics or maximum dynamic pressure was deemed sufficient to
flutter area was whether the presence of the LASRE clear the entire remaining portion of the supersonic
would generate imbedded unsteady shocks in the flight envelope of flutter to Mach 3.20 without further
transonic flight regime that could seriously degrade flight testing. A second transonic, level acceleration run
flutter speeds. Subsonic and supersonic linear flutter was also planned at an altitude of 25,000 ft in order to
analyses predicted that the LASRE slightly increased provide a little more leeway for the climb-dive
some of the SR-71 flutter speeds, did not affect others, maneuvers. The small part of the flight envelope beyond
and did not introduce any new flutter mechanisms. Mach 0.92 and at altitudes lower than 25,000 ft was left
Transonic flight is typically more flutter critical than uncleared. This area was not needed for the flight
either subsonic or supersonic conditions, but linear experiments and was the most likely region of the entire
analyses are not reliable for transonic flight. Thus, flight flight envelope to encounter not only flutter problems,
flutter tests, in addition to the analyses, were deemed but stability and control problems as well.
necessary to provide reasonable assurance of flight
safety. Structural excitation consisted of a single pitch rap of
the stick by the pilot at every 5-knot increase in
The combination of the poor transonic thrust equivalent airspeed during each acceleration run and at
characteristics of the SR-71 aircraft and the large 1000-ft increments during the supersonic climb.
transonic drag rise of the LASRE made the conventional Rehearsal flights of the SR-71 aircraft without the
approach of acquiring and evaluating aeroelastic LASRE pod attached showed that these stick raps were
response data at a large number of stabilized test points excellent for exciting the fuselage first vertical-bending
impractical. An alternative method had to be devised in mode but not any of the other modes. This result was
which the critical aeroelastic response characteristics discouraging but accepted, because no practical
could be continuously excited and monitored during alternative existed and at least the predicted “most
slow acceleration in level flight through the transonic critical” mode could be tracked.
region. Transonic dives, which would have been
beneficial for the gravity assist, were not permitted until The fuselage first vertical-bending mode has a certain
after envelope clearance because an SR-71 engine aeroelastic characteristic in which its subcritical
“unstart” or other failure during the dive would have damping gradually decreases with increase in altitude

14
 Vertical link
Diagonal link

Vertical link

Forward

SR-71 fuselage
structure

120
Red line
110
Emergency operations allowable
100

80
Design limit
sideslip

60
Limit Left vertical link
load, flight data
percent
40

Right vertical
20
link flight data

0
Mach 1.53
Airspeed = 453 KEAS

–4 –2 0 2 4
Nose right Nose left
Aircraft sideslip, deg 980465

Figure 14. Flight loads on the pod aft attachment.

15
while its flutter speed is actually increasing. This However, the same may not be true for the X-33
declining decay rate in response to sudden inputs is vehicle and other RLVs if a similar phenomenon
caused by the decreasing density of the atmosphere with occurred. The shedding frequency of Strouhal vortices
altitude and the natural loss of aerodynamic damping. varies approximately inversely with the geometric scale
Decreases in damping are also the major indicator of ratio. The LASRE is approximately a 20 percent–scale,
approaching flutter. This characteristic emphasizes the one-half-span model of the X-33 vehicle. For these
general importance of expanding flight envelopes at X-33–type vehicles, a significant oscillating force in
constant altitude in order to avoid confusion. For the pitch at approximately 1 Hz or less just prior to landing
LASRE program, the declining decay rate with altitude could couple with their short period mode or flight
developed into an excellent pilot training aid during the controls for an interesting touchdown. Therefore, efforts
rehearsal flights. The pilots’ “seat-of-the-pants” are currently underway to study this unexpected
awareness to changes in the SR-71 aeroelastic response discovery in detail.
characteristics was sharpened, as was their sense of
when to expect the changes and, more importantly, Propellant Feed System and Aerospike Rocket
when the changes might be unusual. Engine Performance
Acceleration for the flutter clearance maneuvers was The LASRE propellant feed system and aerospike
specified to be no more than 1 knot/sec. Experience has rocket engine have undergone a fairly extensive
shown that 95 percent of the actual flutter speeds must development process that included many cycles of test
often be attained before an impending instability can be failures, major redesigns, and retesting, often at the
detected. At 1 knot/sec, approximately 20 sec might component and subsystem levels. Some of the
thus be available to detect decreases in damping from significant developmental problems that were overcome
the responses from three stick raps at 5-sec intervals and included major redesign of the main hydrogen feed
warn the pilot to decelerate the aircraft before valve because of a hydrogen embrittlement failure of the
catastrophic flutter occurred. valve poppet, redesign of the liquid oxygen main feed
valve because of leakage and inadequate control
The actual envelope expansion was carried out in two
authority, air infiltration overwhelming the pod nitrogen
flights virtually as planned, simulated, and rehearsed.
purge, leaks in the liquid oxygen system, manufacturing
The SR-71 airplane with the LASRE installed was
defects in some of the controller electronics, inadequate
demonstrated without incident to be aeroelastically
water cooling of the rocket engine thrusters, and
stable throughout its intended flight envelope. Figure 15
shows one interesting anomaly that was discovered. The problems with various relief and flow valves. A major
LASRE model began sinusoidally oscillating, very goal of this developmental process was to reach the
cleanly and almost continuously, in yaw at point where igniting and hot-firing the rocket engine
approximately 9 Hz, as shown on the third trace from was safe.
the left in figure 15. This sinusoidal oscillation would
The ignition and hot-fire ground tests were used, in
have been a clear indication of impending LASRE
part, to determine the exact timing between the flows of
model roll-yaw flutter and possible disaster except that
liquid oxygen, the TEA–TEB ignitor, and hydrogen.
the model roll trace (second from the left in figure 15)
Because only slightly more than 0.5 sec of TEA–TEB is
remained broadband with no indication of coupling. The
available, nearly perfect timing was critical. Particular
oscillations started shortly after takeoff and continued
attention needed to be paid to valve opening transients,
with small but unabated amplitudes throughout all
flow establishment times, and detection red lines. For
subsonic flight, but tended to disappear during
instance, if the TEA–TEB flow came too early, no
supersonic conditions.
ignition source would exist to start the oxygen-hydrogen
The current hypothesis, yet to be proven, is that these combustion. If the TEA–TEB flow were too late, a
oscillations were caused by alternating vortices shed vigorous oxygen and TEA–TEB reaction would not
from the bluff back end of the aerospike rocket motor exist to ignite the oxygen and hydrogen. This timing
driving the model in yaw. This hypothesis would require issue is further complicated by the requirement that all
that the shedding frequency nearly coincide with the eight combustion chambers simultaneously ignite. If
resonant yaw frequency of the model (9 Hz) when any one chamber fails to ignite or sustain combustion,
mounted on the flexible pedestal force balance. The the main controller automatically shuts down the rocket
oscillations remained extremely small and were not a engine. The propellant feed system flows 2.00 lbm/sec
flight safety issue. of gaseous hydrogen for 3.0 sec, 12.00 lbm/sec of liquid

16
 9 Hz

Chart speed change

9 Hz

Time

Longitudinal Model Model Balance

stick position roll yaw strain gauge
980466

Figure 15. Model yaw oscillation in flight.

17
oxygen for 5.0 sec, 0.24 lbm/sec flow of TEA–TEB for assessed using both force-balance and surface pressure
0.7 sec, and 40.00 lbm/sec of water for 6.4 sec. measurements. The six-component force balance
measured the aerodynamic and rocket propulsive forces
Figure 16 shows a typical aerospike rocket engine and moments on the model lifting-body configuration
start and shutdown sequence. Several helium purges are mounted above the reflection plane. Surface pressures
first actuated, including the TEA–TEB purge as shown. measurements were available on the model lifting-body
Then, the liquid oxygen and TEA–TEB valves are surfaces and on the rocket engine nozzle ramps, plug
opened in rapid succession. All eight thrusters are base, and cowls. The pressure measurements provided
checked for chamber pressure greater than 15 lbf/in2 quantitative information on the altitude compensating
gauge. Then the hydrogen valve is opened, and the feature of the aerospike rocket nozzle (for instance, the
chamber pressures are again checked for combustion. nozzle ramp repressurization and base region
After 3 sec of test time have elapsed, both the liquid pressurization) and the significance of penalties caused
oxygen and hydrogen valves are closed. The TEA–TEB by overexpansion around the nozzle cowls.
valve is left open to purge the lines with helium,
followed by three more TEA–TEB line “puff purges.” The aerospike rocket engine has been successfully
Particular attention is given to purging the TEA–TEB ground-fired twice at the Research Laboratory using
lines because of the possibility of clogging the gaseous hydrogen and liquid oxygen. Chamber
TEA–TEB injector orifices. As figure 16 shows, pressures in the eight thrusters averaged approximately
chamber pressures reached the desired levels of 203 lbf/in2. Thrust data from the force balance showed
200 lbf/in2 absolute for this test, indicating appropriate good agreement with the analytical prediction, as
hydrogen and liquid oxygen flow rates. figure 18 shows. The force-balance data also showed a
damped 7.5–Hz oscillation. The cause of the
Figure 17 shows aerospike rocket engine cold-flow oscillation is unknown, but the oscillation was also seen
and hot-fire data. The top and bottom plots show in the Research Laboratory thrust stand measurement.
TEA–TEB supply pressure and rocket engine chamber
pressure, respectively, as a function of time. Ground and To date, the rocket engine has only been fired in flight
flight data are compared for a cold-flow test, and the using inert helium in place of hydrogen, combined with
agreement is excellent. The difference between the hot- either liquid nitrogen or liquid oxygen. These cold-flow
fire and cold-flow data reflects having TEA–TEB in the flight tests have been conducted at two flight conditions:
system as opposed to just flowing helium and, of course, Mach 1.2 and an altitude of 41,000 ft, and Mach 0.9 and
using hydrogen and liquid oxygen as opposed to helium an altitude of 31,000 ft. At the Mach 1.2 test point,
and liquid nitrogen. approximately 400 lbf of installed thrust was measured
during the cold-flow firing. The pressure on the base
The performance of the LASRE rocket engine, region of the rocket engine decreased by approximately
integrated into the lifting-body configuration, was also 0.1 lbf/in2 during the Mach 1.2 cold flow. For the

300

TEA–TEB purge valve Puff purges

250

200

Valve
150 LO2 valve
signal

100
GH2 valve TEA–TEB valve 1
50

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time, sec
980470

(a) Valve opening sequence.

Figure 16. Start and shutdown sequences of the aerospike rocket engine.

18
 800

700 TEA–TEB supply

pressure
600

500
Pressure, GH2 manifold
400
lbf/in2 pressure
300
Chamber
LO2 manifold pressure
200 pressure

100

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time, sec
980467

(b) Resulting pressures.

Figure 16. Concluded.

800
Two hot firings
700 on ground
600
TEA–TEB 500
supply Two cold flows,
pressure, 400 one from flight
lbf/in2 300
200
100
0
250

200
Two hot firings
150 on ground
Average
chamber
pressure, 100 Two cold flows,
lbf/in2 50 one from flight

– 50
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time, sec
980468

Figure 17. Comparison of ground and flight aerospike rocket engine data.

19
 4000 LASRE balance
Prediction
3500

Start of GH2 main flow

3000
/
and GH2 LO2 combustion

2500

2000
Thrust,
lbf
1500

1000 /
LO2 TEA–TEB
ignition

500

– 500
49 50 51 52 53 54 55
Time, sec
980469

Figure 18. Comparison of force-balance measured thrust from hot-fire ground test with analytical prediction.

Mach 0.9 cold-flow firing, the base pressures were “cooperative agreement” was rather loose in defining
reduced by approximately 0.6 lbf/in2 during the cold these requirements, which often led to confusion,
flow. This reduction resulted in a large base drag inefficiencies, and sometimes discontent among the
increment that negated any thrust generated during the organizations. That the organizations have an
cold-flow firing. The installed thrust, measured by the agreed-upon plan or philosophy for items such as
force balance at the Mach 0.9 test point, was essentially configuration management, qualification testing, and
0 lbf. material and assembly standards is critical.

Concluding Remarks Next, for LASRE-type, one-of-a-kind flight research

efforts, attempting to “shortcut” the process by omitting
The Linear Aerospike SR-71 Experiment (LASRE) the component- and systems-level testing and the
flight test is still ongoing; the one elusive milestone to checkout of developmental hardware and software can
be completed is the “hot firing” of the aerospike rocket be a high risk endeavor. In the LASRE case, the
engine in flight. Additional confidence-building schedule and cost impact was much greater in
“cold-flow” ground and flight tests are being conducted developing the hardware and software in the full system,
to decrease the overall flight safety risk prior to this rather than would have been at a lower systems level.
in-flight “hot firing.” In reflecting on some of the lessons
learned from attempting a complex and hazardous flight As a final item, the LASRE invested considerable
test such as the LASRE, several lessons exist that may time and effort on preflight preparation and training for
be applicable to other flight test programs. control room engineers and aircrew. This preparation
was accomplished through ground testing that was
First, when many different organizations are conducted to emulate flight procedures, rehearsal flights
cooperating on a common flight test program, specific of the SR-71 airplane without the pod attached,
roles, responsibilities, and requirements for each “classroom” emergency procedures training, and, of
organization must be very clearly defined. This clear course, flight simulator sessions. The result of this
definition is especially important when, as was the training was a control room staff and aircrew that were
situation for the LASRE, the organizations have very well-prepared to handle the anomalous, emergency, and
different philosophies and requirements about unexpected situations that can be part of a hazardous
acceptable risk and flight safety. The LASRE flight test.

20
 7Ruf,
References J. H., “The Plume Physics Behind Aerospike
Nozzle Altitude Compensation and Slipstream Effect,”
1
Corda, Stephen, David P. Lux, Edward T. Schneider, AIAA-97-3218, July 1997.
and Robert R. Meyer, Jr., “Blackbird Puts LASRE to the
8Conners, Timothy
Test,” Aerospace America, Feb. 1998, pp. 24–29. R., Predicted Performance of a
Thrust Enhanced SR-71 Aircraft with an External
2 Payload, NASA TM-104330, 1997.
Angelino, Gianfranco, “Approximate Method for
Plug Nozzle Design,” AIAA Journal, vol. 2, no. 10, 9Kutin,
Oct. 1964, pp. 1834–1835. M. S., “Linear Aerospike SR-71 Experiment
(LASRE) Rocket Engine,” AIAA-97-3319, July 1997.
3
Rockwell International Corporation, “Advanced 10Moes, Timothy
Aerodynamic Spike Configurations: Volume 2—Hot- R., Brent R. Cobleigh, Timothy H.
Cox, Timothy R. Conners, Kenneth W. Iliff, and Bruce
Firing Investigations,” AFRPL-TR-67-246, Sept. 1967.
G. Powers, Flight Stability and Control and
(Distribution authorized to U. S. Government agencies
Performance Results from the Linear Aerospike SR-71
and their contractors; other requests shall be referred to
Experiment (LASRE), NASA TM-1998-206565, 1998.
WL/FIMS Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio 45433-6503.)
11Moes, Timothy
4 R., Brent R. Cobleigh, Timothy R.
Mueller, T. J. and W. P. Sule, “Basic Flow Conners, Timothy H. Cox, Stephen C. Smith, and
Characteristics of a Linear Aerospike Nozzle Segment,” Norm Shirakata, Wind-Tunnel Development of an SR-71
ASME-72-WA/Aero-2, Nov. 1972. Aerospike Rocket Flight Test Configuration, NASA
5 TM-4749, 1996.
Hill, Philip G. and Carl R. Peterson, Mechanics and
Thermodynamics of Propulsion, Addison-Wesley 12Maine, Richard E. and Kenneth W. Iliff, Application
Publishing Company, Reading, Massachusetts, 1992, of Parameter Estimation to Aircraft Stability and
pp. 538–540. Control: The Output-Error Approach, NASA RP-1168,
1986.
6Sutton, George P., Rocket Propulsion Elements: An
13Murray,
Introduction to the Engineering of Rockets, 5th edition, James E. and Richard E. Maine, pEst
John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1986, pp. 59–63. Version 2.1 User’s Manual, NASA TM-88280, 1987.

21
 Form Approved
REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE OMB No. 0704-0188
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1. AGENCY USE ONLY (Leave blank) 2. REPORT DATE 3. REPORT TYPE AND DATES COVERED
September 1998 Technical Memorandum
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE 5. FUNDING NUMBERS

Flight Testing the Linear Aerospike SR-71 Experiment (LASRE)

6. AUTHOR(S)
WU 242-33-02-00-23-T15
Stephen
Stephen Corda,
Corda, Bradford A. Neal,
Bradford A. Neal, Timothy
Timothy R.R. Moes, Timothy H.
Moes, Timothy H. Cox,
Cox, Richard C.
Richard C. Monaghan, Leonard S. Voelker, Griffin P. Corpening,
Monaghan, Leonard S. Voelker, Griffin P. Corpening, and Richard R. Larson, Bruce G.
Richard R. Larson, and Bruce G. Powers
7. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES) 8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION
REPORT NUMBER
NASA Dryden Flight Research Center
P.O. Box 273 H-2280
Edwards, California 93523-0273

9. SPONSORING/MONITORING AGENCY NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES) 10. SPONSORING/MONITORING

AGENCY REPORT NUMBER

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Washington, DC 20546-0001 NASA/TM-1998-206567

11. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

Presented at 30th Anniversary Symposium of the Society of Flight Test Engineers, Inc., September 15–17, 1998, Reno,
Presented at 30th Corda,
Nevada. Stephen Anniversary Symposium
Bradford of the Moes,
Neal, Timothy SocietyTimothy
of FlightCox,
TestRichard
Engineers, September
Monaghan, 15–17,Voelker,
Leonard 1998,
Griffin Corpening,
Reno, Nevada. RichardCorda,
Stephen Larson, NASA A.
Bradford Dryden
Neal, Flight
TimothyResearch,
R. Moes,Edwards,
TimothyCA;H. and
Cox,Bruce Powers,
Richard Analytical
C. Monaghan,
Services and Materials, Inc., Hampton, VA.
12a. DISTRIBUTION/AVAILABILITY STATEMENT 12b. DISTRIBUTION CODE

Unclassified—Unlimited
Subject Category 07

13. ABSTRACT (Maximum 200 words)

The design of the next generation of space access vehicles has led to a unique flight test that blends the space
and flight research worlds. The new space vehicle designs, such as the X-33 vehicle and Reusable Launch
Vehicle (RLV), are powered by linear aerospike rocket engines. Conceived of in the 1960’s, these aerospike
engines have yet to be flown, and many questions remain regarding aerospike engine performance and
efficiency in flight. To provide some of these data before flying on the X-33 vehicle and the RLV, a spacecraft
rocket engine has been flight-tested atop the NASA SR-71 aircraft as the Linear Aerospike SR-71 Experiment
(LASRE). A 20 percent–scale, semispan model of the X-33 vehicle, the aerospike engine, and all the required
fuel and oxidizer tanks and propellant feed systems have been mounted atop the SR-71 airplane for this
experiment. A major technical objective of the LASRE flight test is to obtain installed-engine performance
flight data for comparison to wind-tunnel results and for the development of computational fluid dynamics–
based design methodologies. The ultimate goal of firing the aerospike rocket engine in flight is still
forthcoming. An extensive design and development phase of the experiment hardware has been completed,
including approximately 40 ground tests. Five flights of the LASRE and firing the rocket engine using inert
liquid nitrogen and helium in place of liquid oxygen and hydrogen have been successfully completed.
14. SUBJECT TERMS 15. NUMBER OF PAGES

Flight test, Flight tests using hydrogen fuel, Linear aerospike rocket engines, 27
SR-71, X-33 space vehicle. 16. PRICE CODE
A03
17. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION 18. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION 19. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION 20. LIMITATION OF ABSTRACT
OF REPORT OF THIS PAGE OF ABSTRACT
Unclassified Unclassified Unclassified Unlimited
NSN 7540-01-280-5500 Standard Form 298 (Rev. 2-89)
Prescribed by ANSI Std. Z39-18
298-102

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