Living World, Year 9 and 10 – HatziScience for NSW

Pearson Science New South Wales 10 Teaching Program (4 weeks) Chapter 1 DNA and genetics

Genetics, DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid:contains the instructions for the growth and
development of all organisms. sequence of bases that holds the code for the formation of
proteins)
● Gamete. A gamete is a sex cell. These cells contain half the normal number of
chromosomes (23 in humans). This means that they are haploid cells.
● Nucleotide is the basic building block of nucleic acids (RNA and DNA). A nucleotide
consists of a sugar molecule (either ribose in RNA or deoxyribose in DNA) attached
to a phosphate group and a nitrogen-containing base.
● Chromosome. A chromosome is a structure in the nucleus of a cell that is made up of
one condensed molecule of DNA.
● centromere. The region of the chromosome to which the spindle fiber is attached
during cell division (both mitosis and meiosis). The centromere is the constricted
point at which the two chromatids forming the chromosome are joined together.
● Gene. A gene is a section of DNA that codes for a certain protein or characteristic.
● Allele. An allele is a certain version of a gene.
● Dominant. When a dominant allele is present, it is always expressed in an organism.
● Recessive. Only the receive allele can be present if its characteristic is to be
expressed.
● Codominant. Neither allele is recessive so characteristics of both alleles are
expressed.
● Homozygous. Both alleles are the same, either dominant or recessive. Two identical
homozygous individuals that breed together will be pure-breeding. This is because
they can only pass down one allele (one characteristic).
● Heterozygous. One dominant and one recessive is present. A heterozygous individual
will not be pure breeding as two different alleys can be passed down.
● Genotype. The genotype is the genetic sequence of an organism in terms of the
alleles present.
● Phenotype. The phenotype is the physical characteristics expressed by an organism
based on the environment and genotype. They are the observable features.
1. Identify that genetic information is transferred as genes in the DNA
of chromosomes.
Inheritance or heredity is the transmission of genetic information from generation to
generation. The study of it is called genetics. Code is inside 46 human chromosomes (thread
like structure made up of DNA) of the nucleus. (chromosomes carry genetic information in
the form of gene (s) [length of a DNA that codes for protein]). Code is made up of
nucleotides, which is read by ribosome in the cytoplasm to make proteins (assembles amino
acids into protein molecules, the specific order of amino acids is determined by the sequence
of bases) DNA controls cell functions by controlling the production of proteins.
Alleles are different versions of a particular gene.
Zygote is divided by mitosis to many cells, that then get specialised.
A karyotype is a picture showing the chromosomes organised in matching pairs in order of
size from biggest to smallest. In some karyotypes the chromosomes look like rods with a
thinner section (the centromere), and sometimes they look X shaped. The chromosomes that
are X shaped actually consist of two identical parts (chromatids) that are attached together at
the centromere. Later in the cell division process the chromatids will separate and look like
rods.
Sex is determined by 50% y chromosomes of father.

2. Outline how the Watson-Crick model of DNA explains:

a. The exact replication of DNA
b. Changes in genes (mutation)
The Watson and Crick DNA Model:
DNA molecule contains two polynucleotide chains twisted around each other about a
common axis forming a double helix. The sugar-phosphate backbone remains towards
the outside of the helix projecting the four types of Nitrogenous Bases, Adenine (A),
Guanine (G), Cytosine (C) and Thymine (T) towards the inside of the helix. A and T are
linked with two hydrogen bonds whereas, G and C are held together by three hydrogen
bonds.
DNA replication is semi-conservative. This means that each of the two strands in
double-stranded DNA acts as a template to produce two new strands. DNA replication
occurs through the help of several enzymes. These enzymes "unzip" DNA molecules by
breaking the hydrogen bonds that hold the two strands together.
Each strand then serves as a template for a new complementary strand to be created.
Complementary bases attach to one another (A-T and C-G).
DNA replication is not the same as cell division. Replication occurs before cell division,
during the S phase of the cell cycle. However, replication only concerns the production of
new DNA strands, not of new cells.
B. A gene mutation is a change in the sequence of base pairs in a DNA molecule that
may result in an altered polypeptide. Addition deletion nucleoti. Mismatch base p`

Because of:Mostly neutral. UV and chemicals rays also possible. 8.1.1 Genetic
Mutations | AQA A Level Biology Revision Notes 2017 | Save My Exams
Insertion of nucleotides
A mutation that occurs when a nucleotide (with a new base) is randomly inserted into the DNA sequence is known as an
insertion mutation
An insertion mutation changes the amino acid that would have been coded for by the original base triplet, as it creates a new,
different triplet of bases
This is because every group of three bases in a DNA sequence codes for an amino acid
An insertion mutation also has a knock-on effect by changing the triplets (groups of three bases) further on in the DNA
sequence
This is sometimes known as a frameshift mutation
This may dramatically change the amino acid sequence produced from this gene and therefore the ability of the polypeptide
to function
Insertion mutation, downloadable IGCSE & GCSE Biology revision notes

An example of an insertion mutation

Deletion of nucleotides
A mutation that occurs when a nucleotide (and therefore its base) is randomly deleted from the DNA sequence is known as a
deletion mutation
Like an insertion mutation, a deletion mutation changes the amino acid that would have been coded for
Like an insertion mutation, a deletion mutation also has a knock-on effect by changing the groups of three bases further on in
the DNA sequence
This is sometimes known as a frameshift mutation
This may dramatically change the amino acid sequence produced from this gene and therefore the ability of the polypeptide
to function
Substitution of nucleotides
A mutation that occurs when a base in the DNA sequence is randomly swapped for a different base is known as a
substitution mutation
Unlike an insertion or deletion mutation, a substitution mutation will only change the amino acid for the triplet (group of
three bases) in which the mutation occurs; it will not have a knock-on effect
Substitution mutations can take three forms:
Silent mutations – the mutation does not alter the amino acid sequence of the polypeptide (this is because certain codons
may code for the same amino acid as the genetic code is degenerate)
Missense mutations – the mutation alters a single amino acid in the polypeptide chain (sickle cell anaemia is an example of a
disease caused by a single substitution mutation changing a single amino acid in the sequence)
Nonsense mutations – the mutation creates a premature stop codon (signal for the cell to stop translation of the mRNA
molecule into an amino acid sequence), causing the polypeptide chain produced to be incomplete and therefore affecting the
final protein structure and function (cystic fibrosis is an example of a disease caused by a nonsense mutation, although this is
not always the only cause)
Substitution mutation, downloadable IGCSE & GCSE Biology revision notes

An example of a substitution mutation

Inversion within a gene section

Usually occurs during crossing-over in meiosis
The DNA of a single gene is cut in two places
The cut portion is inverted 180° then rejoined to the same place within the gene
The result is a large section of the gene is 'backwards' and therefore multiple amino acids are affected
Inversion mutations frequently result in a non-functional protein
In some cases, an entirely different protein is produced
The mutation is often harmful because the original gene can no longer be expressed from that chromosome
If the other chromosome in the pair carries a working gene the effect of the mutation may be lessened
Gene Inversion, downloadable AS & A Level Biology revision notes

Inversion mutations occur when a section of a gene is cut then resealed after 180° inversion

Duplication of a gene
A whole gene or section of a gene is duplicated so that two copies of the gene/section appear on the same chromosome
The original version of the gene remains intact and therefore the mutation is not harmful
Overtime, the second copy can undergo mutations which enable it to develop new functions
Duplication mutations are an important source of evolutionary change
Alpha, beta and gamma haemoglobin genes evolved due to duplication mutations
Gene Duplication, downloadable AS & A Level Biology revision notes

Duplication mutations occur when a gene is copied so that two versions of the same gene occur on the same chromosome

Translocation of a gene section

Similarly to inversion, a gene is cut in two places
The section of the gene that is cut off attaches to a separate gene
The result is the cut gene is now non-functional due to having a section missing and the gene that has gained the translocated
section is likely to also be non-functional
If a section of a proto-oncogene is translocated onto a gene controlling cell division, it could boost expression and lead to
tumours
Similarly, if a section of a tumour suppressor gene is translocated and the result is a faulty tumour suppressor gene, this
could lead to the cell continuing replication when it contains faulty DNA

3. Match human reproductive organs with their function.

(Reproductive Systems recognise. Use Booklet words).
 4. Outline and compare mitosis and meiosis B11.2 – Cell Division –
IGCSE AID
Mitosis is a type of cell division that produces daughter cells with the same number and type
of chromosomes as the parent cell. It produces the new cells needed for growth and the repair
of tissues. 5 stages: IPMAT+cytokenisis 3.14 The Cell Cycle & Mitosis | Edexcel
International A Level Biology Revision Notes 2018 | Save My Exams

Meiosis is a type of cell division that produces daughter cells with half the number of
chromosomes of the parent cell. The halving of the chromosome number during meiosis is very important
for a sexual life cycle as it allows for the fusion of gamete.This fusion of gamete nuclei is known as fertilisation
○ Fertilisation doubles the number of chromosomes each time it occurs
○ This is why it is essential that the chromosome number is also halved at some stage in
organisms with a sexual life cycle, otherwise the chromosome number would keep doubling
every generation
○ This halving of the chromosome number occurs during meiosis
○ In animals, this halving occurs during the creation of gametes

During meiosis, one diploid nucleus divides by meiosis to produce four haploid nuclei
Having genetically different offspring can be advantageous for natural selection
Meiosis has several mechanisms that increase the genetic diversity of gametes
produced. The two main mechanisms are: Independent assortment, Crossing
overtherefore increase the survival chances of a species
● Both crossing over and random orientation result in different combinations of alleles in gametes.This
ensures there is genetic variation in populations of sexually-reproducing species, which is key to a
species' ability to evolve and adapt to changes in its environment over time, survival increase.

In the first half of meiosis chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell in matching pairs
(homologous pairs). In each homologous pair
one chromosome was inherited from the mother (maternal chromosome) and the other
was inherited from the father (paternal chromosome). When the homologous pairs
separate, chance determines which cell will end up with the maternal and paternal
chromosome from each pair. Since humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, there are 2
23 or 8 388 608 different ways that the chromosomes can be divided.
Meiosis I
● The nucleus of the original 'parent' cell is diploid (2n) i.e. it contains two sets of
chromosomes
● Before meiosis I, these chromosomes replicate
● During meiosis I, the homologous pairs of chromosomes are split up, to produce two
haploid (n) nuclei
○ At this point, each chromosome still consists of two chromatids
● Note that the chromosome number halves (from 2n to n) in the first division of
meiosis (meiosis I), not the second division (meiosis II)
Meiosis II
● During meiosis II, the chromatids that make up each chromosome separate to produce
four haploid (n) nuclei
○ At this point, each chromosome now consists of a single chromatid
Similarities Between Mitosis and Meiosis
- Both mitosis and meiosis take place in the cell nuclei, which can be observed under a
microscope.
- Both mitosis and meiosis involve cell division.
 - Both the processes occur in the M-phase of the cell cycle. In both cycles, the typical
stages are prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase.
- Begin from diploid.
- New cell productionn
- In both cycles, synthesis of DNA takes place.

5. Describe, using examples, how developments in technology have

advanced biological understanding, e.g. vaccines, biotechnology,
stem-cell research and in-vitro fertilisation.
21.1.2 Biotechnology | CIE IGCSE Biology Revision Notes 2023 | Save My Exams
Variation - Cloning (GCSE Biology) - Study Mind
Smallpox is the only human infection to have been eradicated
GM crop production:
● Restriction enzyme/endonuclease cuts DNA/gene/allele; [1 mark]
● Ligase joins DNA/gene/allele/plasmid;

Gene cloning produces copies of genes or segments of DNA. Reproductive cloning

produces copies of whole animals. Therapeutic cloning produces embryonic stem cells for
experiments aimed at creating tissues to replace injured or diseased tissues.

Genetic engineering is changing the genetic material of an organism by removing,

changing or inserting individual genes from another organism
The organism receiving the genetic material is said to be ‘genetically modified’, or is
described as a ‘transgenic organism’
The DNA of the organism that now contains DNA from another organism as well is known
as ‘recombinant DNA’
There are many examples of genetically modified organisms, including:
The gene for human insulin has been inserted into bacteria which then produce human
insulin which can be collected and purified for medical use for diabetics.
Crop plants, such as wheat and maize, have been genetically modified to contain a gene
from a bacterium that produces a poison that kills insects, making them resistant to insect
pests such as caterpillars
Crop plants have also been genetically modified to make them resistant to certain herbicides
(chemicals that kill plants), meaning that when the herbicide is sprayed on the crop it only
kills weeds and does not affect the crop plant
Some crops have been genetically modified to produce additional vitamins, eg ‘golden rice’
contains genes from another plant and a bacterium which make the rice grains produce a
chemical that is turned into vitamin A in the human body, which could help prevent
deficiency diseases in certain areas of the world
6. Discuss some advantages and disadvantages of the use and
applications of biotechnology, including social and ethical
considerations.

● Modern scientific techniques mean that is possible to grow human embryos in the lab
and to extract embryonic stem cells from them
● These embryonic stem cells can then be encouraged to differentiate into most types of
specialised cell
● There is the potential for scientists and doctors to use stem cell technology to repair
damaged organs by growing new tissue from stem cells
○ The new tissue is produced by human embryos, using genetic information
from the patient
● Adult stem cells can also be cultured in the lab and made to differentiate into
specialised cells but of fewer types than embryonic stem cells (predominantly cells of
the blood)
● Stem cells could be used to cure many diseases in the future, such as diabetes and
paralysis
 Stem Cell Treatment Table

Therapeutic cloning as a source of stem cells

● In therapeutic cloning, an embryo is produced with the same genes as the patient
● A 5-day old embryo is the best source of embryonic stem cells
● Stem cells from embryos created in this way are not rejected by the patient’s body so
they may be used for medical treatment without the patient having to take drugs to
suppress their immune system (which reduce the body’s ability to fight infection)

Points in favour of GM crops

Less insecticide / pesticide used/required (on GM crops); [1 mark]

This means less bioaccumulation of pesticides / less evolution of resistance to pesticides / no
pesticide remaining in soil; [1 mark]
Pest resistant (GM) crops do not (negatively) affect non-target species / pollinators; [1 mark]
Weedkiller kills weeds but not (GM) crops / easier to remove weeds; [1 mark]
Less spread of viruses to other species / crops; [1 mark]
Points against GM

GM genes may be transferred to other species / (cross) pollinate with other species; [1 mark]
(GM crops may) outcompete native species / affect food chains; [1 mark]
This could lead to a reduction in insect populations; [1 mark]
Could lead to more herbicide use (on unwanted plants containing GM genes); [1 mark]
→What is inheritance?

Inheritance refers to the passing of traits from parents to their offspring. These traits can include physical
characteristics, such as eye color and height, as well as behavioral traits and diseases.

→What are genes?

Genes are the units of heredity that carry information about a particular trait from one generation to the
next. They are made up of DNA, which is a chemical code that contains instructions for making proteins in
the body.

→What is dominant and recessive inheritance?

Dominant and recessive inheritance refer to how genes interact to determine a trait in an individual. A
dominant gene is one that is always expressed, even if just one copy is present, while a recessive gene will
only be expressed if two copies are present.

→What are alleles?

Alleles are different forms of the same gene. For example, one allele may code for blue eyes, while another
allele may code for brown eyes. When an offspring inherits a gene from each parent, they have two alleles
for that gene.

→What is a gene mutation?

A gene mutation is a change in the DNA code that makes up a gene. This can result in a different trait
being expressed, or a disease being caused. Some mutations are beneficial, while others are harmful.

→What is genetic variation?

Genetic variation refers to differences in the DNA code between individuals within a population. This
variation can result from mutations, or from different combinations of alleles from each parent. Genetic
variation is important because it allows populations to evolve and adapt to changing environments.

Mendel’s Laws of inheritance can be described as;

1. The Law of Dominance: The offspring always exhibits a dominant trait. From the two alleles received from
parents, the only dominant allele is expressed.
2. The Law of Segregation: The two copies of each chromosome will be separated from each other, causing the
two distinct alleles located on those chromosomes to segregate from one another.The law of segregation is the
most important law because it has no exceptions and is universally accepted.
3. The Law of Independent Assortment: The traits inherited through one gene will be inherited independently of
the traits inherited through another gene because the genes reside on different chromosomes that are
independently assorted into daughter cells during meiosis.
Gregor Mendelian genetics Pedigrees and Punnett Squares – Principles of Biology

Autosomal traits require at least one dominant affected parent.

Haemophilia can be present, absent or carrier by female. Male can only be present or
absent.
 Process of Genetic Engineering
The gene that is to be inserted is located in the original organism (for example, this could be the gene for human insulin)
Restriction enzymes are used to isolate the required gene, leaving it with ‘sticky ends’ (a short section of unpaired bases)
A bacterial plasmid is cut by the same restriction enzyme leaving it with corresponding sticky ends (plasmids are circles of DNA found
inside bacterial cells).
The plasmid and the isolated gene are joined together by DNA ligase enzyme
If two pieces of DNA have matching sticky ends (because they have been cut by the same restriction enzyme), DNA ligase will link them to
form a single, unbroken molecule of DNA.
The genetically engineered plasmid is inserted into a bacterial cell. When the bacteria reproduce the plasmids are copied as well and so a
recombinant plasmid can quickly be spread as the bacteria multiply and they will then all express the gene and make the human protein. The
genetically engineered bacteria can be placed in a fermenter to reproduce quickly in controlled conditions and make large quantities of the
human protein
Bacteria are extremely useful for genetic engineering purposes because:
They contain the same genetic code as the organisms we are taking the genes from, meaning they can easily ‘read’ it and produce the same
proteins
There are no ethical concerns over their manipulation and growth (unlike if animals were used, as they can feel pain and distress)
The presence of plasmids in bacteria, separate from the main bacterial chromosome, makes them easy to remove and manipulate to insert
genes into them and then place back inside the bacterial cells

Chromosomes:

● Structure: Chromosomes are thread-like structures made of DNA and protein (histones) that carry the
genetic information of an organism. They are tightly coiled and condensed during cell division for easier
movement.
● Number: Each organism has a specific number of chromosomes in the nucleus of each cell (humans
have 46). These chromosomes come in pairs, with one inherited from each parent (homologous
chromosomes).
● Duplication: Before cell division, chromosomes replicate themselves to create identical copies.

Chromatids:

● Structure: Chromatids are the two identical sister copies of a chromosome formed after replication.
They are joined at a central region called the centromere.
● Number: During cell division, each chromosome separates into its two chromatids, resulting in twice the
number of chromatids compared to chromosomes before replication.
● Separation: During cell division (mitosis or meiosis), the sister chromatids separate and become
individual chromosomes that migrate to daughter cells.

Feature Mitosis Meiosis

Cell growth and
Purpose repair Sexual reproduction
Number of Daughter
Cells 2 4
Diploid (2n) -
Genetic Makeup of Identical to
Daughter Cells parent cell Haploid (n) - Half the number of chromosomes compared to parent cell
1 (mitotic
Number of Cell Divisions division) 2 (meiotic division I and II)
Crossing Over No Yes (during meiosis I)
Chromosomes
replicate to
form sister
Chromosomes chromatids Homologous chromosomes pair up (synapsis)
Yes - Daughter cells (gametes) have genetic variations due to crossing over
Resulting Variation No and random chromosome segregation
3. Describe what traits are and how they are inherited?
Traits are observable characteristics or features of an organism, such as hair color, eye color,
height, or blood type. These traits are determined by genes, which are segments of DNA
located on chromosomes. Genes contain the instructions for producing specific proteins or
controlling the expression of other genes, ultimately influencing the development and
functioning of traits.

Inheritance refers to the process by which traits are passed from parents to offspring. This
occurs through the transmission of genetic material from one generation to the next during
sexual reproduction. Offspring inherit a combination of genes from both parents, resulting in
a unique genetic makeup that contributes to their traits.

The inheritance of traits follows the principles of Mendelian genetics, which describe
patterns of inheritance based on the behavior of genes and alleles. These principles include:

​ Dominance and Recessiveness: Some alleles are dominant, meaning their effects are
observable in the phenotype even when paired with a recessive allele. Recessive
alleles are only expressed in the phenotype when paired with another recessive allele.
​ Segregation: During gamete formation (meiosis), alleles segregate or separate from
each other, with each gamete receiving only one allele for each gene.
​ Independent Assortment: Genes located on different chromosomes assort
independently during gamete formation, leading to the random assortment of alleles
into gametes.

In addition to Mendelian genetics, traits can also be influenced by complex interactions

between multiple genes (polygenic inheritance) and environmental factors. Polygenic traits
are controlled by multiple genes, each contributing to the phenotype in an additive manner.

13 explain what is cancer and how it is related to cell division?

Cancer is a disease characterized by uncontrolled growth and spread of abnormal cells in the body. These

abnormal cells can form tumors and interfere with the normal functioning of organs and tissues.

Cell division plays a crucial role in cancer because cancer cells divide uncontrollably. Normally, cell division is

tightly regulated by the body to ensure that cells only divide when necessary. However, in cancer, genetic

mutations can disrupt this regulation, leading to uncontrolled cell division. This results in the accumulation of

abnormal cells, which can eventually form tumors and spread to other parts of the body, a process known as

metastasis. Thus, the relationship between cancer and cell division lies in the dysregulation of the normal cell

cycle control mechanisms, leading to the unchecked proliferation of cancer cells.

14.explain what are a nucleotide in DNA?

A nucleotide in DNA is a molecule composed of three main parts: a nitrogenous base
(adenine, thymine, cytosine, or guanine), a five-carbon sugar (deoxyribose), and a phosphate
group. These nucleotides are the building blocks of DNA, and they are arranged in a specific
sequence along the DNA strand. The sequence of nucleotides forms the genetic code, which
contains the instructions for building and maintaining an organism. The nitrogenous bases
pair up in a complementary manner (A with T, and C with G), forming the double helix
structure of DNA.
15. Write down one similarity between mitosis and meiosis?

One similarity between mitosis and meiosis is that both processes involve the division of a
single cell into multiple daughter cells. In both mitosis and meiosis, the parent cell
undergoes a series of stages that ultimately result in the formation of new cells. However,
the specific outcomes and purposes of mitosis and meiosis differ.

Define the following terms:

1. **Chromosomes**:
Chromosomes are thread-like structures made of DNA and proteins found in the nucleus of a cell. They contain the genetic information or DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid) of an organism, organized into segments called genes. Chromosomes come in pairs, with one set inherited from each
parent in sexually reproducing organisms. They are visible under a microscope during cell division and play a crucial role in the transmission of
genetic information from one generation to the next.

2. **DNA**:
DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is a molecule that carries the genetic instructions for the development, functioning, growth, and reproduction of
all known living organisms and many viruses. It is composed of two strands coiled around each other to form a double helix structure. DNA
consists of four nucleotide bases: adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), and guanine (G). The sequence of these bases encodes the genetic
information. DNA is found in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells and in the cytoplasm of prokaryotic cells, organized into chromosomes.

3. **Genes**:
Genes are segments of DNA that contain the instructions for producing specific proteins or functional RNA molecules. They serve as the units
of heredity and determine the traits or characteristics of an organism. Each gene occupies a specific location on a chromosome called a locus.
Genes can exist in different forms called alleles, which can result in variations in traits among individuals. Genes are responsible for inherited
traits passed from parents to offspring, and they play a crucial role in the development, growth, and functioning of organisms.

16.Name three processes that cell division helped to achieved for a multicellular organism
such human.

Cell division serves several essential functions in multicellular organisms like humans:

1. **Growth**: Cell division allows an organism to grow by increasing the number of cells in
its body. During growth, cells divide and multiply to form tissues, organs, and ultimately the
entire organism.

2. **Repair and Maintenance**: Cell division plays a crucial role in repairing damaged tissues
and maintaining the integrity of organs. When cells are injured or die, they need to be
replaced through cell division to ensure proper functioning of the organism.

3. **Reproduction**: In multicellular organisms, cell division is also involved in reproduction.

In sexual reproduction, specialized cells undergo meiosis to produce gametes (sperm and
egg cells), which then fuse during fertilization to form a new organism. In asexual
reproduction, certain cells undergo mitosis to produce genetically identical offspring.
17. Explain why is it important for DNA to replicate itself?
DNA replication is critically important for several reasons:

1. **Transmission of Genetic Information**: DNA replication ensures that genetic

information is faithfully passed on from one generation of cells to the next during cell
division. This is essential for the maintenance of genetic continuity and the preservation of
hereditary traits.

2. **Cell Division**: DNA replication is necessary for cell division, as each daughter cell must
receive an identical copy of the genetic material to ensure proper functioning and growth of
the organism. Without accurate DNA replication, cells may receive incomplete or incorrect
genetic information, leading to genetic disorders or cell death.

3. **Repair and Maintenance**: DNA replication allows for the repair of damaged DNA. Cells
are constantly exposed to various sources of damage, such as radiation, chemicals, and
errors during replication itself. DNA replication provides an opportunity for damaged DNA
strands to be repaired by specialized cellular machinery, helping to maintain genomic
integrity and prevent mutations.

4. **Gene Expression**: DNA replication is intimately linked with gene expression, the
process by which genetic information is used to synthesize proteins and carry out cellular
functions. Accurate replication ensures that each daughter cell receives the appropriate
complement of genes needed for proper functioning.

18.a State two environmental factors that can affect the role of our (human) genes?
Two environmental factors that can affect the role of human genes are:

1. **Diet and Nutrition**: Environmental factors such as diet and nutrition can influence gene
expression and function. Nutrients and dietary components can directly interact with genes,
affecting their activity and regulation. For example, certain vitamins and minerals are
essential for the proper functioning of enzymes involved in DNA replication and gene
expression.

2. **Exposure to Chemicals and Toxins**: Exposure to environmental chemicals and toxins,

such as pollutants, pesticides, and heavy metals, can impact gene expression and function.
These substances can interfere with cellular processes, leading to changes in gene
regulation and potentially increasing the risk of diseases such as cancer and developmental
disorders.

18 b. How can environmental factors affect our genes?

Environmental factors can affect our genes by inducing changes in the epigenome, causing
DNA damage, altering regulatory protein interactions, and triggering cellular stress
responses. These changes can lead to modifications in gene expression patterns, cellular
function, and overall health.