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ICOSIET-SENVAR2022 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1157 (2023) 012025 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1157/1/012025

Water absorption of ambient-cured geopolymer concrete

Andi Arham Adam1*, Lilis Deviana2, Atur PN Siregar1, Mustofa3

1
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Tadulako University, Palu,
Indonesia
2
Post-Graduate Program, Tadulako University, Palu, Indonesia
3
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Tadulako
University, Palu, Indonesia

*Corresponding author: a_arham@yahoo.com

Abstract. This study aims to determine the effect of the activator-binder ratio on the water
absorption of ambient-cured geopolymer concrete. Class F fly ash from Mpanau power plant
was used as precursor. This raw material was activated by a mixture of sodium silicate and
sodium hydroxide solution, with an activator-binder ratio of 0,45; 0,50; 0,55; 0,60. Five
percent replacement of fly ash by slaked lime was added to achieve ambient curing. The test
specimen for the absorption test is made in the form of a cylinder with a size of 100 mm dia x
100 mm height. The absorption test used ASTM C642-06, and the test was conducted at the
age of 28 days. The test results show that the geopolymer concrete with the largest
activator/binder ratio has the lowest absorption, and volume permeable of voids. In this
research, it was found that for the geopolymer concrete, activator-binder ratio of 0.60 has the
lowest absorption and volume of permeable voids but gave the highest compressive strength.
In addition, the test results show that normal concrete has the highest absorption and volume
permeable of voids compared to the geopolymer concrete

1. Introduction
Although known as the most energy-intensive construction materials and responsible for large
quantities of greenhouse gases, the cement production continues to grow. In 2018, cement production
worldwide amounted to 4.1 billion tonnes and constituted about 7% of global carbon dioxide emission
into the atmosphere [1,2]. Many attempts have been made to reduce the impact of concrete industry on
the environment, the use of novel, resource-efficient cement as substitute binder in concrete in one
promising alternative. Geopolymer binders are comparable in performance and cost with ordinary
Portland cement (OPC), and their production emits 95 % less CO2 than OPC; they have a longer life,
better durability and reuse millions of tons of industrial waste [3].
The ambient cured geopolymer concrete has now become a new trend in geopolymer research. To
achieve these purposes, some researchers have been focusing on the use of other alumino-silicates,
like class C fly ash and GGBS [4–6]. Other researchers prefer calcium sources addition [7–9].
In our previous research, slaked lime was used as a partial replacement for class F fly ash. The
mixture of the fly ash with 4% to 7% slaked lime has successfully produced geopolymer concrete
without the need for heat treatment.
In the deterioration of concrete structures, water plays the most important role. Water permeates the
pores of the concrete and carries with it substances that can cause concrete deterioration or, in the case
of chloride ions, steel reinforcement corrosion [10].

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ICOSIET-SENVAR2022 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1157 (2023) 012025 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1157/1/012025

In this research, we will test the absorption for hardened geopolymer concrete at room temperature
using fly ash and lime as the primary material. Several variations of activator/binder ratio are used to
get optimum absorption; the results are then compared with normal concrete

2. Experimental Details

2.1. Materials
The class F Fly ash used as precursor was obtained from a local power plant. Table 1 describes the
oxide composition of fly ash and slaked lime.
The chemical activator was produced by mixing sodium silicate solution (15.4% Na2O; 32.33%
SiO2) and sodium hydroxide (10 M). The 3/8 and 3/4 inch coarse aggregate with fineness modulus of
5.97 and 6.75 were used, respectively, in combination river sand with a fineness modulus of 2.48. The
combined aggregate grading was obtained by using a fine aggregate of 38% and a coarse aggregate of
62%.

Table 1. Oxide composition of fly ash and slaked lime

No Oxide Fly Ash (%) Slaked lime (%)

1 SiO2 55.54 3.95
2 Fe2O3 23.76 1.3
3 Al2O3 14.02
4 CaO 2.02 89.47
5 K2O 1.58
6 SO3 1.3
7 TiO2 0.92 0.07
8 MnO 0.291
9 MgO 4.64
10 SrO 0.512
11 Other oxides 0.556 0.054
Total 100 100

2.2. Variable and Mix design

The variable used in this study is the activator-binder ratio defined as the ratio between the total mass
of the activator to the mass of the binder. While the percentage of lime to the total binding mass (lime
+ fly ash) was fixed to 5%. The mix design for geopolymer concrete made from fly ash and slaked
lime developed in previous research [11], was adopted in this study
For absorption and compressive strength test, geopolymer concrete with activator/binder ratios of
0.45; 0.50; 0.55 and 0.60 were made together with Portland cement concrete as control specimens.
Five samples which will then be tested for each absorption and compressive strength test. For concrete
using Portland cement, Grade 20 MPa concrete was design in accordance with Indonesian Standard.
The results of the mix design calculations are as shown in Table 2.

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ICOSIET-SENVAR2022 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1157 (2023) 012025 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1157/1/012025

Table 2. Oxide composition of fly ash and slaked lime

Binder (Kg) Aggregate (Kg) Activator (Kg) Compressive
Water
Mix Sodium Sodium strength
fly ash lime fine 3/8” ¾” (Kg)
silicate hydroxide (MPa)
A0.45 397.9 20.9 568.6 406.6 649.4 103.7 84.4 59.2 16.9
A0.50 390.4 20.5 569.3 407 650.2 113 92.5 49.9 13.4
A0.55 383.8 20.2 569.4 407.1 650.3 122.2 100 41 20.2
A0.60 378 19.9 569 406.8 649.9 131.3 107.4 32.5 21.8

2.3. Test Procedure

2.3.1. Absorption, density, and volume of permeable voids. The test as shown in Figure 1, was
conducted on the 100 mm diameter and 75 mm height cylindrical specimen in accordance with
ASTM C642-06 [12]. The specimens were initially weighed at 28 days and dried in oven at 100 ±
10℃ for not less 24 hours, then allowed to cool in the desiccator before obtaining the oven-dry mass
(Wd). Testing can be continued if the difference between the initial and final values is less than 0.5%
of the lowest value (Figure 1(1) – 1(3)). The Saturated mass after immersion (Ws) was obtained from
the weight of the specimens after being immersed in water for not less than 48 hours. The test can be
resumed if the initial and final values are less than 0.5% of the largest value (Figure 1(4)). The
saturated mass after boiling (Wb) was obtained from the weight of the test specimens after being
immersed and boiled in water for 5 hours, and allowed to cool for at least 14 hours to reach 20 - 25℃
(Figure 1(5)). Finally, to obtain the immersed apparent mass (Ww) after subjected to boiling the test
specimens were weighed in water (Figure 1(6))
The results of the test can be presented in terms of;
(𝑊𝑠 −𝑊𝑑 )
Absorption after immersion, (%) [ ] × 100 (1)
𝑊𝑑

(𝑊𝑏 −𝑊𝑑 )
Absorption after immersion and boiling (%) [ ] × 100 (2)
𝑊𝑑

𝑊𝑑
Bulk Density, dry (g/cm3) [(𝑊 ] × 𝜌 = 𝑔1 (3)
𝑏 −𝑊𝑤 )

𝑊𝑠
Bulk Density after immersion (g/cm3) [(𝑊 ]×𝜌 (4)
𝑏 −𝑊𝑤 )

𝑊𝑏
Bulk Density after immersion and boiling (g/cm3) [(𝑊 ]×𝜌 (5)
𝑏 −𝑊𝑤 )

𝑊𝑑
Apparent Density (g/cm3) [(𝑊 ] × 𝜌 = 𝑔2 (6)
𝑑 −𝑊𝑤 )

(𝑔2 −𝑔1 )
Volume of permeable voids (%) [ ] × 100 (7)
𝑔2

3
ICOSIET-SENVAR2022 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1157 (2023) 012025 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1157/1/012025

Figure 1. determining of absorption, density and volume of permeable voids

2.3.2. Sorptivity
The test as shown in Figure 2, was conducted on the 100 mm diameter and 50 mm height cylindrical
specimen in accordance with ASTM C 1585-04 [13]. This test is different from the absorption test
where the sorptivity test is a measurement of water absorption rate in concrete if only one surface is
exposed to water. The absorption, I, can be calculated using formula:
𝑚
𝐼 = 𝑎⁄𝑡𝑑 (8)
Where; I = the absorption (mm), mt = the change in specimen mass (grams), a = the exposed area
of the specimen (mm2), and d = the density of the water (g/mm3).
The sorptivity can be calculated by plotting the absorption against square root of time, and the
slope is the sorptivity.

Figure 2. Sorptivity test

There are two measurement of sorptivity; the initial absorption is the sorptivity value for the test
time from 0 seconds to 21600 seconds, while the sorptivity value for the secondary absorption is the
test time from 92200 seconds to 691200 seconds.

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ICOSIET-SENVAR2022 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1157 (2023) 012025 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1157/1/012025

3. Results and Discussions

The weight of specimens in each condition; initial (Wi), oven-dry (Wd), saturated after immersion
(Ws), saturated after immersion and boiling (Wb), apparent (Ww) are presented in table 3.

Table 3. Weight of specimens (gram)

Mix Wi Wd Ws Wb Ww
A0.45 1317.72 1244.76 1334.88 1344.84 783.3
A0.50 1288.2 1216.68 1304.24 1313.76 761.2
A0.55 1342.24 1261.28 1352.96 1362.56 791.0
A0.60 1328.92 1258.2 1338.48 1347.8 788.4
Control 1309.98 1256.68 1351.5 1360.02 788.4

After obtaining the weight of the test specimens at each test step, then proceed to the calculation
step in accordance with equations (1 to 7). Furthermore, all values that have been obtained are
summed up in one overall table and graph as follows.

Table 4. Results of calculation

Mix Absorption Absorption Bulk Bulk Bulk density Apparent Volume of

after after density, density after permeable
density
immersion, immersion dry (g/cm3) after immersion voids, %
% and immersion and boiling (g/cm3)
boiling, % (g/cm3) (g/cm3)

A0.45 7.24 8.04 2.22 2.38 2.4 2.70 17.82

A0.50 7.2 7.98 2.2 2.36 2.38 2.67 17.57

A0.55 7.27 8.03 2.21 2.37 2.38 2.68 17.72
A0.60 6.39 7.13 2.25 2.39 2.41 2.68 16.04
Control 7.54 8.22 2.2 2.36 2.38 2.68 18.08

It can be seen from Figure 3, that there are no much differences in the absorption value of
geopolymer concrete mix A0.45; A0.50; and A0.55. According to Nagaratnam, et al. [14], absorption
after immersion shows the amount of water absorbed by the material when immersed in water at a
certain time period.
The above results show that for absorption after immersion, mix A0.60 has the lowest value of
6.39%. A similar result was also found for absorption, immersion and boiling, which is 7.13%. The
absorption of the geopolymer concrete in this study is comparable with the results of the Gladstone fly
ash geopolymer concrete, 5.57% [15] or Tarong fly ash geopolymer, 7.75% [16]. A lower absorption
value for geopolymer concrete obtained by other researchers [17], which can be achieved with very
low water to binder ratio using superplasticizer. The normal concrete has the highest value for
absorption, which is 7.54% and 8.22% for absorption after immersion, for absorption after immersion
and boiling, respectively.
For the value of bulk density (Figure 4), geopolymer concrete mix A0.60 has the highest value
among the other mixes. Meanwhile, other mixes have values that do not differ significantly from each
other. Likewise, for apparent density values, the five mixes have values that are not much different

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ICOSIET-SENVAR2022 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1157 (2023) 012025 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1157/1/012025

from each other. Then for the volume of permeable void (Figure 5), the A0.60 mix has the lowest
value among the other mixes, and the normal concrete mix has the highest. The value of the volume of
permeable void obtained from this study is significantly higher than that of found by other researchers
[18] due to the difference in target strength. According to Nagaratnam, et al. [14], the volume of
permeable voids is equal to the rate of water absorption. Boiling the concrete can reduce the ability of
fly ash to hold incoming water.
It is also shown in Figure 5 that the compressive strength of normal concrete is between the
geopolymer concrete mix A0.45 and mix A0.50. The compressive strength values of mix A0.45,
A0.50 and normal concrete were 16,912 MPa, 13,448 MPa and 15,282 MPa, respectively. However,
for the volume of permeable voids, the normal concrete has a greater value than the two mixes. The
mix A0.60 which has the lowest volume of permeable voids has the highest compressive strength.

9.0
8.0
7.0
Absorption (%)

6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
A0.45 A0.50 A0.55 A0.60 Control

after immersion after immersion and boiling

Figure 3. Absorption test results

3.0

2.5
Density (g/cm3)

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0
A0.45 A0.50 A0.55 A0.60 Control

Bulk density, dry Bulk density, after immersion

Bulk density, after immersion and boiling Apparent density

Figure 4. Bulk and Apparent Density

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ICOSIET-SENVAR2022 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1157 (2023) 012025 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1157/1/012025

18.5 25

18
20
volume of permeable voids (%)

Compressive strength (MPa)

17.5

15
17

16.5
10

16
5
15.5

15 0
A0.45 A0.50 A0.55 A0.60 Control

Volume of permeable voids Compressive Strength

Figure 5. The volume of permeable voids and compressive strength

The following is an example of a sorptivity test graph for mix A0.45 sample 1 (Figure 6). The
sorptivity value was the average value from 3 samples for each mix as presented in Figure 7.
It can be seen from Figure 7 that the normal concrete mix (control) has the highest initial sorptivity,
0.006 mm / second1/2 but lower secondary sorptivity. In the case of geopolymer concrete, the graph
shows that the higher the value of the activator / binder ratio, the lower both the initial and secondary
sorptivity.
Sorptivity defines as water entry into pores of unsaturated concrete in the presence of capillary
suction. It is a function of porosity properties such as pore volumes and pores continuity and can be
associated with permeability [19]. Papworth & Grace [20] suggests to keep the sorptivity values
below 0.20mm / min0.5 to maintain tightness.
The small sorptivity value in concrete shows that concrete has better resistance. The difference
above can be caused by testing the sorptivity of only one surface that is directly related to the water,
thus associated with capillary suction becomes more dominant [14].

Table 5. Sorptivity Value Criteria [20]

Sorptivity value (S) Citeria

> 0,2 mm/min0,5 Bad

0,1 – 0,2 mm/mm0,5 Accepted

< 0,2 mm/mm0,5 Very good

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ICOSIET-SENVAR2022 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1157 (2023) 012025 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1157/1/012025

Figure 6. Initial and secondary absorption for A0.45

Figure 7. Sorptivity value

4. Conclusions
Geopolymer concrete with the largest activator / binder ratio has the lowest absorption and pore
volume values. For mix A0.45; A0.50 and A0.55 there is no significant difference in the absorption
value and pore volume, but if the activator ratio is increased to 0.60, there is a decrease in the
absorption value and pore volume.
For similar compressive strength normal concrete has higher absorption value and pore volume
than the two geopolymer concrete mixes A0.45 and A0.50

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ICOSIET-SENVAR2022 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1157 (2023) 012025 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1157/1/012025

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Acknowledgement
Authors wishing to acknowledge The Faculty of Engineering, Tadulako University for providing
funding for the research