Connections
Connections
Connections
CONNECTIONS
1
Introduction
• Every structure is an assemblage of individual parts or members which must be fastened together,
usually at the ends of its members.
• Connections are structural elements used for joining different members of a framework.
• Connections are needed to join:
– Members together in trusses and lattice girders
– Plates together to form built-up members
– Beams to beams, beams, trusses, bracing, etc to columns in structural frames; and
– Columns to foundations
• Connections in steel structures are normally made by
– Bolting and
– Welding
2
Some typical connections are shown
3
Welded vs. Bolted Connection in Steel Structures:
• Bolted and welded connections are two common methods of joining
structural steel members in design and construction.
• Each method has its own set of advantages and drawbacks, and
choosing the right one can significantly impact the safety, cost, and
efficiency of your project.
4
Welded Connection:
• Welding is the process of fusing two pieces of steel using heat and sometimes the
addition of a filler material.
Welded connections have several advantages
1.Strength: Welded connections create a continuous and seamless joint, ensuring design strength and
stability. This makes them ideal for critical load-bearing components in a structure.
2.Aesthetics: Welded connections can provide a sleek and seamless appearance, as they do not require
additional visible components like bolts.
3.Space Efficiency: Welded connections typically occupy less space compared to bolted connections,
which can be beneficial in tight spaces or when aesthetics are important.
4.Durability: Properly executed welds can provide excellent resistance to corrosion and weathering,
ensuring the longevity of the structure.
5.Efficient Load Transfer: Welded connections distribute loads evenly, reducing stress concentrations in
critical areas.
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• However, there are a few things to consider when using welded
connections.
• Skilled Labor is highly important to execute welding operations. Proper welding
requires skilled and certified personnel, which can increase labor costs.
• The welded connection is not flexible. Once welded, connections are difficult to
disassemble or modify, limiting the structure’s adaptability for future changes
and modification.
• Welded connections are costly compared to bolted connections.
6
Bolted Connection
• Bolted connection involves using bolts, nuts, and washers to join steel components.
It have their own set of advantages:-
1.Strength and Design ability: Any steel connection can be designed using the bolted connection,
whether it is a moment or a shear connection. The design strength can be achieved through bolted
connections.
2.Ease of Installation: Bolted connections are relatively easy to install, requiring less specialized labor.
3.Reusability: Bolts can be easily removed and reused, allowing for modifications and disassembly when
necessary.
4.Inspection: Bolts are visible, making it easier to inspect their condition and ensure the integrity of the
connection.
• However, bolted connections also come with their considerations:
• In some architectural projects, bolts create aesthetic issues.
7
Design consideration:
• When designing structural steel connections, several factors need to be
considered, such as
• the type and magnitude of loads,
• the geometry and alignment of members,
• the serviceability and reliability of the structure, and
• the applicable codes and standards.
• You also need to balance the cost and benefits of bolted and welded
connections and evaluate their suitability for your project objectives and
constraints.
8
Cont’d…
Connections depends on:
► Type of loading
► Strength and stiffness
► Economy
► Difficulty or ease of erection
9
Can have various configuration depending on the structural members they connect:
► Beam-Beam Connections
► Beam-Column Connections
► Column to Footing Connections
► are typical cases as well as column splices
12
Fig. Column to Footing Connections
13
Fig. typical cases as well as column splices
14
Mechanical Fasteners
13
Mechanical fasteners are generally realized by means of bolts, pins and rivets, which make possible the erection of the
skeleton frame in a much reduced time frame, especially when compared with the one required when site welds are employed.
15
Bolted Connections
• These are connections whose components are fastened by bolts.
• Bolts are manufactured from mild steel or high strength steel.
• Bolt consists of a head and a shank.
• The lengths of the shank are different to suit different jobs.
• The size of the bolt is the diameter
of the shank.
• The shank is threaded at the end
to receive nut.
16
Bolt Grades
The nominal values of the yield strength fyb and ultimate tensile strength fub to be adopted as
characteristic values in calculation are given below:
17
Modes of failures for bolted connections
• A shear joint can fail in the following four ways:
1) by shear on the bolt shank
2) by bearing on the member or bolt
3) by tension in the member and
4) by shear at the end of the member
18
Resistance of Bolted Connections:
Design of connections is generally based on simplified models that require in many cases only hand
written calculations.
The distribution of forces in the connection may, hence, be arbitrarily determined in whatever
rational way is best, provided that:
►the assumed internal forces are balanced with the applied design forces and moments;
►each part of the connection is able to resist the applied forces and moments;
►the deformations imposed by the chosen distribution are within the deformation capacity of
the fasteners, welds and the other key parts of the connection.
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Resistance of Bolted Connections:
Connections
15 can be classified on the basis of the acting loads as follows:
► connections in shear;
► connections in tension;
20
Resistance of Bolted Connections: Connections in Shear
16
A connection is affected by shear when the plates connected via bolts are loaded by forces parallel to the contact planes.
Different responses are expected, depending on two different modes to transfer the shear load, which make possible the
distinction between
► Bearing connections and ,
► Slip-resistant connections.
21
Resistance of Bolted Connections: Connections in Shear - Bearing connections
17It is required that the plates must be connected to each other achieving a firm contact and no tightening of the bolt is required.
ΔL
22
Resistance of Bolted Connections: Connections in Shear - Bearing connections
18It is required that the plates must be connected to each other achieving a firm contact and no tightening of the bolt is required.
ΔL
23
Resistance of Bolted Connections: Connections in Shear - Bearing connections
In particular, bearing pressure between bolt and plate can be approximated
with reference to the mean value of the bearing stress, σbear :
Where,
► V is the acting shear force per shear plane,
► t is the minimum thickness of connected plates
► d is the bolt diameter.
24
Resistance of Bolted Connections:
Connections in Shear - Slip Resistant Connection or Connection with Pre-Loaded Joints
20
Pre-loading of bolts can be explicitly required for slip resistance, seismic connections, fatigue resistance, execution purposes
or as a quality measure (e.g. for durability).
C T
ΔL≈0
Thus, once the bolt is tightened, the joint is loaded by self-balanced stresses associated with the bolt in tension and the
compression in the plates and with the torsion of the bolt and plate/bolt friction.
25
Resistance of Bolted Connections: Connections in Shear - Slip Resistant Connection
or Connection with Pre-Loaded Joints
Tightening increases joint performance, mainly with reference to serviceability limit states. Furthermore, it should be noted that:.
► in shear joints, tightening prevents plate slippage and, therefore, inelastic settlements in the structure;
► in tension joints, tightening prevents plate separation (reducing corrosion dangers) and significantly improves fatigue
resistance.
However, tightening must not exceed a certain limit, to avoid attaining joint ultimate capacity.
26
Resistance of Bolted Connections: Connections in Shear - Slip Resistant Connection or
Connection with Pre-Loaded Joints
22
► bolt tightening,
► surface treatment, and
► number of surfaces in contact (nf ).
The maximum value of the force transferred by friction, FLim , can be estimated as:.
Where,
► is the friction coefficient.
27
Resistance of Bolted Connections: Connections in Shear - Slip Resistant Connection
or Connection with Pre-Loaded Joints- Stress Distribution
23
As the deformation capacity of plates is generally much higher than the deformation capacity of the bolts, it is strongly
recommended to design the connection such that yielding of the plates in bearing occurs before yielding of the bolts in shear,
in order to guarantee a ductile failure rather than a brittle failure.
Plastic redistribution at failure occurs with a uniform stress distribution and this justifies the use in design of a mean value of
stress, assumed for sake of simplicity constant in elastic range and conventionally considered equal to:
Where,
► V is the shear force.
► An is the net area of the cross-section of the plate
(i.e. gross area reduced for the presence of the hole.
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Resistance of Bolted Connections: Connections in Shear - Slip Resistant Connection or
Connection with Pre-Loaded Joints- Stress Distribution
24
In connections with more than one bolt, a correct evaluation of the resistant area for the plates could become complex,
NOTE 1:
depending on the ultimate load for tension and shear as a function of the possible failure path
29
Resistance of Bolted Connections: Connections in Shear - Slip Resistant Connection
or Connection with Pre-Loaded Joints- Stress Distribution
25As it happens in some practical cases dealing with joints, the design load Fv can be eccentric with reference to the centroid of the
fasteners, the result of this is the connection is subject to shear and torsion.
NOTE 2:
Where,
► nf is the number of shear resisting plane per bolt
and n is the number of the bolts.
► ai is the distance between the centroid of all the
bolts and that of the single i-bolt.
30
Resistance of Bolted Connections: Connections in Tension
26
Tension occurs when the plates connected via bolts are loaded by a force normal to the contact plane; that is parallel to the
bolt axis.
As in case of bearing connection, the response of a connection in tension is quite difficult to predict.
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Resistance of Bolted Connections: Connections in Tension
27
In order to better appraise the tightening effects, reference can be made to the response of the tension connection presented
below, which is realized by one bolt.
Relationships between the applied external load Relationships between the applied external load
N to the connection and bolt elongation ΔL N is plotted versus the axial force acting in
the bolt shank Nb
curve a - related to the case of non-tightened bolt
curve b - related to the case of tightened bolt
32
Resistance of Bolted Connections: Connections in Tension
28
In case of tension force applied on the centroid of the bolts, it is assumed that the design load is balanced by forces equal on
NOTE 1:
each bolt. Otherwise, if a bending moment also acts, the evaluation of the bolt forces is usually based on the assumption of
stiff plate.
33
Resistance of Bolted Connections: Connections in Shear and Tension
29
The approaches previously introduced for the case of sole shear force and sole tension force on the connection can be
combined to each other in order to be used for the more general case of shear and tension.
More details about the requirements for verification are presented in the following parts, in accordance with European Norms.
Summary
34
Design in Accordance with European Practice:
Introduction to-European Practice for Fastener Assemblages
3Chapter 8 (Mechanical fastenings) of the EN 1090-2 (Execution of steel structures and aluminium structures – Part 2:
Technical requirements for steel structures) deals with mechanical fasteners, giving important and useful information on
assembly techniques of site bolted connections.
35
Design in Accordance with European Practice:
The yield strength fyb and the ultimate tensile strength fub for bolt classes 4.6 to 10.9 are given in Table 3.1. of EN:1993-1-1.
These values should be adopted as characteristic values in design calculations.
36
Design inAccordance with European Practice:
Introduction to EN:1993-1-8 - Structural Verifications - Clearances for Bolts and Pins
33The definition of the nominal hole diameter combined with the nominal diameter of the bolt to be used in the hole determines
whether the hole is ‘normal’ or ‘oversize’.
The terms ‘short’ and ‘long’ applied to slotted holes refer to the two types of holes used for the structural design of preloaded
bolts, which may be used also to designate clearances for non-preloaded bolts.
No indications are given in EN 1993-1-8 on the nominal clearance for bolts and pins, which are reported in the table below
and are derived directly from EN 1090-2, where this topic is dealt with.
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Design in Accordance with European Practice:
Introduction to EN:1993-1-8 - Structural Verifications – Category of Bolt
Connections
34
Part 1–8 of Eurocode 3, that is EN 1993-1-8 (Design of Steel Structures – Part 1–8: Design of Joints) deals with connections
that are divided in two groups depending on the type of loading:
► Shear and
► Tension connections.
Connections Loaded in Shear Connections Loaded in Tension
Category A – Bearing type:
No preloading required. Category D – tension connection non-preloaded:
Bolt classes from 4.6 to 10.9 may be used. This category must not be used where the
connections are frequently subjected to variations
Category B – Slip resistant at serviceability limit states: of the tensile force.
However, they may be used in connections
The design serviceability shear load should not exceed the
design slip resistance. designed to resist normal wind loads.
The design ultimate shear load should not exceed either the
design shear resistance or the design bearing resistance Category E – tension connection preloaded:
preloaded 8.8 and 10.9 bolts with controlled
Category C – Slip resistant at ultimate limit states: tightening are used.
The design ultimate shear load should not exceed either the This category shall be used in connections designed
design slip resistance or the design bearing resistance. to resist to seismic loads.
38
Introduction to EN:1993-1-8 - Structural Verifications - Partial Material Factors
3Part 1–8 of Eurocode 3, that is EN 1993-1-8 (Design of Steel Structures – Part 1–8: Design of Joints) provides the following
partial safety factors.
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Introduction to EN:1993-1-8 - Structural Verifications-Design Resistance
36
► Table 3.4 of EN 1993-1-8 gives the different checks required for individual fasteners subjected to shear and/or tension.
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Introduction to EN:1993-1-8 - Structural Verifications-Design Resistance
37
41
Introduction to EN:1993-1-8 - Structural Verifications-Design Resistance
38
Shear resistance per shear plane for ordinary bolts where the shear plane passes through the unthreaded portion of the
bolt:
Where,
► As is the tensile stress area of the bolt.
► γM2 = 1.25
► fub is the ultimate tensile strength of the bolt
42
Design in Accordance with European Practice:
Introduction to EN:1993-1-8 - Structural Verifications-Design Resistance
39
43
Introduction to EN:1993-1-8 - Structural Verifications-Design Resistance
40
Where,
►Fv,Rd is the design shear resistance per bolt, and
►Ft,Rd is design tension resistance per bolt.
44
Introduction to EN:1993-1-8 - Structural Verifications-Design Resistance
41
The design slip resistance, F S,Rd , of a preloaded class 8.8 or 10.9 bolt
the following values:
is:
= 1 for bolts in normal holes
= 0.85 for bolts in either oversized holes or short
slotted holes with the axis of the slot
perpendicular to the direction of load transfer
The design pre-loading force F p,C , (in equation = 0.7 for bolts in long slotted holes with the axis of
above) is defined as: the slot perpendicular to the direction of load
transfer
= 0.76 for bolts in short slotted holes with the axis of
the slot parallel to the direction of load transfer
= 0.63 for bolts in long slotted holes with the axis of
the slot parallel to the direction of load transfer.
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Introduction to EN:1993-1-8 - Structural Verifications-Design Resistance
42
43
Summary
47
Introduction to EN:1993-1-8 - Structural Verifications-Design Resistance
44
Summary
48
Introduction to EN:1993-1-8 - Structural Verifications-Position of Holes
45Bolted Joints-Position of Holes
Table 3.3 of EN 1993-1-8 gives the maximum and minimum spacing, end and edge distances
49
Introduction to EN:1993-1-8 - Structural Verifications-Position of Holes
46
slotted holes
50
Worked Example: Example on Verification of a Bearing Connection According to EC3
Example 6.1. Verify, according to EC3, the connection shown in the figure below (all dimensions are in millimetres).
It is a single lap bearing type joint with one shear plane. Ultimate design load, NSd , is 140 kN. Bolts have a 16
mm diameter, class 8.8, not preloaded and the threaded portion of the shank is located in the bearing length. Holes
have 18 mm (0.709 in.) diameter. Plates to be connected by bolts are 150mm wide and 5mm thick. The steel of the
plates is S235
Procedure
The verification of this bearing type bolted connection goes through the following steps:
Step1: Check the positioning of the holes (spacing and end and edge distances);
Step2: Evaluation of shear design force for each shear plane of each bolt (VEd )
Step3: Evaluation of the design shear resistance for each shear plane (Fv.Rd )
Step4: Evaluation of the design bearing resistance (Fb.Rd )
Step5: Evaluation of design ultimate tensile resistance of the connected plate net cross-
section at holes (Nu,Rd )
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48
Example 6.2. Evaluate shear design resistance, according to EC3, of connection illustrated in the Figure below (all
dimensions are in millimetres). The connection is category C slip-resistant at an ultimate limit state. Bolts have a 20
mm diameter, class 10.9, preloaded. Holes have a 22 mm diameter. Each bolt has two friction surfaces. Elements to
be connected and cover plates are made of S235 steel. Friction surfaces are in class A (surfaces blasted with shot or
grit with loose rust removed, not pitted).
Procedure
Connection design resistance is computed with the following steps::
Step1: Check of positioning of the holes (spacing and end and edge distances);
Step2: Evaluation of minimum bolt preloading force (Fp.C )
Step3: Evaluation of design slip resistance at ultimate limit states (Fs,Rd )
Step4: Evaluation of the design bearing resistance (Fb,Rd )
Step5: Evaluation of design ultimate tensile resistance of cover plate net cross-section at
holes (Fd,u,Rd )
52
Welded Connections
50
► Welding is an assembling process that allows us to permanently join two
metallic elements causing fusion of the adjoining parts.
► When comparing welded connections to bolted, nailed or riveted ones, it is
apparent that the former are inherently monolithic and are at the same time
stiffer and less complicated, allowing more freedom to the designer.
► This is the reason why the welding process should always be performed by
qualified welders.
53
Welded Connections
51
II. Heterogeneous processes: in these processes, only the base material is the
weld material used at a temperature lower than the melting temperature of the
base material. A classic example is provided by soldering or brazing
processes.
Metallurgical defects Geometric defects
► As a consequence of the metallurgical phenomena (creation of the Cracks (hot or cold) Excess of weld metal
weld, solidification of the weld pool and thermal effects in the base
material surrounding the weld region, known as heat affected zone – Lamellar tearing Lack of penetration (lack
HAZ), there can be defects in the welded connection. These are of fusion)
classified into metallurgical and geometric defects..
Inclusions Lack of alignment
54
55
56
Cont’d…
52
Lamellar tearing
Cracks
Lap joints
L-joints
Based on the position of the weld and on the
direction of the force to be transferred, there can be:
longitudinal welds transverse welds inclined welds
58
Design in Accordance with European Practice:
Introduction to EN:1993-1-8 - Structural Verifications-Butt Welds
54
According to the ES-EN:1993-1-8, there can be the following types of join as depicted in EN12345 :
► Fillet welds,
► Fillet weld all round,
► Flare groove welds,
► Plug welds, and
► Butt welds
For Butt welds, for most common cases the design strength can be taken to be equal to the design strength of the weaker
of the connecting members.
59
Design in Accordance with European Practice:
Introduction to EN:1993-1-8 - Structural Verifications-Fillet Welds
55
For fillet welds, after Eurocode 3, the design strength per unit length Fw,Rd can be calculated based on either of the following
methods:
► Directional method,
► Simplified method,
60
Design in Accordance with European Practice:
Introduction to EN:1993-1-8 - Structural Verifications-Fillet Welds
The directional method requires the determination of the state of stress in the
56 effective throat area without rotations, and thus the stresses σ and τ are the
normal and shear stresses in the plane of the effective throat area, respectively.
σ⊥, normal stress, acting perpendicularly to the
effective area;
τ⊥, shearing stress, perpendicular to the
longitudinal axis of the fillet;
τ//, shearing stress, parallel to the longitudinal
61
Design in Accordance with European Practice:
Introduction to EN:1993-1-8 - Structural Verifications-Fillet Welds
57
The simplified method establishes that the design strength of a fillet weld should be taken, independently on the orientation
of the weld, as:
Where,
►Fw,Ed is the design value of the weld force per unit length
►Fw,Rd is the design resistance per unit length
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