Chapter 1

Chemical Foundations
Section 1.1
Chemistry: An Overview

 A main challenge of chemistry is to understand the

connection between the macroscopic world that
we experience and the microscopic world of atoms
and molecules.
 You must learn to think on the atomic level.

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Section 1.1
Chemistry: An Overview
Atoms vs. Molecules
 Matter is composed of tiny particles called atoms.
 Atom: smallest part of an element that is still that element.
 Molecule: Two or more atoms joined and acting as a unit.

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Section 1.1
Chemistry: An Overview

Oxygen and Hydrogen Molecules

• Use subscripts when more than one atom is in
the molecule.

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Section 1.1
Chemistry: An Overview

A Chemical Reaction
 One substance changes to another by
reorganizing the way the atoms are attached to
each other.

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Section 1.2
The Scientific Method

Science
 Science is a framework for gaining and organizing
knowledge.
 Science is a plan of action — a procedure for processing
and understanding certain types of information.
 Scientists are always challenging our current beliefs
about science, asking questions, and experimenting to
gain new knowledge.
 Scientific method is needed.

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Section 1.2
The Scientific Method

Fundamental Steps of the Scientific Method

• Process that lies at

the center of
scientific inquiry.

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Section 1.2
The Scientific Method

Scientific Models
Law
• A summary of repeatable observed (measurable) behavior.

Hypothesis
• A possible explanation for an observation.

Theory (Model)

• Set of tested hypotheses that gives an overall explanation of

some natural phenomenon.

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Section 1.3
Units of Measurement

Nature of Measurement
Measurement
• Quantitative observation consisting of two parts.
 number
 scale (unit)

• Examples
 20 grams
 6.63 × 10-34 joule·second
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Section 1.3
Units of Measurement

The Fundamental SI Units

Physical Quantity Name of Unit Abbreviation
Mass kilogram kg
Length meter m
Time second s
Temperature kelvin K
Electric current ampere A
Amount of substance mole mol
Luminous intensity candela cd

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Section 1.3
Units of Measurement

Prefixes Used in the SI System

• Prefixes are used to change the size of the unit.

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Section 1.3
Units of Measurement

Prefixes Used in the SI System

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Section 1.3
Units of Measurement

Mass ≠ Weight

 Mass is a measure of the resistance of an object to a

change in its state of motion. Mass does not vary.

 Weight is the force that gravity exerts on an object.

Weight varies with the strength of the gravitational field.

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Section 1.4
Uncertainty in Measurement

 A digit that must be estimated in a measurement is

called uncertain.
 A measurement always has some degree of uncertainty.
It is dependent on the precision of the measuring
device.
 Record the certain digits and the first uncertain digit
(the estimated number).

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Section 1.4
Uncertainty in Measurement

Measurement of Volume Using a Buret

 The volume is read at the bottom of the
liquid curve (meniscus).
 Meniscus of the liquid occurs at about
20.15 mL.
 Certain digits: 20.15
 Uncertain digit: 20.15

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Section 1.4
Uncertainty in Measurement

Precision and Accuracy

Accuracy

• Agreement of a particular value with the true value.

Precision

• Degree of agreement among several measurements

of the same quantity.

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Section 1.4
Uncertainty in Measurement

Precision and Accuracy

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Section 1.5
Significant Figures and Calculations

Rules for Counting Significant Figures

1. Rounding of Rule
 If the digit next to the significant digit is 5 or greater
than 5, increase the significant digit by one.

2. Nonzero integers always count as significant figures.

 3456 has 4 sig figs (significant figures).

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Section 1.5
Significant Figures and Calculations

Rules for Counting Significant Figures

3. There are three classes of zeros.
a. Leading zeros are zeros that precede all the nonzero
digits. These do not count as significant figures.
 0.048 has 2 sig figs.

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Section 1.5
Significant Figures and Calculations

Rules for Counting Significant Figures

b. Captive zeros are zeros between nonzero digits. These
always count as significant figures.
 16.07 has 4 sig figs.

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Section 1.5
Significant Figures and Calculations

Rules for Counting Significant Figures

c. Trailing zeros are zeros at the right end of the number.
They are significant only if the number contains a
decimal point.
 9.300 has 4 sig figs.
 150 has 2 sig figs.

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Section 1.5
Significant Figures and Calculations

Rules for Counting Significant Figures

4. Exact numbers have an infinite number of significant
figures.
 1 inch = 2.54 cm, exactly.
 9 pencils (obtained by counting).
5. Conversion factors, molar mass, physical constants
 Not considered in establishing sig.fig in the answer.
 Example: n = 0.2912 g/16 g/mol
= 0.01820 mol

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Section 1.5
Significant Figures and Calculations

Exponential Notation
 Example
 300. written as 3.00 × 102
 Contains three significant figures.
 Two Advantages
 Number of significant figures can be easily indicated.
 Fewer zeros are needed to write a very large or very
small number.

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Section 1.5
Significant Figures and Calculations

Significant Figures in Mathematical Operations

1. For multiplication or division, the number of significant
figures in the result is the same as the number in the
least precise measurement used in the calculation.
1.342 × 5.5 = 7.381  7.4

If the problem has multiple steps, you have to round of

the final answer

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Section 1.5
Significant Figures and Calculations

Significant Figures in Mathematical Operations

2. For addition or subtraction, the result has the same
number of decimal places as the least precise
measurement used in the calculation.
23.445
 7.83
31.275 
Corrected 31.28

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Section 1.5
Significant Figures and Calculations

CONCEPT CHECK!

You have water in each graduated

cylinder shown. You then add both
samples to a beaker (assume that
all of the liquid is transferred).

How would you write the number

describing the total volume?
3.1 mL
What limits the precision of the
total volume?

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Section 1.6
Learning to Solve Problems Systematically

Questions to ask when approaching a problem

• What is my goal?

• What do I know?

• How do I get there?

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Section 1.7
Dimensional Analysis

 Use when converting a given result from one system of

units to another.
 To convert from one unit to another, use the
equivalence statement that relates the two units.
 Derive the appropriate unit factor by looking at the
direction of the required change (to cancel the
unwanted units).
 Multiply the quantity to be converted by the unit
factor to give the quantity with the desired units.

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Section 1.7
Dimensional Analysis

Example #1
A bottle contains 25 cm3 of water, what is its volume
in litres
• To convert from one unit to another, use the
equivalence statement that relates the two units.

The two unit factors are:

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Section 1.7
Dimensional Analysis

Example #1
A bottle contains 25 cm3 of water, what is its volume in litres

 Derive the appropriate unit factor by looking at the direction of

the required change (to cancel the unwanted units).

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Section 1.7
Dimensional Analysis

Example #1
A bottle contains 25 L of water, what is its volume in cm3?

 Multiply the quantity to be converted by the unit factor to give

the quantity with the desired units.

12 in
6.8 ft   82 in
1 ft

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Section 1.7
Dimensional Analysis

Example #2

An iron sample has a mass of 4.50 lb. What is the mass of

this sample in grams?
(1 kg = 2.2046 lbs; 1 kg = 1000 g)

1 kg 1000 g
4.50 lbs   = 2.04  103 g
2.2046 lbs 1 kg

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Section 1.7
Dimensional Analysis

CONCEPT CHECK!

What data would you need to estimate the money you

would spend on Petrol to drive your car from Lusaka to
Mufulira? Provide estimates of values and a sample
calculation.

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