Indian History

Ancient Indian History

It was centred on the Indus River and its tributaries. The civilization is famous for its cities
that were built of brick, had a road-side drainage system and multi-storied houses. During the
Maurya Empire, founded in 321 BCE, most of the Indian subcontinent was united under a
single government for the first time.
Medieval Indian History
It may be divided into two periods: The 'early medieval period' which lasted from the 6th to
the 13th century and the 'late medieval period' which lasted from the 13th to the 16th century,
ending with the start of the Mughal Empire in 1526.
Modern Indian History
With increasing intrusion of aliens in their lives, a group of middle class Indians formed the
Indian National Congress (1885). The anti British struggle became truly a mass movement
with the arrival of Mahatma Gandhi (1869 - 1948). It was followed by numerous movements
against the British rule.

Ancient India
Indian History Chronology: Ancient India to Modern India
Period: Prehistoric to AD 700
• There were activities of Homo erectus in the Indian subcontinent 20 lakh years ago
and of Homo sapiens since 70,000 BC.
• The first inhabitants of Indian subcontinent might have been tribal-like:
1. Nagas in North-East
2. Santhals in East-India
3. Bhils in Central India
4. Gonds in Central India
5. Todas in South India
• These people speak Austric, pre-Dravidian languages like Munda and Gondvi.
• Aryans and Dravidians are supposed to be immigrants who came later to the sub-
continent.
To know more about the Indus Valley Civilisation, check the linked article.
Palaeolithic Period (2 million BC – 10,000 BC)
• Important Palaeolithic sites are Kaladgi Basin, Bhimbetka, Hunsgi, Kurnool Caves
and Narmada Valley,
• Tools made up of limestone
• Fire was discovered
Mesolithic Period (10,000 BC – 8,000 BC)
• Microliths were found at Brahmagiri, Narmada and Gujarat
• Domestication of animals and Cattle rearing were started in this period
• Significant climatic change happened
Neolithic Period (8000 BC – 2000 BC)
Wheel discovered and agriculture was started in this period
• Inamgaon is an early Neolithic village
• The major megalithic Sites are Brahmagiri and Adichanallur
• Important Neolithic Sites:
1. Hallur (Andhra Pradesh)
2. Mahagara (Uttar Pradesh)
3. Maski
4. Paiyampalli (Andhra Pradesh)
5. Sangana Kaller
6. Utnur
7. Burzahom (Kashmir)
8. Chirand (Bihar)
9. Daojali Hading (Tripura and Assam)
10. Gufkral (Kashmir)
11. Kodekal
12. Koldihwa (Uttar Pradesh)
13. Mehrgarh (Pakistan)
14. Takkala Kota
Indus Valley Civilisation (BC 2700 – BC 1900)
This was established around 3300 BC. It flourished between 2700 BC and 1900 BC (Mature
Indus Valley Civilisation). It started declining around 1900 BC and disappeared around 1400
BC.
Chalcolithic Period (4000 BC – 1,500 BC)
• It is also known as the Copper Age and considered part of the Bronze Age.
Iron Age (BC 1500 – BC 200)
• Vedic Period and Arrival of Aryans
• Basic books of Hinduism, Vedas were composed in this period.
• Rise of Jainism and Buddhism
• Mahajanapadas
 • Magadha empire– Bimbisara of Haryanka Kula
• Sishunaga dynasty – Kalasoka (Kakavarnin)
• Nanda empire – Mahapadma-Nanda, Dhana-Nanda
• Persians – Greek arrival: Alexander 327 BC
Mauryan Empire (324-187 BC)
• 322–298 BCE- Chandragupta
• 298–272 BCE- Bindusara
• 268–232 BCE – Ashoka
• Mauryan Kingdoms was succeeded by
1. Sunga (181-71 BC)
2. Kanva (71-27BC)
3. Satavahanas (235-100BC)
4. Indo-Greeks, Parthians (180BC-45AD)
5. Sakas (90BC-150AD)
6. Kushanas (78AD)
Sangam Age (300 BC – 300 AD)
• Chola
• Cheras
• Pandyas
Gupta Empire (300AD – 800AD)
• This was an ancient Indian empire
• Samudra Gupta of the Gupta Empire is known as Indian Napoleon
Post-Gupta or Contemporary Gupta
• The deterioration of Imperial Guptas, Magadha and its capital, Pataliputra
• After the fall of the Gupta Empire, important centres of power arose:
1. Vardhana Dynasty
2. Mukharis
3. Hunas
4. Pushyabhutis
5. Gaudas
6. Varman
7. Maitrakas
• Also, Rajputs, Senas and Chauhans succeeded later.

Ancient India: Customs and Practices

The earliest people who lived in India were hunters and gatherers.
Hunting and gathering gave way to a settled lifestyle when people learned agriculture.
Villages developed.
ndians were skilled enough to plan and build cities. This led to the civilizations like the Indus
Valley Civilization.
As time progressed, people organised and set up large kingdoms with central administrations.
What, Where, How and When?
• Narmada: earliest people who lived here were skilled gatherers; they knew about the
vast wealth of plants in the surrounding forests, and collected roots, fruits for food;
also hunted animals.
• Sulaiman and Kirthar hills: current Sindh; where women and men first began to grow
crops such as wheat and barley about 8000 years ago; rearing animals.
• Garo Hills & Vindhya: where agriculture developed; rice was first grown to the north
of the Vindhyas.
• Indus: 4700 years ago, some of the earliest cities flourished on the banks
• Son, a Ganga tributary: Magadha rulers were very powerful, and set up a large
kingdom.
•
On the trail of the earliest people
• Factory Sites: places where the stone was found and where people made tools are
known as factory sites.
• Habitation-cum-factory: sometimes, people lived here for longer spells of time.
• Kurnool Site: current A.P; traces of ash have been found here. This suggests that
people were familiar with the use of fire.
• Paleolithic: importance is finding of stone tools; period extends from 2 million years
ago to about 12,000 years ago; long stretch of time is divided into the Lower, Middle
and Upper Palaeolithic. This long span of time covers 99% of human history.
• Mesolithic: environmental changes; 12,000 years ago till about 10,000 years ago;
stone tools are generally tiny, and are called microliths. Microliths were probably
stuck on to handles of bone or wood to make tools such as saws and sickles. At the
same time, older varieties of tools continued to be in use.
• Ostrich in India: palaeolithic period; large quantities shells were found at Patne in
Maharashtra; designs engraved on some pieces.

The climate of the world was changing, and so were plants and animals that people used as
food.
They look after plants and also grow – farmers.
The first animal to be tamed was the wild ancestor of the dog; later relatively gentle animals
to come near the camps where they lived such as sheep, goats, cattle; protect these animals
from wild attacks – herders.
Domestication was a gradual process, began about 12,000 years ago.
Settled life:
 • In Burzahom (in present-day Kashmir) people built pit-houses, which were dug into
the ground, with steps leading into them.
• These may have provided shelter in cold weather.
• Stone tools from sites were different from the earlier Palaeolithic tools and that is why
they are called Neolithic.
• Many kinds of earthen pots have also been found.
• However, still, places got hunters and gatherers.
• In some cases, people tried to combine these activities.
Customs and practices
• Many farmers and herders live in groups called tribes.
• Women do most of the agricultural work, including preparing the ground etc.
• Children often look after plants, driving away animals.
• Some men are regarded as leaders. They may be old and experienced, or young, brave
warriors, or priests.
• Tribes have rich and unique cultural traditions; have their own gods and goddesses.
MEHRGARH SITE
• Located near Bolan Pass [current Balochistan]; most important routes into Iran.
• One of the earliest villages that we know about.
• Women and men learnt to grow barley and wheat, and rear sheep and goats.
• The earlier excavations found were of wild animals deer and pigs suggesting they
were hunters. But later level excavation found bones of sheep and goat which make
them herders. So first Mehrgarh were hunters later they became herders.
• Remains of square or rectangular houses.
• The belief that there is some form of life after death was visible in their burial grounds
found.
DAOJALI HADING
• This site is on hills near the Brahmaputra Valley.
• Stone tools, including mortars and pestles, have been found indicating they were
agriculturalists.
• Jadeite, a stone that may have been brought from China
• Tools made of fossil wood too in usage.
Indus Valley Civilization
Indus Valley Civilization was the first major civilization in South Asia, which spread across
a vast area of land in present-day India and Pakistan (around 12 lakh sq.km).
The time period of the mature Indus Valley Civilization is estimated between BC. 2700-
BC.1900 ie. for 800 years. But early Indus Valley Civilization had existed even before
BC.2700.
Features of Indus Valley Civilization
• BC. 2700- BC.1900 ie for 800 years.
 • On the valleys of river Indus.
• Also known as Harappan Civilization.
• Beginning of city life.
• Harappan Sites discovered by – Dayaram Sahni (1921) – Montgomery district,
Punjab, Pakistan.
• Mohanjodaro was discovered by – R. D. Banerji – Larkana district, Sind, Pakistan.
• The city was divided into Citadel(west) and Lower Town(east).
• Red pottery painted with designs in black.
• Stone weights, seals, special beads, copper tools, long stone blades etc.
• Copper, bronze, silver, gold present.
• Artificially produced – Faience.
• Specialists for handicrafts.
• Import of raw materials.
• Plough was used.
• Bodies were buried in wooden coffins, but during the later stages ‘H symmetry
culture’ evolved where bodies were buried in painted burial urns.
• Sugar cane not cultivated, horse, iron not used.

Indus Valley Sites and Specialties

HARAPPA
• Seals out of stones
• Citadel outside on banks of river Ravi
MOHENJODARO
• Great Bath, Great Granary, Dancing Girl, Man with Beard, Cotton, Assembly hall
• The term means ” Mount of the dead”
• On the bank of river Indus
• Believed to have been destructed by flood or invasion(Destruction was not gradual).
CHANHUDARO
• Bank of Indus river. – discovered by Gopal Majumdar and Mackey (1931)
• Pre-Harappan culture – Jhangar Culture and Jhukar Culture
• Only cite without citadel.
KALIBANGAN
• At Rajasthan on the banks of river Ghaggar, discovered by A.Ghosh (1953)
• Fire Altars
• Bones of camel
• Evidence of furrows
• Horse remains ( even though Indus valley people didn’t use horses).
• Known as the third capital of the Indus Empire.
LOTHAL
• At Gujarat near Bhogava river, discovered by S.R. Rao (1957)
• Fire Altars
• Besides the tributary of Sabarmati
• Storehouse
• Dockyard and earliest port
• double burial
• Rice husk
• House had a front entrance (exception).
ROPAR
• Punjab, on the banks of river Sutlej. Discovered by Y.D Sharma (1955)
• Dog buried with humans.
BANAWALI
• Haryana
• On banks of lost river Saraswathi
• Barley Cultivation.
DHOLAVIRA
• The biggest site in India, until the discovery of Rakhigarhi.
• Located in Khadir Beyt, Rann of Kutch, Gujarat. Discovered by J.P Joshi/Rabindra
Singh (1990)
• 3 parts + large open area for ceremonies
• Large letters of the Harappan script (signboards).
The religion of Indus Valley People
• Pashupati Mahadev (Proto Siva)
• Mother goddess
• Nature/ Animal worship
• Unicorn, Dove, Peepal Tree, Fire
• Amulets
• Idol worship was practised ( not a feature of Aryans)
• Did not construct temples.
• The similarity to Hindu religious practises. (Hinduism in its present form originated
later)
• No Caste system.
Indus Valley Society and Culture
• The systematic method of weights and measures ( 16 and its multiples).
• Pictographic Script, Boustrophedon script – Deciphering efforts by I. Mahadevan
• Equal status to men and women
• Economic Inequality, not an egalitarian society
• Textiles – Spinning and weaving
 • 3 types – burial, cremation and post-cremation were there, though burial was
common.
• Majority of people Proto-Australoids and Mediterranean (Dravidians), though
Mongoloids, Nordics etc were present in the city culture. Read more on the races of
India.
Reasons for Decline of Indus Valley Civilization
Though there are various theories, the exact reason is still unknown.
As per a recent study by IIT Kharagpur and the Archaeological Survey of India, a weaker
monsoon might have been the cause of the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization.
Environmental changes, coupled with a loss of power of rulers (central administration) of
Indus valley to sustain the city life might be the cause (Fariservis Theory).
There might be a resource shortage to sustain the population, and then people moved towards
south India.
Important Indus Valley Sites and Archaeological Discoveries
The Indus Valley Civilization covered parts of Sind, Baluchistan, Afganistan, West Punjab,
Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Rajasthan, Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab and Maharashtra.
Over 1000 Indus Valley Civilization sites have been discovered.
It’s not easy to connect the archaeological finds with their respective Harappan cities. But in
exams questions are repeatedly asked from this topic.
This post is a humble attempt to compile the important Indus Valley Sites and the
archaeological discoveries from there. Readers may note that a few of the major sites are
already covered in our notes on the features of Indus Valley Civilization.
Harappa
1. Cemetery H & R37.
2. Coffin burial.
3. Granary outside the fort.
4. Phallus worship.
5. Graveyard.
6. Mother goddess.
Mohenjo-Daro
1. Prepared Garments.
2. Temple-like Palace.
3. Pashupati seal.
4. Statue of a dancing girl.
5. Ivory weight balance.
6. The Great Bath.
7. The Great Granary.
8. Priest-king statue.
Kalibangan
1. Lower fortified town.
2. Fire Altar.
3. Boustrophedon style.
4. Wooden drainage.
5. Copper Ox.
6. Evidence of earthquake.
7. Wooden plough.
8. Camel’s bone.
Lothal
1. Port Town.
2. Evidence of Rice.
3. Fire Altar.
4. Graveyard.
5. Ivory weight balance.
6. Copper dog.
Rangpur
1. Evidence of Rice.
Surkotada
1. Horse bone.
2. Stone covered grave.
Malavan
1. Canals.
Chanhudaro
1. Bangle factory.
2. Inkpot.
3. The only city without citadel.
4. Carts with a seated driver.
Balakot
1. Bangle factory.
Daimabad
1. Bronze Buffalo.
Amri
1. Actual remains of Rhinoceros.
Alamgirpur
1. Impression of cloth on a trough.
Ropar
1. Buildings made of stone and soil.
2. The dog buried with humans.
3. One inscribed steatite seal with typical Indus pictographs.
4. Oval pit burials.
Banawali
1. Oval shaped settlement.
2. The only city with radial streets.
3. Toy plough.
4. The largest number of barley grains.
Dholavira
1. Only site to be divided into three parts.
2. Giant water reservoir.
3. Unique water harnessing system.
4. Dams.
5. Embankments.
6. A stadium.
7. Rock – cut architecture.

Ancient India: Early Cities and Republics

In the earliest cities
HARAPPA
• These cities developed about 4700 years ago.
• Many of these cities were divided into two or more parts.
• The part to the west was smaller but higher: citadels
• The part to the east was larger but lower: lower town
• The bricks were laid in an interlocking pattern and that made the walls strong.
• Special buildings were constructed on the citadel. For example, in Mohenjodaro, a
tank: Great Bath.
• Kalibangan and Lothal had fire altars, where sacrifices may have been performed.
• Mohenjodaro, Harappa and Lothal had elaborate store houses.
• Houses were either one or two storeys high, with rooms built around a courtyard.
• Most houses had a separate bathing area, and some had wells to supply water.
• Many of these cities had covered drains.
• All three — houses, drains and streets — were probably planned and built at the same
time.
• Most of the things are made of stone, shell and metal, including copper, bronze, gold
and silver.
• Copper and bronze were used to make tools, weapons, ornaments and vessels.
• Gold and silver were used to make ornaments and vessels.
• Harappans also made seals out of stone which are rectangular and had an animal
carved on them.
• Made pots with beautiful black designs.
• Cotton was probably grown at Mehrgarh from about 7000 years ago.
• Perhaps some women and men may have been specialists to perform crafts.
• The Harappans probably got copper from present-day Rajasthan, and even from
Oman.
• Tin may have bought from present-day Afghanistan and Iran.
• Gold could have come all the way from present-day Karnataka.
• A new tool, the plough, was used to dig the earth for turning the soil and planting
seeds but wooden plough not found while excavation.
• As this region does not receive heavy rainfall, some form of irrigation may have been
used.
• Dholavira was located on Khadir Beyt in the Rann of Kutch, where there was fresh
water and fertile soil.
• Dholavira was divided into three parts but other Harappan cities 2 parts.
• Large letters of the Harappan script that were carved out of white stone and perhaps
inlaid in wood. Normally seals found on small objects so the above discovery was an
unique one.
• Lothal stood beside a tributary of the Sabarmati.
• Here raw materials such as semi-precious stones were easily available.
• A dockyard at Lothal, where boats and ships came in from the sea and through the
river channel.
Early Republic
JANAPADAS
• The rajas who perform big ritual sacrifices.
• The word janapada literally means the land where the jana[people] set its foot, and
settled down.
• Excavations of janapadas, settlements, were found at Purana Qila in Delhi, Hastinapur
near Meerut, and Atranjikhera, near Etah (the last two are in Uttar Pradesh).
• The people lived in huts, and kept cattle as well as other animals.
• They also grew a variety of crops — rice, wheat, barley, pulses, sugarcane, sesame
and mustard.
• Special type of pottery found at these sites is known as Painted Grey Ware of simple
lines and geometric patterns.
MAHAJANAPADAS
• 2500 years ago, some janapadas became more important than others: mahajanapadas.
• Most had a capital city, many of these were fortified
• The new rajas now began maintaining armies.
• Soldiers were paid regular salaries.
• Changes in agriculture around this time were seen.
• One was growing use of iron ploughshares. Here more grain could be produced than
with wooden plough.
• Second, people began transplanting paddy. This meant that instead of scattering seed
on the ground, saplings were grown and then planted in the fields.
MAGADHA
• Rivers such as Ganga, Son made the transport easier. Water supplies for both drinking
and agriculture.
• There were iron ore mines in the region which was able to make strong tools and
weapon.
• Bimbisara and Ajatasatru, the two powerful rulers who used all means to conquer
other janapadas.
• Mahapadma Nanda, extended his control up to the north-west part of subcontinent.
• Magadha’s capital was shifted from Rajagriha (present Rajgir) to Pataliputra (present
Patna)
• Alexander of Macedonia reached upto the banks of river Beas in light of conquering
Magadha, but his soldiers refused due to fear of Magadha’s elephant and chariot
armies.
VAJJI
• It was having distinct govt from Mahajanapadas.
• Govt was known as gana or sangha.
• Vaishali(Bihar) was its capital.
• This institution had many rulers (1000s)not one.
 • They were called Raja. These rajas performed rituals together. They also met in
assemblies for future course of action if needed.
• Women, dasas and kammakaras [landless agri labourers] could not participate in these
assemblies.
• Both the Buddha and Mahavira belonged to ganas.
• These institution lasted for 1500 years, powerful Rajas tried to conquer sanghas.
• But the Gupta era started when last Sangha ruler was defeated.
Ancient India: Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism
New Questions and Ideas

• Due to Mahajanapadas, cities were flourishing and lifestyles were changing in

villages.
• Now here, many thinkers were trying to understand these changes in society. They
want to know true meaning of life
BUDDHA
• Buddha belonged to a small gana known as the Sakya gana, and was a kshatriya.
• He finally decided to find his own path to realisation, and meditated for days under a
peepal tree at Bodh Gaya in Bihar, where he attained enlightenment. After that, he
was known as the Buddha or the Wise One.
• Sarnath, near Varanasi, where he taught for the first time.
• He passed away at Kusinara.
• The Buddha taught that life is full of suffering and unhappiness. This is caused
because we have cravings and desires.
• The Buddha described this as thirst or tanha. He taught that this constant craving
could be removed by following moderation in everything.
• He also taught people to be kind, and to respect the lives of others, including animals.
• He believed that the results of our actions (called karma), whether good or bad, affect
us both in this life and the next.
• Taught in the language of the ordinary people, Prakrit.
• He also encouraged people to think for themselves.
• After the death of Buddha, different Buddhist Councils were conveyed to discuss
Buddhist doctrines.
UPANISHADS
• Same time or perhaps earlier than Buddha, other thinkers also tried to find answers to
difficult questions like “life after death”, performing of “ritual sacrifices ” etc.
• There were something permanent that last even after death. They named it atman or
the individual soul and the brahman or universal soul.
• They believed that ultimately, both the atman and the brahman were one.
• Many of their ideas were recorded in the Upanishads. These were part of the later
Vedic texts.
• Recorded texts contain conversation between teachers and students, through simple
dialogues.
JAINISM
• Most famous thinker of the Jainas, Vardhamana Mahavira was a contemporary of
Buddha.
• He was a kshatriya prince of the Lichchhavis, a group that was part of the Vajji
sangha.
• He taught a simple doctrine: men and women who wished to know the truth must
leave their homes.
• They must follow very strictly the rules of ahimsa, which means not hurting or killing
living beings.
• It was very difficult for most men and women to follow these strict rules like remain
nude or maitaining celibacy eg: farmers find it difficult to follow because they cant
weed out insects.
• Ordinary people could understand the teachings because in Prakrit language.
• Jainism was supported mainly by traders.
THE SANGHA
• Both the Mahavira and the Buddha felt that only those who left their homes could
gain true knowledge. They arranged for them to stay together in the sangha, an
association of those who left their homes.
• The rules made for the Buddhist sangha were written down in a book called the
Vinaya Pitaka.
• Men and women who joined the sangha led simple lives.
• Those who joined the sangha included brahmins, kshatriyas, merchants, labourers,
barbers, courtesans, children and slaves.
MONASTERIES
• The only time both Buddhists and Jainists stayed in one place was during the rainy
season, when it was very difficult to travel.
• These shelters were called viharas.
• The earliest viharas were made of wood, and then of brick. Some were even in caves
that were dug out in hills, especially in western India.
SYSTEM OF ASHRAMAS
 • Same time of Buddha and Jain, brahmins developed this ashramas.
• It is used as for a stage of life instead of people live and meditate.
• Four ashramas were recognised: brahmacharya, grihastha, vanaprastha and samnyasa.
• Generally, women were not allowed to study the Vedas, and they had to follow the
ashramas chosen by their husbands.

Ancient India: Maurya and Post-Maurya Rulers

Asoka, The Emperor
• The Mauryas were a dynasty, more than 2300 years ago, with three important rulers
— Chandragupta[founder], his son Bindusara, and Bindusara’s son, Ashoka.
• Chandragupta was supported by a wise man named Chanakya or Kautilya. Many of
Chanakya’s ideas were written down in a book titled Arthashastra.
• Megasthenes was an ambassador who was sent to the court of Chandragupta by the
Greek ruler of West Asia named Seleucus Nicator.
• Ashoka was one of the greatest rulers known to history and on his instructions
inscriptions were carved on pillars, as well as on rock surfaces.
• Most of Ashoka’s inscriptions were in Prakrit and were written in the Brahmi script.
• People in different parts of the empire spoke different languages.
RULING THE EMPIRE
• As the empire was so large, different parts were ruled differently.
• The area around Pataliputra was under the direct control of the emperor. This meant
that officials were appointed to collect taxes.
• Spies were kept a watch on the officials.
• Other areas or provinces was ruled from a provincial capital such as Taxila or Ujjain.
• Here Royal Princes were often send as governors, local customs and rules were
followed.
ASHOKA’S DHAMMA
• After Kalinga[current coastal Odisha] he gave up war.
• He started to execute Dhamma[prakrit term for Dharma]
• Ashoka’s dhamma did not involve worship of a god, or performance of a sacrifice. He
felt its his duty to instruct his subjects through teachings of Budhha.
• He appointed officials, known as the dhamma mahamatta who went from place to
place teaching people about dhamma.
• Besides, Ashoka got his messages inscribed on rocks and pillars, instructing his
officials to read his message to those who could not read it themselves.
• Also sent messengers to spread ideas about dhamma to other lands, such as Syria,
Egypt, Greece and Sri Lanka.
GREAT WALL OF CHINA
• Somewhat before the time of the Mauryan empire, about 2400 years ago, began to
built this wall.
• It was meant to protect the northern frontier of the empire from pastoral people.
 • Additions to the wall were made over a period of 2000 years because the frontiers of
the empire kept shifting.
Vital Villages, Thriving Towns
• The use of iron began in the subcontinent around 3000 years ago.
• The kings and kingdoms could not have existed without the support of flourishing
villages.
• Some of the earliest works in Tamil, known as Sangam literature, were composed
around 2300 years ago. These texts were called Sangam because they were supposed
to have been composed and compiled in assemblies (known as sangams) of poets that
were held in the city of Madurai.
• Jataka s were stories that were probably composed by ordinary people, and then
written down and preserved by Buddhist monks.
• We have hardly any remains of palaces, markets, or of homes of ordinary people.
Perhaps some are yet to be discovered by archaeologists.
• Another way of finding out about early cities is from the accounts of sailors and
travellers who visited them.
• Crafts include extremely fine pottery, known as the Northern Black Polished Ware. It
is generally found in the northern part of the subcontinent, so the name. It is usually
black in colour, and has a fine sheen.
• Many crafts persons and merchants now formed associations known as shrenis.
• These shrenis of crafts persons provided training, procured raw material, and
distributed the finished product.
• Shrenis also served as banks.
Traders, Kings and Pilgrims
• Sangam poems mention the muvendar. This is a Tamil word meaning three chiefs,
used for the heads of three ruling families, the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas. They
became powerful in south India around 2300 years ago.
• Each of the three chiefs had two centres of power: one inland, and one on the coast.
Of these six cities, two were very important: Puhar or Kaveripattinam, the port of the
Cholas, and Madurai, the capital of the Pandyas.
• The chiefs did not collect regular taxes. Instead, they demanded and received gifts
from the people.
• Around 200 years later a dynasty known as the Satavahanas became powerful in
western India.
• The most important ruler of the Satavahanas was Gautamiputra Shri Satakarni.
• He and other Satavahana rulers were known as lords of the dakshinapatha, literally the
route leading to the south.
SILK ROUTE & KUSHANS
• Some people from China who went to distant lands on foot, horseback, and on
camels, carried silk with them. The paths they followed came to be known as the Silk
Route.
 • Some kings tried to control large portions of the route. This was because they could
benefit from taxes, tributes and gifts that were brought by traders travelling along the
route. In return, they often protected the traders who passed through their kingdoms
from attacks by robbers.
• The best-known of the rulers who controlled the Silk Route were the Kushanas, who
ruled over central Asia and north-west India around 2000 years ago.
• Their two major centres of power were Peshawar and Mathura. Taxila was also
included in their kingdom.
• During their rule, a branch of the Silk Route extended from Central Asia down to the
seaports at the mouth of the river Indus, from where silk was shipped westwards to
the Roman Empire.
• The Kushanas issued gold coins. These were used by traders along the Silk Route.
Spread of Buddhism
• The most famous Kushana ruler was Kanishka, who ruled around 1900
years ago.
• He organised a Buddhist council, where scholars met and discussed
important matters.
• Ashvaghosha, a poet who composed a biography of the Buddha, the
Buddhacharita, lived in his court. He and other Buddhist scholars now
began writing in Sanskrit.
• A new for m of Buddhism, known as Mahayana Buddhism, now
developed.
• Here it got 2 distinct features: (1) earlier, the Buddha’s presence was
shown in sculpture by using certain signs. Now statues are made. From
Mathura and Taxila. (2) regarded with belief in Bodhisattvas. Earlier once
they attained Enlightenment they could live in complete isolation and
meditate in peace. Now they remained in the world to teach and help other
people. This type of worship prvailed throughout Central Asia, China, and
later to Korea and Japan.
• Traders probably halted in cave monasteries during their travels.
• The older form of Buddhism, known as Theravada Buddhism was more
popular in areas like Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and other parts of
Southeast Asia including Indonesia.
• The famous Chinese Buddhist pilgrims were Fa Xian, who came to the
subcontinent about 1600 years ago, Xuan Zang came around 1400 years
ago and I-Qing, who came about 50 years after Xuan Zang.
BHAKTI
• The worship of certain deities, which became a central feature of later
Hinduism, gained in importance were the contemporaries of other religion
• Anybody, whether rich or poor, belonging to the so-called ‘high’ or ‘low’
castes, man or woman, could follow the path of Bhakti.
• The idea of Bhakti is present in the Bhagavad Gita.
 • Those who followed the system of Bhakti emphasised devotion and
individual worship of a god or goddess, rather than the performance of
elaborate sacrifices
• Once this idea gained acceptance, artists made beautiful images of these
deities.

Ancient India: Gupta and Post-Gupta

New Empires and Kingdoms
Guptas
• Information about their history through inscriptions and coins.
• Changragupta was followed by Samudragupta.
• Samudragupta, Gupta ruler (1700 years ago, ie AD 300). Harisena was his
court poet.
• Chandragupta, his father, was the first ruler of the Gupta dynasty to adopt
the grand title of maharaj- adhiraja, a title that Samudragupta also used.
• “Prashasti” = inscription ‘in praise of’. Prashasti about Samudragupta was
inscribed on the Asokan piller at Allahabad (Prayag).
• Four different kinds of rulers in different parts of India/Nepal/Srilanka
either surrendered to him or made alliances. (Eg: Aryavartha,
Dakshinapatha, gana sanghas etc).
• Main centers of Guptas: Prayag (Allahabad, UP), Ujjain (Avanti, MP) and
Pataliputra (Patna, Bihar).
• Samudragupta’s son = Chandragupta II. Kalidasa and Aryabhata adorned
his court. He overcame the last Sakas.
Harshavardhana & Harshacharita
• Information about their history through biographies.
• He belonged to Pushyabhuti Dynasty when Gupta dynasty was fading.
• His court poet, Banabhatta, wrote his biography, the Harshacharita, in
Sanskrit.
• Xuan Zang, spent a lot of time at Harsha’s court and left a detailed account
of what he saw.
• Harsha took over the kingdom of Kanauj, and then led an army against the
ruler of Bengal.
• Although he was successful in the east, and conquered both Magadha and
Bengal, he was not as successful elsewhere.
• He tried to cross the Narmada to march into the Deccan, but was stopped
by a ruler belonging to the Chalukya dynasty, Pulakeshin II.
The Pallavas, Chalukyas and Pulakeshin
• The Pallavas and Chalukyas were the most important ruling dynasties in
south India during this period.
 • The kingdom of the Pallavas around their capital, Kanchipuram, to the
Kaveri delta, while that of the Chalukyas [Aihole, the capital ] was centred
around the Raichur Doab, between the rivers Krishna and Tungabhadra.
• The Pallavas and Chalukyas frequently raided one another’s lands which
were prosperous ones.
• The best-known Chalukya ruler was Pulakeshin II. We know about him
from a prashasti, composed by his court poet Ravikirti.
• Ultimately, both the Pallavas and the Chalukyas gave way to new rulers
belonging to the Rashtrakuta and Chola dynasties.
• Land revenue remained important for these rulers, and the village
remained the basic unit of administration
• There were military leaders who provided the king with troops whenever
he needed them. These men were known as samantas.
• The inscriptions of the Pallavas mention a number of local assemblies.
These included the sabha, which was an assembly of brahmin land owners.
• And the nagaram was an organisation of merchants.
• The Chinese pilgrim Fa Xian noticed the plight of those who were treated
as untouchables by the high and mighty.
Medieval india
• Medieval India: Tripartite Struggle and Cholas
• New Kings and Kingdoms
• Many dynasties emerged during 7th century.
• By the 7th century there were big landlords or warrior chiefs in different regions of
the subcontinent.
• Existing kings often acknowledged them as their subordinates or samantas. As these
samantas gained power and wealth, they declared themselves to be maha-samanta,
maha- mandaleshvara (the great lord of a “circle” or region) and so on.
• Sometimes they asserted their independence from their overlords.
• Rashtrakutas in the Deccan is one such instance. Initially they were subordinate to the
Chalukyas of Karnataka. In the mid-eighth century, Dantidurga, a Rashtrakuta chief,
overthrew his Chalukya overlord.
• In each states, resources were obtained from the producers, that is, peasants, cattle-
keepers, artisans, who were often persuaded or compelled to surrender part of what
they produced.
• Prashastis contain details that may not be literally true. But they tell us how rulers
wanted to depict themselves – as valiant, victorious warriors, for example.
• However author named Kalhana composed Sanskrit poems in 12th century and he
was critical about the rulers and their policies.
• Kanauj in the Ganga valley was a prized area. For centuries, rulers belonging to the
Gurjara-Pratihara, Rashtrakuta and Pala dynasties fought for control over Kanauj.
Historians often describe it as the “tripartite struggle”.
• Rulers also tried to demonstrate their power and resources by building large temples.
 • Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni, Afghanistan [ruled 997-1030] and extended control over
Central Asia, Iran and north-west parts of subcontinent used to attack these temples
including Somnath of Gujarat.
• Al-Biruni, Gazni’s trusted scholar was made to write about to subcontinent he
conquered. This arabic wrok Kitanb-al-Hind sought help from Sankrit scholars too.
• Chauhans /Chahamanas, who ruled over the region around Delhi and Ajmer.
• They attempted to expand their control to the west and the east, where they were
opposed by the Chalukyas of Gujarat and the Gahadavalas of western Uttar Pradesh.
• The best-known Chahamana ruler was Prithviraja III (1168-1192), who defeated an
Afghan ruler named Sultan Muhammad Ghori in 1191, but lost to him the very next
year, in 1192.
THE CHOLAS
• Vijayalaya, who belonged to the ancient chiefly family of the Cholas from
Uraiyur, captured the delta from the Muttaraiyar in the middle of the ninth
century. He built the town of Thanjavur and a temple for goddess
Nishumbhasudini there.
• The successors of Vijayalaya conquered neighbouring regions and the
kingdom grew.
• Rajaraja I, considered the most powerful Chola ruler, became king in AD
985 and expanded the control.
• Rajaraja’s son Rajendra I continued his policies and even raided the Ganga
valley, Sri Lanka and countries of Southeast Asia, developing a navy for
these expeditions.
• The big temples of Thanjavur and Gangaikonda- cholapuram, built by
Rajaraja and Rajendra.
• Chola temples often became the nuclei of settlements which grew around
them. And these temples were not only places of worship; they were the
hub of economic, social and cultural life as well.
• Many of the achievements of the Cholas were made possible through new
developments in agriculture.
• Settlements of peasants, known as ur, became prosperous with the spread
of irrigation agriculture. Groups of such villages formed larger units called
nadu.
• The village council and the nadu had several administrative functions
including dispensing justice and collecting taxes.
• Rich peasants of the Vellala caste exercised considerable control over the
affairs of the nadu under the supervision of the central Chola govt.

Medieval India: Delhi Sultanate

Delhi as the center of attraction
When did Delhi became strategically important as center of political importance? Who were
the major rules of Delhi during medieval period? Hopefully you will get answers to these
questions in this post.
 • Delhi became an important city only in the 12th century.
• Delhi first became the capital of a kingdom under the Tomara Rajputs,
who were defeated in the middle of the twelfth century by the Chauhans .
Rajput Dynasty
1. Tomaras [early twelfth century – 1165]
2. Ananga Pala [1130 -1145]
3. Chauhans [1165 -1192]
4. Prithviraj Chauhan [1175 -1192]
Delhi Sultans
• By the 13th century Sultanates transformed Delhi into a capital that
controlled vast areas of the subcontinent .
• “Histories”, tarikh (singular) / tawarikh (plural), written in Persian, the
language of administration under the Delhi Sultans by learned men:
secretaries, administrators, poets and courtiers who lived in cities (mainly
Delhi) and hardly ever in villages.
• Objectives of these writings : (a) They often wrote their histories for
Sultans in the hope of rich rewards (b) they advised rulers on the need to
preserve an “ideal” social order based on birthright and gender distinctions
(c) their ideas were not shared by everybody.
• In 1236 Sultan Iltutmish’s daughter, Raziyya, became Sultan. Nobles were
not happy at her attempts to rule independently. She was removed from the
throne in 1240.
Early Turkish [1206-1290]
1. Qutbuddin Aybak [1206 -1210]
2. Shamsuddin Iltutmish [1210 -1236]
3. Raziyya [1236 -1240]
4. Ghiyasuddin Balban [1266 -1287]
The expansion of the Delhi Sultanate
• In the early 13th century the control of the Delhi Sultans rarely went
beyond heavily fortified towns occupied by garrisons.
• The Sultans seldom controlled the hinterland, the lands adjacent to a city
or port that supply it with goods and services, of the cities and were
therefore dependent upon trade, tribute or plunder for supplies.
• Controlling garrison towns in distant Bengal and Sind from Delhi was
extremely difficult.
• The state was also challenged by Mongol invasions from Afghanistan and
by governors who rebelled.
• The expansion occurred during the reigns of Ghiyasuddin Balban,
Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad Tughluq.
Khalji Dynasty [1290 – 1320]
 1. Jalaluddin Khalji [1290 – 1296]
2. Alauddin Khalji [1296 -1316]
Tughluq Dynasty [1320 – 1414]
• Ghiyasuddin Tughluq [1320-1324]
• Muhammad Tughluq [1324 -1351]
• Firuz Shah Tughluq [1351 -1388]
• So, what the first thing Sultans did were consolidating these hinterlands of the
garrison towns. During these campaigns forests were cleared in the Ganga-Yamuna
doab and hunter- gatherers and pastoralists expelled from their habitat.
• These lands were given to peasants and agriculture was encouraged. New fortresses
and towns were established to protect trade routes and to promote regional trade.
• Secondly , expansion occurred along the “external frontier” of the Sultanate. Military
expeditions into southern India started during the reign of Alauddin Khalji and
culminated with Muhammad Tughluq.
Administration & Consolidation
• Rather than appointing aristocrats as governors, the early Delhi Sultans,
especially Iltutmish, favoured their special slaves purchased for military
service, called bandagan .
• The Khaljis and Tughluqs continued to use bandagan and also raised
people of humble birth, who were often their clients, to high political
positions.
• Slaves and clients were loyal to their masters and patrons, but not to their
heirs.
• Authors of Persian tawarikh criticised the Delhi Sultans for appointing the
“low and base-born” to high offices.
• Military commanders were appointed as governors of territories . This land
is called iqta and their holder called iqtadar or muqti . The duty of muqti
was to lead military campaigns and maintain law and order in their iqtas.
• But still large parts of the subcontinent remained outside the control of the
Delhi Sultans.
• The Mongols under Genghis Khan invaded Transoxiana in north-east Iran
in 1219 and the Delhi Sultanate during the reign of Alauddin Khalji and
Muhammad Tughluq .
A.Khalji’s defensive policy against Genghis
• As a defensive measure, Alauddin Khalji raised a large standing army.
• Constructed a new garrison town named Siri for his soldiers.
• In order to feed soldiers, produce collected as tax from lands was done and
paddy has got fixed tax as 50% of the yield.
• Alauddin chose to pay his soldiers salaries in cash rather than iqtas. He
made sure merchants sell supplies to these soldiers according to prescribed
prices .
 • So here A.Khalji’s administrative measure were highly praised due to
effective intervention in markets to have prices unders control .
• He successfully withstood the threat of Mongol invasions .
M.Tughluq offensive policy against Genghis
• The Mongol army was defeated earlier. M.Tughluq still raised a large
standing army.
• Rather than constructing a new garrison town he emptied the residents of a
Delhi city named Delhi-i Kuhna and the soldiers garrisoned there.
• Produce from the same area was collected as tax and additional taxes to
feed the large army. This coincided with famine in the area. .
• Muhammad Tughluq also paid his soldiers cash salaries. But instead of
controlling prices, he used a “token” currency. This cheap currency could
be counterfeited easily because it was made of “bronze”.
• His campaign into Kashmir was a disaster. He then gave up his plans to
invade Transoxiana and disbanded his large army .
• His administrative measures created complications. The shifting of people
to Daulatabad was resented. The raising of taxes and famine in the Ganga-
Yamuna belt led to widespread rebellion. And finally, the “token”
currency had to be recalled.
15th & 16th Century Sultanates: Sayyid, Lodi and Suri
Sayyid Dynasty [1414 – 1451]
• Khizr Khan 1414 -1421
Lodi Dynasty [1451 – 1526]
• Bahlul Lodi 1451 -1489
Suri Dynasty [1540-1555]
• Sher Shah Suri [1540-1545] captured Delhi.
• For the first time during the Islamic conquest the relationship between the
people and the ruler was systematized, with little oppression or corruption.
• He challenged and defeated the Mughal emperor Humayun (1539 : Battle
of Chausa, 1540 : Battle of Kannauj)
• Sher Shah introduced an administration that borrowed elements from
Alauddin Khalji and made them more efficient.
• Sher Shah’s administration became the model followed by the great
emperor Akbar (1556-1605) when he consolidated the Mughal Empire.
• His tomb is at Sasaram [Bihar]

Medieval India: Mughal Dynasty

The Mughal Dynasty
 • From the latter half of the 16th century, they expanded their kingdom from
Agra and Delhi until in the 17th century they controlled nearly all of the
subcontinent.
• They imposed structures of administration and ideas of governance that
outlasted their rule, leaving a political legacy that succeeding rulers of the
subcontinent could not ignore.
Babur – The Founder of Mughal Empire
• The first Mughal emperor (1526- 1530)
• Political situation in north-west India was suitable for Babur to enter India
.
• Sikhandar Lodi died in 1517 and Ibrahim Lodi succeded him. I. Lodhi
tried to create a strong centralised empire which alarmed Afghan chiefs as
well as Rajaputs.
• So in 1526 he defeated the Sultan of Delhi, Ibrahim Lodi and his Afghan
supporters, at (First) Panipat (War) and captured Delhi and Agra.
• The establishment of an empire in the Indo-Gangetic valley by Babur was
a threat to Rana Sanga.
• So in 1527 – defeated Rana Sanga, Rajput rulers and allies at Khanwa [a
place west of Agra].
• Babur’s advent was significant :
• • Kabul and Qandhar became an integral part of an empire comprising
North India . Since these areas had always acted as a staging place for an
invasion of India and provide security from external invasions
• These two areas mentioned above helped to strengthen India’s foreign
trade with China and Mediterranean seaports .
• His war tactics were very expensive since he used heavy artillery which
ended the era of small kingdoms because these smaller ones cant afford it .
• He introduced a concept of the state which has to be based on strength and
prestige of Crown instead of religious interference. This provided a
precedent and direction to his successors .
Humayun [1530-1540, 1555-1556]
• Humayun divided his inheritance according to the will of his father. His
brothers were each given a province.
• Sher Khan defeated Humayun which made him forced to flee to Iran.
• In Iran, Humayun received help from the Safavid Shah. He recaptured
Delhi in 1555 but died in an accident the following year.
Akbar [1556-1605] – The Most Popular Ruler among the Mughal Dynasty
His reign can be divided into three periods :
• 1556-1570 : Military campaigns were launched against the Suris and other Afghans,
against the neighbouring kingdoms of Malwa and Gondwana, and to suppress the
revolt of Mirza Hakim and the Uzbegs. In 1568 the Sisodiya capital of Chittor was
seized and in 1569 Ranthambhor.
 • 1570-1585 : military campaigns in Gujarat were followed by campaigns in the east in
Bihar, Bengal and Orissa.
• 1585-1605 : expansion of Akbar’s empire. Qandahar was seized from the Safavids,
Kashmir was annexed, as also Kabul . Campaigns in the Deccan started and Berar,
Khandesh and parts of Ahmadnagar were annexed.
Jahangir [1605-1627]
• Military campaigns started by Akbar continued.
• The Sisodiya ruler of Mewar, Amar Singh, accepted Mughal service. Less
successful campaigns against the Sikhs, the Ahoms and Ahmadnagar
followed.
Shah Jahan [1627-1658]
• Mughal campaigns continued in the Deccan under Shah Jahan.
• The Afghan noble Khan Jahan Lodi rebelled and was defeated.
• In the north-west, the campaign to seize Balkh from the Uzbegs was
unsuccessful and Qandahar was lost to the Safavids.
• Shah Jahan was imprisoned by his son Aurangazeb for the rest of his life
in Agra.
Aurangzeb [1658-1707]
• In the north-east, the Ahoms [a kingdom in Assam near Brahmaputra
valley] were defeated in 1663, but they rebelled again in the 1680s.
Because Ahoms successfully resisted Mughal expansion for a long time
and they dont want to give up their sovereignty which they were enjoying
for 600 years .
• Campaigns in the north-west against the Yusufzai and the Sikhs were
temporarily successful.
• Mughal intervention in the succession and internal politics of the Rathor
Rajputs of Marwar led to their rebellion.
• Campaigns against the Maratha chieftain Shivaji were initially successful.
However, escaped from Aurangzeb’s prison Shivaji declared himself an
independent king and resumed his campaigns against the Mughals.
• Prince Akbar[II] rebelled against Aurangzeb and received support from the
Marathas and Deccan Sultanate.
• After Akbar’s rebellion, Aurangzeb sent armies against the Deccan
Sultanates. Bijapur[Karnataka] was annexed in 1685 and Golcunda
[Telangana] in 1687.
• From 1698 Aurangzeb personally managed campaigns in the Deccan
against the Marathas who started guerrilla warfare.
• Aurangzeb also had to face the rebellion in north India of the Sikhs, Jats
and Satnamis . The Satnamis were a sect of Hinduism and they were
resented against Aurangzeb’s strict Islamic policies – which included
reviving the hated Islamic Jiziya tax (poll tax on non-Muslim subjects),
banning music and art, and destroying Hindu temples .
Mughal relations with other rulers
• The Mughal rulers campaigned constantly against rulers who refused to
accept their authority.
• However, as the Mughals became powerful many other rulers also joined
them voluntarily. eg : Rajaputs.
• The careful balance between defeating but not humiliating their opponents
[but not with Shivaji by Aurangzeb] enabled the Mughals to extend their
influence over many kings and chieftains.
Mansabdars and Jagirdars
• As the empire expanded to encompass different regions the Mughals
recruited diverse bodies of people like Iranians, Indian Muslims, Afghans,
Rajputs, Marathas and other groups.
• Those who joined Mughal service were enrolled as mansabdars – an
individual who holds a mansab, meaning a position or rank.
• It was a grading system used by the Mughals to fix rank, salary and
military responsibilities.
• The mansabdar’s military responsibilities required him to maintain a
specified number of sawar or cavalrymen.
• Mansabdars received their salaries as revenue assignments – jagirs which
were somewhat like iqtas. But unlike muqtis, mansabdars dint administer
jagirs, instead only had rights to collect the revenue that too by their
servants while manasbdars themselves served in some other part of the
country.
• In Akbar’s reign, these jagirs were carefully assessed so that their revenues
were roughly equal to the salary of the mansadar.
• But by Auragzeb’s reign, there was a huge increase in the number of
mansabdars which meant a long wait before they received a jagir.
• So the shortage of jagirdars was witnessed and whoever got jagirs they
extracted more revenue than allowed .
• Aurangzeb couldn’t control this development and the peasantry therefore
suffered tremendously.
Zabt and Zamindars
• To sustain Mughul administration , rulers relied on extracting taxes from
rural produce[peasantry].
• Mughal used one term – zamindars – to describe all intermediaries,
whether they were local headmen of villages or powerful chieftains who
collect these taxes for rulers.
• Careful survey was done to evaluate crop yields .
• On the basis of this data , the tax was fixed.
• Each province was divided into revenue circles with its own schedule of
revenue rates for individual crops. This revenue system was known as
zabt.
 • However, rebellious zamidars were present . They challenged the stability
of the Mughal Empire from the end of the 17th century through peasant
revolt.
Akbar Nama & Ain-i Akbari
• Abul Fazl wrote a three volume history of Akbar’s reign titled, Akbar
Nama .
• The first volume dealt with Akbar’s ancestors .
• The second recorded the events of Akbar’s reign.
• The third is the Ain-i Akbari. It deals with Akbar’s administration,
household, army, the revenues and geography of his empire. It provides
rich details about the traditions and culture of the people living in India. It
also got statistical details about crops, yields, prices, wages and revenues.
Akbar’s policies
• The empire was divided into provinces called subas, governed by a
subadar who carried out both political and military functions.
• Subadar was supported by other officers such as the military paymaster
(bakhshi), the minister in charge of religious and charitable patronage
(sadr), military commanders (faujdars) and the town police commander
(kotwal).
• Each province had a financial officer or diwan.
• Akbar’s nobles commanded large armies and had access to large amounts
of revenue.
• Akbar’s discussions on religion with the ulama, Brahmanas, Jesuit priests
who were Roman Catholics, and Zoroastrians took place in the ibadat
khana.
• He realised that religious scholars who emphasised ritual and dogma were
often bigots. Their teachings created divisions and disharmony amongst
his subjects. This eventually led Akbar to the idea of sulh-i kul or
“universal peace”.
• Abul Fazl helped Akbar in framing a vision of governance around this idea
of sulh-i kul.
• This principle of governance was followed by Jahangir and Shah Jahan as
well.
Medieval India: Rulers and Buildings
Rulers and Buildings – Medieval India
• Between the 8th and the 18th centuries kings and their officers built two
kinds of structures: First were forts, palaces and tombs. Second were
structures meant for public activity including temples, mosques, tanks,
wells, bazaars.
• By making structures for subjects’ use and comfort, rulers hoped to win
their praise.
 • Construction activity was also carried out by others, including merchants.
However, domestic architecture – large mansions (havelis) of merchants –
has survived only from the eighteenth century.
Building Temples, Tanks and Mosques
• Hindu rulers took gods’ name. Eg: Rajarajeshvara temple was built by
King Rajarajadeva for the worship of his god, Rajarajeshvaram.
• Muslim Sultans and Padshahs did not claim to be incarnations of god but
Persian court chronicles
described the Sultan as the “Shadow of God”.
• Water availability: Sultan Iltutmish [13th century] won respect for
constructing a large reservoir just outside Dehli-i kuhna. It was called the
hauz-i Sultani or the “King’s Reservoir”.
Gardens, Tombs and Forts
• Under the Mughals, architecture became more complex.
• During Babur reign formal gardens, placed within rectangular walled
enclosures and divided into four quarters by artificial channels. These
gardens were known as chahar bagh, four gardens.
• The central towering dome and the tall gateway (pishtaq) became
important aspects of Mughal architecture, first visible in Humayun’s tomb.
• Associated with the chahar bagh there was tradition known as “eight
paradises” or hasht bihisht – a central hall surrounded by eight rooms.
• During Shah Jahan’s reign that the different elements of Mughal
architecture were fused together in a harmonious synthesis. The
ceremonial halls of public and private audience (diwan-i khas or am) were
carefully planned. These courts were also described as chihil sutun or
forty-pillared halls, placed within a large courtyard.
• Shah Jahan’s audience halls were specially constructed to resemble a
mosque. The pedestal on which his throne was placed was frequently
described as the qibla, the direction faced by Muslims at prayer.
• The connection between royal justice and the imperial court was
emphasised by Shah Jahan in his newly constructed court in the Red Fort
at Delhi.
• Court in Redfort by Shahjahan got a series of pietra dura [a Roman Art by
inlaying of pieces of coloured stones resulting into some images] inlays
that depicted the legendary Greek god Orpheus playing the lute[a string
instrument]
• The construction of Shah Jahan’s audience hall aimed to communicate that
the king’s justice would treat the high and the low as equals where all
could live together in harmony.
• Shah Jahan adapted the river-front garden [a variation of chahar bagh] in
the layout of the Taj Mahal.
 • Only specially favoured nobles were given access to the river. All others
had to construct their homes in the city away from the River Yamuna.
Region and Empire
• There was also a considerable sharing of ideas across regions: the
traditions of one region were adopted by another. In Vijayanagara, for
example, the elephant stables of the rulers were strongly influenced by the
style of architecture found in the adjoining Sultanates of Bijapur and
Golcunda.
• In Vrindavan, near Mathura, temples were constructed in architectural
styles that were very
similar to the Mughal palaces in Fatehpur Sikri.
• Mughal rulers were particularly skilled in adapting regional architectural
styles in the construction of their own buildings.
Medieval India: Towns, Traders and Craftpersons
Towns of Medieval India
There were administrative centres, temple towns, as well as centres of commercial activities
and craft production during medieval periods.
Administrative Centres and Towns
• The best example is Thanjavur.
• During the reign of Chola Dynasty (King Rajaraja Chola), its capital was
Thanjavur.
• Architect Kunjaramallan Rajaraja Perunthachchan built Rajarajeshwara
Temple.
• Besides the temple, there were palaces with mandapas or pavilions. where
kings hold court here and issue order to subordinates.
• The Saliya weavers of Thanjavur and the nearby town of Uraiyur were
busy producing cloth for flags to be used in the temple festival, fine
cottons for the king and nobility and coarse cotton for the masses.
• Some distance away at Svamimalai, the sthapatis or sculptors were making
exquisite bronze idols and tall, ornamental bell metal lamps.
Temple Towns and Pilgrimage Centres
• Thanjavur is also an example of a temple town. Temple towns represent a
very important pattern of urbanisation, the process by which cities
develop.
• Towns emerged around temples such as those of Bhillasvamin (Bhilsa or
Vidisha in Madhya Pradesh), and Somnath in Gujarat. Other important
temple towns included Kanchipuram and Madurai in Tamil Nadu, and
Tirupati in Andhra Pradesh.
 • Pilgrimage centres also slowly developed into townships. Vrindavan (Uttar
Pradesh) and Tiruvannamalai (Tamil Nadu) are examples of two such
towns.
Small towns
• From the 8th century onwards the subcontinent was dotted with several
small towns. These probably emerged from large villages. They usually
had a mandapika (or mandi of later times) to which nearby villagers
brought their produce to sell. They also had market streets called hatta
(haat of later times) lined with shops.
• Usually a samanta or, in later times, a zamindar built a fortified palace in
or near these towns. They levied taxes on traders, artisans and articles of
trade and sometimes “donated” the “right” to collect these taxes to local
temples .
Traders
• There were many kind of traders including Banjaras. (2016 Prelims
Question)
• Since traders had to pass through many kingdoms and forests, they usually
travelled in caravans and formed guilds[associations for certain tasks]to
protect their interests. Manigramam and Nanadesi were two such
guilds.These guilds traded extensively both within the peninsula and with
Southeast Asia and China.
• The towns on the west coast were home to Arab, Persian, Chinese, Jewish
and Syrian Christian traders.
• At the same time Kabul [Afghanistan]became politically and commercially
important from the 16th century onwards. Trade in horses was primarily
carried here. Slaves were also brought here for sale.
Craftpersons
• The craftspersons of Bidar were so famed for their inlay work in copper
and silver that it came to
be called Bidri.
• The Panchalas or Vishwakarma community, consisting of goldsmiths,
bronzesmiths, blacksmiths, masons and carpenters, were essential to the
building of temples.
• They also played an important role in the construction of palaces, big
buildings, tanks and reservoirs.
• Similarly, weavers such as the Saliyar or Kaikkolars emerged as
prosperous communities, making donations to temples.
• Some aspects of cloth making like cotton cleaning, spinning and dyeing
became specialised and independent crafts.
Major Towns: Surat, Hampi and Masulipattanam
Surat, Hampi and Masulipattanam were the major towns in India during the medieval period.
Hampi
• Located in the Krishna-Tungabhadra basin.
• It was the nucleus of the Vijayanagara Empire (1336).
• No mortar or cementing agent was used in the construction of fortified
walls and the technique followed was to wedge them together by
interlocking.
• It got splendid arches, domes and pillared halls with niches for holding
sculptures.
• During 15th – 16th centuries, Hampi bustled with commercial and cultural
activities. Moors (a name used collectively for Muslim merchants), Chettis
and agents of European traders such as the Portuguese, thronged the
markets of Hampi.
• Temples were the hub of cultural activities and devadasis (temple dancers)
performed before the deity, royalty and masses in the many-pillared halls
in the Virupaksha (a form of Shiva) temple.
• Hampi fell into ruin following the defeat of Vijayanagara in 1565 by the
Deccani Sultans – the rulers of Golconda, Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Berar and
Bidar.
Surat
• It was an emporium of western trade during the Mughal period along with
Cambay (present Khambat).
• Surat was the gateway for trade with West Asia via the Gulf of Ormuz.
Surat has also been called the gate to Mecca because many pilgrim ships
set sail from here.
• In the 17th century the Portuguese, Dutch and English had their factories
and warehouses at Surat.
• The textiles of Surat were famous for their gold lace borders (zari) and had
a market in West Asia, Africa and Europe.
• Decline factors: the loss of markets and productivity, control of the sea
routes by the Portuguese, competition from Bombay where the English
East India Company shifted its headquarters in 1668.
Masulipatnam
• Lay on the delta of the Krishna river.
• Both the Dutch and English East India Companies attempted to control
Masulipatnam.
• The fort at Masulipatnam was built by the Dutch.
• The Qutb Shahi rulers of Golconda imposed royal monopolies on the sale
of textiles, spices and other items to prevent the trade passing completely
into the hands of the various East India Companies.
• In 1686-1687 Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb annexed Golconda.
 • So European Companies took alternatives to Bombay, Calcutta and
Madras which lost Masulipatanam’s glory.
Medieval India: Tribes, Nomads, and Settled Communities
Different kinds of societies: Those who followed rules of varna and those who didn’t
We have already seen that there were administrative centers, temple towns, as well as centers
of commercial activities and craft production during medieval periods. But different kinds of
societies evolved differently social change was not the same everywhere.
In many parts of the subcontinent, the society was already divided according to the rules of
varna. These rules, as prescribed by the Brahmanas, were accepted by the rulers of large
kingdoms. Under the Delhi Sultans and the Mughals, the hierarchy between social classes
grew further.
However, there were other societies as well. Many societies in the subcontinent did not
follow the social rules and rituals prescribed by the Brahmanas. Nor were they divided into
numerous unequal classes. Such societies are often called tribes.
Beyond Big Cities: Tribal Societies
• Some powerful tribes controlled large territories. In Punjab, the Khokhar
tribe was very influential during the 13th and 14th centuries.
• Kamal Khan Gakkhar, of Gakkhar tribe, was a noble (mansabdar) by
Emperor Akbar.
• In Multan and Sind, the Langahs and Arghuns dominated extensive
regions before they were subdued by the Mughals.
• In the western Himalaya lived the shepherd tribe of Gaddis.
• The distant north-eastern part of the subcontinent too was entirely
dominated by tribes – the Nagas, Ahoms etc.
• In many areas of present-day Bihar and Jharkhand, Chero, chiefdoms had
emerged by the 12th century. Raja Man Singh, Akbar’s general, attacked
and defeated them in 1591.
• The Maharashtra highlands and Karnataka were home to Kolis[also in
Gujarat], Berads etc.
• South got Koragas, Vetars, Maravars etc.
• Bhils spread across western and central India. By the late 16th century,
many of them had become settled agriculturists and some even zamindars.
• The Gonds were found in great numbers across the present-day states of
Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh.
Gond Tribe
• They lived in a vast forested region called Gondwana.
• They practiced shifting cultivation.
• The Akbar Nama, a history of Akbar’s reign, mentions the Gond kingdom
of Garha Katanga that had 70,000 villages.
• The administrative system of these kingdoms was becoming centralized.
• The emergence of large states changed the nature of Gond society.
 • Certain Gond chiefs now wished to be recognized as Rajputs.
Ahom Tribe
• They migrated to the Brahmaputra valley from present-day Myanmar in
the 13th century.
• They created a new state by suppressing the older political system of the
bhuiyans (landlords).
• During the 16th century, they annexed the kingdoms of the Chhutiyas
(1523) and of Koch-Hajo (1581) and subjugated many other tribes.
• They know to use firearms as early as the 1530s.
• In 1662, the Mughals under Mir Jumla attacked the Ahom kingdom and
defeated them.
• The Ahom state depended upon forced labour. Those forced to work for
the state were called paiks.
• By the 17th century, the administration became quite centralized.
• In their worship concepts influence of Brahmanas increased by the 17th
century.
• Literature and culture flourished in their time. Works known as buranjis,
were written – first in the Ahom language and then in Assamese.
Trader Nomads: Banjaras
• The Banjaras were the most important trader-nomads. Their caravan was
called tanda.
• Alauddin Khalji used the Banjaras to transport grain to the city markets.
• Emperor Jahangir wrote in his memoirs about Banjaras.
Medieval India: Bhaktism, Sufism and Sikhism
Brahminism vs Buddhism/Jainism vs Devotional Paths (Bhakitsm, Sufism, and
Sikhism)
Brahminism based on caste-system was prominent during the Medieval period. But there was
opposition to the same as well.
Many people were uneasy with such ideas and turned to the teachings of the Buddha or the
Jainas according to which it was possible to overcome social differences and break the cycle
of rebirth through personal effort.
Others felt attracted to the idea of a Supreme God who could deliver humans from such
bondage if approached with devotion (or bhakti). This idea, advocated in the Bhagavadgita,
grew in popularity in the early centuries of the Common Era.
Intense devotion or love of God is the legacy of various kinds of bhakti and Sufi movements
that have evolved since the eighth century. The idea of bhakti became so popular that even
Buddhists and Jainas adopted these beliefs.
Bhakti cult
Bhakti was accepted as a means to attain moksha along with jnana and karma. The
development of this cult took place in South India when the Nayanars and Alwars moved
against the austerities propagated by the Buddhist and Jain schools and professed that
ultimate devotion to god was the means to salvation.
People were no longer satisfied with a religion which emphasized only ceremonies. The cult
is the combined result of the teachings of various saints, through the then times. Each of them
had their own views, but the ultimate basis of the cult was a general awakening against
useless religious practices and unnecessary strictness. The cult also emerged as a strong
platform against casteism.
Some of the important leaders of the movement are:
• Namadeva and Ramananda (Maharashtra and Allahabad) – Both of them
taught the concept of bhakti to all the four varnas and disregarded the ban
on people of different castes cooking together and sharing meals.
• Sankara and Ramanuja – The propounders of Advaita (non-duality) and
vishishta adwaitha (qualified non-duality) respectively. They believed god
to be nirguna parabrahma and satguna parabrahma respectively.
• Vallabhacharya – propounder of shuddha adwaitha or pure non-duality.
• Chaitanya (Bengal) – relied on the use of music, dance and bhajans to get
in touch with God. ‘love’ was the watchword of the chaitanya cult.
• Kabir – was a disciple of Ramananda, and was raised by a Muslim weaver.
He stood for doing away with all the unnecessary customs and rituals in
both religions and bringing union between these religions.
• Guru Nanak.
• Nimbakacharya – founder of the Radha-Krishna cult. He expressed this
relation to substantiate the importance of marriage. It was also used as an
example of God’s love to the people.
Nayanars and Alvars
• In South India 7th to 9th centuries saw the emergence of new religious
movements, led by the Nayanars (saints devoted to Shiva) and Alvars
(saints devoted to Vishnu) who came from all castes including those
considered “untouchable” like the Pulaiyar and the Panars.
• They were sharply critical of the Buddhists and Jainas.
• They drew upon the ideals of love and heroism as found in the Sangam
literature (Tamil literature).
• Between 10th and 12th centuries the Chola and Pandya kings built
elaborate temples around many of the shrines visited by the saint-poets,
strengthening the links between the bhakti tradition and temple worship.
Philosophy and Bhakti
• Shankara, from Kerala in the 8th century, salvation .was an advocate of
Advaita or the doctrine of the oneness of the individual soul and the
Supreme God which is the Ultimate Reality.
 • He taught that Brahman, the only or Ultimate Reality, was formless and
without any attributes.
• He considered the world around us to be an illusion or maya, and preached
renunciation of the world and adoption of the path of knowledge to
understand the true nature of Brahman salvation.
• Ramanuja, from Tamil Nadu in the 11th century, propounded the doctrine
of Vishishtadvaita or qualified oneness in that the soul, even when united
with the Supreme God, remained distinct.
• Ramanuja’s doctrine inspired the new strand of bhakti which developed in
north India subsequently.
Basavanna’s Virashaivism
• This movement began in Karnataka in the 12th century which argued for
the equality of all human beings and against Brahmanical ideas about caste
and the treatment of women.
• They were also against all forms of ritual and idol worship.
Saints of Maharashtra
• The most important among them were Janeshwar, Namdev, Eknath and
Tukaram as well as women like Sakkubai and the family of Chokhamela,
who belonged to the “untouchable” Mahar caste.
• This regional tradition of bhakti focused on the Vitthala (a form of Vishnu)
temple in Pandharpur, as well as on the notion of a personal god residing
in the hearts of all people.
• These saint-poets rejected all forms of ritualism, outward display of piety
and social differences based on birth.
• It is regarded as a humanist idea, as they insisted that bhakti lay in sharing
others’ pain.
Nathpanthis, Siddhas, and Yogis
• Criticised the ritual and other aspects of conventional religion and the
social order, using simple, logical arguments.
• They advocated renunciation of the world.
• To them, the path to salvation lay in meditation on the formless Ultimate
Reality and the realization of oneness with it.
• To achieve this they advocated intense training of the mind and body
through practices like yogasanas, breathing exercises and meditation.
• These groups became particularly popular among “low” castes.
Saint Kabir
• Probably lived in the 15th-16th centuries.
• We get to know of his ideas from a vast collection of verses called sakhis
and pads said to have been composed by him and sung by wandering
bhajan singers.
 • Some of these were later collected and preserved in the Guru Granth
Sahib, Panch Vani, and Bijak.
• Kabir’s teachings were based on a complete, rejection of the major
religious traditions and caste systems. He believed in a formless Supreme
God and preached that the only path to salvation was through bhakti or
devotion.
• The language of his poetry was simple which could even be understood by
ordinary people.
• He sometimes used cryptic language, which was difficult to follow.
• He drew his followers from among both Hindus and Muslims.
Baba Guru Nanak (1469-1539) and Sikhism
• Established a centre at Kartarpur named Dera Baba Nanak on the river
Ravi.
• The sacred space thus created by Guru Nanak was known as dharmsal. It is
now known as Gurdwar.
• Before his death Guru appointed Lehna also known as Guru Angad as his
successor.
• Guru Angad compiled the compositions of Guru Nanak, to which he added
his own in a new script known as Gurmukhi.
• The three successors of Guru Angad also wrote under the name of
“Nanak” and all of their compositions were compiled by Guru Arjan [5th
Guru who was executed by Jehangir]in 1604.
• The compilation was added with the writings of other figures like Shaikh
Farid, Sant Kabir, Bhagat Namdev and Guru Tegh Bahadur.
• In 1706 this compilation was authenticated by Guru Gobind Singh. It is
now known as Guru Granth Sahib.
• Due to Guru Nanak’s insistence that all the followers should adopt
productive and useful occupations had received wider support during 16th
century and followers increased, henceforth.
• By the beginning of the 17th century, the town of Ramdaspur (Amritsar)
had developed around the central Gurdwara called Harmandar Sahib
(Golden Temple). It was virtually self-governing and also referred as ‘a
state within the state’ community. This fumed Mughal emperor Jahangir
which led to the execution of Guru Arjan in 1606.
• The Sikh movement began to get politicized in the 17th century, a
development which culminated in the institution of the Khalsa by Guru
Gobind Singh in 1699 and this entity is called as Khalsa Panth.
• Guru Nanak’s idea of equality had social and political implications
because his idea of liberation was not that of a state of inert bliss but rather
the pursuit of active life with a strong sense of social commitment.
Medieval India: Regional Cultures
The frontiers separating regions have evolved over time are still changing. What we
understand as regional cultures today are often the product of complex processes of
intermixing of local traditions with ideas from other parts of the subcontinent. In this post, let
us quickly go through some of the regional cultures of India during the medieval period.
Kerala: The Cheras and Malayalam
• The Chera kingdom of Mahodayapuram was established in the 9th century
in the south-western part of the peninsula, part of present-day Kerala.
• It is likely that Malayalam was spoken in this area.
• The rulers introduced the Malayalam language and script in their
inscriptions. This development is considered as one of the earliest
examples of the use of a regional language in official records in the
subcontinent.
• At the same time, the Cheras also drew upon Sanskritic traditions. A 14th-
century text, the Lilatilakam, dealing with grammar and poetics, was
composed in Manipravalam – literally, “diamonds and corals” referring to
the two languages, Sanskrit, and the regional language.
Rajastan: The Rajputs
• The Rajputs are often recognised as contributing to the distinctive culture
of Rajasthan.
• Rulers like Prithviraj cherished the ideal of the hero who fought valiantly,
often choosing death on the battlefield rather than face defeat.
• Women are also depicted as following their heroic husbands in both life
and death – there are stories about the practice of sati.
The Story of Kathak
• Dance form Kathak was originally a caste of storytellers in temples of
north India.
• Kathak began evolving into a distinct mode of dance in the 15th and 16th
centuries with the spread of the bhakti movement.
• The legends of Radha-Krishna were enacted in folk plays called rasa lila,
which combined folk dance with the basic gestures of the kathak story-
tellers.
• During Mughal period Kathak acquired a distinctive style which is still
followed today.
• Kathak, like several other cultural practices, was viewed with disfavour by
most British administrators in the 19th and 20th centuries.
• Recognised as one of “classical” forms of dance in the country after
independence.
Pirs and Temples
Pirs were community leaders, who also functioned as teachers and adjudicators and were
sometimes ascribed with supernatural powers.
The early settlers in eastern India sought some order and assurance in the unstable conditions
of the new settlements. This was provided by Pirs.
The term ‘Pirs’ included saints or Sufis and other religious personalities, daring colonisers
and deified soldiers, various Hindu and Buddhist deities and even animistic spirits. The cult
of pirs became very popular and their shrines can be found everywhere in Bengal.
Bengal also witnessed a temple-building spree from the late fifteenth century, which
culminated in the
nineteenth century. Many of the modest brick and terracotta temples in Bengal were built
with the support of several “low” social groups, such as the Kolu (oil pressers) and the
Kansari (bell metal workers).
When local deities, once worshipped in thatched huts in villages, gained the recognition of
the Brahmanas, their images began to be housed in temples. The temples began to copy the
double-roofed (dochala) or four-roofed (chauchala) structure of the thatched huts.
Medieval India: 18th Century Political Formations
During the first half of the eighteenth century, the boundaries of the Mughal Empire were
reshaped by the emergence of a number of independent kingdoms. In this post, we will read
about the emergence of new political groups in the subcontinent during the first half of the
eighteenth century – roughly from 1707, when Aurangzeb died, till the third battle of Panipat
in 1761.
The Mughal Crisis
• Emperor Aurangzeb had depleted the military and financial resources of
his empire by fighting a long war in the Deccan.
• Nobles who were appointed as governors (subadars) controlled the offices
of revenue and military administration (diwani and faujdari) which gave
them extraordinary political, economic and military powers over vast
regions of the Mughal Empire.
• Peasant and zamindari rebellions in many parts of northern and western
India added to these problems.
Emergence of New States
• Through the 18th century, the Mughal Empire gradually fragmented into a
number of independent, regional states.
• It can be divided into three overlapping groups:
1. States that were old Mughal provinces like Awadh, Bengal, and Hyderabad. Although
extremely powerful and quite independent, the rulers of these states did not break their formal
ties with the Mughal emperor.
2. States that had enjoyed considerable independence under the Mughals as watan jagirs.
These included several Rajput principalities.
3. States under the control of Marathas, Sikhs and others like the Jats. They all had
seized their independence from the Mughals after a long-drawn armed struggle.
Hyderabad
 • Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah, the founder of Hyderabad state, was appointed
by Mughal Emperor Farrukh Siyar.
• He was entrusted first with the governorship of Awadh, and later given
charge of the Deccan.
• He ruled quite independently without seeking any direction from Delhi or
facing any interference.
• The state of Hyderabad was constantly engaged in a struggle against the
Marathas to the west and with independent Telugu warrior chiefs
(nayakas)
Awadh
• Burhan-ul-Mulk Sa‘adat Khan was appointed subadar of Awadh in 1722.
• Awadh was a prosperous region, controlling the rich alluvial Ganga plain
and the main trade route between north India and Bengal.
• Burhan-ul-Mulk held the combined offices of subadari, diwani and
faujdari.
• Burhan-ul-Mulk tried to decrease Mughal influence in the Awadh region
by reducing the number of office holders (jagirdars) appointed by the
Mughals.
• The state depended on local bankers and mahajans for loans.
• It sold the right to collect the tax to the highest bidders. These “revenue
farmers” (ijaradars) agreed to pay the state a fixed sum of money. So they
were also given considerable freedom in the assessment and collection of
taxes.
• These developments allowed new social groups, like moneylenders and
bankers, to influence the management of the state’s revenue system,
something which had not occurred in the past.
Bengal
• Bengal gradually broke away from Mughal control under Murshid Quli
Khan who was appointed as the naib, deputy to the governor of the
province and he was neither a formal subadar .
• Like the rulers of Hyderabad and Awadh, he also commanded the revenue
administration of the state.
• In an effort to reduce Mughal influence in Bengal he transferred all
Mughal jagirdars to Orissa and ordered a major reassessment of the
revenues of Bengal.
• Revenue was collected in cash with great strictness from all zamindars.
• This shows that all 3 States Hyderabad, Awadh, Bengal richest merchants,
and bankers were gaining a stake in the new political order.
The Watan Jagirs of the Rajputs
• Many Rajput kings, particularly those belonging to Amber and Jodhpur,
were permitted to enjoy considerable autonomy in their watan jagirs.
 • In the 18th century, these rulers now attempted to extend their control over
adjacent regions.
• So Raja Ajit Singh of Jodhpur held the governorship of Gujarat and Sawai
Raja Jai Singh of Amber was governor of Malwa.
• They also tried to extend their territories by seizing portions of imperial
territories neighbouring their watans.
Seizing Independence
The Sikhs
• The organisation of the Sikhs into a political community during the
seventeenth century helped in regional state-building in the Punjab.
• Guru Gobind Singh fought against the Rajaput and Mughal rulers, after
this death, it was under Banda Bahadur’s the fight continued.
• The entire body used to meet at Amritsar at the time of Baisakhi and
Diwali to take collective decisions known as “resolutions of the Guru
(gurmatas)”.
• A system called rakhi was introduced, offering protection to cultivators on
the payment of a tax of 20 per cent of the produce.
• Their well-knit organization enabled them to put up a successful resistance
to the Mughal governors first and then to Ahmad Shah Abdali who had
seized the rich province of the Punjab and the Sarkar of Sirhind from the
Mughals.
• The Khalsa declared their sovereign rule by striking their own coin in
1765. The coin was same as that of Band Bahadur’s time.
• Maharaja Ranjit Singh reunited the groups and established his capital at
Lahore in 1799.
The Marathas
• Another powerful regional kingdom to arise out of a sustained opposition
to the Mughal rule.
• Shivaji (1627-1680) carved out a stable kingdom with the support of
powerful warrior families (deshmukhs). Groups of highly mobile, peasant-
pastoralists (kunbis) provided the backbone of the Maratha army.
• Poona became the capital of the Maratha kingdom.
• After Shivaji, Peshwas[principal minister s] developed a very successful
military organisation by raiding cities and by engaging Mughal armies in
areas where their supply lines and reinforcements could be easily
disturbed.
• By the 1730s, the Maratha king was recognised as the overlord of the
entire Deccan peninsula. He possessed the right to levy chauth[25 per cent
of the land revenue claimed by zamindars]. and sardeshmukhi[9-10 per
cent of the land revenue paid to the head revenue collector in the Deccan]
in the entire region.
 • The frontiers of Maratha domination expanded, after raiding Delhi in
1737, but these areas were not formally included in the Maratha empire
but were made to pay tribute as a way of accepting Maratha sovereignty.
• These military campaigns made other rulers hostile towards the Marathas.
As a result, they were not inclined to support the Marathas during the third
battle of Panipat in 1761.
• By all accounts cities[Malwa, Ujjain etc] were large and prosperous and
functioned as important ant commercial and cultural centers show the
effective administration capacities of Marathas.
The Jats
• Jats too consolidated their power during the late 17th and 18th-centuries.
• Under their leader, Churaman, they acquired control over territories
situated to the west of the city of Delhi, and by the 1680s they had begun
dominating the region between the two imperial cities of Delhi and Agra.
• The Jats were prosperous agriculturists, and towns like Panipat and
Ballabhgarh became important trading centers in the areas dominated by
them.
• When Nadir Shah (Shah of Iran) sacked Delhi in 1739, many of the city’s
notables took refuge there.
• His son Jawahir Shah had troops and assembled some another from
Maratha and Sikh to fight Mughal.

Modern india
India in 1750 – Decline of the Mughal Empire, Rule of Later Mughals, and Emergence of
Successor States
India in the 1750s saw the decline of the Mughal Empire and the emergence of Successor
States.
Until 1707, almost the whole of India was under the direct control of the Mughals.
The Mughal rulers who came to power after the death of Aurangzeb (1707), are known as the
later Mughals.
Later Mughals were weak and couldn’t hold the vast Mughal empire together. The decline of
the Mughal Empire led to the rise of many autonomous states or kingdoms.

The Later Mughals

Though the Mughals were still the unquestioned masters of the land, their power was waning,
especially after Aurangazeb. This is why historians call the Mughals after him the ‘Later
Mughals’.
(1) Bahadur Shah (1707-1712):
After Aurangazeb died in 1707, his eldest son Bahadur Shah became the emperor following a
succession war with his brothers. He was 65 when he ascended the throne.
In the beginning, he tried to exercise more control over Amber and Marwar, but in the end,
ended up giving them high mansabs.
He also granted the Marathas the sardeshmukhi of Deccan but failed to give them the chauth.
Thus, the Marathas were not fully satisfied.
He also tried to pacify the Sikhs by giving Guru Gobind Singh high mansabs. But later, he
also crushed a rebellion by Banda Bahadur, who was Gobind Singh’s successor.
He died in 1712, and the empire plunged into rebellion once again.
(2) Jahandar Shah (1712-1713):
It was now that the era of kingmakers in the history of India started.
One of Bahadur Shah’s less able sons, Jahandar Shah won the throne with the help and
support of Zulfiqar Khan, the most powerful noble of the time. The prince was the least
interested in administration and it passed into the hands of Zulfiqar. His policies, however,
were, clever and progressive.
He knew that he had to establish friendly relations with the Rajput rajas and Maratha sardars,
and other local clans. Thus, he took the necessary steps towards it. The demands of Marwar
and Amber which were not satisfied by Bahadur Shah were addressed. He abolished jizyah.
He also granted the Marathas the chauth and sardeshmukhi of Deccan. One of his hated
policies was the introduction of irjarah or revenue farming.
When the nobles grew jealous of the position of Zulfiqar Khan, they poisoned the ears of the
emperor against him. This led to misunderstandings between them. Finally, Jahandar Shah
was defeated at Agra by his nephew Farrukh Siyar.
(3) Farukh Siyar and The Saiyyids (1713-1720):
Farukh Siyar was supported by the Saiyyid brothers – Hussain Ali Khan Barahow and
Abdulla Khan. They were made the mir-bakshi and wazir respectively. The fate was the same
for this king too, as his ears were poisoned against the nobles. But in the end, the Saiyyid
brothers themselves deposed and killed him.
After this, they brought two successive emperors to the crown and both died in quick
succession, Muhammad Shah was their next choice.
The Saiyyids adopted the policy of religious tolerance. They brought Hindu chiefs into the
administrative fold. They also followed conciliatory policies with other rulers and granted
Shahu with swarajya. However, they were considered as namak-haram by the others nobles,
who feared for their lives, seeing the fate of the king himself. They conspired against the
Saiyyids and treacherously murdered them in 1720.
(4) Muhammad Shah (1719-1748):
His reign however continued even after the death of the Saiyyds. In fact, he had a hand in the
conspiracy against them. Even though the conditions were favourable for the consolidation of
the Mughal empire, he was not the man of the moment. The empire fell into total disarray
during his time. This led to the birth of new states, which were created by the deputies of the
emperors.
The successor states
In India, several successor states to the Mughals emerged.
(1) Hyderabad:
It was founded by Nizam-ul-mulk Asaf Jhah in 1724. Although he was made the wazir of the
Mughal empire in 1722 itself, he didn’t believe in a return of the Mughal empire. So, right
from 1720, he had strengthened his control over Deccan, though he never laid an independent
claim to it.
He waged wars and concluded treaties. He followed a policy of religious tolerance in his
state. He died in 1748.
(2) Bengal:
This state was founded by Murshid Khuli Khan and Alivardi Khan.
Even though MKK was the governor there since 1717, he had been its de-facto ruler since
1700. Though he was virtually independent, he regularly sent tributes to the emperor to
ensure his seat. He died in 1727 and his son Shuja-ud-din ruled till 1739. In that year,
Alivardi Khan killed his son and became the ruler there.
It was during MKK’s rule that land was categorised and khalisah lands were introduced. He
also gave agricultural loans called taccavis to the farmers.
(3) Awadh:
It was founded by Saadat Khan Burhan-ul-mulk who was appointed as its governor in 1722.
He carried out a fresh revenue settlement in 1723. He too did not show any religious
discrimination. He continued the jagir system. Before his death in 1739, he had become
virtually independent and had made his position hereditary.
He was followed by his nephew Safdar Jung who was also a good administrator. Following
his predecessor’s policy of religious tolerance, he also employed Hindus in important posts.
He ruled till 1754.

(4) Mysore:
The first ruler of Mysore was Hyder Ali who was a petty officer in the Mysore army. He
gradually rose through the wars as a leader.
Though illiterate, he was a visionary and realised the importance of western military
equipment. He too was religiously tolerant. He died in 1782 and was succeeded by his son
Tipu.
Tipu was everything his father was, only better. Taking a great interest in the French
revolution, he planted a tree of liberty at Srirangapatanam. He also made a modern navy and
incorporated various western weapons into his army.
Perhaps, he is the only Indian ruler who realised the full extent of the threat posed by the
British. Though he was orthodox in religious views, he was tolerant of other religions too.
The Economic Condition of India in the 1750s
Mughal India in 1700 accounted for 25 per cent of the world Gross Domestic Product (GDP).
However, India also had 25 per cent of the world’s population.
India’s per capita GDP was only half that of Britain’s in 1600 when the Mughal Empire was
at its peak. Thereafter India witnessed a steady economic decline.
The land revenue system at the time of the Mughals was exploitative in nature. The elite class
held a major share of national income.
India in 1750, on the eve of the British conquest, had no scientific or technological research,
no machinery, and no mechanical tools.
The British Expansion in India – East India Company, Presidencies, Governor-generals, and
Battles
There had been trading relations between India and the west from ancient times itself (land
route).
However, in 1453, the Ottoman Turks captured Constantinople and this brought the regular
trade routes under the control of the Turks. This urged the Europeans to search for new trade
routes, especially by sea.
In 1492, Columbus from Spain set out to reach India and discovered America instead.
Later, in 1498, Vasco Da Gama of Portugal discovered a new trade route, travelling around
Africa. He reached India at Calicut, Kerala (1498) acquiring the distinction of being the first
European to reach India via the sea route.
The Portuguese were the first to establish colonies in India. Due to their superiority on the
seas, they could easily maintain their positions against the powerful land forces in India. Also
since they were mainly concentrated in south India, they did not have to face the might of the
Mughal empire.
In 1602, the Dutch East India Company was formed, and the people from the Netherlands
were empowered by their government to make war, conclude treaties, acquire territories and
build fortresses.
Growth of the English East India Company
In 1599, an English company was formed by a group of merchants to trade with the east,
known as Merchant Adventurers. It was given the permission and exclusive rights to trade
with the east, by the queen in 1600.
Mughal emperor, Jahangir, gave captain Hawkins the royal farman to set up factories on the
western coast. Later, Sir Thomas Roe obtained the farman to establish factories in all parts of
the Mughal empire.
Bombay passed into the British hands as dowry given by the Portuguese. The British
conflicts with the Dutch were settled by giving up all claims to Indonesia.
The conditions in the south were apt for the English. They started from Madras, by building a
fort there, called Fort St. George. The problems broke out when the English sacked Hugli and
declared war on the emperor. They failed miserably. This was the first lesson they learnt.
From then on, they relied on flattery and humble entreaties, waiting for their chance. In 1698,
Fort William was built and Calcutta was founded. Madras, Bombay and Calcutta soon grew
up to be flourishing centres of trade.
The French, under Dupleix, who had come to India by then had already started interfering in
the affairs of the local princes using their well-equipped army. In 1742, a war had broken out
in Europe between France and England.
Following the death of the nizam in 1748, his son Nasir Jung took over the crown. He was
challenged by Muzaffar Jung, a grandson of the nizam. Similar situations were in the
Carnatic, where Chanda Sahib was conspiring against the nawab Anwarudeen. The French
took the sides of both the rebels, and won both of their claims for them, killing Anwarudeen
and Nasir Jung. The English, naturally took the side of the fallen, under Muhammad Ali, a
son of Anwarudeen. The wars were then won by the English side under the able generalship
and cunning of Robert Clive. Finally, the French recalled Dupleix from India, according to
their treaty in 1754. Later, in 1760, the French were completely destroyed at the battle of
Wandiwash. Thus, the English remained the sole masters of India.
The farman granted to the British by the emperor enabled them to conduct free trade in
Bengal. Neither did they have to pay dastaks for the movement of such goods. However,
these were misused by the company’s servants and this meant the loss of revenue for Bengal.
In 1756, the grandson of Alivardi Khan, Siraj-ud-Daulah came to the throne, he demanded
the English that they should trade on the same basis as the Indian merchants. Matters took a
turn for the worse when the English refused and strengthened their fortifications. This led to
the Battle of Plassey in 1757, in which Siraj-ud-Daulah was treacherously defeated by the
cheating by Mir Jaffar and Rai Durlabh. This brought the British immense prestige and
revenue.
Later, when Mir Jaffar couldn’t keep up with the tribute promised to the British, they
installed Mir Qasim on the throne. He was clever and knew that both revenue and an army
was required to stand against the British. And finally, he abolished all the duties on internal
trade. This angered the British, and they defeated Mir Qasim in the Battle of Buxar in 1764.
How did the British who came to India for trade become the rulers of territories?
• In 1600, the East India Company acquired a charter from the ruler of
England, Queen Elizabeth I, granting it the sole right to trade with the
East. Then onwards no other trading group in England could compete with
the East India Company.
• However, the royal charter didn’t prevent other European powers from
entering the Eastern markets.
• The Portuguese had already established their presence on the western coast
of India and had their base in The Dutch too were exploring the
possibilities of trade in the Indian Ocean. Soon the French traders arrived
on the scene.
 • The problem was that all the companies were interested in buying the same
things. So the only way the trading companies could flourish was by
eliminating rival competitors. The urge to secure markets, therefore, led to
fierce battles between the trading companies.
• Trade was carried on with arms and trading posts were protected through
fortification.
East India Company begins to trade in Bengal
• The first English factory was set up on the banks of the river Hugli in
1651.
• By 1696 it began building a fort around the settlement near the factory
where merchants and traders
• The company persuaded the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb to issue a farman
granting the Company the right to trade duty-free.
• Aurangzeb’s farman had granted only the Company the right to trade duty-
free. The officials of the Company, who were carrying on private trade on
the side, were expected to pay duty. However, they did private trades
without paying taxes, causing an enormous loss of revenue for Bengal.
• This behaviour led to a protest by the Nawab of Bengal, Murshid Quli
Khan.
How the trade led to battles?
• We have already seen that with the decline of Mughal rule, many
successor states emerged.
• After the death of Aurangzeb, the Bengal nawabs asserted their power and
autonomy, as other regional powers were doing at that time.
• Nawabs refused to grant the Company concessions, demanded large
tributes for the Company’s right to trade, denied it any right to mint coins,
and stopped it from extending its fortifications.
• The Company on its part declared that the trade could flourish only if the
duties were removed. It was also convinced that to expand trade it had to
enlarge its settlements, buy up villages, and rebuild its forts.
• The conflicts led to confrontations and finally culminated in the famous
Battle of Plassey.
The Battle of Plassey
• Sirajuddaulah, then Nawab of Bengal, with his force, captured the English
factory at Kassimbazar and then went to Calcutta to establish control over
the Company’s fort.
• Company officials in Madras sent forces under the command of Robert
Clive, reinforced by naval fleets. Prolonged negotiations with the Nawab
followed.
• Finally, in 1757, Robert Clive led the Company’s army against
Sirajuddaulah at Plassey.
 • Clive had managed to secure the support of one of Sirajuddaulah’s
commanders named Mir Jafar by promising to make him Nawab after
crushing Sirajuddaulah.
• The Battle of Plassey became famous because it was the first major victory
for the English East India Company in India.
• The Company was still unwilling to take over the responsibility of the
administration. Its prime objective was the expansion of trade.
• But Mir Jafar protested with the British on administrative matters. He was
replaced by Mir Mir Qasim. He too had conflicts with the East India
company. The Company defeated him in the Battle of Buxar (1764).
• East India company now started to shift from their primary objective from
trade to expansion of territories.
• In 1765 the Mughal emperor appointed the Company as the Diwan of the
provinces of Bengal. The Diwani allowed the Company to use the vast
revenue resources of Bengal.
• Now revenues from India could finance Company expenses. These
revenues could be used to purchase cotton and silk textiles in India,
maintain Company troops, and meet the cost of building the Company fort
and offices at Calcutta.
Company Rule Expands
• After the Battle of Buxar (1764), the Company appointed Residents in
Indian states.
• Through the Residents, the Company officials began interfering in the
internal affairs of Indian states.
• Sometimes the Company forced the states into a “subsidiary alliance”.
According to the terms of this alliance, Indian rulers were not allowed to
have their independent armed forces. They will be protected by the
Company but had to pay for the “subsidiary forces” that the Company
maintain for the purpose of this protection. If the Indian rulers failed to
make the payment, then part of their territory was taken away as a penalty.
Conflict with Tipu Sultan
• Mysore controlled the profitable trade of the Malabar coast where the
Company purchased pepper and cardamom. In 1785 Tipu Sultan stopped
the export of these substances through the ports of his kingdom and
disallowed local merchants from trading with the Company.
• He also established a close relationship with the French in India and
modernised his army with their help. All these made the British furious.
• Four wars were fought with Mysore (1767- 69, 1780-84, 1790-92 and
1799). Only in the last – the Battle of Seringapatam – did the Company
ultimately got a victory.
• Mysore was later placed under the former ruling dynasty of the Wodeyars
and a subsidiary alliance was imposed on the state.
Conflict with the Marathas
 • With their defeat in the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761, the Marathas’
dream of ruling from Delhi came to an end.
• The Marathas were subdued in a series of wars. In the first war that ended
in 1782 with the Treaty of Salbai, there was no clear winner.
• The Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803-05) was fought on different fronts,
resulting in the British gaining Orissa and the territories north of the
Yamuna river including Agra and Delhi.
• The Third Anglo-Maratha War of 1817-19 crushed the Maratha power.
• The Company now had complete control over the territories south of the
Vindhyas.
The claim to paramountcy
• Under Lord Hastings (Governor-General from 1813 to 1823) a new policy
of “paramountcy” was initiated. Now the Company claimed that its
authority was paramount or supreme, so it was justified in annexing or
threatening to annex any Indian kingdom.
• This view continued to guide later British policies.
• These periods saw the British shifting the control the north-west because
of Russian invasion fear.
• British fought a prolonged war with Afghanistan between 1838 and 1842
and established indirect Company rule there. Sind was taken over. In 1849,
Punjab was annexed.
The Doctrine of Lapse
• The final wave of annexations occurred under Lord Dalhousie who was
the Governor-General from 1848 to 1856 using Doctrine of Lapse policy.
• The doctrine declared that if an Indian ruler died without a male heir his
kingdom would “lapse”, that is, become part of Company territory. Many
kingdoms were annexed simply by applying this doctrine: Examples –
Satara (1848), Sambalpur (1850), Udaipur (1852), Nagpur (1853) and
Jhansi (1854).
• Finally, in 1856, the Company also took over Awadh. Now this time the
British mentioned that they took over Awadh in order to free the people
from the “misgovernment” of the Nawab, which enraged by the Nawab
who was deposed. The people of Awadh later joined the great revolt that
broke out in 1857.
Setting up a New Administration
• Warren Hastings (Governor-General 1773 to 1785) played a significant
role in the expansion of Company power.
• By his time the Company had acquired power not only in Bengal but also
in Bombay and Madras and these were considered as administrative units
called Presidencies.
• Each was ruled by a Governor. The supreme head of the administration
was the Governor-General.
 • Warren Hastings, the first Governor-General, introduced several
administrative reforms, notably in the sphere of justice.
• Under the Regulating Act of 1773, a new Supreme Court was established,
while a court of appeal – the Sadar Nizamat Adalat – was also set up at
Calcutta.
• The principal figure in an Indian district was the Collector whose main job
was to collect revenue and taxes and maintain law and order in his district
with the help of judges, police officers etc.
Role of Governor Generals in the British conquests
We shall try to understand what happened after Plassey and Buxar. The two battles made the
Brits unquestioned champions of the land, but they still had obstacles to pass. These were the
small states throughout the territory of India. The way some of the governors-general handled
the situation and finally made the British the sole power in India is worth understanding.
Robert Clive
We begin with Robert Clive (1765-72) who was given a second chance following his
outstanding military leadership. He introduced a system known as ‘dual administration’ in
Bengal. The company already had the power to collect its own taxes. Thus it was the diwan.
Now, with the say in the appointment of the deputy subahdar, the company got the de-facto
ownership of the nizamat too. Thus, in effect, the company had power without responsibility.
It was also during Clive’s time that the taxation in Bengal became so favourable to the British
that they stopped bringing money from England to buy Indian goods. Instead, they invested
the revenue they received from Bengal in buying Indian goods itself. Then they sold it in
foreign countries.These were called the ‘investments’ of the company in India.
The Changes introduced by the British in India
We have seen that India in the 1750s saw the decline of the Mughal Empire and the
emergence of Successor States.
The British who came to India for trade become the rulers of territories.
They introduced many changes disrupting the economy, polity, and society.
• Economy: The British policies towards agriculture and industry were
mainly aimed at their benefit. This resulted in the commercialisation of
agriculture and the ruin of traditional Indian industries.
• Polity: Various Acts passed by the English had positive and negative
outcomes. However, the most significant result of the new laws was the
enforcement of the British authority over the Indian mainland. New laws
like the Regulating Act of 1773, Pitts India Act 1784, various Charter Acts
etc led to the constitutional development. On the administration part, too
various changes were introduced – particularly the revenue administration,
civil services, police, army, and judicial services.
• Society: British policies towards education, language, culture resulted in
significant transformation in Indian society. While the positive changes
 were welcomed by Indian society, the oppressive measures resulted in
revolts and rebellions.
We will be covering each of these details in subsequent posts. In this post, we mainly
concentrate on the changes made by the British from a broad perspective covering rural India
as well as urban India.
How did British rule affect the Indian Villages: Ruling the Countryside
• The Company had become the Diwan, but it still saw itself primarily as a
trader.
• But at the same time, the Bengal economy was facing a deep crisis due to
Company’s unholy revenue collection. In 1770 a terrible famine killed ten
million people in Bengal. About one-third of the population was wiped
out.
• Now, most Company officials began to feel that investment in the land had
to be encouraged and agriculture had to be improved.
• This resulted in the introduction of many land-revenue systems like
Zamindari, Mahalwari, and Ryotwari.
Permanent Settlement (Zamindari)
• The Company introduced the Permanent Settlement in 1793. Cornwallis
was the Governor-General of India at that time. By the terms of the
settlement, the rajas and taluqdars were recognised as zamindars.
• They were asked to collect rent from the peasants and pay revenue to the
Company. The amount to be paid was fixed permanently – it was not to be
increased ever in future.
• The Permanent Settlement, however, created problems. Company officials
soon discovered that the zamindars were in fact not investing in the
improvement of land.
• The revenue that had been fixed was so high that the zamindars found it
difficult to pay. Anyone who failed to pay the revenue lost his zamindari.
Numerous zamindaris were sold off at auctions organised by the
Company.
• In the 19th century, the situation changed. Now the market rose a bit. But
Company never gained because it could not increase a revenue demand
that had been fixed permanently.
• On the other hand, in the villages, the cultivator found the system
extremely oppressive.
Mahalwari settlement
• The company needed more money but the permanently fixed revenues
couldn’t help them in this regard.
• So in North-Western Provinces of the Bengal Presidency (most of this area
is now in Uttar Pradesh), an Englishman called Holt Mackenzie devised
the new system which came into effect in 1822.
• He felt that the village was an important social institution.
 • Under his directions, collectors went from village to village, inspecting the
land, measuring the fields, and recording the customs and rights of
different groups.
• The estimated revenue of each plot within a village was added up to
calculate the revenue that each village (mahal) had to pay.
• This demand was to be revised periodically, not permanently fixed.
• The charge of collecting the revenue and paying it to the Company was
given to the village headman, rather than the zamindar. This system came
to be known as the mahalwari settlement.
Ryotwari / Munro System
• Earlier Captain Alexander Read and later Thomas Munro felt that in the
south there were no traditional zamindars.
• The settlement, they argued, had to be made directly with the cultivators
(ryots ) who had tilled the land for generations.
• Their fields had to be carefully and separately surveyed before the revenue
assessment was made.
Indigo plantation
• By the 13th century, Indian indigo was being used by cloth manufacturers
in Italy, France and Britain to dye cloth. However, only small amounts of
Indian indigo reached the European market and its price was very high.
• By the end of the 18th century, Britain began to industrialise, and its
cotton production expanded dramatically, creating an enormous new
demand for cloth dyes.
• While the demand for indigo increased, its existing supplies from the West
Indies and America collapsed for a variety of reasons.
• Britain took it as an opportunity to persuade or force Indian cultivators to
grow Indigo.
How was indigo cultivated?
• There were two main systems of indigo cultivation – nij and ryoti .
• Nij: the planter produced indigo in lands that he directly controlled. He
either bought the land or rented it from other zamindars and produced
indigo by directly employing hired labourers.
• Ryoti system: the planters forced the ryots to sign a contract, an agreement
(satta). Those who signed the contract got cash advances from the planters
at low rates of interest to produce indigo. When the crop was delivered to
the planter after the harvest, a new loan was given to the ryot, and the
cycle started all over. The price they got for the indigo they produced was
very low and the cycle of loans never ended.
• The planters usually insisted that indigo be cultivated on the best soils in
which peasants preferred to cultivate rice. Indigo, moreover, had deep
roots and it exhausted the soil rapidly. After an indigo harvest, the land
could not be sown with rice.
The “Blue Rebellion” and After
• In 1859 thousands of ryots in Bengal refused to grow indigo. As the
rebellion spread, ryots refused to pay rents to the planters and attacked
indigo factories.
• Even zamindars were unhappy with the increasing power of the planters so
they supported ryots.
• Worried by the rebellion, the government brought in the military to protect
the planters from assault, and set up the Indigo Commission to inquire into
the system of indigo production.
• It declared that indigo production was not profitable for ryots. The
Commission asked the ryots to fulfil their existing contracts but also told
them that they could refuse to produce indigo in future.
• After the revolt, indigo production collapsed in Bengal.
How did British rule affect the Cities: Ruling the Colonial Cities & Urbanisation
• The European Commercial Companies had set up base in different places
early during the Mughal era: the Portuguese in Panaji in 1510, the Dutch in
Masulipatnam in 1605, the British in Madras in 1639 and the French in
Pondicherry (present-day Puducherry) in 1673.
• From the mid-eighteenth century, there was a new phase of change.
Commercial centres such as Surat, Masulipatnam and Dhaka, which had
grown in the 17th century, declined when trade shifted to other places.
• Company agents settled in Madras in 1639 and in Calcutta in 1690.
Bombay was given to the Company in 1661 by the Portuguese. The
Company established trading and administrative offices in each of these
settlements.
• After the Battle of Plassey in 1757, and the trade of the English East India
Company expanded, colonial port cities such as Madras, Calcutta and
Bombay rapidly emerged as the new economic capitals.
Colonial records and urban history
• From the early years, the colonial government was keen on mapping. This
knowledge provided better control over the region and helped to gauge
commercial possibilities and plan strategies of taxation.
• From the late 19th century onwards the British handed over some
responsibilities to elected Indian representatives to collect municipal taxes.
• The growth of cities was monitored through regular headcounts. By the
mid-19th century, several local censuses had been carried out in different
regions. The first all-India census was attempted in 1872. Thereafter, from
1881, decennial (conducted every ten years) censuses became a regular
feature. This collection of data is an invaluable source for studying
urbanisation in India.
• However, the census process and its corresponding enumeration were
riddled with ambiguity. The classification failed to capture the fluid and
overlapping identities of people. for eg: a person who was both an artisan
 and a trader were difficult to classify. People themselves were never able
to provide their real profession.
Trends of change
• After 1800, urbanisation in India was slow-moving.
• 19th century up to the first two decades of the 20th, the proportion of the
urban population to the total population in India was extremely low and
had remained stagnant.
• However, there were significant variations in the patterns of urban
development in different regions. The smaller towns had little opportunity
to grow economically. Calcutta, Bombay and Madras, on the other hand,
grew rapidly and soon became sprawling cities.
• Earlier these three centres functioned as collection depots for the export of
Indian manufacturers such as cotton But now become the entry point for
British-manufactured goods and for the export of Indian raw materials.
• The introduction of railways in 1853 meant a change in the fortunes of
towns. Economic activity gradually shifted away from traditional towns
which were located along old routes and rivers.
What Were the New Towns Like?
• By the 18th century Madras, Calcutta and Bombay had become important
ports.
• The English East India Company built its factories (i.e., mercantile offices)
there and because of competition among the European companies, fortified
these settlements for protection.
• Indian merchants, artisans and other workers who had economic dealings
with European merchants lived outside these forts in settlements of their
own.
• After the 1850s, cotton mills were set up by Indian merchants and
entrepreneurs in Bombay, and European-owned jute mills were established
on the outskirts of Calcutta. This was the beginning of modern industrial
development in India.
• Calcutta, Bombay and Madras grew into large cities, but this did not
signify any dramatic economic growth for colonial India as a whole.
• India never became a modern industrialised country, since discriminatory
colonial policies limited the levels of industrial development.
• The majority of the working population in these cities belonged to what
economists classify as the tertiary sector.
• There were only two proper “industrial cities”: Kanpur, specialising in
leather, woollen and cotton textiles, and Jamshedpur, specialising in steel.
Urbanisation, a change since 1857
• After the Revolt of 1857 British attitudes in India was shaped by a
constant fear of rebellion.
 • They felt that towns needed to be better defended, and white people had to
live in more secure and segregated enclaves and new urban spaces called
“Civil Lines” were set
• White people began to live in the Civil Lines. Cantonments – places where
Indian troops under European command were stationed – were also
developed as safe enclaves. These areas were separate from but attached to
the Indian towns.
• From the 1860s and 1870s, stringent administrative measures regarding
sanitation were implemented and building activity in the Indian towns was
regulated. Underground piped water supply and sewerage and drainage
systems were also put in place around this time. Sanitary vigilance thus
became another way of regulating Indian towns.
Buildings in cities included forts, government offices, educational institutions, etc were often
meant to represent ideas such as imperial power and nationalism.
Popular Uprisings and Revolts against the British
The British as part of their policy to control Indian territories introduced many changes –
which influenced the Indian society, polity, and economy. While the positive changes were
welcomed by Indians, the oppressive measures resulted in revolts and rebellions.
Paika Rebellion of 1817
The Paika Rebellion also called the Paika Bidroha was an armed rebellion against East India
Company’s rule in India in 1817.
The Paikas were the traditional militia of Odisha. They served as warriors and were charged
with policing functions during peacetime.
The conquest of Odisha by the East India Company in 1803 dethroned the king of Khurda.
The Paika Rebellion was led by Bakshi Jagabandhu, the former Bakshi or commander of the
forces of the Raja of Khurda.
The Paikas attacked British symbols of power, blazing police stations, administrative offices,
and the treasury during their march towards Khurda.
British were initially taken aback and faced stiff resistance from the rebelling Paikas.
However, the Paikas were eventually defeated by the British.
The Revolt of 1857
Since the mid-eighteenth century, nawabs and rajas had seen their power getting eroded.
Many ruling families tried to negotiate with the Company to protect their interests.
The Company even began to plan how to bring the Mughal dynasty to an end. The name of
the Mughal king was removed from the coins minted by the Company.
In 1856, Governor-General Canning decided that Bahadur Shah Zafar would be the last
Mughal king and after his death, none of his descendants would be recognised as kings – they
would just be called princes.
In the countryside, peasants and zamindars resented the high taxes and the rigid methods of
revenue collection.
The Indian sepoys were unhappy about their pay, allowances and conditions of service. Some
of the new rules, moreover, violated their religious sensibilities and beliefs.
After a hundred years of conquest and administration, the English East India Company faced
a massive rebellion that started in May 1857 and threatened the Company’s very presence in
India.
The Mutiny
• Why did sepoys revolt? First, the sepoys considered that the British were
promoting religious conversions in the unit; second sepoys were unhappy
with their movements; thirdly sepoys were like “peasants in uniform” so
whenever the British tried new agricultural reforms it affected the sepoys
and their families harshly which cause hatred towards the British.
• The capture of Delhi and the proclamation of Bahadur Shah as the
Emperor of Hindustan gave a positive political meaning to the Revolt.
• South India remained quiet and Punjab and Bengal were only marginally
affected.
• In the absence of any leaders from their own ranks, the insurgents turned
to the traditional leaders of Indian society — the territorial aristocrats and
feudal chiefs who had suffered at the hands of the British.
• At Kanpur, the natural choice was Nana Saheb, the adopted son of the last
Peshwa, Baji Rao II.
• In Bihar, the Revolt was led by Kunwar Singh, the zamindar of
Jagdishpur.
• Although the rebels received the sympathy of the people, the country as a
whole was not behind them. The merchants, intelligentsia and Indian rulers
not only kept aloof but actively supported the British.
• Apart from some honourable exceptions like the Rani of Jhansi, Kunwar
Singh and Maulvi Ahmadullah, the rebels were poorly served by their
leaders.
• Apart from a commonly shared hatred for the alien rule, the rebels had no
political perspective or a definite vision of the future. They were all
prisoners of their own past, fighting primarily to regain their lost
privileges.
The changes introduced by the British after the Revolt of 1857
The British had regained control of the country by the end of 1859, but they could not carry
on ruling the land with the same policies anymore.
Changes were introduced, henceforth :
1. The British Parliament passed a new Act in 1858 and transferred the powers of the
East India Company to the British Crown in order to have direct responsibility for ruling
India. A member of the British Cabinet was appointed Secretary of State for India and made
responsible for all matters related to the governance of India. The Governor-General of India
was given the title of Viceroy, that is, a personal representative of the Crown.
2. All ruling chiefs of the country were assured that their territory would never be
annexed in future. However, they were made to acknowledge the British Queen as their
Sovereign Paramount.
3. It was decided that the proportion of Indian soldiers in the army would be reduced and
the number of European soldiers would be increased.
4. The land and property of Muslims were confiscated on a large scale and they were
treated with suspicion and hostility.
5. The British decided to respect the customary religious and social practices of the
people in India.
6. Policies were made to protect landlords and zamindars and give them the security of
rights over their lands.
Civil Rebellions and Tribal Uprisings
The civil rebellions began as British rule was established in Bengal and Bihar, and they
occurred in area after area as it was incorporated into the colonial rule.
The major cause of civil rebellions taken as a whole was the rapid changes the British
introduced in the economy, administration and land revenue system.
These changes led to the disruption of the agrarian society, causing prolonged and
widespread suffering among its constituents.
The ruin of Indian handicraft industries, as a result of the imposition of free trade in India and
the levy of discriminatory tariffs against Indian goods in Britain, pauperized millions of
artisans. The misery of the artisans was further compounded by the disappearance of their
traditional patrons and buyers, the princes, chieftains, and zamindars.
The scholarly and priestly classes were also active in inciting hatred and rebellion against
foreign rule.
Rebellions were massive in their totality, but were wholly local in their spread and isolated
from each other. They often bore the same character not because they represented national or
common efforts but because they represented common conditions though separated in time
and space.
Socially, economically and politically, the semi-feudal leaders of these rebellions were
backwards-looking and traditional in outlook. Such backwards-looking and scattered,
sporadic and disunited uprisings were incapable of fending off or overthrowing foreign rule.
The suppression of the civil rebellions was a major reason why the Revolt of 1857 did not
spread to South India and most of Eastern and Western India. The historical significance of
these civil uprisings lies in that they established strong and valuable local traditions of
resistance to British rule.
Tribal Uprising
 • Colonialism also transformed their relationship with the forest.
• It ended their relative isolation and freedom they enjoyed in forest life and
brought them fully within the ambit of colonialism.
• It encouraged the influx of Christian missionaries into the tribal areas.
Above all, it introduced a large number of moneylenders, traders and
revenue farmers as middlemen who were the chief instruments of
exploiting forest
• Govt usurped the forest lands and placed restrictions on access to forest
products, forest lands and village common lands and even curtailed tribals’
traditional jhumming [shifting] cultivation.
• However, the complete disruption of the old agrarian order of the tribal
communities provided the common factor for all the tribal uprisings.
• The rebellions began at the point where the tribals felt they had no
alternative but to fight. This often took the form of spontaneous attacks on
outsiders, looting their property and expelling them from their villages.
• Among the numerous tribal revolts, the Santhal hool or uprising was the
most massive.
• The Santhals, who live in the area between Bhagalpur and Rajmahal,
known as Daman-i-koh, rose in revolt; made a determined attempt to expel
the outsiders — the dikus — and proclaimed the complete ‘annihilation’ of
the alien regime.
• The rebellion (ulgulan ) of the Munda tribesmen, led by Birsa Munda,
occurred during 1899-1900.
Peasant Movements and Uprisings after 1857
Colonial economic policies, the new land revenue system, the colonial administrative and
judicial systems, and the ruin of handicrafts leading to the over-crowding of land transformed
the agrarian structure and impoverished the peasantry. When the peasants could take it no
longer, they resisted this oppression and exploitation.
The most militant and widespread of the peasant movements was the Indigo Revolt of 1859-
60.
A major reason for the success of the Indigo Revolt was the tremendous cooperation,
organization and discipline of the ryots. Another was the complete unity among Hindu and
Muslim peasants. Leadership for the movement was provided by not just ryots but in some
cases by petty zamindars, moneylenders and ex-employees of the planters.
A significant feature of the Indigo Revolt was the role of the intelligentsia of Bengal which
organized a powerful campaign in support of the rebellious peasantry. It carried on
newspaper campaigns, organized mass meetings, prepared memoranda on peasants’
grievances and supported them in their legal battles.
Missionaries were another group that extended active support to the indigo ryots in their
struggle.
The Government’s response to the Revolt was rather restrained and not as harsh as in the case
of civil rebellions and tribal uprisings.
During the 1870s and early 1880s, Bengal was facing agrarian unrest, because of efforts by
zamindars to enhance rent beyond legal limits and to prevent the tenants from acquiring
occupancy rights under Act X of 1859.
This they tried to achieve through illegal coercive methods such as forced eviction and
seizure of crops and cattle as well as by dragging the tenants into costly litigation in the
courts. The peasants were no longer in a mood to tolerate such oppression.
The main form of struggle was that of legal resistance. There was very little violence — it
only occurred when the zamindars tried to compel the ryots to submit to their terms by force.
It was not aimed at the zamindari system. The agrarian leagues kept within the bounds of the
law, used the legal machinery to fight the zamindars, and raised no anti-British demands.
So official action was based on the enforcement of the Indian Penal Code and it did not take
the form of armed repression as in the case of the Santhal and Munda uprisings.
A major agrarian outbreak occurred in the Poona and Ahmednagar districts of Maharashtra in
1875. Here, as part of the Ryotwari system, land revenue was settled directly with the peasant
who was also recognized as the owner of his land.
Peasant resistance also developed in other parts of the country. Mappila outbreaks were
endemic in Malabar.
The Kuka Revolt in Punjab was led by Baba Ram Singh.
There was a certain shift in the nature of peasant movements after 1857. Princes, chiefs and
landlords having been crushed or co-opted, peasants emerged as the main force in agrarian
movements. They now fought directly for their own demands, centred almost wholly on
economic issues and against zamindars and moneylenders etc.
Once the specific objectives of a movement were achieved, its organization, as also peasant
solidarity built around it, dissolved and disappeared. Thus, the Indigo strike, the Pabna
agrarian leagues and the social-boycott movement of the Deccan ryots left behind no
successors.
Consequently, at no stage did these movements threaten British supremacy or even
undermine it. In this respect, the colonial regime’s treatment of the post-1857 peasant rebels
was qualitatively different from its treatment of the participants in the civil rebellions, the
Revolt of 1857 and the tribal uprisings which directly challenged colonial political power.
Socio-Religious Movements in India
Various socio-religious movements in British India not only reformed Indians but also led to
the rise of nationalism in India. Read to know more about the various social and religious
movements which transformed Indian society in the nineteenth and twentieth century.
In this article (5th part), we discuss the socio-religious movements in British India.
The changes brought by the British like modern education resulted in many social and
religious reform movements in India.
The 1800s and 1900s saw more and more people appreciating the values of Indian culture,
but they were also vocal enough to reject the bad elements in it. Many leaders emerged to
reform Indian society. They mostly aspired to revive the Indian society with modern values.
Keshub Chandra Sen, for example, said: “What we see around us today is a fallen nation – a
nation whose primitive greatness lies buried in ruins”.
Swami Vivekananda described the condition of the Indians then, in the following words:
“Moving about here and there emaciated figures of young and old in tattered rags, whose
faces bear deep-cut lines of the despair and poverty of hundreds of years; cows, bullocks,
buffaloes common everywhere – aye, the same melancholy look in their eyes, the same feeble
physique, on the wayside, refuse and dirt; – this is our present-day India.”
Filled with the desire to adapt their society to the requirements of the modem world of
science, democracy and nationalism, social leaders then set out to reform their traditional
religions. This was because religion in those times was a basic part of people’s life and there
could be little social reform without religious reform.
Classification of Social and Religious Movements which reformed India
The socio-religious movements in India can be studied under different heads.
One way to classify the movements is based on religions.
There were: (1) Hindu reform movements (2) Muslim reform movements (3) Sikh reform
movements and (4) Parsi reform movements.

The organisations or movements can be sub-classified based on their locations – ie.

movements in (1) East India (2) West India (3) South India and (4) North India.
Apart from religious movements, there were movements to uplift women and backward
classes.
Initially, we shall see the major movements with elements of religion in them.
The Hindu Reform Movements
There were various Hindu reform movements in (1) East India (2) West India (3) South India
and (4) North India.
Hindu Reform Movements in Eastern India (Bengal)
Bengal was the centre of many reform organisations like Brahmo Samaj.
(1) BRAHMO SAMAJ BY RAJA RAMOHUN ROY
• In 1828, Raja Rammohun Roy founded Brahmo Sabha which was later
renamed ‘Brahma Samaj‘.
• The Brahmo Samaj made an effort to reform the Hindu religion by
removing abuses and by basing it on the worship of one God and on the
teachings of the Vedas and Upanishads even though it repudiated the
doctrine of the infallibility of the Vedas.
 • Brahmos were basically opposed to idolatry and superstitious practices and
rituals, in fact to the entire Brahmanical system.
• The Brahmos were also great social reformers. They actively opposed the
caste system and child marriage and supported the general uplift of
women, including widow remarriage, and the spread of modem education
to men and women.
• The Brahmo tradition of Raja Rammohun Roy was carried forward after
1843 by Devendranath Tagore and after 1866 by Keshub Chandra Sen.
(2) TATTVABODHINI SABHA AND ADI BRAHMO SAMAJ BY DEBENDRANATH
TAGORE
• Debendranath Tagore, father of Rabindranath Tagore formed
Tattvabodhini Sabha in 1839.
• He later gave a new life to Brahmo Samaj when he joined it in 1842.
• He devoted himself to the systematic study of India’s past with a rational
outlook.
• He propagated Roy’s ideas.
(3) BRAHMO SAMAJ OF INDIA BY KESHAB CHANDRA SEN
• Keshab Chandra Sen joined Brahmo Samaj in 1858 and was made acharya
by Debendranath Tagore.
• He was instrumental in popularising Brahmo Samaj outside Bengal in the
United Provinces, Punjab, Bombay and Madras.
• In 1863, Keshab was instrumental in the formation of Prarthana Samaj in
Bombay which relied on education and persuasion and not on direct
confrontation with Hindu Orthodoxy.
• Keshab Sen was a strong believer in religious universalism. He often
stated that “Our position is not that truths are to be found in all religious,
but that all established religions of the world are true”.
• His radicalism brought him into opposition with Debendranath. In 1866,
the Samaj was formally divided into Adi Brahmo Samaj (headed by
Debendranath Tagore) and the Brahmo Samaj of India (headed by Keshab
Chandra Sen)
• In 1873 due to the inexplicable act of getting his own 13-year-old daughter
married by following all Orthodox Hindurituals, Brahmo Samaj of India
was again split.
(4) YOUNG BENGAL MOVEMENT BY HENRY DEROZIO
• Henry taught at Hindu College from 1826-31.
• Inspired by French Revolution, he taught his pupils to think freely,
rationally and question all authority.
(5) RAMAKRISHNA MOVEMENT BY SWAMI VIVEKANANDA
 • Ramakrishna Paramahamsa (1834-86) was a saintly person who sought
religious salvation in the traditional ways of renunciation, meditation and
devotion (bhakti).
• He emphasised that there were many roads to God and salvation and that
service of man was service of God, for man was the embodiment of God.
• Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902) was his disciple.
• Vivekanda popularised Ramakrishna’s religious messages. He tried to put
it in a form that would suit the needs of contemporary Indian society.
• Vivekanda wrote in 1898; “For our own motherland a junction of the two
great systems, Hinduism and Islam… is the only hope”.
• At the same time, he was convinced of the superior approach of the Indian
philosophical tradition. He himself subscribed to Vedanta which he
declared to be a fully rational system.
• Vivekananda criticised Indians for having lost touch with the rest of the
world and became stagnant and mummified.
• Vivekananda condemned the caste system and the Hindu emphasis on
rituals and superstitions.
• He urged people to imbibe the spirit of liberty, equality and free-thinking.
• Vivekananda was a great humanist. Shocked by the poverty, misery and
suffering of the common people of the country, he wrote: “The only God
in whom I believe, the sum total of all souls, and above all, my God the
wicked, my God the afflicted, my God the poor of all races”
• To the educated Indians, he said: So long as the millions live in hunger and
ignorance, I hold every man a traitor, who having been educated at their
expense, pays not the least heed to them”
• In 1897, Vivekananda founded Ramakrishna Mission to carry on
humanitarian relief and social work. It thus laid emphasis on social good
or social service.
Hindu Reform Movements in Western India (Maharashtra)
Religious reforms started in Bombay in 1840 by the Parmahans Mandali which aimed at
fighting idolatry and the caste system. Perhaps the earliest religious reformer in western India
was Gopal Hari Deshmukh, known popularly as ‘Lokahitwadi’, who wrote in Marathi. He
made powerful rationalist attacks on Hindu orthodoxy and preached religious and social
equality.
(1) PRARTHANA SAMAJ BY DADOBA PANDURANG AND ATMARAM
PANDURANG
Prarthana Samaj or “Prayer Society” in Sanskrit, was a movement for religious and social
reform in Bombay, India, based on earlier reform movements.

Prarthana Samaj was founded by the Dadoba Pandurang and his brother Atmaram Pandurang
in 1863 when Keshub Chandra Sen visited Maharashtra, with an aim to make people believe
in one God and worship only one God.
It became popular after Mahadev Govind Ranade joined. Two of its great leaders were G
Bhandarkar, the famous Sanskrit scholar and historian, and Mahadev Govind Ranade (1842-
1901).
The main reformers were the intellectuals who advocated reforms of the social system of the
Hindus in the light of modern knowledge.
It was spread to southern India by noted Telugu reformer and writer, Kandukuri
Veeresalingam.
One of the greatest rationalist thinkers of modem India, Gopal Ganesh Agarkar, also lived
and worked in Maharashtra at this time.
(2) ARYA SAMAJ BY SWAMI DAYANAND DAYANAND SARASWATI
• The Arya Samaj undertook the task of reforming the Hindu religion in the
west and north India.
• It was founded in 1875 by Swami Dayanand Saraswati (1824-83).
• Swami Dayanand believed that selfish and ignorant priests had perverted
Hindu religion with the aid of the Puranas which, he said, were full of false
teachings.
• For his own inspiration, Swami Dayanand went to the Vedas which he
considered infallible, being the inspired word of God, and as the fountain
of all knowledge.
• Some of Swami Dayanand’s followers later started a network of school
and colleges in the country to impart education on western lines. Lala
Hansraj played a leading part in this effort.
• In 1902, Swami Shradhananda started the Gurukul near Hardwar to
propagate the more traditional ideals of education.
One of Arya Samaj’s objectives was to prevent the conversion of Hindus to other
religions. This led it to start a crusade against other religions. This crusade became
a contributory factor in the growth of communalism in India in the 20th century.
Hindu Reform Movements in South India (Maharashtra)
The Theosophical Society was a major Hindu Reform movement with roots in
Maharashtra.
THE THEOSOPHICAL SOCIETY BY MADAM H.P. BLAVATSKY AND COLONEL
S. OLCOTT
• The Theosophical Society was founded in the United States by Madam
H.P. Blavatsky and Colonel S. Olcott, who later came to India and founded
the headquarters of the Society at Adyar near Madras in 1886.
• The Theosophist movement soon grew in India as a result of the leadership
given to it by Mrs Annie Besant who had come to India in 1893.
• The Theosophists advocated the revival and strengthening of the ancient
religions of Hinduism, Zoroastrianism and Buddhism. They recognised the
doctrine of the transmigration of the soul.
 • One of Mrs. Besant’s many achievements in India was the establishment
of the Central Hindu School at Banaras which was later developed by
Madan Mohan Malaviya into the Benaras Hindu University.
Religious reforms among Muslims
There were many prominent leaders like Sayyid Ahmed Khan and Muhammad Iqbal who
influenced the Muslim population in India.
Sayyid Ahmad Khan and the Aligarh School
• The most important reformer among the Muslims was Sayyid Ahmad
Khan (1817-98).
• In his view, any interpretation of the Quran that conflicted with human
reason, science, or nature was in reality a misinterpretation.
• All his life he struggled against blind obedience to tradition, dependence
on custom, ignorance and irrationalism.
• Sayyid Ahmad Khan believed that the religious and social life of the
Muslims could be improved only by imbibing modem western scientific
knowledge and culture. Therefore promotion of modem education
remained his priority throughout his life.
• In 1875 he founded at Aligarh the Muhammedan Anglo-Oriental College
as a centre for spreading western sciences and culture. Later, this College
grew into the Aligarh Muslim University.
• Sayyid Ahmad’s reformist zeal also embraced the social sphere. He urged
Muslims to give up medieval customs and ways of thought and behaviour.
• In particular, he wrote in favour of raising women’s status in society and
advocated the removal of purdah and the spread of education among
women.
• He also condemned the customs of polygamy and easy divorce.
• He opposed communal friction.
• Appealing to Hindus and Muslims to unite, he said in 1883, “Now both of
us live on the air of India, drink the holy waters of the Ganga and Yamuna.
We both feed upon the products of the Indian soil.”
• However, towards the end of his life, he began to talk of Hindu domination
to prevent his followers from joining the rising national movement.
Muhammad Iqbal (1876-1938)
• Muhammad Iqbal was one of the greatest poets of modem India.
• He profoundly influenced the philosophical and religious outlook of the
younger generation of Muslims as well as of Hindus.
Religious Reforms among the Parsis
The prominent figures among Parsis include Naoroji Furdonji, Dadabhai Naoroji, S.S.
Bengalee etc.
Rehnumai Mazdayasan Sabha or Religious Reform Association
In 1851, the Rehnumai Mazdayasan Sabha or Religious Reform Association was started by
Naoroji Furdonji, Dadabhai Naoroji, S.S. Bengalee, and others.
Religious Reforms among the Sikhs
Religious reforms among the Sikhs started at the end of the 19th century when the Khalsa
College was started at Amritsar. But the efforts gained momentum after 1920 when the Akali
Movement arose in Punjab.
AKALI MOVEMENT (PUNJAB)
• The main aim of the Akalis was to purify the management of the
gurudwaras or Sikh shrines. These gurudwaras had been heavily endowed
with land and money by devout Sikhs.
• The Sikh masses led by the Akalis started a powerful satyagraha against
the mahants and the Government which aided them (1921).
Social reform movements to uplift women and backward castes
The major effect of national awakening in the 19th century was seen in the field of social
reform. The newly educated persons increasingly revolted against rigid social conventions
and outdated customs.
In the 20th century, and especially after 1919, the national movement became the main
propagator of social reform.
Increasingly, the reformers took recourse to propaganda in the Indian language to reach the
masses.
They also used novels, dramas, poetry, short stories, the Press and, in the thirties, the cinema
to spread their views.
The social reform movements tried in the main to achieve two objectives (1) emancipation of
women and extension of equal rights to them and (2) removal of caste rigidities and in
particular the abolition of untouchability.
Movements to uplift Women
Emancipation means being free from restraint, control, or the power of another.
It is true that occasionally women of the character and personality of Razia Sultana, Chand
Bibi, or Ahilyabai Holkar arose in India. But they were exceptions to the general pattern, and
do not in any way change the picture.
After the 1880s, when Dufferin hospitals (named after Lady Dufferin, the wife of the
Viceroy) were started, efforts were made to make modern medicine and child delivery
techniques available to Indian women.
Women played an active and important role in the struggle for freedom.
They participated in large numbers in the agitation against the partition of Bengal and in the
Home Rule movement.
Sarojini Naidu, the famous poetess, became the president of the National Congress. Several
women became ministers or parliamentary secretaries in the popular ministries of 1937.
They started many organisations and institutions for this purpose, the most outstanding of
which was the All India Women’s Conference founded in 1927.
The Hindu Succession Act of 1956 made the daughter an equal co-heir with the son.
The Hindu Marriage Act of 1955 permitted the dissolution of marriage on specific grounds.
Movements to uplift Backward Caste
The caste system was another major target of attack for the social reform movement. The
Hindus were at this time divided into numerous castes.
The untouchables suffered from numerous and severe disabilities and restrictions. He could
not enter the Hindu temples or study the shastras. In some parts of the country, particularly in
the south, their very shadow was to be avoided.
An untouchable’s dress, food, place of residence, all were carefully regulated. He could not
draw water from wells and tanks used by the higher castes; he could do so only from wells
and tanks specially reserved for untouchables.
In modern India, it became a major obstacle to the growth of a united-nation-feeling and the
spread of democracy.
However, the British rule had many elements which gradually undermined the caste system.
The urbanisation and the introduction of modem industries, railways and buses made it
difficult to prevent mass contact among persons of different castes, especially in the cities.
Modem commerce and industry opened new fields of economic activity to all.
The growth of the national movement too played a significant role in weakening the caste
system.
Leaders like Gandhi kept the abolition of untouchability at the forefront of all public
activities.
In 1932, Gandhiji founded the All India Harijan Sangh for the purpose. His campaign for the
“root and branch removal of untouchability” was based on the grounds of humanism and
reason.
In Maharashtra, Jyotiba Phule led a lifelong movement against Brahmanical religious
authority as part of his struggle against upper caste domination.
B.R. Ambedkar, who belonged to one of the scheduled castes, devoted his entire life to
fighting against caste tyranny,
He organised the All India Scheduled Castes Federation for the purpose. Several other
scheduled caste leaders founded the All India Depressed Classes Association.
In Kerala, Sri Narayan Guru organised a lifelong struggle against the caste system.
The Indian Constitution, in 1950, provided the legal framework for the final abolition of
untouchability.
The Impact of Socio-Religious Movements on Indians
There were positive and negative impacts of the socio-religious movements in India.
The positive aspects of the socio-religious movements in India
The religious reform movements of modem times had an underlying unity. Most of them
were based on the twin doctrines of Reason (Rationalism) and Humanism, though they also
sometimes tended to appeal to faith and ancient authority to bolster their appeal.
They opposed the ritualistic, superstitious, irrational and obscurantist elements in Indian
religion.
Swami Vivekananda once said: “Is religion to justify itself by the discoveries of reason
through which every science justifies itself”
Justice Ranade came to the conclusion that society as a living organism is constantly
changing and can never go back to the past.
The best of reformers argued that modem ideas and culture could be best imbibed by
integrating them into Indian cultural streams.
The religious reform movements helped many Indians to come to terms with the modem
world. These movements led to the emergence of Indian nationalism and eventually the
freedom struggle.
The negative aspects of the socio-religious movements in India
Two negative aspects of the religious reform movements may also be noted.
(1) Firstly, all of them catered to the needs of a small percentage of the population-the urban
middle and upper classes.
(2) The second limitation, which later became a major negative factor, was the tendency to
look backwards, appeal to past greatness, and rely on scriptural authority. Appeals to past
greatness created false pride and smugness, while the habit of finding a ‘Golden Age’ in the
past acted as a check on the full acceptance of modem science and hampered the effort to
improve the present.
The evil aspects of this phenomenon became apparent when it was found that, along with a
rapid rise of national consciousness, another consciousness – communal consciousness – had
begun to rise among the middle classes.
Many other factors were certainly responsible for the birth of communalism in modem times;
but undoubtedly, the nature of the religious reform movements also contributed to it.
India’s Struggle for Independence: Indian Freedom Movement
The late nineteenth century saw the emergence of Indian nationalism. Indians felt like one
and they tried to overthrow the foreign rule. This led to the Indian freedom struggle and
finally independence.
Indian Nationalism
India has been unified under many empires in its history like the Mauryan Empire and
Mughal empire. A sense of oneness has been there for ages – even though most of the
centralised administration in India didn’t last long.
With the end of Mughal rule, India broke into hundreds of princely states. The British –
which was instrumental in the fall of the Mughal Empire – held control over the princely
states and created the British Indian Empire.
However, most Indians were extremely dissatisfied with the exploitative foreign rule.
The educated Indians realised that the British always gave priority to their colonial interests
and treated India only as a market.
They advocated for the political independence of India.
Foundation of Indian National Congress (INC) in 1885
The late nineteenth century witnessed the emergence of many political organisations in
British India.
Indian National Congress (also known as Congress Party) founded in 1885 was the most
prominent one.
Initially, its aim was to create a platform for civic and political dialogue between Indians and
the British Raj and thus obtain a greater share in government for educated Indians.
Later, under the leaders like Mahatma Gandhi, Jawarhal Nehru, Subhas Chandra Bose, and
Sardar Vallabhai Patel, the Congress party played a central role in organising the mass
movements against the British.
Partition of Bengal (1905)
Indian nationalism was gaining in strength and Bengal was the nerve centre of Indian
nationalism in the early 1900s.
Lord Curzon, the Viceroy (1899-1905), attempted to ‘dethrone Calcutta’ from its position as
the centre from which the Congress Party manipulated throughout Bengal, and indeed, the
whole of India.
The decision to partition Bengal into two was in the air from December 1903.
Congress party – from 1903 to mid-1905 – tried moderate techniques of petitions,
memoranda, speeches, public meetings and press campaigns. The objective was to turn to
public opinion in India and England against the partition.
However, Viceroy Curzon 1905 formally announced the British Government’s decision for
the partition of Bengal on 19 July 1905. The partition took effect on 16 October 1905.
The partition was meant to foster another kind of division – on the basis of religion. The aim
was to place Muslim communalists as a counter to the Congress. Curzon promised to make
Dacca the new capital.
This resulted in a lot of discontentment among the Indians. Many considered this as a policy
of ‘Divide and Rule’ by the British.
This triggered a self-sufficiency movement popularly known as the Swadeshi movement.
The Swadeshi Movement (1905-1908)
From conservative moderation to political extremism, from terrorism to incipient socialism,
from petitioning and public speeches to passive resistance and boycott, all had their origins in
the movement.
Swadeshi is a conjunction of two Sanskrit words: swa (“self”) and desh (“country”).
The movement popularised the use and consumption of indigenous products. Indians started
ditching British goods for Indian products.
Women, students, and a large section of the urban and rural population of Bengal and other
parts of India became actively involved in politics for the first time with Swadeshi
Movement.
The message of Swadeshi and the boycott of foreign goods soon spread to the rest of the
country.
The militant nationalists led by Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, Lajpat Rai and
Aurobindo Ghosh were in favour of extending the movement to the rest of India and carrying
it beyond the programme of just Swadeshi and boycott to a full-fledged political mass
struggle. For them, the aim was Swaraj.
In 1906, the Indian National Congress at its Calcutta Session presided over by Dadabhai
Naoroji, declared that the goal of the Indian National Congress was ‘self-government or
Swaraj like that of the United Kingdom or the Colonies.
There were differences in the ideologies with the congressmen who were popularly known by
the names Moderates and the Extremists. They had differences of opinion regarding the pace
of the movement and the techniques of struggle to be adopted. This came to a head in the
1907 Surat session of the Congress where the party split (the two factions re-joined later).
This period also saw a breakthrough in Indian art, literature, music, science and industry.
It was, perhaps, in the cultural sphere that the impact of the Swadeshi Movement was most
marked. The songs composed at that time by Rabindranath Tagore, Rajani Kanta Sen etc
became the moving spirit for nationalists of all hues.
In art, this was the period when Abanindranath Tagore broke the domination of Victorian
naturalism over Indian art and sought inspiration from the rich indigenous traditions of
Mughal, Rajput and Ajanta paintings.
In science, Jagdish Chandra Bose, Prafulla Chandra Ray, and others pioneered original
research that was praised the world over.
The Swadeshi period also saw the creative use of traditional popular festivals and melas as a
means of reaching out to the masses. The Ganapati and Shivaji festivals, popularized by
Tilak, became a medium for Swadeshi propaganda not only in Western India but also in
Bengal.
Another important aspect of the Swadeshi Movement was the great emphasis given to self-
reliance or ‘Atmasakti’in various fields meant the re-asserting of national dignity, honour and
confidence.
Self-reliance also meant an effort to set up Swadeshi or indigenous enterprises. The period
saw a mushrooming of Swadeshi textile mills, soap and match factories etc.
One of the major features of the programme of self-reliance was Swadeshi or National
Education. In 1906, the National Council of Education was established. The vernacular
medium was given stress from primary to university level.

Corps of volunteers (or samitis as they were called) were another major form of mass
mobilization widely used by the Swadeshi Movement. The Swadesh Bandhab Samiti set up
by Ashwini Kumar Dutt was the most well-known volunteer organization of them all.
Reasons for the failure of the Swadeshi Movement
• The main drawback of the Swadeshi Movement was that it was not able to
garner the support of the mass. The British use of communalism to turn the
Muslims against the Swadeshi Movement was to a large extent responsible
for this.
• During the Swadeshi phase, the peasantry was not organized around
peasant demands. The movement was able to mobilize the peasantry only
in a limited way.
• By mid-1908 repression took the form of controls and bans on public
meetings, processions and the press.
• The internal squabbles, and especially, the split in the Congress (1907), the
apex all-India organization, weakened the movement.
• The Swadeshi Movement lacked an effective organization and party
structure.
• Lastly, the movement declined because of the very logic of mass
movements itself — they cannot be sustained endlessly.
However, the movement made a major contribution in taking the idea of nationalism, in a
truly creative fashion, to many sections of the people. The peasant participation in the
Swadeshi Movement even though less, marked the very beginnings of modern mass politics
in India.
The Split in the Congress (1907)
The main public leaders of the two wings, Tilak (of the Extremists) and Gokhale (of the
Moderates) were aware of the dangers of disunity in the nationalist ranks.
A split was avoided in 1906 by choosing Dadabhai Naoroji as presidentship of INC in the
Calcutta session. Also, four compromise resolutions on the Swadeshi, Boycott, National
Education, and Self-Government demands were passed. However, the hope of a united
Congress was short-lived.
The Extremists wanted to extend the Swadeshi and the Boycott Movement from Bengal to
the rest of the country but Moderators opposed.
The Extremists were fumed by the rumours that the Moderates wanted to scuttle the four
Calcutta resolutions. This created friction among them which led to the split at the Congress
session was held on 26 December 1907 at Surat, on the banks of the river Tapti.
The Indian National Congress split in December 1907. By 1907, the Moderate nationalists
had exhausted their historical role. They failed to meet the demands of the new stage of the
national movement, even failed to attract the younger generation.
Almost at the same time, revolutionary terrorism made its appearance in Bengal.
Britisher’s policy towards INC
• The British had been suspicious of the National Congress from its
inception but they were not overtly hostile either.
• In 1888 Viceroy Dufferin ridiculed INC as representing only the elite — ‘a
microscopic minority’.
• Lord Curzon said: “The Congress is tottering to its fall, and one of my
greatest ambitions while in India is to assist it to a peaceful demise.”
• The intimidating policies of the British towards INC changed once the
Swadeshi and Boycott Movement began. The strengthening of the militant
nationalist trend alarmed the British.
• A new policy, known as the policy of the carrot and the stick was invoked.
It was three-pronged. It was described as a policy of repression-
conciliation-suppression.
• The Extremists were repressed, though mildly in the first stage. The
purpose is to frighten the Moderates. The British also tried to pacify
Moderates through some concessions and promises if they disassociated
themselves from the Extremists. However, the British always wanted to
suppress Extremists.
Minto-Morley constitutional reforms (1909)
The Government of India which was headed by Lord Minto as Viceroy and John Morley as
the Secretary of State offered fresh reforms in the Legislative Councils. They began
discussions with Moderates within Indian National Congress regarding this. However, when
the decision was taken, not just Moderates but the country as a whole were disappointed.

Major Provisions:
• The Indian Councils Act of 1909 increased the number of elected members
(but most of them were still indirectly elected) in the Imperial Legislative
Council and the provincial legislative councils.
 • An Indian was to be appointed a member of the Governor-General’s
Executive Council.
• The Act permitted members to introduce resolutions; it also increased their
power to ask questions.
Voting on separate budget items was allowed.
The real purpose of the Morley-Minto Reforms was to divide the nationalist ranks and
encourage the growth of Muslim communalism. For the latter, they introduced the system of
separate electorates under which Muslims could only vote for Muslim candidates in
constituencies specially reserved for them.
The Ghadar Movement (1914)
The outbreak of the First World War in 1914 gave an impetus to the nationalist feelings in
Indians. The Home Rule League by Lokmanya Tilak and Annie Besant were formed during
First World War.
At the same time, a revolutionary movement gained popularity – The Ghadar Movement.
(Note: The word Ghadar means ‘revolt’)
The Ghadar Movement was an international political movement founded by expatriate
Indians to overthrow British rule in India.
The early membership was composed mostly of Punjabi Indians who lived and worked on the
West Coast of the United States and Canada. The movement later spread to India and Indian
diasporic communities around the world.
The main leader initially was Bhagwan Singh, a Sikh priest who had worked in Hong Kong
and the Malay States.
Later Har Dayal took leadership and played a crucial role in the Ghadar movement. He issued
a Yugantar Circular praising the attack on the Viceroy. He urged Indians in the USA not to
fight against the US but use the freedom in the US to fight the British.
The Ghadar militants toured extensively, visiting mills and farms where most of the Punjabi
immigrant labour worked. The Yugantar Ashram became the home and headquarters and
refuge of these political workers.
The Home Rule Movement (1916-1918)
The Home Rule Movement under the leadership of Annie Besant and Bal Gangadhar Tilak
was an important political movement that set the stage for India’s struggle for independence.
Annie Besant, who was a proponent of Free Thought, Radicalism, Fabianism and Theosophy,
had come to India in 1893 to work for the Theosophical Society.
In 1914, she decided to enlarge the sphere of her activities. She started a movement for Home
Rule on the lines of the Irish Home Rule League.
She realized that she needs the cooperation of both Moderates and Extremists. In the annual
session of the Congress 1915, it was decided that the Extremists be allowed to rejoin the
Congress along with the Moderates.
Tilak set up the Home Rule League in the Bombay Province.
The two leagues worked in different areas.
Tilak promoted the Home Rule campaign which linked the question of Swaraj with the
demand for the formation of linguistic states and education in the vernacular medium.
Members of Gokhale’s Servants of India Society, though not permitted to become members
of the League, encouraged the demand for Home Rule by undertaking lecture tours and
publishing pamphlets.
During the Lucknow session of the Congress in December 1916, the famous Congress-
League Pact was declared. Both Tilak and Annie Besant had played a role in bringing about
this agreement between the Congress and the League, much against the wishes of many
important leaders, including Madan Mohan Malaviya. This pact is popularly known as the
Lucknow Pact where separate electorates for Muslims was accepted.
The turning point in the home rule movement came with the decision of the Government of
Madras in 1917 to place Mrs Besant and her associates, B.P. Wadia and George Arundale,
under arrest.
Montague Declaration was introduced by the British government as a sign of a conciliatory
effort. Henceforth, Home Rule or self-government movement was not treated as a seditious
activity. However, this did not mean that the British were ready to grant self-government.
In 1920 All India Home Rule League changed its name to Swarajya Sabha.
The main achievement of the Home Rule Movement was that it created a generation of ardent
nationalists who formed the backbone of the national movement. In the later years, under the
leadership of Mahatma Gandhi, the Indian freedom struggle entered its truly mass phase.
Champaran movement in Bihar (1917)
Mahatma Gandhi, after his struggle against apartheid in South Africa (racial discrimination
against the blacks) for almost twenty years, returned to India in 1915. On Gokhale’s advice,
he spent a year travelling around British India to understand the problems of Indians.
He initially maintained a distance from political affairs, including the Home Rule Movement
that was gathering momentum at this time.
Mahatma Gandhi began his experiments with Satyagraha against the oppressive European
indigo planters at Champaran in Bihar in 1917.
Champaran issue had actually begun in the early 19th century when European planters made
agreements with Indian farmers that forced them to cultivate indigo on 3/20th of their
holdings (known as the Tinkathia system).
Resistance kept surfacing within planters and cultivators, because of the exploitation
measures adopted by the British behind the indigo cultivation.
In 1908 Raj Kumar Shukla, a local man persuaded Gandhiji to come to Champaran to
investigate the problem. Gandhi reached Champaran but faced resistance from the
Commissioner who ordered him to immediately leave the district. Gandhiji refused. He
preferred to take the punishment for his defiance of the law. This step was unusual because
even Home Rule leaders used to obey the Government.
The British Indian government didn’t want to create a controversy and ordered the local
Government to retreat. They allowed Gandhiji to proceed with his enquiry and even
nominated him as one of the enquiry members of the Government.
Meanwhile, Gandhiji started investigating grievances of peasants along with Brij Kishore,
Rajendra Prasad and other members of the Bihar intelligentsia. J.B. Kripalani toured the
villages and recorded the statements of peasants.
Gandhiji had little difficulty in convincing the Commission that the Tinkathia system needed
to be abolished and that the peasants should be compensated for the illegal enhancement of
their dues. The Commission founder planters guilty of exploitation.
The commission of enquiry decided to make refunds to the peasants. Gandhi asked for 50%.
But the representative of planters offered to refund to the extent of 25%. In order to break the
deadlock, Gandhiji agreed to a 25 per cent refund to the farmers. For Gandhi, it was not the
money but the principles that were of utmost importance. In his belief, the submission of
British landlords was more significant than the percentage of refunds.
Ahmedabad Satyagraha in Gujarat (1918)
In Ahmedabad, a dispute was brewing between workers and mill owners over the question of
a ‘plague bonus’.
The employers wanted to withdraw the bonus once the epidemic had passed but the workers
insisted it stay.
The British Collector asked Gandhiji to work out a compromise. Gandhiji persuaded the mill
owners and the workers to agree to arbitration.
The workers demanded a 50% wage hike while the mill owners offered only a twenty per
cent wage hike. They threatened to dismiss all workers who did not accept it.
Gandhiji advised the workers to go on strike. He himself started fasting for workers.
Gandhiji was peculiar that workers should get at least a thirty-five per cent increase in wages.
Finally, the strike was withdrawn after mill-owners agreed to a thirty-five per cent increase
the workers had demanded.
Anasuya Behn was one of the main lieutenants of Gandhiji in this struggle.
Kheda Satyagraha in Gujarat (1918)
The Kheda district of Gujarat was on the verge of famine owing to the failure of the crops.
The yield had been so low that the cultivators were unable to pay the revenue. But the
government insisted that the cultivators should pay the tax.
Gandhi saw the justice of the cause of the cultivators. Enquiries by members of the Servants
of India Society and Vithalbhai Patel too confirmed the genuineness of the peasants’ case.
Gandhiji advised the withholding of tax payment, and asked the peasants to ‘fight unto death
against such a spirit of vindictiveness and tyranny’.
The peasants of Kheda, already deprived because of plague, high prices and drought, were
showing signs of weakness when Gandhiji came to know that the Government had issued
secret instructions directing that revenue should be recovered only from those peasants who
could pay.
The Government said that if well-to-do cultivators paid up the poorer section would be
granted suspension. This was agreed to and the campaign ended.
The Kheda Satyagraha marked the beginning of an awakening among the peasants of Gujarat,
the beginning of their true political education. In addition, it gave the educated public
workers the chance to establish contact with the actual life of the peasants.
Rowlatt Satyagraha (1919)
During the First World War of 1914-18, the British had instituted censorship of the press and
permitted detention without trial.
The Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act of 1919, popularly known as the Rowlatt Act,
was passed by the Imperial Legislative Council in Delhi on 18 March 1919, indefinitely
extending the emergency measures of preventive indefinite detention, incarceration without
trial and judicial review enacted in the Defence of India Act 1915 during the First World
War.
It was enacted in light of a perceived threat from revolutionary nationalists to organisations of
re-engaging in similar conspiracies as during the war which the Government felt the lapse of
the Defence of India Act would enable.
This act was passed on the recommendations of the Sedition Committee chaired by Sir
Sidney Rowlatt.
Gandhiji launched Satyagraha against the inhuman Rowlatt Act.
The protests were particularly intense in the Punjab Gandhiji was detained while proceeding
here.
Jallianwala Bagh massacre (1919)
The passage of the Rowlatt Act in 1919 resulted in large scale political unrest throughout
India.
A large peaceful crowd had gathered at the Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar, Punjab to protest
against the arrest of pro-Indian independence leaders Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew and Dr. Satya
Pal.
In response to the public gathering, the British Brigadier-General R. E. H. Dyer surrounded
the Bagh with his soldiers.
General Dyer ordered his troops to open fire on the nationalist meeting killing hundreds. The
brutality at Jallianwala Bagh stunned the entire nation.
This event caused many moderate Indians to abandon their previous loyalty to the British and
become nationalists distrustful of British rule.
Non-cooperation Movement (1920)
Gandhiji called for a campaign of “non-cooperation” with British rule. Indians who wished
colonialism to end were asked to stop attending schools, colleges, and law courts. They were
asked to not pay taxes. In sum, they were asked to adhere to a “renunciation of all voluntary
association with the British Government”.
Gandhiji said that if non-cooperation was effectively carried out India would win swaraj
within a year.
When the Congress met for its annual session at Nagpur, C.R. Das moved the main resolution
on non-cooperation. Many groups of revolutionary terrorists, especially in Bengal, also
pledged support to the movement.
The goal of the Congress, by this time, changed from the attainment of self-government by
constitutional means to the attainment of Swaraj by peaceful means.
Khilafat Movement (1919-24)
The Khilafat movement was a political protest campaign launched by Muslims of British
India to restore the caliph of the Ottoman Caliphate, who was considered the leader of the
Muslims.
To further broaden the Indian freedom struggle, Gandhiji joined hands with the Khilafat
Movement.
The movement collapsed by late 1922 when Turkey gained a more favourable diplomatic
position and moved towards Nationalism. By 1924, Turkey abolished the role of the caliph.
However, the tremendous participation of Muslims in the Non-Cooperation Movement and
the maintenance of communal unity, despite the Malabar developments, was in itself no mean
achievement.
Chauri Chaura incident (1922)
On 4 February 1922, at Chauri Chaura (a place in modern Uttar Pradesh), the British police
opened fire at a large group of people who were participating in the Non-cooperation
movement.
In retaliation, the demonstrators attacked and set fire to a police station, killing all of its
occupants. The incident led to the death of three civilians and 22 policemen.
Mahatma Gandhi, who was strictly against violence, halted the non-cooperation movement
on the national level on 12 February 1922, as a direct result of the Chauri Chaura incident.
In spite of Gandhi’s decision, 19 arrested demonstrators were sentenced to death and 14 to
imprisonment for life by the British colonial authorities.
Motilal Nehru, C.R. Das, Jawaharlal Nehru, Subhas Bose, and many others recorded their
disagreement on Gandhiji’s views.
Bardoli Satyagraha in Gujarat (1928)
In January 1926, the officer charged with the duty of reassessment of the land revenue
demand of the taluq had recommended a 30% increase over the existing assessment.
The Congress leaders were quick to protest against the increase and set up the Bardoli Inquiry
Committee to go into the issue.
In July 1927, the Government reduced the enhancement to 21.97 per cent. But the
concessions were too meagre and came too late to satisfy anybody.
The constitutionalist leaders now began to advise the peasants to resist by paying only the
current amount and withholding the enhanced amount.
Gradually as the limitations of the constitutional leadership became more apparent,
Vallabhbhai Patel was invited to lead the campaign.
The government ignored Vallabhai’s request which resulted in the start of Bardoli
Satyagraha.
The no-tax movement was launched in Bardoli taluq of Surat district in Gujarat in 1928.
The main mobilization was done through extensive propaganda via meetings, speeches,
pamphlets, and door to door persuasion. Special emphasis was placed on the mobilization of
women and many women activists were recruited for the purpose.
Members of the Bombay Legislative Council like K.M. Munshi and Lalji Naranji, the
representatives of the Indian Merchants Chamber, resigned their seats.
The government was forced to conduct an inquiry. The inquiry was done by a judicial officer,
Broomfield, and a revenue officer, Maxwell. They came to the conclusion that the increase
had been unjustified. The government later reduced the enhancement to 6.03 per cent.
The boycott of Simon Commission (1927)
On 8 November 1927, an all-white, Simon Commission was appointed to recommend
whether India was ready for further constitutional reforms.
Indian National Congress boycott Simon Commission because no Indian was present in the
commission. There were protests in many places.
In Lahore, Lala Lajpat Rai, the hero of the extremist days and the most revered leader of
Punjab was hit. He succumbed to the injuries in November 1928.
Bhagat Singh and his comrades sought to avenge the death of Lala Lajpat Rai. They killed
the white police official, Saunders, in December 1928.
Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Bose emerged as the leaders during the Simon Commission
boycott movement.
Nehru Report (1928) and the attempt to draft the Indian Constitution
Britain did not acknowledge the right of Indians to frame their own constitution.
British policy, until almost the end of the Raj, was that the timing and nature of Indian
constitutional development were to be decided exclusively by the British Parliament, but it
was assumed that Indians would be consulted as appropriate.
In December 1927, at its Madras session, the Indian National Congress took two major
decisions in response to the setting up the Simon Commission: first, it decided to not
cooperate with the Commission; second, it set up an All Parties Conference to draft a
Constitution for India.
The committee of the All Parties Conference to draft the Constitution was chaired by Motilal
Nehru with his son Jawaharlal Nehru acting as a secretary. There were nine other members in
this committee.
The report submitted by the committee in 1928 was called the Nehru Report – which was
actually a memorandum to appeal for dominion status and a federal set-up of government for
the constitution of India.
The Nehru Report also rejected the principle of separate communal electorates on which
previous constitutional reforms had been based. Seats would be reserved for Muslims at the
Centre and in provinces in which they were in a minority, but not in those where they had a
numerical majority.
The Nehru Report also recommended universal adult suffrage, equal rights for women,
freedom to form unions, and dissociation of the state from religion in any form.
However, Jinnah withdrew his support to the report and proposed his ‘Fourteen Points’ which
were basically a reiteration of his objections to the Nehru Report.
Young and radical nationalists led by Jawaharlal Nehru had objections to the Nehru Report of
Motilal Nehru. Their slogan was ‘Complete Independence.’
Purna Swaraj or Complete Independence Campaign (1929)
In Lahore session 1929, Jawaharlal Nehru was made the President of INC. He declared
‘Purna Swaraj’ or Complete Independence as the only honourable goal Indians could strive
for.
On the banks of the river Ravi, at midnight on 31 December 1929, the tricolour flag of Indian
independence was hosted.
The first task that the Congress set itself in the new year was that of organizing all over the
country was public meetings at which the Independence Pledge would be read out and
collectively affirmed on 26 January.
Civil Disobedience Movement and Dandi March (1930)
The Lahore Session of Congress (1929) authorized the Working Committee to launch a
programme of civil disobedience including non-payment of taxes.
Gandhi’s ultimatum to Lord Irwin, stating the minimum demands in the form of 11 points,
had been ignored, and there was now only one way out: civil disobedience. Gandhi selected
salt as his main tool of disobedience.
In every Indian household, salt was indispensable; yet people were forbidden from making
salt even for domestic use, compelling them to buy it from shops at a high price. The state
monopoly over salt was deeply unpopular. By making salt his target, Gandhiji hoped to
mobilise a wider discontent against British rule.
Gandhi, along with a band of seventy-eight members of the Sabarmati Ashram started to
march from Ahmedabad to the coast at Dandi. There he broke the salt laws by collecting salt
from the beach.
On 6 April 1930, by picking up a handful of salt, Gandhi inaugurated the Civil Disobedience
Movement – a movement that was to remain unsurpassed in the history of the Indian national
movement for the country-wide mass participation it unleashed.
Like other parts of India, the civil disobedience movement was also launched in North-West
Frontier Province (Khyber–Pakhtoonkhwa). The local Congress sought help from the Khudai
Khidmatgars, the most popular socio-political organization of the province.
Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan’s the Khudai Khidmatgars, popularly known as the Red Shirts,
played an extremely active role in the Civil Disobedience Movement.
The city came under the control of the masses for at least a week and the soldiers of the
Garhwali regiment refused to fire at the unarmed crowds of Peshwar demonstrations.
Nehru’s arrest on 14th April was followed by public protests in Madras, Calcutta and
Karachi.
The Salt March was notable for at least three reasons:
1. It was this event that first brought Mahatma Gandhi to world attention.
2. It was the first nationalist activity in which women participated in large numbers.
Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay had persuaded Gandhi for this issue.
3. It was the Salt March that forced upon the British the realisation that their Raj would
not last forever, and that they would have to devolve some power to the Indians.
Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931) and the Round Table Conferences (1930-32)
British convened a series of “Round Table Conferences” in London to discuss constitutional
reforms in India.
The first meeting was held in November 1930. However, without the pre-eminent political
leader in India, it was an exercise in futility.
Gandhi was released from jail in January 1931. In the following month, he had several long
meetings with the Viceroy. These culminated in what was called the “Gandhi-Irwin Pact’.
The terms of the agreement included the immediate release of all political prisoners not
convicted for violence, the remission of all fines not yet collected, the return of confiscated
lands not yet sold to third parties, and lenient treatment for those government employees who
had resigned. The Government also conceded the right to make salt for consumption to
villages along the coast. They also gave the right to peaceful and non-aggressive picketing.
The Congress demand for a public inquiry into police excesses was not accepted, but
Gandhiji’s insistent request for an inquiry was recorded in the agreement.
Congress, on its part, agreed to discontinue the Civil Disobedience Movement (CDM).
A second Round Table Conference was held in London in the latter part of 1931. Here,
Gandhiji represented the Congress. Gandhi opposed the demand for separate electorates for
“lower castes”. For him, separate electorates to the “Untouchables” will ensure their bondage
in perpetuity. He thought this would prevent their integration into mainstream society and
permanently segregate them from other caste Hindus.
But Ambedkar was in favour of separate electorates for depressed classes. He believed it is
the only path for a community so handicapped to succeed in the struggle for life against the
organised tyranny of higher castes.
During the second Round Table Conference in London, Winston Churchill, leader of the
right-wing, strongly objected to the British Government negotiating on terms of equality with
the ‘seditious fakir’. He demanded a strong government in India.
The discussions with Gandhi failed as the British Government refused to concede the basic
Indian demand for freedom. Gandhiji resumed Civil Disobedience after reaching back
The government launched its strike against the national movement by arresting Gandhi.
British government promulgated ordinances that gave the authorities unlimited power – the
‘Civil Martial Law.’ Civil liberties no longer existed and the authorities could seize people
and property at will.
In 1934 the inevitable decision to withdraw Civil Disobedience Movement was taken by
Gandhi.
However, many political activists were not in favour of stopping the movement. They
included Jawaharlal Nehru who was critical of Gandhiji’s decisions with the timing of the
withdrawal of CDM.
The support that the movement had garnered from the poor and the illiterate, both in the town
and in the country, was remarkable indeed.
Nevertheless, the participation of Muslims in the Civil Disobedience Movement was certainly
nowhere near that of the Non-cooperation movement 1920-22.
For Indian women, the movement was the most liberating experience to date and can truly be
said to have marked their entry into the public space.
The Communal Award (1932)
After the Third Round Table Conference, in November 1932, the then Prime Minister of
Britain Ramsay McDonald gave an order which is known as the Communal Award.
It was part of Britisher’s policy of ‘Divide and Rule.
The award granted separate electorates in British India for the Forward Caste, Lower Caste,
Muslims, Buddhists, Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo-Indians, Europeans and Untouchables
(Dalits) etc.
The Congress Party was unhappy at the extension of communal representation but became
particularly outraged at the British offer of separate-electorate seats for “depressed classes”.
Gandhi viewed the McDonald Award as a nefarious British plot to wean more than 50
million Hindus away from their higher-caste brothers and sisters.
The idea of a separate electorate for Muslims had been accepted by Congress as far back as
1916 as a part of the compromise with the Muslim League. Hence, Congress took the
position it was opposed to separate electorates but not in favour of changing the Award
without the consent of the minorities.
Gandhi demanded that the representatives of the Depressed Classes should be elected if
possible by the universal, common franchise. At the same time, he did not object to the
demand for a larger number of reserved seats for the Depressed Classes. He went on a fast
unto death on 20 September 1932 to enforce his demand.
In the end, political leaders succeeded in bringing an agreement, known as the Poona Pact.
In this pact, the idea of separate electorates for the Depressed Classes was abandoned but the
seats reserved for them in the provincial legislatures and Central Legislature were increased.
After being released from the prison Gandhiji shifted to Satyagraha Ashram at Wardha after
abandoning Sabarmati Ashram at Ahmedabad for he had vowed in 1930 not to return to
Sabarmati till Swaraj was won.
Government of India Act (1935)
The growing demand for constitutional reforms in India led the British Parliament to enact
the Government of India Act 1935.
The Act promised some form of representative government.
The Act provided the establishment of an All-India Federation based on the union of British
Indian provinces and the Princely States.
Defence and foreign affairs would remain outside the control of the federal legislature, while
the Viceroy would retain special control over other subjects.
Governors, appointed by the British Government, retained special powers. They could veto
legislative and administrative measures, especially those concerning minorities, the rights of
civil servants, law and order, and British business interests.
The Governor also had the power to take over and indefinitely run the administration of a
province.
The Act of 1935 was condemned and was unanimously rejected by Congress. The Congress
demanded the convening of a Constituent Assembly elected on the basis of adult franchise to
frame a constitution for an independent India.
Resignation of Congress ministries (1939)
Congress won the elections to the provincial assemblies held in February 1937. Its election
manifesto reaffirmed its total rejection of the 1935 Act.
One of the first acts of the Congress Government was to release thousands of political
prisoners and to cancel deportation orders on political workers.
The difference between the Congress provinces and the non-Congress provinces of Bengal
and Punjab was most apparent in this realm. In the latter, especially in Bengal, civil liberties
continued to be curbed and they never released prisoners.
However, Congress could not attempt a complete overhaul of the agrarian structure by
completely eliminating the Zamindari system.
Later the Second World War broke out. Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru promised
Congress support to the war effort if the British, in return, promised to grant India
independence once hostilities ended. The offer was refused. Gandhi withdrew support to the
British in War.
The Congress ministries resigned in October and November 1939, in protest against Viceroy
Lord Linlithgow’s action of declaring India to be belligerent in the Second World War
without consulting the Indian people.
The resignations brought the Left and the Right in Congress closer because of a common
policy on the question of participation in the war.
Crisis at Tripuri (1939)
Subhas Bose had been a unanimous choice as the President of the Congress in 1938. In 1939,
he decided to stand again — this time as the spokesperson of militant politics and radical
groups.
However, with the blessings of Gandhiji, Sardar Patel, Rajendra Prasad, J.B. Kripalani other
leaders put up Pattabhi Sitaramayya as a candidate for the post.
Bose accused Patel and other top leaders of Congress as ‘rightists’. He openly accused them
of working for a compromise with the Government on the question of the federation. Bose
had, therefore, appealed to Congressmen to vote for a leftist and ‘a genuine anti-
federationist.’
Nevertheless, in reality, the difference between ‘right’ and ‘left’ was not very vivid within the
Congress and most Congressmen were anti-federationist.
Subhas Bose won the election on 29 January on the popularity of his militant politics but only
by a narrow margin – 1580 votes against 1377.
But the election of Bose brought the brewing crisis to a head at the Tripuri session of the
Congress.
Gandhiji declared that Sitaramayya’s defeat was ‘more mine than his.
Bose argued in his presidential address at Tripuri for a programme of immediately giving the
British Government a six-month ultimatum to grant the national demand for independence
and of launch a mass civil disobedience movement if it failed to do so.
Subhas Bose believed that the Congress was strong enough to bunch an immediate struggle
that the masses were ready for such struggle.
However, Gandhi’s perceptions were very different. Gandhi believed the time was not yet
ripe for an ultimatum because neither Congress nor the masses were yet ready for struggle.
The internal strife reached its climax at the Tripuri session of the Congress, held from 8 to 12
March 1939.
Bose had completely misjudged his support and the meaning of his majority in the
presidential election. Congressmen had voted for him not because they wanted to have him as
the supreme leader of the national movement – but mainly because of his policies and
militant politics. They were not willing to reject Gandhi’s leadership or his views.
Bose resigned from the presidentship. This led to the election of Rajendra Prasad in his place.
Subsequently, Subhas Bose and his followers formed the Forward Bloc as a new party within
Congress.
As Bose planned a protest against an AICC resolution, the Working Committee removed
Bose from the presidentship of the Bengal Provincial Congress Committee and debarred him
from holding any Congress office for three years.
Individual Satyagraha (1940)
Gandhiji decided to initiate a limited satyagraha on an individual basis by a few selected
individuals in every locality. The demand of a satyagrahi was for the freedom of speech to
preach against participation in the War.
The satyagrahi would beforehand inform the district magistrate of the time and place where
he or she was going to make the anti-war speech. If the Government did not arrest a
satyagrahi, he or she would not only repeat the performance but move into the villages and
start a trek towards Delhi, thus participating in a movement that came to be known as the
‘Delhi Chalo’ (onwards to Delhi) movement.
Vinoba Bhave was to be the first satyagrahi on 17 October 1940 and Jawaharlal Nehru the
second.
Individual Satyagraha served a dual purpose — (1) it gave expression to the Indian people’s
strong political feeling, (2) it gave the British Government another opportunity to peacefully
accept the Indian demands.
Cripps Mission (1942)
The Cripps Mission was a failed attempt in late March 1942 by the British government to
secure full Indian cooperation and support for their efforts in World War II.
The mission was headed by a senior minister Sir Stafford Cripps, traditionally sympathetic to
Indian self-rule.
However, he was also a member of the coalition War Cabinet led by Prime Minister Winston
Churchill, who had long been the leader of the movement to block Indian independence.
Churchill was persuaded to send Sir Stafford Cripps, to India to try and forge a compromise
with Gandhiji and the Congress.
The Declaration promised India Dominion Status and a constitution-making body after the
War. He proposed that the Constitutional Assembly members would be elected by the
provincial assemblies and nominated by the rulers in the case of the princely states.
At that time, the demand for a separate nation for Muslims – Pakistan – also got momentum.
The Pakistan demand was accommodated by the provision that any province which was not
prepared to accept the new constitution would have the right to sign a separate agreement
with Britain regarding its future status.
Talks broke down, when, Congress objected to the provision for Dominion Status rather than
full independence.
Congress insisted that if it was to help the British defend India from the Axis powers, then the
Viceroy had first to appoint an Indian as the Defence Member of his Executive Council.
After the failure of the Cripps Mission, Mahatma Gandhi decided to launch the “Quit India”
campaign also known as the ‘August Revolution’.
Quit India Movement (1942)
The Quit India Movement was launched at the Bombay session of the All India Congress
Committee by Mahatma Gandhi on 8 August 1942, during World War II, demanding an end
to British rule in India.
In this struggle, the common people of the country demonstrated unparalleled heroism and
militancy.
However, the repression that they faced was the most brutal that had ever been used against
the national movement.
At the historic August meeting at Gowalia Tank in Bombay, Gandhiji was particular about
complete freedom and no more piece-meal approach from the British.
He proclaimed: ‘Do or Die’ – which meant either free India or die in the attempt.
Gandhi asked government servants to openly declare their allegiance to congress and not to
resign.
In the meantime, underground networks were consolidated in various parts of the country.
The prominent members of underground activities were Achyut Patwardhan, Aruna Asaf Ali,
Ram Manohar Lohia, and Sucheta Kripalani.
The pattern of activity of the underground movement was that of organizing the disruption of
communications by blowing up bridges, cutting telegraph and telephone wires, and derailing
trains.
Congress Radio operated clandestinely from different locations in Bombay city, whose
broadcast could be heard as far as Madras. Usha Mehta was an important member of the
small group that ran the Congress Radio.
A significant feature of the Quit India Movement was the emergence of what came to be
known as parallel governments in some parts of the country. Satara (Maharashtra) emerged as
the base of the longest-lasting and effective parallel government.
A significant feature of peasant activity was its total concentration on attacking symbols of
British authority and a total lack of any incidents of anti-zamindar violence.
In February 1943, Gandhiji declared the fast in Aga Khan Palace where he was held in
detention, as this was his answer to the Government which had been constantly exhorting him
to condemn the violence of the people in Quit India Movement. Gandhiji not only refused to
condemn the people’s resort to violence but unequivocally held the Government responsible
for it.
The resignation of the three Indian members of the Viceroy’s Executive Council, M.S. Aney,
N.R. Sarkar and H.P. Mody, who never wished Gandhi to suffer, made a severe blow to the
British.
Finally, the Congress leaders were released to participate in the Simla Conference in June
1945. That marked the end of the phase of confrontation that had existed since August 1942.